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THE   NEW 
INTERNATIONAL 
ENCYCLOPAEDIA 


EDITORS 
DANIEL    COIT    OILMAN,    LL.  D. 

PRESIDENT  OF    JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY  (1876-1901) 
AFTERWARDS   PRESIDENT   OF  THE   CARNEGIE   INSTITUTION   OF   WASHINGTON 

HARRY   THURSTON   PECK,  Ph.D.,  L.  H.  D. 

PROFESSOR    IN    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 

FRANK    MOORE    COLBY,  M.  A. 

LATE    PROFESSOR    OF    ECONOMICS 
IN    NEW    YORK    UNIVERSITY 


VOLUME  XIV 


NEW  YORK 

DODD,  MEAD  AND   COMPANY 

1905 


Copyright,  190$,  1904,  1905 
By  Dodd,  Mead  And  Company 


All  rights  reserved 


Presswokk  bv 
Th«  Ukivmsitv  Psbss,  Cambiiidcs,  v.  S.  a. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLUME  XIV. 

COLORED  PLATES 

Facino  Paoe 

Moths,  American 58 

Mountain  Plants 70 

Mosses  and  Lichens         150 

Sea  Slugs 670 

MAPS 

Nebraska        320 

Netherlands 396 

Nevada 418 

New  Brunswick i 428 

Newfoundland         436 

New  Hampshire 442 

New  Jersey 450 

New  Mexico        460 

New  Orleans 464 

New  South  Wales 472 

New  York 494 

New  York  City   (Greater  New  York)   and  Vicinity 506 

New  York  City 510 

New  York  City  (Borough  of  Brooklyn) 512 

New  York  City  (Borough  of  the  Bronx) 516 

New    Zealand 520 

North  Carolina 614 

North  Dakota 622 

Northwest  Territories 628 

Norway 634 

Nova  Scotia 656 

The  World,  Showing  Ocean  Currents 726 

Ohio 756 

Oklahoma 774 

ENGRAVINGS 

Moscow       46 

Mound-Builders 64 

Mountain  Artillery 68 

Mount  Vernon        74 

Mice  and  Jerboas        76 

Mozart,  Wolfgang  Amadeus 82 


IV 

Facino  Page 

Mullets  and  Allies lOii 

Munich 110 

Mukillo  (  "The  Iminaciilate  Conception  " ) l-4'2 

Musical  Instkumknts 184 

Naples 234 

Napoleon  I 236 

Natural  Bridge 276 

Needle-Fish,  Pikes,  etc 330 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac 488 

New  York 508 

New  York 514 

Niagara  Falls 528 

NiDiFiCATioN — Pensile  Nests  of  Birds 552 

Nightjars,  Guachaeo,  etc 560 

Scene  on  the  Nile 566 

Notre  Dame,  Cathedral  of 652 

Numismatics  I , 6S2 

Numismatics  II 684 

Oaks "0-2 

Oak,  White         704 

Observatory              718 

Olives,  Mount  of 794 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION. 


s 

as  i 

a 

& 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 
e 

e 
e 


1 
5 
6 
6 
6 
o 


oo 

ou 

u 

■5 

d 

1 


y 


ch 


1  ale,  fate.    Also  see  e,  below. 

senate,  chaotic.    Also  see  e,  below. 

glare,  care. 

am,  at. 

arm,  father. 

ant,  and  final  a  in  America,  armada, 
etc.  In  rapid  speech  this  vowel  read- 
ily becomes  more  or  less  obscured  and 
like  the  neutral  vowel  or  a  short 
u  (ii). 

final,  regal,  where  it  is  of  a  neutral  or 
obscure  quality. 

all,  fall. 

eve. 

elate,  evade. 

end,  pet.  The  characters  e,  a,  and  a 
are  used  for  a  in  German,  as  in  Gart- 
ner, Griife,  Hiihnel.  to  the  values  of 
which  they  are  the  nearest  English 
vowel  sounds.  The  sound  of  Swedish 
<i  is  also  indicated  by  c. 

fern,  her,  and  as  i  in  sir.  Also  for  6, 
oe,  in  German,  as  in  Gothe,  Goethe, 
Ortel,  Oertel,  and  for  eu  and  ocu  in 
French,  as  in  Neufchatel,  Cr^vecceur ; 
to  which  it  is  the  nearest  English 
vowel  sound. 

agency,  judgment,  where  it  is  of  a  neu- 
tral or  obscure  quality. 

ice.  quiet. 

quiescent. 

ill.  fit. 

old,  sober. 

obey,  sobriety. 

orb.  nor. 

odd,  forest,  not. 

atom,  carol,  where  it  has  a  neutral  or 
obscure  quality. 

oil,  boil,  and  for  eu  in  German,  as  in 
Feuerbach. 

food,  fool,  and  as  u  in  rude,  rule. 

house,  mouse. 

use,  mule. 

unite. 

cut.  but. 

full,  put,  or  as  oo  in  foot,  book.  Also 
for  ii  in  German,  as  in  Jlunchen, 
Miiller,  and  it  in  French,  as  in 
Buchez,  Bud6;  to  which  it  is  the 
nearest  English  vowel  sound. 

urn,  burn. 

yet,  yield. 

the  Spanish  Habana.  Cordoba,  where  it 
is  like  a  t'  made  with  the  lips  alone, 
instead  of  with  the  teeth  and  lips. 

chair,  cheese. 


hw 

K 


D  as  in  the  Spanish  Almodovar,  pulgada,  where 
it  is  nearly  like  th  in  English  then, 
this. 

g      "    "   go,  get. 

G  "  "  the  German  Landtag,  and  ch  in  Feuer- 
bach, buch ;  where  it  is  a  guttural 
sound  made  with  the  back  part  of  the 
tongue  raised  toward  the  soft  palate, 
as  in  the  sound  made  in  clearing  the 
throat. 

H  "  "  }  in  the  Spanish  Jijona,  (/  in  the  Span- 
ish gila ;  where  it  is  a  fricative  some- 
wliat  resembling  the  sound  of  h  in 
English  hue  or  y  in  yet,  but  stronger. 
wh  in  which. 

ch  in  the  German  ich,  Albrecht,  and  g 
in  the  German  Arensberg,  Mecklen- 
burg; where  it  is  a  fricative  sound 
made  between  the  tongue  and  the 
hard  palate  toward  which  the  tongue 
is  raised.  It  resembles  the  sound 
of  h  in  hue,  or  i/  in  yet ;  or  the  sound 
made  by  beginning  to  pronounce  a  k, 
but  not  completing  the  stoppage  of 
the  breath.  The  character  k  is  also 
used  to  indicate  the  rough  aspirates 
or  fricatives  of  some  of  the  Oriental 
languages,  as  of  kh  in  the  word  Khan, 
sinker,  longer, 
sing,  long. 

the  French  bon,  Bourbon,  and  »i  in  the 
French  Etampes :  where  it  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  nasalizing  of  the  preceding 
vowel.  This  effect  is  approximately 
produced  by  attempting  to  pronoinice 
'onion'  without  touching  the  tip  of 
the  tongue  to  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 
The  corresponding  nasal  of  Portu- 
guese is  also  indicated  by  N,  as  in  the 
ease  of  Sao  Antao. 
shine,  shut, 
thrust,  thin. 

■  then,  this. 

■  z  in  azure,  and  s  in  pleasure. 
An  apostrophe,  or  superior  comma.  [']  is  some- 
times used  to  denote  a  glide  or  neutral  connecting 
vowel,  as  in  ta'b'l  (table) .  kaz'"m  (chasm). 

Otherwise  than  as  noted  above,  the  letters  used 
in  the  respellings  for  pronunciation  are  to  receive 
their  ordinary  English  sounds. 

When  the  pronunciation  is  suflficiently  shown 
by  indicating  the  accented  syllables,  this  is  done 
without  respelling;  as  in  the  case  of  very  common 
English  words,  and  words  which  are  so  spelled  as 
to  insure  their  correct  proniinciation  if  they  are 
correctly  accented.  See  the  article  on  Pronun- 
ciation. 


n 
N 


sh 

th 

TH 

zh 


A  PARTIAL  LIST  OF  THE  LEADING  ARTICLES  IN   VOLUME  XIV. 


MORIIOXS. 

Professor  I.  \\oodbridge  Eiley. 

MORTGAGE. 

Dr.  Harlan  F.  Stone. 

MOKTIARY   Cl'STOM.S. 
Dr.   VV   J   McGee. 


MOSAIC. 


Professor  Arthur  ]..  Frothingham. 


MOSES. 

Professor  Morris  Jastrow. 

MOSQUITO. 

Dr.  Leland  Ossian  Howard. 

MOUNTAIN"  CLIMBIXG. 

Professor  Charles  Ernest  Fay. 

MOZART. 

Mr.   Gustav    KobbO. 

MUKICIPALITY. 

Dr.   .James   Wilford   Garner. 


XAVAL  OBSERVATORY. 

Kear-Admiral  Colby  M.  Chester. 

NAVIES. 

Lieutenant-Commander  Lewis  Sayre  Van 
Duzer. 

NEGLIGENCE. 

Professor  Francis  M.  Burdick. 

ne(;ro  edl'Cation. 

Dr.    Hollis   Burke    Frissell. 

NEGRO   IN   AMERICA. 

Professor   Alvin    Sydney    Johnson. 

NERVOUS   SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 
Dr.   Frederick   R.   Bailey. 

NEUTRALITY. 

Dr.   .James  Wilford  Garner. 

NEWMAN.  .JOHN  HENRY. 

Mr.  A.  I.  du  P.  Coleman. 

NEW  ORLEANS. 

Professor  John   Rose   Ficklen, 


MXJNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP.  „^„.^„.„^„ 

Mr.  Mo.ses  Nelson  Baker  and  Professor     NEWSPAPER. 


Alvin   Sydney   Johnson. 

MURDER. 

Professor  Francis  M.  Burdick. 

MURILLO. 

Professor  Lewis  Frederick  Pilcher. 

MUSCULAR  SYSTEM,  EVOLUTION  OF. 
Professor  Charles  B.  Davenport. 

MUSEUM. 

Mr.  Frederick  Augustus  Lucas. 

MUSIC. 

Mr.   James   G.    Hunekcr. 

MUSIC— SCHOOLS  OF  COMPOSITION. 
Professor  .\lfred  Remy. 

MYSTERIES. 

Professor  .Tames  Morton  Paton. 

:^!YSTICISM. 

Profes.Hor  .John  Winthrop  Platncr. 

MYTHOLOGY. 

Professor  Eihvard  W.  Hopkins. 

NAPOLEON  I. 

Professor  George  Matthew  Diitcher. 

NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 

Mr.  Ernest  Norton-  Henderson. 

NATIONAL  NICKNAMFX 

Mr.   .\lbert   Matthews. 

NATURAL  SELECTION. 

Professor  .Mphfus  Spring  Packard. 

NATURE  WORSHIP. 

Professor  Edward  W.  Hopkins. 


Mr.  Talcott  Williams. 

NEW  TESTAMENT  CHRONOLOGY. 

Professor  Edward   Everett  Nourse. 

NEW  YORK  PUBLIC  LIBRARY. 
.Mr.  H.   M.  Lydenborg. 

NIAGARA  RIVER  ANT)  FALLS. 
Mr.  G>'rus  C.  Adams. 

NINEVEH. 

Professor     Morris     .Jastrow     and     Mr. 
Charles  C.  Sherman. 

NORWEGIAN  LTTER.ATURE. 

Professor  Willijiiii  Henry  Carpenter. 

NOVEL. 

Professor  Wilbur  Lucius  Cross. 

NUMBER. 

Professor  David  Eugene  Smith. 

NUMISMATICS. 

Professor    George    N.    Olcott. 


OAK. 


Dr.   Alfred   Charles  True. 


OBELISK. 

Professor    W.    Max    Miiller. 

OBSTETRICS. 

Dr.  Albert  Warren  Ferris. 

OCEAN. 

Professor  Cleveland  .\bbp. 

OCEAN  CITRRENTS. 

Mr.  James   Page. 

OILS. 

Pr.  Herm.nn  T.  Viilte. 


THE  NEW 
INTERNATIONAL 
ENCYCL0PJ5DIA 


MORGAN  CITY.  A  city  and  port 
of  entry  in  Saint  Marj'  Parish, 
La.,  about  75  miles  west  by  south 
of  Xew  Orleans,  on  the  Southern 
Pacific  Railroad.  It  is  on  the 
Atchafalaya  Bayou,  navigable  for 
vessels  of  light  draught,  which  extends  from 
Grand  Lake  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  20  miles  dis- 
tant; has  regular  steamship  communication  with 
important  Gulf  ports,  and  has  extensive  sugar, 
fish  and  oyster,  and  truck  gardening  interests. 
The  city  contains  an  interesting  geological  and 
botanical  garden  in  Oneonta  Park.  Morgan  City 
was  formerly  known  as  Brashear  City.  Here,  on 
June  23,  18(33,  Richard  Taylor,  with  about  3000 
Confederates,  captured  the  Federal  garrison  of 
about  1000,  secured  property  worth  about  .$2,000,- 
000,  and  recaptured  a  large  number  of  refugee 
blacks.  Brashear  was  soon  afterwards  abandoned 
by  the  Confederates  and  reoccupied  bv  the  Fed- 
erals. Population,  in  1890,  2291 ;  in  1900,  2332. 
MOR'GANFIELD.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Union  County,  Ky.,  25  miles  southwest 
of  Henderson,  on  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad 
(Map:  Kentucky.  D  3).  It  has  tobacco  steni- 
meries,  and  manufactories  of  carriages  and 
wagons,  brick,  flour,  etc.  Saint  Vincent's  Acad- 
emy (Roman  Catholic)  is  here.  The  water- 
works are  owned  and  operated  bv  the  city.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890.  1094;  in  1900.  2046. 

MORGANTE  MAGGIOBE,  mSr-gan'ta  nia- 
jo'ra,  II.  a  metrical  romance  bv  Luigi  Pulci 
(q.v.). 

MOR'GANTON.  A  town  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Burke  County,  N.  C,  79  miles  west  of 
Salisbury,  on  the  Southern  Railroad  (Jlap: 
North  Carolina,  A  2).  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
State  Hospital  for  the  Insane  and  of  the  North 
Carolina  School  for  the  Deaf  and  rhimb,  and 
has  considerable  reputation  as  a  health  resort. 
Among  the  principal  manufactories  are  cotton 
mills,  tanneries,  lumber  mills,  and  machine 
shops.  There  are  gold  deposits  in  the  vicinity. 
Population,  in  1890,  1557;  in  1900,  1938. 

MOR'GANTOWN.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Monongalia  County,  VV.  Va.,  102  miles 
south  of  Pittsburg.  Pa.,  on  the  Monongahela 
Kiver,  which  is  navigable  to  this  point,  and  on 


the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  (Map:  West 
Virginia,  E  2).  It  has  a  fine  court  house,  and  i* 
the  seat  of  the  West  Virginia  University  ( q.v. ) , 
established  in  1868.  There  are  glass  works, 
furniture  factories,  woolen,  planing,  and  flour 
mills,  and  brick  and  tile  works.  The  eity  is  in 
a  rich  agricultural,  timber,  natural  gas,  and 
mineral  country^coal,  iron,  limestone,  clay,  and 
glass  sand  being  fouml  in  paving  quantities. 
Population,  in  1890,  1011;  in  1900,  1895. 

MOBGABTEN,  mor'giir-ten.  A  mountain 
slope  on  the  boundary  of  the  cantons  of  Schwytz 
and  Zug,  Switzerland,  celebrated  as  the  scene  of 
a  great  victory  won  by  the  Swiss  forest  cantons 
over  a  numerically  superior  force  of  Austrians, 
November  15,  1315.  In  January,  1314,  the  farm- 
ers of  Schwytz  had  seized  the  Abbey  of  Einsie- 
deln,  robbed  it  of  its  treasures,  and  driven  out 
the  monks.  Frederick  the  Fair,  head  of  the 
House  of  Hapsburg,  who  was  the  protector  of 
Einsiedeln,  ordered  his  brother,  Duke  Leopold, 
to  punish  the  guilty  ones.  The  battle  was  the 
result. 

MORGEN,  mor'gen,  Kurt  ( 1858—) .  A  Ger- 
man soldier  and  explorer,  born  at  Neisse  (Si- 
lesia), Prussia.  He  was  educated  for  the  army 
at  Wahlstatt  and  Berlin,  and  in  1889  took  charge 
of  an  expedition  for  the  exploration  of  Kamerun. 
On  November  5  he  left  Kribi  on  the  coast  of 
Batanga.  He  discovered  the  Mbam  River,  the 
principal  tributary  of  the  Sanaga,  and  proceeded 
along  the  Sanaga  as  far  as  Malimba.  On  .June 
2,  1890,  he  again  set  out  from  Kribi.  During 
this  second  expedition  he  penetrated  to  Tabati, 
and  thence  to  Ibi  on  the  Benue,  from  which  point 
he  descended  the  river  to  Akassa,  on  the  coast. 
In  1896-97  he  fought  with  the  English  army 
against  the  Mahdi.  and  in  the  latter  year  wit- 
nessed the  Graeco-Turkish  War  from  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Ottoman  army.  He  attained 
the  rank  of  major  in  1898. 

MORGENSTERN,  mor'gen-st^rn,  Chki.stian 
(180507).  A  German  landscape  painter,  born 
in  Hamburg.  He  studied  in  his  native  city  and 
at  the  Academy  of  Copenhagen,  settled  in  1830 
at  Munich,  and  acquired  a  reputation  with 
his   romantic   views   of  the   Bavarian   and   Aus- 


MORGENSTERN. 

trian  Alps.  I'rom  a  later  period  date  the 
moonlight  and  storm  scenes  which  constitute 
the  most  admired  portion  of  his  work,  repre- 
sentative examples  of  which  are  a  "Mill  in 
Sainte  Marie  Valley,  Alsace"  (1836,  Hamburg 
Gallery)  ;  "April  DaV  on  Lake  Starnbergr"  (1853. 
Leipzig  Museum)  :  "Storm  at  Sea"  (1839)  and 
"Alsatian  Landscape"  (both  in  New  Pinakothek, 
Munich ) . 

MORGENSTERN,  Li.XA  (Bauer)  (1830— ).  A 
Ciriiian  jiliilantliropist  and  author,  born  in 
Breslau.  In  1854  she  removed  to  Berlin,  where 
she  became  prominent  as  a  reformer.  She 
was  interested  in  the  formation  of  'people's 
kitchens.'  of  technical  and  domestic  schools  for 
women,  and  of  schools  for  the  reform  of  way- 
ward young  girls.  She  edited  Deutsche  Hatis- 
frnueiKritunq  (1874  sqq.)  and  Fiir  junge  Mid- 
chen  (1888-94),  and  wTote  Friedrich  Frbbel 
(1882),  Die  Frauen  dcs  neunzehnten  Jahr- 
humlrrts  (1888),  and  Frauenarbeit  in  Deutsch- 
land   (1803). 

MORGES,  morzh.  A  town  in  the  Canton  of 
Vaud.  Switzerland,  about  six  miles  west  of  Lau- 
sanne, on  Lake  Geneva  and  on  a  branch  of  the 
.lura-Simplon  railway  (Map:  Switzerland,  A  2). 
There  are  Reformed  and  Catholic  churches,  a 
college  with  a  Realsehule,  a  casino  with  a  library 
and  a  museum  of  natural  history,  and  a  high 
school  for  girls.  The  town  contains  an  old 
chateau  (twelfth  century),  once  the  seat  of  the 
Bernese  governors  and  now  used  as  an  arsenal, 
and  nearby  is  the  chateau  of  Vufflens,  said  to  have 
lieen  erected  by  Queen  Bertha  of  Swabia.  Popula- 
tion, in  lOOO"  4438,  of  whom  about  .500  were 
r.oiiian   Catholics. 

MORGHEN,  mor'g^n,  Raffaello  ( 1758- 
1833).  An  Italian  line  engraver.  He  was  born 
at  Florence,  .Time  19,  1758.  the  son  and  pupil 
of  Filippo  Morghen,  and  was  also  instructed  by 
his  uncle.  Giovanni  Elia  Morghen.  When  twelve 
years  old  he  engraved  a  good  plate  after  the 
■•Prophets"  of  Bandindli.  and  at  twenty  he 
showed  remarkable  proficiency.  He  studied  at 
Koine  under  Volpato.  whose  daughter  he  mar- 
rieil  in  1781.  In  the  same  year  he  engraved 
Raphael's  "Poetry"  and  "Theology."  then  worked 
in  conjunction  with  his  father-in-law.  assisting 
him  in  his  "Parnassus."  after  Raphael.  He  was 
appointed  professor  at  the  Academy  in  Florence 
in  1793.  became  a  member  of  the  French  Insti- 
tute in  1803.  and  visited  Paris  in  1812.  at  the 
invitation  of  Napoleon,  who  conferred  many 
honors  upon  him.  His  best  known  works  in- 
clude the  "Aurora."  after  Guido  Reni:  the  "Mass 
of  Bolsenn,"  "Mailonna  della  Sedia."  and  "Trans- 
fig\irntion."  after  Raphael:  "Diana  Hunting." 
after  Dnmenicliinn;  the  "Madonna  del  Sacco." 
after  .\ndrea  del  Sarto;  the  "Dance  of  the  Sea- 
sons," after  Poussin:  and  the  "Last  Supi>er," 
after  Leonardo,  generally  considered  bis  master- 

(>iece.  Of  high  fini-h  and  special  interest  are  also 
lis  portraits  of  Dante.  Petrarch,  Boccaccio,  Ari- 
osto,  Tasso.  Alfieri.  Raphael,  etc.  He  died  in  Flor- 
ence. April  8.  1833.  His  life  and  nil  his  works, 
coniprising  252  plates,  have  been  fully  described 
by  his  p\ipil  Palmerini.  in  Cnlaloqn  drllc  opcrc 
d'inltifiUii  di  Unffarllo  Morfihrn   (Florence.  1824) . 

MOR'OIA'NA.  A  female  slave.  l)elonging  to 
Cas-iiis  anil  tliin  to  his  brother,  in  "Ali  Bnbn 
anil  the  Forty  Thieves,"  a  story  in  the  Arahinn 


2  MORI. 

Xiffhts  Enteriainmotts.  She  outwitted  the 
thieves  in  their  attempts  to  find  the  discoverer  of 
their  cave  first  by  duplicating  their  mark  on  All's 
house,  then  by  scalding  the  Forty  with  hot  oil 
in  the  jars  in  which  they  were  smuggled  into 
the  house;  and  at  last,  when  the  captain,  dis- 
guised as  a  merchant,  dined  with  Ali,  she  first 
danced  for  him  and  then  stabbed  him  with  his 
own  dagger.  Ali  freed  her  and  married  her  to 
his  son. 

MORGUE  ( Fr.,  originally  the  inner  wicket  of 
a  prison,  where  prisoners  were  kept  for  some 
time,  that  tlie  jailers  and  turnkeys  might  view 
them  at  their  leisure,  so  as  to  he  able  to  recog- 
nize them  when  occasion  required,  from  morguer, 
to  look  at  solemnly  or  sourly,  to  defy).  The 
name  of  a  certain  building  in  Paris,  situated 
on  the  Quai  dii  Manhe  neuf,  where  the  dead 
bodies  of  persons  unknown,  found  either  in  the 
river  (Seine)  or  in  the  streets,  are  exposed  to 
public  view  for  three  days.  The  corpses  are  put 
under  a  glass  case,  on  a  sloping  slab  of  black 
marble.  The  clothes  are  hung  on  the  wall 
above.  When  a  corpse  is  recognized  it  is  handed 
over  to  the  relatives  or  friends  of  the  deceased, 
on  payment  of  costs  and  dues — otherwise  it  is 
interred  at  the  expense  of  the  city.  The  number 
of  bodies  yearly  exposed  in  the  Morgue  is  about 
300,  of  which  five-sixths  are  those  of  males. 
Morgues  have  been  established  in  Berlin  and  in 
the  principal  American  cities;  in  New  York  in 
1800.  in  Boston  in  1851.  in  Brooklyn  in  1870,  in 
Chicago  in  1872.  in  Saint  Louis  in  1874. 

MORHOF,  mnr'huf.  Daniel  Georg  (1039-91). 
A  German  literary  historian,  born  at  Wismar. 
He  studied  law  and  the  humanities  at  Rostock, 
where  in  ItiOO  he  became  jirofessor  of  poetry.  In 
1665  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  oratory  and 
poetry  at  Kiel  and  in  1073  became  also  professor 
of  history  and  in  1080  librarian.  His  Opera 
Poctica  (1077)  and  Orulsche  Gedichte  (1682) 
are  valueless,  but  his  two  prose  works,  Unterricht 
von  der  Dcutschen  tSpriichc  und  Pocsie  (1682) 
and  Poli/histor  (  1088)  are  of  considerable  inter- 
est in  the  history  of  literature.  The  former  con- 
tains perhaps  the  first  historical  treatment  of 
German  grammar  and  a  review  of  what  was 
then  modern  Furopean  literature.  The  Poll/- 
hinlor,  which  deals  with  general  literature  and 
is  encyclopa'dic  in  scope,  marks  the  first  sys- 
tematic study  in  Germany  of  the  history  of 
literature. 

MORI,  nio'n'-.  The  name  of  the  Lords  of 
Choshu  in  .lapan.  The  chief  of  the  clan  was 
foremost  in  the  anti-foreign  agitation  which 
sought  to  close  .Japan  again  to  the  world  (1858- 
07),  after  the  demand  for  admission  made 
by  Commodore  Perry,  and  in  ISO.'!  became 
known  through  his  action  in  firing  upon 
Dutch  and  .\merican  merchantmen  passing 
through  the  Straits  of  Shimonoseki.  Tn  conse- 
quence, a  squadrim  was  formed  and  the  town 
of  Shimonoseki  was  bnmbarded.  This  helped 
to  convince  the  .Japanese  that  resistance  was 
impossible  and  that  the  ancient  policy  of 
seclusion  must  be  reversed.  Mori  continued  the 
agitation,  however,  directing  it  against  the 
Government  of  the  Shogiin.  and  was  one  of  the 
chief  fiu'tors  in  the  restoration  <}f  the  Fmperor 
to  supreme  power.  Since  the  revolution  of 
1808.  the  clansmen  of  Choshu  have  been  highly 
influential  in  the  Government,  and  as  active  in 


HOBI. 


MOBIKE. 


the  adoption  of  Western  civilization  as  they  had 
been  previously  in  opposition  to  its  introduction. 

MORI,  mcVre,  Arinori  (1848-89).  A  native  of 
Satsunui,  .Japan,  and  one  of  the  group  of  young 
samurai  who  were  prominent  in  advocating'  the 
thorough  modernization  of  the  Empire  after  the 
restoration  of  the  Emperor.  Educated  in  Eng- 
land, he  adopted  modern  manners  in  life  and 
thought,  and  broke  completely  with  the  past. 
He  held  various  high  positions  in  the  diplomatic 
and  civil  services,  and  became  finally  Minister 
of  Education.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1889,  with  the  title  viscount.  When  the 
Constitution  of  .Japan  was  promulgated,  giving 
the  Empire  its  place  among  progressive  peoples, 
he  «as  assassinated  in  his  own  house  by  a 
Shinto  fanatic,  who  charged  him  with  violating 
the  sanctity  of  the  shrine  in  Ise  by  lifting  the 
curtain  before  the  holy  place  with  his  cane. 

MOBI'AH.  The  name  of  the  land  whither 
Abraham  was  commanded  to  go  to  sacrifice  his 
son  Isaac  upon  a  mountain,  according  to  Gen. 
xxii.  2,  and  of  the  mountain  upon  wJiich  Solomon 
built  the  temple,  acording  to  II.  Chron.  iii.  1. 
It  is  possible  that  the  chronicler  understood 
the  passage  in  Genesis  as  affirming  that  Abra- 
ham's sacrifice  was  made  in  Jerusalem.  He  no 
doubt  found  'the  mountain  of  Jloriah'  as  a 
designation  of  Zion,  and  it  may  already  in  his 
time  have  been  popularly  interpreted  to  mean 
'the  mountain  of  vision,'  as  it  was  by  the 
Samaritan  translator,  Symmachus,  and  by 
Jerome.  Originally  it  may  have  been  pronounced 
moreh  Yah  and  signified  'Yahweh  is  an  oraele- 
giver,'  or  'the  Moriah'  may  have  meant  'the 
oracle.'  How  old  this  name  of  the  temple-moun- 
tain is  cannot  be  determined.  The  Elohist  in 
Gen.  xxii.  2  refers  to  one  of  the  mountains 
'in  the  land  of  Moriah.'  This  particular  shrine 
is  called  Yahweh  yireh,  'Yahweh  sees,'  or 
Yahtceh  yereh,  'Yahweh  gives  oracles.'  Bacon 
and  Chcyne  look  for  this  sanctuary  in  the  Negeb 
or  Southern  Palestine,  and  Gunkel  thinks  that  it 
is  identical  with  the  Jeruel  near  Tekoa  mentioned 
in  II,  Chron.  xx.  16,  though  he  admits  that  the 
distance  from  Beersheba  does  not  preclude  the 
identification  with  .Jerusalem,  and  regards 
Ariel,  a  name  of  .Jerusalem,  as  a  corruption  of 
Jeruel.  It  is  possible  that  Ynhwch  yereh  is  an 
explanation  of  the  meaning  of  Moriah.  or  that 
'the  Moriah,'  'the  oracle,'  is  an  appellative  desig- 
nation of  a  sanctuary  also  known  liy  the  kindred 
name  Jeruel.  But  it  is  not  certain  that  'the  land 
of  iloriah'  in  Gen.  xxii.  2  has  anj'thing  to  do 
with  this  sacred  place.  The  Syriae  version 
suggests  that  the  original  reading  was  'the  land 
of  the  Amorites.'  'Aniorites'  is  the  name  of  the 
pre-Israelitish  inhabitants  of  Palestine  used  by 
the  Elohist.  It  corresponded  to  the  Assyrian 
Annirru  or  iMartu,  and  the  dropping  of  the 
prosthetic  aleph  can  be  easily  accounted  ■  for. 
This  explanation  has  the  advantage  of  being 
based  on  very  excellent  ancient  testimony  to  the 
pre-Massoretic  text.  Wellhausen  thinks  of  'the 
Hamorites'  who  lived  in  Shechem,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  which  there  was  an  elon  moreh  or 
'sacred  tree  of  the  oracle-giver.'  It  is  indeed 
doubtful  whether  the  Ephraimitish  writer  would 
have  made  .Jerusalem  the  great  sanctuary 
where  animal  offerings  were  substituted  for 
himian  sacrifices,  and  the  change  to  'Hamorite.s' 
is  not  necessary,  since  Shechem  certainly  was  in 


the  land  of  the  Amorites.  From  the  Jerahmeel- 
ite  Xegeb  Shechem  might  be  reached  on  the 
third  daj',  though  not  so  easily  as  Jerusalem. 
The  question  of  the  site  of  the  sacred  mountain 
must  therefore  be  left  open.  Consult:  Dillmann, 
Die  Genesis  (Gth  ed.,  Leipzig,  1892)  ;  Gunkel, 
Genesis  (Gottingen,  1901);  Cheyne,  article 
"Moriah,"  in  Encyclopwdia  Biblica,  vol.  iii. 
(London,  1902). 

MORIER,  mO'rl-er,  .James  Justinian  (e.l780- 
184'.i).  A  British  diplomat,  author,  and  trav- 
eler, born  at  Smyrna.  He  was  educated  at  Har- 
row, and  in  1807  became  private  secretary  in 
Sir  Harford  .Jones's  mission  to  the  Persian 
Court.  On  May  7,  1809,  three  months  after  his 
arrival  at  Teheran,  he  was  sent  home  with 
dispatches  and  performed  the  famous  journey 
of  which  he  afterwards  published  an  account 
under  the  title  .-l  Journey  Through  Feisia, 
Armenia,  and  Asia  Minor  to  Constantinople  in 
the  Years  180S  and  ISOU  (1812),  This  book 
enjoyed  a  great  vogue  in  Great  Britain,  and  was 
translated  into  French  (1813)  and  German 
(1815),  In  1810  he  went  back  to  Teheran  as 
Secretary  of  Legation  under  Sir  Gore  Ouseley, 
and  after  the  latter's  return  to  England  in 
1814  !Morier  acted  for  a  time  as  British  rep- 
resentative at  the  Court  of  Persia.  He  was 
recalled  in  1815.  In  1817  he  was  pensioned  by 
the  Government,  and  devoted  most  of  his  tinie 
thenceforth  to  literature,  in  which  pursuit  he 
attained  such  success  that  Sir  Walter  Scott 
styled  him  the  best  novelist  of  the  day.  His 
best  works  are:  The  Adventures  of  Hajji  Baba 
of  Ispahan  (1824)  ;  Zohrab  the  Hostage  (1832)  ; 
and  Aycslia,  the  ilaid  of  Ears  (1834). 

MORIER,  Sir  Robert  Burnett  David  ( 1826- 
93).  An  English  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris 
(where  his  father  was  consul-general),  and  edu- 
cated at  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  After  holding 
several  other  diplomatic  offices,  he  was  appointed 
charge  d'affaires  at  Stuttgart  in  1871,  and  at 
Munich  in  1872,  whence  he  was  transferred  to 
Lisbon  as  English  Minister  (1876),  When  Morier 
was  Ambassador  to  Saint  Petersburg(  1884-91 1  he 
and  Bismarck  were  bitter  enemies,  and  in  1888 
Count  Herbert  Bismarck  charged  !JIorier  with 
furnishing  information  to  Bazaine  at  the  out- 
break of  the  Franco-Prussian  War.  Time  showed 
that  Morier  had  been  innocent,  and  that  French 
spies  had  gained  the  information  in  question.  In 
1891  he  was  transferred  to  Rome,  but  was  forced 
by  urgent  business  to  remain  in  Russia. 

MORIKE,  nie'rl-ke,  Eduard  (1804-75).  A 
German  poet.  He  was  born  at  Ludwigsburg,  and 
studied  theology  at  Tubingen,  where  from  1826  to 
1843  he  served  as  a  clerg;s'man.  From  1851  to 
1806  he  was  professor  of  German  literature  in  a 
seminary  at  Stuttgart.  One  of  the  most  pronii- 
nient  members  of  the  Swabian  school,  he  first 
appeared  in  1832  with  the  fantastic  tale  ilaler 
IS'olten  (revised  in  1872,  third  edition  1890), 
which  revealed  his  imaginative  jiower.  His  col- 
lected Gedichtc  (1838,  eleventli  edition  1894)  are 
marked  not  only  by  the  idyllic  cast  common  to 
the  Swabian  group,  but  by  a  delicate  humor 
and  a  classical  severity  of  form  peculiarly 
their  own.  The  exquisitely  wrought  novelette 
Mozart  auf  der  Reise  nach  Prag  (1850)  has 
frequently  been  accounted  his  finest  achieve- 
ment. His  further  work  includes  the  [dylle 
vom  Bodensee  (1846)  and  the  caprice  Das  Stutt- 


MORIKE. 

gutter  Hulzcliiiunnleiit  \\Sjj),  Many  of  the 
poems  are  today  cstablislied  folksongs.  Con- 
sult the  biographies  by  Xotter  (Stuttgart,  1875), 
Klaiber  (ib..  187U),  Maync  (ib.,  1901),  and 
Fisiher   (Herliii,  lUOl). 

MORIKOFEB,  iiiO'rikii'fer.  Joiianx  Kaspar 
( 17'.>'JIS77,i.  A  Swiss  literary  and  ecclesiastical 
historian,  born  at  Frauenfeld.  He  studied  at 
Zuridi,  taught  in  his  birthplace,  and  was  pastor 
at  Gottlieben  from  1851  to  180it.  His  liistorical 
works  have  scientilic  value  and  literary  charm; 
they  in(;lude  Die  schwei::crische  MumUirt  im  \  er- 
hiiUnis  zur  hochdetitschen  liichriftsi>riiclic  (  1838)  ; 
Klupulock  in  Ziirieh  (1851):  Die  schwcizcrisehe 
lAiterutur  ties  uchlzehnten  JaUrhundcrts  (18G1)  ; 
Vlrieli  Zwinijli  ( 18(i7-l)!))  ;  and  ticschichte  der 
evanyelischeii  I'liichllitige  in  der  Schweiz  (1876). 

MOBILLO,  nj6re'ly6.  Pablo,  Count  of  Carta- 
gena and  Marnuis  de  la  Pucrta  (1777-1838).  A 
.Spanisli  sohlier.  He  was  born  in  Fuenles  de 
Malsa,  in  the  Province  of  Tore,  and  entered  the 
(Spanish  navy  in  1793.  During  the  war  against 
Napoleon  he  raised  a  guerrilla  corjjs.  at  the  head 
of  which  he  soon  ac(|uired  fame,  and  became 
lieutenant-general.  In  1815  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  12.000  men  and  sent  to  South  Ameri- 
ca to  conquer  the  insurgent  provinces  of  \'ene- 
zuela  and  New  (iranada.  He  speedily  captured 
Caracas,  Cartagena,  and  Bogotfl,  but  met  re- 
verses later  and  was  compelled  to  sign  the 
armistice  of  Truxillo  with  Holivar  (1820).  He 
returned  to  Spain,  joined  the  Court  party,  and 
was  believed  to  be  one  of  the  authors  of  an 
insurrection  of  the  Guards  in  1822.  .After  this 
he  went  over  to  the  patriots,  obtained  command 
of  an  army  corps,  changed  l)ack  again,  and  sub- 
mitted to  the  French  (1823).  Exiled  by  Ferdi- 
nand, he  was  recalled  in  1832  and  led  an  army 
against  the  Carlists.  He  publi.shed  his  M^moires 
at    Paris   in    I82(>. 

MORIN,  mA'ra.N-'.  Arthur  Jules  (ITf/S- 
1880).  .\  French  mathematician,  born  in  Paris. 
He  studied  at  the  Kcole  Polyteehnique  and 
at  the  Ecole  d'.\ppIication  in  Metz.  and  in 
1819  was  commissioned  lieutenant  in  an  engineer 
battalion.  He  was  professor  at  the  Conser- 
vatoire des  .Arts  et  Metiers,  and  after  1847  its 
director.  He  devoted  his  attention  to  mechanics, 
and  by  his  researches  and  inventions  contributed 
materially  to  the  i)rogress  of  that  .science.  The 
results  of  his  labors  are  embodied  in  memoirs 
which  he  contributed  to  the  C'oniplen  renditu  de 
VAeiulfmic  des  scienccfi  de  Paris,  and  in  a  num- 
ber of  .separate  publications,  among  which  arc: 
Aide-memoire  de  mecanique  pritliiiue  (1838); 
Hnluhrite  des  hahitalions  (2(1  ed.  1874):  and 
Fundiimenliil  Ideas  of  Merhnnies  and  I'xfieri- 
meiiliil  llrila.  .  .  .  translated  bv  .T.  Bennet 
(New   ^Ork,    I8li0). 

MORIN,  niM-ren',  E.nrico  Com.stan'tixo  (1841 
— ).  .\n  Italian  naval  olTicer  and  statesman, 
born  in  Genoa.  He  rose  through  successive 
grades  to  that  of  vice-admiral  (1893).  In  1880 
he  was  elected  from  Florence  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  from  1888  to  1891  was  I/nder-Secretary 
of  State  In  the  Ministry  of  Marine,  in  which  post 
he  urged  nn  increase  of  the  navy,  and  from  1893 
til  1890  was  Minister  of  Marine.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Senator  in  1900.  and  in  the  same  year 
again  lioanii'  Minister  of  Marine. 

MORINUS,  mA'r*'ny',  .ToitANNE.s.  or  Jean 
MoRiN   (I5»l-lfl9r.).     A  French  Catholic  theolo- 


t  MORISON. 

gian  and  Orientalist,  lioni  at  Hlois  of  Protestant 
])arenls.  He  was  educated  at  l.eyden  and  at  Paris, 
where  he  entered  the  Catholic  Church,  and  in 
11)18  joined  the  ()ratorians.  He  was  head  of  the 
College  of  Angers,  and  in  1040  was  sunuuoned  to 
Kome  by  Urban  X'lll.  to  assist  in  discussing  the 
union  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches. 
He  was  suddenly  recalled  by  Richelieu,  who  ])os- 
sibly  feared  that  Morin  would  speak  ill  of  him 
at  Home.  Besides  his  works  on  Church  history, 
and  more  important,  Morin  wrote  on  text  criti- 
cism: Excrcitat  tones  Eceiesiasticce  et  liibliece 
(1080,  containing  two  earlier  works  of  1031  and 
1039),  which  urges  the  priority  and  superiority 
of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  ;  Opriseiiht  llebneo- 
Samaritiea  (1057),  with  grammar  and  lexicon; 
and  in  Le  .Jay's  I'oli/filolte.  an  edition  of  the 
Sanuiritan   Pentateuch. 

MORIOKA,  mo're-o'ka.  The  capital  of  the 
Prtficluic  of  Iwate,  ,Iapan,  situated  in  a  moun- 
tainous district  in  the  northern  part  of  Hondo, 
about  40  miles  from  the  coast  (Map:  Japan, 
G  4).  It  is  celebrated  for  it-s  kettles,  silk  goods, 
fruits,  and  vegetables.  Population,  in  1898, 
32.989. 

MORIORI,.  mo'rJ-o'rf.  The  aborigines  of  the 
Challiaiii  Islaiuls,  linguistically  and  somatically 
close  kinsmen  of  tlic  Jlaori  (<|.v.).  Their  crania 
are  distinctly  more  Polynesian  than  Melanesian, 
and  some  authorities  see  traces  of  race  mixture 
in  certain  osteological  peculiarities.  Some  an- 
thropologists regard  the  iMoriori  as  only  a  branch 
of  the  Maori,  who  reached  the  Chatham  Islands 
before  tattooing  had  come  into  general  use  or 
the  carving  and  ornamentation  of  the  New  Zea- 
land Maori  had  taken  on  their  characteristic 
develo|iment.  Tr:idition.  sujiportcd  by  other  in- 
dications, suggests  two  migrations  to  these  isl- 
ands, one  before  and  the  other  after  Maori  art 
had  become  matured.  The  Hat  stone  clubs  of 
the  Chatham  Islanders  are  supposed  to  go  back 
to  the  dark  peo[)le  who  preceded  them.  The  best 
stone  axes  of  the  Moriori  exceed  in  fineness  of 
polish  those  of  the  Maori.  The  general  conclu- 
sion is  that  the  culture  of  the  Chatham  Islanders 
is  an  outspur  of  that  of  New  Zealand.  Such 
marked  peculiarities  as  exist  are  due  to  the 
poverty  and  limitations  of  the  group.  The 
influence  of  the  antecedent  "dark  race'  is  more 
marked  there  than  in  New  Zealand  itself.  In 
1831  they  are  said  to  have  numbered  1200  to 
1.500:  but  the  inroads  of  Maori  from  the  Tara- 
naki  District  of  New  Zealand  in  1832-35  led  al- 
most to  their  extermination,  and  there  were  but 
200  left  in  1808.  In  1SS9  tlie  islands  were  reported 
to  contain  27  [>u re  blooded  Moriori.  5  half- 
bloods,  250  ^laori.  :ind  a  few  Europeans.  In 
1891)  their  niunbcr  was  estimated  at  30  to  .50; 
but  Schauinsland,  who  visited  them  in  1897, 
thought  it  not  over  10  to  25. 

MORISCOS,  inAre'skAs  (Sp.,  Moorish  men). 
The  iiatiir  ^iven  in  Spain  after  1492  to  those 
Moors  who  through  intimidation  or  force  were 
brought  over  to  Christianity.  See  M00R.S:  Spain. 

MOR'ISON.  .TAME.S  (1816.93).  A  .Scotch 
clerg>nian.  fo\inder  of  the  Evangelical  I'nion. 
He  was  bom  at  l!:ithgate,  Jjinlithgowshire.  Feb- 
ruary 14,  1810,  He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh, 
and  licensed  to  prc:ich  as  a  minister  of  the  I'nil- 
ed  Secession  Chnn'h  in  1839.  In  1841  he  was 
de|>osed  for  holding  and  advocating  'universal 
ntoncment.'     With  three  other  ministers  of  like 


MOBISON. 


views  and  their  followers,  he  formed  the  Evan- 
gelical Union  (q.v.) .  At  the  same  time  he  estab- 
lished a  theological  academy,  of  which  he  con- 
tinued principal  till  his  death.  He  was  pastor 
first  of  Kilmarnock,  and  from  1853  to  1884  in 
Glasgow,  where  he  died.  Xovemhcr  13.  1893; 
Consult  his  Life  by  A.  Adamson  (London,  1898). 
MOEISON,  James  Augustus  Cotter  (1832- 
88)  \n  English  author,  born  in  London,  His 
childhood  was  spent  in  Paris  (1834-40),  and  he 
gained  an  intimate  knowledge  of  French.  An 
Oxford  graduate  (1859),  he  wrote  for  tlie  Satiir- 
dau  Recieic,  and  in  1863  brought  out  a  Life  of 
Saint  Bernard,  followed  by  sketclies  of  Gihbon 
(1878),  Macaulay  (1882),  and  Mine,  de  Mam- 
tenon  (1885),  while  his  last  work.  The  Service 
of  Man:  An  Essai/  Towards  the  Ueliyion  of  tho 
Future  ( 1880) ,  was  the  outcome  of  his  Positivist 
beliefs.  Morison  was  a  founder  and  joint  owner 
of  the   Fortnightly  Review. 

MORISON,  Robert  (1620-83).  A  British 
botanist,  born  at  Aberdeen.  He  graduated  at 
the  university  of  his  native  city  in  1038.  but  the 
next  vear,  having  taken  up  arms  in  the  Royalist 
cause',  he  was  compelled  to  flee  to  France.  There 
he  studied  anatomv.  zoology,  botany.  mineralog\'. 
and  chemistry,  and  in  1648  took  the  degree  of 
MD  at  Angers.  A  year  or  two  later  Gaston, 
Duke  of  Orleans,  appointed  him  one  of  his 
physicians,  a  position  which  he  held  until  the 
biike's  death  in  1660.  and  in  which  he  made  such 
a  reputation  that  after  the  Restoration  Charles 
II.  appointed  him  his  senior  physician,  Kings 
botanist,  and  superintendent  of  all  the  royal 
gardens.  In  1609  he  became  professor  of  botany 
at  Oxford.  His  great  service  to  botany  was  in 
classification,  in  wliieh  connection  Franchet 
says  of  him  that  his  works  make  an  epoch  in 
botanical  literature.  Among  these  are:  Prce- 
ludia  Bolanica  (1609);  Plantarum  Umhelhfer- 
arum  Distribiitio  y'ova  (1672);  and  Plantarum 
Historim  Universalis  Oxoniensis,  Pars  Secunda 
(1080).  Consult:  Pulteney,  Sketches  of  the 
Progress  of  Botaiii/  (London,  1790)  :  Tournefort, 
EUments  de  botnmqne  (Lyons,  1797;  in  Latin, 
Paris,  1700)  ;  and  Franchet,  Flore  de  Loir-et- 
Cher. 

MORITZ,   mo'rits.  Karl  Philipp    (1756-93). 
A  German  author,  prominent  in  the  Sturm-und- 
Dran"  period.     He  was  Irorn  at  Hanieln,  of  poor 
pareiits.     He  taught  for  a  short  time  at  Dessau 
(1777),  then  at  a  military  orphanage  at  Pots- 
dam  (1778),  and  soon  after  in  Berlin.     In  1786 
he  went  to  Italy,  and  in  Rome  became  acquainted 
with  Goethe,  who  reeommended  him  to  Duke  Karl 
August,  by  whose  influence  Moritz  was  elected  to 
the'^Berliii  Academy,  and  in  1789  became  profes- 
sor of  antiquities  in  the  Academy  of  Art  in  Ber- 
lin.  His  adventurous  life  can  to  a  great  degree  be 
reconstructed  from  the  semi-biographical  novels, 
Anton  Reiser  (1785-90)   and  Andreas  Hartknopf 
(1786).     He      wrote,     besides:      Vrrsuch      einer 
deutschen  Prosodie    (1780);    Veher  die  bildende 
■Naehahmung    des    Schnnen    (1788);    Ootterlehre 
(1791);     Tieisen    eines    Deutschen    in    England 
(1783);    and   Reisen   eines   Deutschen   in  Italien 
(1792-93).     Consult  Dessoir,  Moritz  als  Aesthe- 
tiker    (Berlin.    1889). 

MORLACCHI,  mor-lak'ke,  France.sco  (1784- 
1841).  An  Italian  composer,  famous  for  his 
advanced  style  of  composition,  which  has  been 
described  as"  a  classical  blending  of  Italian  vi- 


UOBLAND. 

vacity  and  methods  with  German  contrapuntal 
profundity.  He  studied  under  Mazzetti,  Caruso, 
Padre,  Martini,  and  Zingarelli.  His  composi- 
tions include  a  coronation  cantata,  considerable 
church  music,  organ  pieces,  songs,  chamber 
music,  masses,  and  grand  operas.  In  1810  he 
became  kapellmeister  of  the  Italian  opera  at 
Dresden,  where  he  is  said  to  have  composed  his 
best  work.  His  oratorios,  Isacco  (1817)  and  La 
morte  di  Abele  (1821),  are  representative.  He 
died  at  Innsbruck. 

MOBLAIX,  mor'la'.    The  capitiil  of  an  arron- 
dissement   and   a   seaport  in   the   Department   of 
Finist&re,  France,  on  the  estuary  of  the  Dossen, 
6Vi  miles  from  the  sea,  and  38  miles  east-north- 
east of  Brest  (Map:   France,  C  3).    The  estuary 
is   spanned  by  a   fine   railway  viaduct  934   feet 
long  and  190'feet  high.     The  town  has  a  medite- 
val  aspect,  with   its  fifteenth-century  church   of 
Saint  Melaine,  its  narrow  winding  streets,  and 
its  quaintly  gabled  timbered  houses.    The  port  is 
accessible  to  ships  of  400  tons  burden.     A  con- 
siderable coastwise  trade  is  carried  on  in  horses, 
agricultural    produce,   leather,   and   paper.      The 
industrial    establishments    inclu^p    paper    mills 
and  an   important  Government  tobacco  factor)-. 
Population,  in  1900.  10,080.     Morlaix  dates  from 
the  Roman  occupation.     In  1187  it  was  besieged 
and  captured  by  Henry  II.  of  England.     In  1522 
it  was  taken  bv  the  troops   of  Henry  VIII.  of 
England,    but    recaptured    by   the    French    in   a 
night  attack,  when  600  Englishmen  were  killed. 
MOB'LAKS.     A  Slavonic  people  belonging  to 
the  southern  branch,  and  living  along  the  coast 
of  Dalmatia.  Austria-Hungary.     They  settled  in 
this   locality   during  the   great  southern   migra- 
tion  of   the   Serbs   from   the   Carpathian   region 
in  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries.     They  are  a 
hardy,    seafaring   people,   who   furnish   the   best 
material  for  the  Austrian  Navy,  and  are  promi- 
nent in  the  commerce  of  the  Adriatic.     They  are 
generally  classed  with  the  Dalmatians.    See  Dal- 
matia. 

MOR'LAND,  George   (1763-1804).     An  Eng- 
lish genre,  animal,  and  landscape  painter,  born 
in  London.     He  inherited  talent  from  his  father, 
Henry    Morland     (1712-97),    painter,    engraver, 
and  picture  dealer,  who  gave  him  a  good  train- 
ino-.     At  sixteen  he  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy, and  at  seventeen  be  had  attained  a  reputa- 
tion as  a  copyist,  especially  of  the   Dutch  and 
Flemish    masters.      After    a    rupture    with    his 
father  he  set  up  on  his  own  account  in  1784  or 
1785.   and   dashed   into   a   career   of   dissipation 
and  prodigality,  supporting  himself  by  the  sale 
of  his  pictures,  painted  with  marvelous  rapidity 
and  cleverness.     He  lived  with  a  picture  dealer, 
and  became  the  companion  of  hostlers,  pot-boys, 
jockeys,    pawnbrokers,    and    pugilists.      In    1786 
he   married  the  sister  of  the  engraver  William 
Ward,  and  for  a  time  reformed.     At  this  period 
he  painted  many  moralities  in  the  style  of  Ho- 
garth :    but   he  "soon    returned  to  his   profligate 
life   and  produced  his  masterpiece,  the  '-Interior 
of  a  Stable"    (1791),  now  in  the  Xational  Gal- 
lery, London.     He  became  popular,  and  dealers 
flocked  to  him.     Sometimes  he  painted  tw-o  pic- 
tures a  day.  and  once  a  large  landscape  with  six 
fiffures  in  six  hours.     Every  demand  for  money, 
tavern  score,  or  bill  was  paid  by  a  picture  worth 
twice  the  charge.     His  subjects  were  scenes  m 
humble    life    in    town    and    country— cottages, 


MORLAND. 

stables,  inn-yanls,  pastoral  scenes,  and  domestic 
animals,  especially  pigs.  Altogether  he  painted 
4000  pictures,  250  of  which  were  engraved.  He 
died  in  a  sponging-house  in  Holborn,  October  27, 
1804.  His  epitaph  on  himself  was,  "Here  lies  a 
drunken  dog."  He  was  generous,  good-natured, 
and  industrious  despite  his  faults. 

After  a  jx^riod  of  neglect  Morland  is  now 
ranked  among  the  best  masters  of  genre  and  ani- 
mals, not  far  below  the  Dutch  artists  on  whom 
he  modeled  his  style.  He  was  a  fine  bnisliman; 
his  color  is  rich,  "and  his  treatment,  if  light,  is 
skillful.  His  representation  is  realistic  and  true 
to  life.  In  the  South  Kensington  Museum  are 
fix  of  his  paintings,  the  best  known  of  which  is 
"The  Reckoning."  The  !Museum  of  Glasgow 
contains  a  "River  Scene"  and  three  seacoast 
landscapes.  In  the  Xew  York  Historical  Society 
are  his  "Old  English  Sportsman"  and  "Dogs 
yighting:"  in  the  .Metmpolitan  Museum,  "Mid- 
day Meal"  and  "Weary  Wayfarers."  His  auto- 
portrait  is  in  the  National  Portrait  Oallery, 
London.  Consult :  His  Life,  by  George  Dawe 
(London,  1807)  ;  his  Memoirs,  by  Blogdon  and 
Hassel  (ib.,  ISffi)  :  William  Collins,  Memoirs 
of  a  Picture   (London,  1803). 

MORLAND,  Sir  Samuel  (162.5-05).  An 
Engli:-h  diplomat  and  inventor.  He  was  bom 
in  Sulhampstead.  Berkshire,  and  studied  at 
Winchester  School  and  at  Magdalene  College, 
Cambridge.  His  first  mission  of  importance  was 
to  the  Duke  of  Savoy  in  l(i55.  to  protest  against 
the  massacre  of  the  Waldensians.  ^Morland 
brought  back  with  him  materials,  mostly  clumsy 
forgeries,  for  a  liistory  of  this  sect,  which  he 
published  in  105S.  .After  the  Restoration  Jlor- 
land  received  the  title  of  baronet  and  many 
empty  promises  from  the  King.  He  devoted  him- 
self more  and  more  to  the  study  of  matlicniatics 
and  mechanics,  and  invented  a  speaking  trumpet 
and  some  calculating  machines.  But  his  more 
important  work  was  in  hydrostatics,  and  espe- 
cially  in   devising  a  steam   pump. 

MORXEY.  A  municipal  borough  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  England,  four  miles 
south-southwest  of  I^eds  (Map:  England.  E  .3). 
The  new  town-hall  is  a  handsome  building,  and 
the  municipality  owns  its  waterworks,  gas  and 
electric  lighting  plants,  maintains  pulilio  baths, 
parks,  and  recreation  grounds.  It  has  impor- 
tant manufiieturcs  of  woolens  and  mill  macliin- 
ery.  There  are  coal  mines  and  stone  ipiarries. 
Morley  is  mentioned  in  Domesdni/,  and  in  a 
tax  list  of  Richard  11.  It  was  incorporated  in 
188.x  Population,  in  1801.  21.000:  in  1901, 
23,H00.  Consult  Smith,  Morlei/,  Ancient  and 
Modern   (London,  1H8G). 

MORLEY,  Edw.\kd  Williams  (18.38—).  An 
Ameri<an  chemist,  born  at  Newark.  N.  -T.  He 
graduated  from  Williams  College  in  1800.  and 
in  180!!  became  professor  of  chemistry  at  West- 
em  Reserve  College  (afterwards  .-Vilelbert  Col- 
lege). With  (his  post  he  also  held  (1873-88) 
a  chair  of  chemistry  at  the  Cleveland  Medical 
College.  He  was  associated  with  A.  \.  Michel- 
son  in  researches  on  the  relative  motion  of  ether 
and  matter,  and  also  in  the  determination  of  the 
meter  in  terms  of  the  wave  length  of  light.  He 
was  president  of  the  .\meriean  .Association  for 
the  .Advancement  of  Science  (1805)  and  of  the 
American  Chemical  .Society  (1809).  and  was 
elected   a   member  of  the   National   Academy  of 


;  MORLEY. 

Sciences  and  associate  of  the  American  Academy 
of  Science.  In  the  proceedings  of  the  latter 
academy  for  1880  he  first  described  his  valuable 
apparatus  for  gas  analysis;  he  also  wrote  Atomio 

^\\■ilJllt   of  Oxygen    (1895). 

MORLEY,  Henby  (1822-94).  An  English 
author,  born  in  London,  September  15,  1822. 
He  was  educated  at  a  iloravian  school  at  Neu- 
wied  on  the  Rhine,  and  at  King's  College.  London 
(1838-43);  practiced  medicine  at  Madeley.  in 
Shi-opshire  (1844-48);  and,  liaving  been  fleeced 
by  a  colleague,  he  started  a  school  on  Moravian 
methods  at  Jlanehester,  but  after  two  years  he 
started  it  afresh  at  Liverpool.  A  series  of  ironi- 
cal essays  entitled  How  to  Make  Home  Un- 
heallluj  attracted  the  attention  of  Dickens,  and 
eventually  led  to  Morley's  settling  in  London 
and  taking  a  hand  in  Household  M  ords  and  All 
the  Year  Ix'ouiid  (1850-05).  He  also  became  con- 
nected with  the  Examiner  as  subeditor  and  then 
as  editor  (  1850-64).  Jleanwliile  he  was  appointed 
lecturer  in  English  at  King's  College  (1857-65), 
and  then  professor  of  English  at  Universitv  Col- 
lege, London  (1865-8!)).  He  died  May  14,"  1894. 
Chief  among  Morley's  works  arc:  A  Defence  of 
Ignorance  (1851).  a  bit  of  ironv ;  Lives  of  Pa- 
lissy  the  Potter  (1852).  Jerome  "Cardan  (1854), 
and  Cornelius  Agri])]ia  (1856);  Memoirs  of 
liartholomew  Fair  {  1857)  :  two  volumes  of  fairy 
tales  (1859-60);  English  Mrilrrs.  to  Dunba"r 
(1864-67),  rewritten  and  brought  down  to  the 
seventeenth  century  (11  vols.,  1887-95)  ;  A  First 
iihetch  of  English' Literature  (1873;  rev.  1886)  ; 
and  English  Literature  in  the  Reign  of  Victoria 
(1881).  He  also  edited  a  Lihrary  of  English 
Literature  (5  vols.,  1875-81);  Universal  Library 
(63  vols..  1883-88)  ;  Cassrlfs  yational  Library 
(214  vols..  1886-00);  and  the  Carisbronhe  Li- 
brary, a  series  of  reprints  (14  vols.,  1889-91). 
Though  Morley  was  not  a  critic  and  editor  of 
the  first  rank,  he  had  catholic  tastes,  a  talent 
for  finding  the  best  in  things,  and  he  performed 
a  most  valuable  senice  in  making  easily  acces- 
sible the  treasures  of  English  literature. 

MORLEY,  Joii.\  (I8.3S— ).  An  English 
statesman  :uid  author,  born  at  Blackburn,  in 
Lancashire,  December  24.  1838.  Having  taken 
his  degree  at  Lincoln  College.  Oxford  (1859), 
he  went  to  T-ondon  to  engage  in  literature.  He 
soon  became  editor  of  the  Literary  Gazette,  at 
that  time  in  such  a  state  of  decrepitude  that 
Morlcy.  with  all  his  cnergj'  and  talent,  could  not 
quicken  it  to  new  life.  His  writings  soon 
showed  the  influence  of  Atiguste  Comte,  and  he 
became  known  as  an  agnostic  philosopher.  From 
1808  to  1870  he  edited  for  a  little  while  the 
daily  Morning  Star.  In  1867  he  succeeded  Lewes 
as  editor  of  the  Fortnightly  Iterirw.  wliich  he 
conducted  brilliantly  till  1883,  becoming,  in 
that  year,  editor  of  Mnemillnn's  Magazine. 
Under  his  guidance  the  Macmillans  have 
issued  since  1878  the  "English  Jlen  of  Let- 
ters Series,"  to  which  Morley  contributed  a 
short  but  excellent  Life  of  Edmund  Burke 
(1879).  His  Burke,  an  historical  study, 
appeared  in  1867.  In  1880  he  began  ably 
to  edit  the  Pnll  Mall  Gazette:  in  1881  he  pub- 
lished his  Life  of  f'ohden ;  and  in  1883.  after 
two  failures,  he  was  at  a  by-election  returned 
to  Parliament  for  Neweastle-upon-Tvne.  He 
soon  became  prominent,  and  in  1886  he  was 
made    Secretary    for    Ireland    under    Gladstone, 


MORLEY. 


MORMONS. 


thus  getting  an  insight  into  Gladstonian  politics 
and  character  to  be  shown  later  in  liis  l.'ife 
of  Lltadstone  (1903).  Jlorley  .sympathized  with 
tlie  Irisli  Nationalists,  Ijul,  unlike  Gladstone, 
he  was  unhampered  by  pledges  and  opinions. 
On  the  defeat  of  the  Gladstonians  in  ISSO  lie  was 
half  in  politics,  half  in  letters,  till  Gladstone"* 
return  to  power  restored  him  to  his  former 
otHce.  Morley's  anti-imperialistic  views  helped 
to  lose  him  his  seat  in  1805,  but  he  was  soon  re- 
elected from  the  Montrose  Burghs,  Scotland. 
In  180S  and  afterwards  he  upheld  the  Boers. 
Besides  the  books  already  mentioned,  JMorley  is 
the  author  of  monographs  on  Voltaire  (1872), 
h'ousscau  (1873),  one  of  the  most  sympathetic 
biographies  ever  written.  Diilcrot  and  the  En- 
ci/cloixrdisls  (1878),  and  Wiilpolc  (1889).  In 
Croiiucrll  (1900)  he  added  something  to  histori- 
cal knowledge,  though  his  work  is  mainly  a  re- 
vision of  Gardiner.  In  1902  Andrew  Carnegie 
presented  to  him  the  rich  historical  collection  of 
Lord  Acton,  recently  deceased,  and  Jlorley  in 
turn  presented  it  to  Oxford  University. 

MORLEY,  Mr.s.  The  name  adopted  by  Queen 
Anne  in  her  correspondence  with  the  Duchess  of 
Marlborough.    See  Freeman,  Mrs. 

MORLEY,  Thomas  ( 1557-C.1604) .  An  Eng- 
lish nuisician  and  composer.  The  place  of  his 
birth  cannot  be  definitely  fixed,  but  it  is  supposed 
that  he  was  born  in  London  and  educated  at 
Saint  Paul's  Cathedral.  According  to  his  own 
statement  he  also  studied  under  Bird.  In  1.588 
he  became  bachelor  of  music  at  Oxford  and  in 
1591  was  deputy  chorister  at  Saint  Paul's,  taking 
his  regular  turn  of  duty  as  organist.  In  1592 
he  was  made  epistler  of  the  Chapel  Royal.  He 
strove  hard  during  his  entire  career  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  English  music,  and  devoted  himself 
exclusively  to  the  development  of  vocal  music. 
His  principal  work  and  that  ujion  which  his 
reputation  is  chietl)'  based  was  .-1  Plaine  and 
Ea.iie  Introduction  to  Prncticall  Mnsicle,  pub- 
lished in  1597.  It  was  the  first  practical  work 
on  music  issued  in  England ;  was  translated 
into  German  and  published  throughout  the  Ger- 
man States  by  Trost  of  Halberstadt  about  1G60. 
In  England  it  remained  an  authority  up  to  so 
late  a  period  as  1770.  He  wrote  many  composi- 
tions for  the  Church,  none  of  them,  however,  be- 
ing printed  in  his  lifetime.  Tallis's  monopoly  of 
music-printing  expired  in  1596  and  two  years 
later  Morley  obtained  a  similar  one.  and  under 
his  license  "William  Barley,  Thomas  Est.  alina 
Snodham,  Peter  Short,  .Tolm  Windet,  and  others," 
printed  several  books  as  the  "assigiie  of  Thomas 
Morley."  He  resigned  from  the  Chapel  Royal  in 
1602.  That  he  was  an  excellent  musician  his 
ballets  and  madrigals  prove.  He  was  also  su- 
perior in  melodic  invention  to  any  of  his  pred- 
ecessors, and  is  generally  credited  with  having 
disentangled  music  from  the  fettered  condition 
in  which  he  found  it.  and  to  have  broken  away 
from  the  slavish  adherence  to  the  'Modes'  which 
had  characterized  other  composers.  From  his 
time  forward  composers  designedly  wrote  melo- 
dies meant  to  express  the  emotional  content  of 
the  text. 

MOR'MOLUCOI'DES(Xeo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 

nior»ioJi(cn, glowworm,  from  Gk.  itopfio?{'Keiov.  mor- 
mol/ikeion.  fiopfio2i'Hior,  mormohjkioti.  hobgoblin, 
from  liopfioM'TTeaflai ,  morntoliitteafh-ai.  to  frighten, 
from  liopiiC),  mormO,  bugbear  +  eidof,  f jrfo.s,  form ) . 


The  oldest  known  fossil  insect  larva,  found  in  the 
shale  of  the  Newark  formation  of  tlie  .lura-Trias- 
sic  system  in  New  Jersey,  Connecticut, and  Massa- 
chusetts. In  general  appearance  it  resembles  the 
larva  of  tlie  modern  firelly,  though  it  is  consider- 
alily  larger,  being  quite  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
in  length.  It  is  considered  to  be  the  young  of  a 
neuropteran  insect  allied  to  the  modern  dobsona 
[Sialidw) . 

MORMON  CRICKET.  Either  of  the  wing- 
less migratory  crickets,  Anahrus  simplex  and 
Anabrtis  purpuresccns.  These  are  large,  pecu- 
liarly shaped  crickets,  which  occasionally  mul- 
tiply so  greatly  in  their  native  home  in  the  foot- 
hills of  the  Rocky  Mountains  that  they  migrate 
to  the  plains  below,  and  destroy  all  cultivated 
crops.  As  they  are  wingless,  they  move  but  slow- 
ly, and  may  often  be  checked  by  ditches.  A 
plowed  field  in  their  course  forms  a  difficult 
barrier,  and  an  approaching  army  may  be  de- 
stroyed by  means  of  heavy  rollers.  They  are 
pugnacious  and  will  fight  among  themselves,  and 
are  to  a  certain  extent  carnivorous,  devouring 
their  injured  comrades.  For  many  years  they 
have  been  especially  abundant  and  injurious  in 
portions  of  Jlontana  and  Idaho. 

MORMONS,  or  more  properly  The  Chubch 
OF  Je.sus  Christ  of  Latter-day  Saints.  A 
religious  sect  of  the  United  States.  The  early 
historj-  of  tlie  Mormons  is  that  of  their  founder, 
Joseph  Smith,  .Jr..  who  was  born  at  Sharon, 
Windsor  County,  Vt.,  December  23,  1805.  Ac- 
cording to  contemporary  anti-Mormon  descrip- 
tions, or  to  the  suppressed  accounts  of  early 
Mormon  apologists,  Joseph's  paternal  grand- 
father was  a  man  of  distorted  religious  views; 
his  maternal  grandfather,  Solomon  Mack,  was  an 
infirm  beggar,  and  superstitious  to  a  high  de- 
gree. Joseph's  mother  believed  in  cures  by 
faith  and  in  dreams  as  heavenly  admonitions. 
The  Prophet's  father,  after  failing  as  a  farmer, 
a  storekeeper,  and  a  root-digger  in  'Vermont  and 
New  Hampshire,  took  up  a  land  claim  in  Ontario 
County,  N.  Y..  in  1815.  Like  his  son.  he  was  a 
confessed  believer  in  witchcraft  and  demon  posses- 
sion. In  his  autobiography  Smith  called  these 
the  reports  of  evil-disposed  and  designing  persons; 
by  the  later  church  historians  they  are  either 
palliated  or  deprived  of  significance:  however, 
to  the  student  of  heredity  these  details  of  Smith's 
ancestry  are  considered  essential  to  a  patho- 
logical estimate  of  his  character.  The  Mormons 
quote,  only  to  refute,  the  hostile  statements  that 
Smith  was  a  visionary,  a  fanatic,  an  impostor, 
and  a  libertine;  instead,  they  esteem  him  a 
[irophet,  a  seer,  a  vicegerent  of  God,  and  a 
martyr  [Times  and  tirasons,  v.  856).  They 
grant  that  .Joseph's  education  was  defective  and 
that  as  a  boy  he  could  hardly  write  his  name. 
He  himself  asserted  that  he  was  'a  rough  stone' 
and  desired  'the  learning  of  heaven  alone.'  His 
mother  said  of  him  that  in  his  nineteenth  year 
he   had  never  read  the   Bible  through. 

The  "conversion"  of  Joseph  took  place  in  1820 
near  Palmyra.  It  was  a  time  of  great  local  ex- 
citement on  the  subject  of  religion.  .Joseph  had 
retired  to  a  solitary  place  and  knelt  in  prayer 
to  God.  He  fell  into  a  trance,  and  was  seized 
with  a  feeling  of  great  depression  and  terror. 
"Just  at  this  moment  of  great  alarm,"  he  con- 
tinues in  his  description  of  the  event,  "I  saw  a 
pillar  of  light  exactly  over  my  head,  above  the 


MOBMONS. 

brifrhfness  of  the  sun.  wliuli  descended  frradiially 
until  it  fell  upon  me.  When  the  light  rested 
upon  me.  1  saw  two  per.«iona<;tes  whose  brifrhtness 
and  glory  defy  all  description,  staniling  above 
me  in  the  air.  One  of  tliem  spake  unto  me. 
.  .  .  When  I  came  to  myself  again  1  foimd 
myself  lying  on  my  back,  looking  up  into 
heaven."  The  second  of  the  'visions  of  .Joseph' 
took  place  on  September  21,  182.3,  when  tlie 
heavenly  messenger  disclosed  the  hiding  place  of 
the  gold  plates  upon  which  the  Book  of  Mormon 
was  asserted  to  be  engraved.  There  was  a  series 
of  seven  visions  in  all,  which  extend  over  as 
many  years,  and  which,  as  in  the  ease  of  Mo- 
hanuned.  have  been  attributed  by  some  to 
epilepsy. 

Connected  with  these  trances  is  the  so-called 
"transcription  of  the  gold  plates."  As  a  money- 
digger  among  Indian  mounds  young  Smith  made 
use  of  a  'peek-stone.'  This  became  the  famous 
'Urim  and  Tbuminim.'  whereby  ".To.seph  the  Seer 
translated  the  reformed  Egyptian  of  the  plates 
of  Xephi."  Students  of  abnormal  psychology 
infer  from  recent  investigation  of  the  original 
document  with  its  sprawling  superscription  'Car- 
actors'  that  it  is  analogous  to  tbe  automatic 
writing  of  the  semi-hypnotized  crj'stal  gazer,  and 
urge  that  Smith's  later  methods  of  'translating' 
bear  out  this  supposition  of  a  sub-conscious 
activity.  Throwing  himself  into  a  condition 
of  revery  by  gazing  into  his  'interpreters,'  he 
dictated  to  his  scribes  what  appeared  to  him  to 
bo  communications  of  supernatural  origin.  Such 
an  interpretation  of  .To.seph's  visions  in  terms  of 
abnormal  psychology  is  thought  blasphemous  by 
the  Saints.  They  hold  the  records  to  be  divinely 
inspired,  while  Smith  compared  his  peculiar 
psychic  experiences  to  those  of  Saint  Paul.  Of 
Smith's  writings  the  first  was  the  Book  of  Mor- 
mon, begun  in  September,  1827,  at  Manchester, 
N'.  Y.,  continued  at  Harmony,  Pa.,  and  finished 
at  Fayette.  N.  V.,  .hine,  l"82n.  The  original 
manuscript  has  disappeared.  There  remains 
only  a  duplicate  made  by  Smith's  principal 
scribe,  the  schoolmaster  Oliver  Cowdery.  'fhe 
first  edition  was  printed  at  Palmyra  in  1830.  Two 
other  editions  were  published  within  ten  years. 
The  fifteen  books  of  this  "Sacred  History  of  An- 
cient America  from  the  Earliest  Ages  After  the 
Flood  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Fifth  Century  of  the 
Christian  Era"  Smith  himself  thus  sunimari/j'd : 
"The  historj'  of  America  is  unfolded  from  its 
fir.st  settlement  by  a  colony  tliat  came  from  the 
Tower  of  Babel  to  the  iM'ginning  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  Era.  We  are  informed  by 
these  records  that  America,  in  ancient  times,  has 
been  inhabited  by  two  distinct  races  of  people. 
The  first  were  called  .laredites,  and  came  directly 
from  the  Tower  of  Babel.  The  second  race  came 
diri'ctly  from  the  city  of  .Jerusalem,  about  six 
hundred  years  before  Christ.  The  .laredites  were 
destroyed  about  the  lime  that  the  Israelites  came 
from  .lerusalem.  The  principal  nation  of  the 
second  race  fell  in  battle  toward  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century.  The  remnant  are  the  Indians. 
This  b(x>k  also  tells  us  that  our  Saviour  made 
His  appearance  upon  this  continent  after  His 
resurrection;  that  He  planted  the  Gospel  here  in 
all  its  fullness  nn<l  richness  and  power  and 
blessing;  that  they  ha<l  apostles,  prophets,  pas- 
tors, t<'acliers,  and  evangelists;  the  .same  order, 
the  same  priestlio<Ml,  the  same  ordinances,  gifts, 
powers,   and   blessing,   as    was   enjoyed   on   the 


8  MORMONS. 

Eastern  Continent :  that  the  people  were  cut  off 
in  consequence  of  their  transgressions;  that  the 
last  of  their  prophets  who  existed  among  them 
was  commanded  to  write  an  al)ridgment  of  their 
prophecies,  history,  etc.,  and  to  hide  it  up  in  the 
earth." 

Certain  adverse  critics  dismiss  the  Book  of 
Mormon  as  a  mere  hodge-podge  of  [letty  infor- 
mation, gross  anachronisms,  and  biblical  bor- 
rowings; this,  in  the  opinion  of  another  class  of 
adverse  critics,  is  to  miss  its  significance  both 
as  a  cryptic  biography  and  as  a  characteristic 
bit  of  provincial  Americana.  Tlie  latter  declare 
that  in  addition  to  private  affairs  inadvertently 
incorporated  there  are  water  marks  of  some  his- 
toric interest  to  be  foimd  in  the  document.  They 
detect,  in  Scriptural  paraphrase,  descriptions  of 
the  current  agitations  against  Romanism,  infi- 
delity, and  Freemasonry,  and  even  references  to 
the  so-called  Washingtonian  movement  for  total 
abstinence.  The  widely  prevalent  theory  that 
the  Indians  were  the  lost  ten  tribes  of  Israel 
is  also  embodied.  The  Xephites  were  not  merely 
the  modern  red  men  in  disguise,  but  in  their  men- 
tal habits  they  intimately  resembled  local  sec- 
tarians. The  speech  of  Nephi  contains  quotations 
from  tlie  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith,  and 
the  speech  of  Lehi  reflects  the  heretical  tenets 
charged  against  the  Presbytery  of  Geneva,  in 
whose  bounds  Jo.sepb  himself  lived.  Applying 
the  methods  of  the  higher  criticism,  unbelievers 
note  that  the  book  is  filled  with  the  catch- 
words of  the  Jlethodist  camp-meeting  e.xliorter, 
and  cite  in  particular  the  last  section  of  the 
Book  of  Mormon,  fnmi  its  likeness  to  a  Methodist 
book  of  discipline,  as  final  proof  of  the  writer's 
dependence  on  local  theology.  Believing  the  Book 
of  Mormon  to  be  the  veritable  word  of  God  de- 
livered through  verbal  inspiration,  the  Mormon 
apologists  consider  it  unwarrantable  to  apjily 
the  higher  criticism  to  their  bible.  Nevertheless 
such  criticism  renders  untenable  previous  argu- 
ments against  tlie  authenticity  of  the  work. 

The  ideas  in  the  book  were  within  the  young 
author's  ken.  His  Calvinism  need  not  have  been 
formally  derived  from  the  'New  Knijland  Primer, 
nor  his  arguments  on  Deism  from  Thomas  Paine's 
A<ie  of  Reason,  since  the  backwoods  pulpit  and 
the  political  gossip  of  the  taverns  supplied  these 
notions.  If  the  internal  evidence  makes  the 
Book  of  Mormon  indigenoiis,  the  external  evi- 
dence is  equally  against  a  foreign  authorship  as 
presented  in  the  ordinary  Spaulding-Rigdon 
theory.  This  is,  briefiy,  that  a  romance  of  pre- 
historic America,  written  in  Ohio  in  1812  by  a 
Congregational  minister,  Solomon  Spaulding,  was 
the  'source,  root,  and  inspiration'  by  which 
Smith's  associate,  Sidney  Rigdon,  concocted  the 
scheme  of  a  Golden  Bible.  The  recovery  in  188i5 
of  the  alleged  original  of  Spaulding's  "Manu- 
script Story"  has  been  to  the  Mormons  ccmclu- 
sive  proof  of  its  non-connection  with  the  Book 
of  .Mormon,  for  there  is  no  real  resemblance  be- 
tween the  two. 

The  day  of  the  founding  of  the  Mormon 
Church  was  April  0,  1830.  On  that  day  Smith 
claimed  to  have  received  a  revelation  beginning: 
"Thou  shall  be  called  a  seer,  a  translator,  .a 
prophet,  an  apostle."  This  is  a  characteristic 
sentence  from  the  second  half  of  the  Mormon 
canon,  the  Book  of  Commandments.  This  rarest 
of  original  Mormon  sources  is  in  part  a  book  of 
discipline,   containing   the    "Articles   and    Cove- 


MORMONS. 

nants  of  the  Church  of  Christ."  To  add  to  the 
confusion  of  contents,  this  pamplilet  of  .5.5  chap- 
ters has  its  biographical  side.  Like  its  enlarge- 
ment, the  revamped  Bool,'  of  Doctrine  and  Cov- 
enants, it  comprises  "revelations  to  .Joseph 
Smith,  .Jr.,  for  the  building  up  of  the  Kingdom 
of  God  in  the  last  days."  Concerning  the  origin 
of  these  vaticinations,  David  Whitmer,  the  tliinl 
witness  of  the  gold  plates,  asserted  that  the 
revelations  were  given  through  tlie  stone  through 
which  the  Book  of  Mormon  was  translated,  and 
Parley  P.  Pratt  described  how  "each  sentence 
was  uttered  slowlj'  and  very  distinctly."  Smith 
himself  was  more  cautious  as  to  the  divine  origin 
of  his  messages,  saying,  "We  never  inquire  for 
special  revelation  only  in  ease  of  there  being  no 
previous  revelation  to  suit  the  ease." 

The  local  receptiveness,  at  that  time,  to  new 
religious  ideas  is  manifest  by  the  success  of  other 
leaders.  .Jemima  Wilkinson  prophesied  at  Crooked 
Lake;  William  Jliller  predicted  the  end  of  tlie 
world  at  Rocliester;  and  the  Fox  si.sters  started 
Spiritualism  only  ten  miles  from  .Joseph  Smith's 
home.  The  return  ot  apostolic  gifts  was  hojied  for 
by  the  local  Quakers,  Primitive  Baptists,  and 
Restorationists.  A  half-year  later,  during  the 
revivalistic  meetings  of  the  Mormons  at  Kirtland, 
remarkable  religious  phenomena   were  reported. 

The  Kirtland  revival  was  the  turning  point  in 
the  life  of  the  infant  Church.  Because  of  it 
there  came  a  "revelation  to  the  churches  in  New 
York,  commanding  them  to  remove  to  Ohio."  It 
was  now  tliat  Sidney  Rigdon  played  his  part  in 
the  Latter-Day  movement.  He  had  been  a  Bap- 
tist preacher  in  Pittsburg,  and  a  minister  of  the 
Disciples'  Church  in  Ohio.  He  organized  at 
Kirtland  a  branch  of  Saints  of  one  hundred  mem- 
bers, and  in  February,  1.S.31,  Smith  betook  hira- 
.self  thither.  David  Whitmer  asserts  that  Rig- 
don soon  obtained  more  influence  over  Smith  than 
any  other  man  living.  In  exchange  for  the  home- 
made Mormon  Bible,  Rigdon  gave  a  foreign 
framework  to  the  Mormon  Church.  He  got  hold 
of  some  of  the  transplanted  ideas  of  Fourier 
the  French  collectivist.  Nineteen  families  in 
Rigdon's  neighborhood  had  already  formed  them- 
selves into  a  common  stock  company.  A  reve- 
lation of  February,  1.S31,  runs:  "Thou  shalt  con- 
secrate all  thy  properties  which  thou  hast  to 
impart  unto  me  with  a  covenant  and  a  deed  which 
cannot  be  broken ;  the  bishop  shall  appoint  every 
man  a  steward  over  his  own  property,  inasmucli 
as  is  suliicient  for  himself  and  family;  the  resi- 
due shall  be  kept  in  my  storehouse,  to  admin- 
ister to  the  poor  and  needy,  and  for  the  purpose 
of  purchasing  lands,  and  the  building  up  of  the 
New  .Jerusalem." 

Smith's  Ohio  business  enterprises  brought  finan- 
cial loss.  He  first  opened  a  general  storeat  Hiram 
which  failed.  Land  speculation  also  brought  loss. 
Three  farms  at  Kirtland,  costing  over  .$11,000, 
were  to  be  turned  into  a  permanent  city  of  Zion 
with  32  streets.  Like  tlie  Church  tannery  and  the 
Church  sawmill,  this  paper  city  had  no  financial 
foundation.  At  the  same  time  a  $40,000  temple 
vas  begun  (the  corner-stone  was  laid  .July  23, 
1833).  and  although  most  of  the  Saints  gave  one- 
seventh  of  their  time  to  its  building  without  pay, 
a  debt  of  from  .151.5,000  to  $20,000  was  left  upon 
it.  Meanwhile  an  attempt  was  made  to  prevent 
financial  disaster  by  establishing  the  Kirtland 
Safety  Society  Bank.  Reorganized  in  1837  as 
the  Kirtland  Society  Anti-Banking  Company  and 


)  MORMONS. 

uttering  at  least  $200,000  of  its  notes,  the  cra.sh 
came  within  ten  months,  and  Secretary  Rigdon 
and  Treasurer  Smith  tied  to  Missouri. 

As  president  of  the  Church  in  Ohio,  Smith's 
communistic  ambitions  were  mingled  with  hier- 
archical schemes.  Besides  the  United  Firm 
and  the  Safety  Bank,  in  1833  he  dedicated  to 
the  Lord  the  printing  ollice  of  the  Latter-Day 
Saints'  Messenger  and  Advocate.  In  1834  he 
organized  the  First  High  Council  of  the  Church 
of  Christ,  with  himself,  Rigdon,  and  Williams  as 
the  First  Presidency.  In  1835  he  chose  the 
Twelve  Apostles,  among  whom  were  Brigham 
Young,  the  Lion  of  the  Lord;  Parley  Pratt,  the 
Archer  of  Paradise;  and  Lyman  Wright, the  Wild 
Ram  of  the  Mountain.  In  1836  Smith  instituted 
the  several  quorums  or  executive  bodies  of  the 
Church,  first  the  Presidency,  then  the  Twelve, 
and  the  Seventy,  also  the  counselors  of  Kirtland 
and  Zion.  .In  1837  he  set  apart  Apostles  Kim- 
ball and  Hyde  to  go  on  a  mission  to  England,  the 
first  foreign  mission  of  the  Church. 

In  1832,  as  a  prophet  of  woe  urging  the  Saints 
to  sell  all  they  had  and  flee  from  the  wrath  to 
come.  Smith  brought  the  mob  upon  himself  and 
Rigdon  at  the  town  of  Hiram.  In  the  great 
apostasy  of  1836  the  Church  lost  some  of  its 
pillars.  The  three  witnesses  to  the  Book  of  Mor- 
mon were  soon  cut  off.  In  the  bull  of  excom- 
munication David  Whitmer,  the  anti-polygamist, 
was  compared  to  Balaam's  ass;  Martin  Harris 
was  called  a  negro  with  a  white  skin,  while  all 
the  "dissenters,"  says  the  Prophet,  "are  so  far 
beneath  my  contempt  that  to  notice  any  of  them 
would  be  too  great  a  sacrifice  for  a  gentleman  to 
make." 

While  the  Saints  were  yet  in  Ohio  there  is 
evidence  that  polygamy  was  both  practiced  and 
sanctioned  by  those  highest  in  authority.  The 
Reorganized  Church  of  Latter-Day  Saints  under 
the  leadership  of  the  Prophet's  son,  Joseph  Smith, 
3d,  has  claimed  that  the  doctrine  of  'spiritual 
wifery'  was  introduced,  not  by  the  Prophet,  but 
by  the  older  men,  notably  Hurlburt,  Bennett, 
and  Rigdon.  The  real  acts  of  these  scapegoats 
may  never  be  known,  for  their  testimony  as  to 
Smith's  implication  in  their  practices  was  de- 
clared unprintable.  Hence  what  remains  of  the 
evidence  against  the  Prophet  is  merely  circum- 
.stantial,  and  is  to  be  counterbalanced  by  his  early 
attempts  at  ostensible  suppression.  In  October, 
1831,  Smith  admonished  William  E.  McLellin 
through  .a  revelation ;  "Commit  not  adultery,  a 
temptation  with  which  thou  hast  been  troubled." 
In  .July,  1833,  Smith  wrote  to  the  brethren  in 
Zion  to  "guard  against  evils  which  may  arise 
from  accounts  given  of  women."  In  1835  the 
Book  of  Doctrine  and  Covenants  declared;  "In- 
asmuch as  this  Church  of  Christ  has  been  re- 
proached with  the  crime  of  fornication,  and  polyg- 
amy: we  declare  that  we  believe,  that  one  man 
should  have  one  wife;  and  one  woman  but  one 
husband." 

The  third  place  of  settlement  by  the  Saints 
was  Missouri.  Smith's  order  to  Oliver  Cowdery 
to  go  and  est-ablish  the  Church  among  the 
Lamanites  brought  four  Mormon  missionaries 
to  .Tacksnn  County  as  early  as  1831.  The  town 
of  Independence  was  declared  the  new  city  of 
Zion  and  a  site  for  a  temple  was  chosen  there 
in  August.  The  converts  poured  in  from  the 
^Middle  .Atlantic  States  and  Canada  with  such 
rapidity  that  the  non-Mormons   were   somewhat 


MORMONS. 


10 


MORMONS. 


alarmed.  Tlie  printiiij;  of  the  liool-  of  Com- 
maiidmenia  witli  its  revelations  to  the  Saints 
calling  Missouri  "the  land  of  your  inheritance, 
which  is  now  the  land  of  your  enemies,"  led  to 
nets  of  liostility  from  the  citizens  of  .Jackson 
County.  The  hurnin-;  of  barns  and  the  shoot- 
ing into  Mormon  linuses  at  nijrht  was  f(dlowed 
by  demands  for  the  removal  of  the  Mormons 
from  the  country  within  a  reasonalile  time,  and 
for  the  prohibition  of  future  Mormon  settlement 
therein.  The  element  of  border  rullianism  was 
doubtless  respiinsilile  for  the  speedy  destruction  of 
the  t'hurch  print  inj;  ollice,  and  for  the  tarring  and 
feathering  of  Hishop  Partridge,  yet  the  !Saints 
themselves  were  not  without  fault.  Their  agree- 
ment to  depart  within  eight  months  was  written, 
as  tlu'V  alleged,  "supposing  that  before  tlie  time 
arrived  the  mob  would  see  their  error  and  stop 
the  violence."  Since  Governor  Diniklin  was  loath 
to  call  out  the  militia,  the  mob  drove  at  least 
fifteen  hundred  Mormons  across  the  Missouri, 
the  women  and  chihlren  siiffering  terrible  hard- 
ships in  the  November  stonns.  The  negotiations 
for  financial  redress  proved  fruitless,  for,  as  the 
Governor  himself  confessed,  conviction  for  any 
violence  couunitted  against  a  Mormon  could  not 
be  hail  in  .Fackson  County.  I'ntil  1S;J8  the  town 
of  Far  West  was  materially  ])rosperous  and  on 
good  terms  with  its  neiglibors,  but  upon  the 
Prophet's  arrival  in  that  year  there  arose  dis- 
sensions within  and  without.  The  Presidency 
was  deposed  on  a  charge  of  niisapjiropriating 
trust  funds  and  Oliver  Cowdery  expelled  for 
coiniterfeiting.  With  the  further  defection  of 
Thomas  H.  Marsh.  i)resident  of  the  Twelve,  and 
Orson  lly<le.  one  of  the  original  Apostles,  there 
came  the  establishing  of  an  organization  called 
ultimately  the  Danite  Hand,  and  known  popu- 
larly as  the  Avenging  Angels.  Bound  to  secrecy 
by  blood  oaths,  obeying  any  behest  of  the  Church 
against  property  or  life,  this  American  variety 
of  thugs  owed  its  origin  to  Smith's  revelation 
of  August  ti.  IS.Ti — "Thine  enemy  is  in  thine 
hands,  and  if  thou  reward  him  according  to  his 
works  thou  art  justified:  if  he  has  sought  thy 
life,  anil  thy  life  is  endangered  by  him,  thine 
enemy  is  in  thine  hands  and  thou  art  iustified." 
The  year  ls:i,S  also  saw  the  establishment  of 
the  tithing  system.  Forty  years  afterwards  the 
annual  tithing  revenues  were  estimated  at  a 
million  dollars,  appropriated,  according  to 
Brigham  Young,  to  church  erection,  emigration, 
and   poor   relief. 

The  beginning  of  civil  strife  in  Missouri  dates 
from  Rigdon's  'salt  sermon,"  a  Fourth  of  .Tuly 
oration  (IS.tS).  in  which  there  was  oflicially 
preilicled  a  war  of  exterminatinn  hetweeu  Saints 
and  (Jenliles.  After  the  State  election  in 
.August,  it  was  reported  to  Governor  Boggs 
that  the  Mormons  were  so  numerous  and  well 
armed  that  the  judicial  power  of  Daviess  and 
Caldwell  counties  was  wholly  unable  to  execute 
any  civil  or  criminal  process  against  a  Mormon. 
A  regiment  of  militia  was  thereupon  called  out, 
hut  tJeneral  Dnniphan.  fearing  that  much  blood 
would  be  Hpilleil.  di>baniled  most  of  his  force. 
At  the  Prophet's  ■suggestion  the  organization  of 
the  "Fur  Company'  let  loose  foraging  bands  over 
the  country.  Then  followed  the  killing  of  the 
Danite  leader.  'Fear  Not'  Patten,  the  defeat 
of  the  MiMsouri  Captain  Bogart.  and  the  retali- 
ation upon  the  Mormons  in  tlie  infamous  TIawn's 
Mill   Massacre.     On   October  'J7th   the  Governor 


issued  orders  that  the  Mormons  must  be  treated 
as  enemies,  and  must  be  exterminated  or  driven 
from  the  State.  There  ensued  a  determined 
campaign  against  the  ilormons.  The  final 
terms  of  surrender,  otTcred  at  Far  West  by 
tJcneral  Lucas,  included  the  pa™ient  of  debts 
and  the  expulsion  from  the  State  of  all  the 
Mormons  except  the  leaders,  who  were  subject  to 
trial.  In  the  trial  of  Joseph  and  Hyrum  Smith, 
Kigdon.  and  others  at  Liberty,  testimony  was 
given  that  the  members  of  the  Danite  Band  con- 
sidered themselves  as  much  bouiul  to  obey  the 
heads  of  the  Church  as  to  obey  God.  and  that 
Smith  advised  the  people  to  .spoil  the  Gentiles. 
The  Prophet  was  confined  in  Liberty  until 
April,  18:59. 

The  fourth  place  of  removal  of  the  Saints  was 
Illinois,  and  here  their  experience  was  but  a 
repetition  of  their  last  migration.  Friction 
was  sure  to  arise  because  of  the  lawless  squat- 
ters and  timber  thieves  in  the  northern  counties 
and  beiause  of  the  politicians  at  Quincy  and 
their  toadying  for  the  Mormon  vote.  Smith  pur- 
chased the  city  of  Commerce  on  the  banks  of 
the  Mississippi  for  about  $70.000 :  the  name  of 
the  town  was  changed  to  Nauvoo.  supposedly 
derived  from  a  Hebrew  word  meaning  beautiful. 
The  rapid  growth  of  Nauvoo  was  largely  due 
to  the  religious  propaganda.  At  home,  jjroselyt- 
ing  was  extended  from  Maine  to  Michigan, 
while  mass  meetings  were  called  in  the  Eastern 
cities  to  express  sympathy  with  the  Mormons 
as  oppressed  by  the  enemies  of  the  freedom  of 
religious  opinion.  Abroad,  the  press  knew  even 
less  of  Lafter-Day  ambitions,  since  the  Mormon 
ap|)eals  in  Kngland  were  directed  to  the  illiterate 
and  superstitious.  At  Liverpool,  Orson  Pratt 
published  his  Discorcry  of  Anririit  Aiiuricnii 
Records  and  the  Mormon  organ,  the  Millennial 
fflnr,  advertised  "Bones  set  through  faith  in 
Christ."  But  that  which  appealed  most  strongly 
to  English  weaver,  Scotch  miner,  and  Welsh 
peasant  was  the  prospect  of  owning  a  farm  in 
the  land  of  Missouri,  where  "the  Lord  had  been 
raining  down  manna  in  rich  profusion."  The 
success  of  the  Mormon  missionaries  in  Great 
Britain  is  evinced  by  the  growth  of  the  system 
of  chartering  ships  for  emigrants,  from  one 
vessel  and  2(10.  passengers  in  1S40.  to  8  vessels 
and  1GI4  passengers  in  1842. 

In  the  meantime  Mormondom  in  America  was 
flourishing  both  financially  and  politically. 
Through  ellicient  lobbying  the  Illinois  l,egisla- 
ture  granted  charters  for  the  city  of  Nauvoo, 
the  Nauvoo  I.egion.  and  the  I'niversity  of  the 
City  of  Nauvoo.  Threefourtbs  of  the  university 
faculty  was  drawn  from  local  talent,  being  com- 
posed of  Orson  Pratt.  Orson  Spencer,  and  Sidney 
Rigdim,  with  James  Keeley.  a  graduate  of 
Trinity  College.  Dublin,  as  president.  An  army 
oflicer,  in  1842.  prai.sed  the  Nauvoo  Legion,  but 
expressed  his  fear  of  the  growih  of  a  Jlormon 
corps  filled  with  religious  enthusiasm  and  led 
on  by  ambitious  officers.  This  fear  was  justified 
by  the  attempted  assassination  of  Governor 
Boggs.  of  Missduri.  by  O.  P,  Rockwell,  a  Mormon 
living  at  Nauvoo.  The  Pro|)het.  having  called 
Boggs  a  'knave,  butcher,  and  mtirderer,'  was 
indicted  as  instigator  of  the  plot.  Tie  was  then 
released  by  his  own  municipal  court.  Smith's 
ability  to  swing  votes  led  to  an  enlargement  of 
his  political  ambitions.  He  called  on  President 
Van    Burcn    with   n    claim    for   Mormon    losses 


MORMONS. 


H 


MORMONS. 


amounling  to  $1,.381.044.55>{..  Failinfr  to  ob- 
tain rt'diess  from  Congress,  he  addressed  letters 
of  appeal  to  Henry  Clay  and  John  C.  Calhoun. 
On  receiving  non-committal  answers  from  tlicse 
rival  Presidential  candidates,  he  ran  for  Presi- 
dent himself. 

Smitli  was  assassinated  in  jail  at  Carthage, 
111.,  .June  27,  1844.  The  causes  leading  up  to 
his  deatli  were  not  merely  political,  but  also 
financial  and  social.  He  secured  relief  from  his 
Kirtland  creditors  only  by  taking  advantage  of 
the  bankruptcy  act,  and  the  numerous  thefts 
around  Nauvoo  were  laid  to  the  Slormons. 
Smith  was  also  in  trouble  with  his  associates; 
in  184.3  he  deposed  Rigdon  as  his  adviser.  On 
July  12,  1843,  there  came  the  famous  "Revela- 
tion on  the  Eternity  of  the  Marriage  Covenant, 
including  Plurality  of  Wives.  (iiven  tlirough 
Joseph,  the  Seer,  in  Nauvoo,  Hancock  County. 
111."  Tliis  document  was  not  promulgated  until 
1852;  its  authenticity  is,  however,  proved  by  its 
similarity  in  style  with  the  Book  of  Mormon. 
In  this  document  tlie  authority  for  polygamy  is 
derived  from  the  example  of  the  Old  Testament 
patriarchs,  but  the  ilormon  harem  is  confined 
to  ten  virgins.  The  Prophet's  ideas  on  'spiritual 
wifeisni.'  like  his  early  gospel,  appear  to  have 
been  'phiin  and  simple'  and  without  any  philo- 
sophic basis.  Whatever  Smith  taught  on  the 
'mysteries  of  the  kingdom'  is  derivable  from 
the  writings  of  the  two  Pratts,  who  excogitated 
a  system  of  metaphysics  justifying  plurality  of 
wives.  According  to  Orson,  called  the  Gauge  of 
Philosophy,  "celestial  marriage  opens  the  way 
for  all  women  who  wish  to  marry  to  fill  the 
measure  of  their  creation.  ...  It  shows 
how  the  innumerable  creations  of  God  [i.e.  this 
world  and  other  planets]  may  be  peopled  with 
intelligences.  .  .  .  Woman  without  man  and 
man  without  woman  cannot  be  saved.  The 
larger  tlie  progeny  a  man  has.  the  greater  will 
be  the  fullness  of  his  eternal  glory."  These  were 
the  esoteric  teachings  of  the  Saints,  whispered 
as  early  as  1840.  Smith's  plural  wives  numbered 
over  a  score,  most  of  whom  were  taken  by  the 
Apostles  Kimball  and  Young  after  the  Prophet's 
death.  Outward  proof  of  the  practice  of  polyg- 
amy in  the  forties  is  to  be  sought  in  such 
virulent  persecutions  as  caused  the  expulsion  of 
fifteen  thousand  Saints  from  Jlissouri.  and  in 
such  publications  as  the  Times  and  »SV«.sojis' 
'extract  from  a  letter  from  the  vicinity  of 
Nauvoo,'  which  says,  "The  excitement  on  botli 
sides  of  the  river  against  the  Jlormons  is  in- 
creasing very  fast.  The  conduct  of  Joseph 
Smith  and  the  other  leaders  is  such  that  no 
community  of  irhitc  men  can  tolerate."  Turmoil 
now  arose  in  the  Mormon  camp  itself.  Three 
well-informed  men.  Dr.  Foster  and  the  two 
Laws,  started  a  paper  called  tlie  Exposilnr, 
which,  besides  advocating  'disobedience  to 
political  revelations,'  sought  to  'explode  the 
vicious  principles  of  .Joseph  Smith.'  The  first 
and  only  number  condemned  the  Church  appro- 
priation of  property  without  accounting,  the 
preaching  of  the  doctrine  of  plural  gods,  sealing, 
and  the  plurality  of  wives.  The  wanton  destruction 
of  the  Expositor  press  and  property  on  .June  10th 
imder  the  order  of  .Joseph  Smith,  as  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  Nauvoo  Legion,  was  succeeded  by 
great  commotion  among  non-Mormons.  Outlying 
counties  raised  men  and  money  for  a  'war* 
against  the  Saints,  for  Nauvoo  was  now  declared 
Vol.  XIV.— 2. 


under  martial  law.  On  June  22d  the  Prophet 
and  a  few  others  started  to  tlee  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  but  upon  Governor  Ford's  promise 
of  protection,  Smith  surrendered  himself  at  Car- 
tilage on  the  24th.  The  first  arrest  was  made 
on  a  cliarge  of  riot,  the  second  on  a  charge  of 
treason  in  le\'ying  war  against  the  State.  In 
appointing  the  Carthage  Grays,  who  were  the 
avowed  enemies  of  the  Smiths,  as  a  guard  over 
the  jail,  the  Governor  made  a  fatal  blunder.  On 
June  27th.  with  the  evident  collusion  of  the 
guard,  a  band  of  disguised  assailants,  presumably 
from  the  Warsaw  regiment,  brutally  murdered 
the  Prophet  and  his  brother  Hyrum. 

With  tlie  death  of  Smith  rival  claims  to  the 
proplietic  successorship  arose  between  Brigham 
Young,  J.  .J.  Strang,  and  Smith's  own  son.  The 
'Strangites'  disappeared  with  the  killing  of  their 
leader  in  )8.5()  because  of  his  polygamous  prac- 
tices. The  "Young  .Josephites,'  however,  founded 
in  1852  the  Reorganized  Church  of  Jesus  Christ 
of  LuUer-Dnij  Haints.  and  the  body  still  exists 
tinder  the  presidency  of  .Joseph  Smith,  3d.  It 
claims  to  be  the  continuation  of  the  original 
Church  of  L.atter-Day  Saints,  and  has  been  recog- 
nized as  such  by  the  courts.  It  maintains  that 
the  doctrines  of  plurality  and  community  of  wives 
are  heresies.  The  headquarters  of  the  Church 
are  at  Lamoni,  Iowa.  It  has  a  publishing  house, 
and  issues  two  weekly  papers  tZion's  Hope,  for 
Sunday-.schools,  and  the  Saints'  flerald,  a  general 
religious  weekly  and  the  official  organ) ,  a  month- 
ly magazine  (Autumn  Leaver)  for  young  people, 
and  books  and  tracts.  It  maintains  Graceland 
College  and  a  home  for  the  aged  poor.  There  is 
another  establishment  at  Independence,  Mo.,  with 
a  printing  press,  whence  are  issued  Zion's  Ensigti. 
a  weekly  paper,  books,  and  tracts.  The  Church 
has   about   4.5.000  members. 

The  logical  successor  of  Smith  was  Brigham 
Y'oung.  Y'oung  joined  the  Mormon  Church  in 
New  Y'ork  State  on  April  14,  1832,  and  in  the 
same  year  was  sent  by  the  Prophet  from  Kirt- 
land on  a  missionary  tour  in  Canada.  Returning 
to  Ohio  with  a  band  of  converts  in  1834.  he  went 
with  the  'Army  of  Zion'  to  Missouri  as  one  of  the 
'captains  of  tens.'  In  183.5  he  was  appointed  one 
of  the  original  Quorum  of  Twelve.  Young  as- 
sisted Smith  in  his  flight  to  Missouri  in  1838, 
and  two  years  after  sailed  to  I.,iverpool  on  a  mis- 
sion. The  Prophet  was  fond  of  him,  and  Young's 
faithfulness  to  the  cause  is  shown  by  his  being 
left  President  of  the  Twelve  upon  Smith's  assassi- 
nation. 

The  Prophet's  tragic  death  was  of  no  avail 
against  the  domestic  enemies  of  the  Chtirch.  In 
.January,  1845,  the  Nauvoo  charter  was  repealed. 
The  situation  being  recognized  as  intolerable, 
Y'oung  officially  arranged  to  leave  the  country  In 
the  spring,  a  delegation  having  previously  been 
sent  out  to  investigate  locations  in  California 
and  Oregon.  The  final  choice  of  Utah  was  due  to 
a  chance  meeting  with  some  trappers  from  the 
Great  Salt  Lake  Valley.  The  organization  of 
the  Mormon  exodus  was  in  many  respects  re- 
markable. A  pioneer  company  of  young  men  was 
first  sent  ahead  to  plant  crops,  which  the  follow- 
ing companies  should  reap.  Meanwhile  Nauvoo 
had  been  turned  into  a  vast  wagon  shop,  so  that 
the  first  company  comprised  a  train  of  one  thou- 
sand wagons.  This  'Camp  of  Israel,'  which  in- 
cluded President  Young  and  the  Twelve  Apostles, 
was  subdivided  into  companies  of  from  fifty  to 


MOKMONS. 


12 


MORMONS. 


eixty  wagons  in  charge  of  captains  of  fifties, 
captains  of  tens,  and  toiitiactiug  commissaries. 
Tlie  versatility  of  the  American  pioneer  was  dis- 
plajed  in  the  establislinient  of  way  stations,  with 
various  repair  shops  and  willi  a  Uouring  mill 
built  by  Voung  himself.  The  largest  cumpauy, 
which  started  from  Elk  Horn  River  on  July  4tli, 
included  1553  i)ersons,  with  506  wagons.  By 
1848  all  the  Mormons  hud  crossed  the  plains 
except  a  few  left  on  the  ilissouri  as  forwarding 
agents  for  emigrants  from  the  Eastern  States  and 
Europe. 

By  March,  1848,  the  population  of  Salt  Lake 
City  numbered  1671,  with  423  houses  built.  In 
spite  of  the  failure  of  the  crops  and  tlie  conse- 
quent suH'ering  of  the  first  winter,  glowing  ac- 
counts of  the  new  Zion  were  sent  to  England, 
with  the  result  that  within  two  years  the  English 
immigrants  included  men  of  many  professions  and 
trades.  Voung  early  projected  cotton,  woolen, 
and  glass  factories,  for  there  were  no  sources  for 
manufactured  goods  nearer  than  one  thousand 
miles.  In  all  this  the  aim  of  the  leaders  was  to 
establish  a  State  entirely  self-supporting.  But 
the  balance  sheet  in  18.52  showed  a  deficit.  Young 
undertook  to  retrench  expenses  by  giving  less  as- 
sistance to  immigrants,  but  this  ])olicy  turned 
01(1  disastrously.  The  economic  salvation  of  Mor- 
niondom  was  not  due  to  the  financial  abilities  of 
the  body,  but  to  outside  causes.  Abimdance  of 
nmney  was  brought  to  .Salt  Lake  City  by  those 
who  were  hastening  to  California  for  gold,  and 
by  the  building  of  the  Pacific  Kailroad. 

The  political  success  of  Mornionism  was 
equally  fortuitous.  The  war  with  Mexico  having 
transferred  the  sovereignty  of  this  region  to 
the  l"nited  States  (Jovernment,  on  March  4,  1849, 
a  convention  at  Salt  Lake  City  adopted  a  con- 
stitution for  the  State  of  Deseret.  The  con- 
fusion of  the  Mormon  political  ideas  was  mani- 
fested in  calling  Deseret  a  State  and  at  the  same 
time  in  dis|)ateliing  a  Territorial  dele;.'.ite  to 
Washington.  Babbitt's  application  was  rejected 
largely  bceau.se  of  the  hostility  of  the  Illinois 
Democrats. 

The  growth  of  Young's  dictatorship  depended 
on  mixed  personal  and  religious  reasons.  He 
was  known  as  hard-working  Brigham  Young;  and 
his  word  was  counted  the  word  of  God  to  his 
people.  The  power  of  the  head  of  the  Church  was 
also  increased  by  the  issuance  of  paper  money,  by 
the  strict  application  of  the  tithing  system,  and 
by  the  order  that  no  man  should  hoard  up  his 
property.  Young's  addresses  in  the  temple  show 
that,  with  the  development  of  his  despiitism, 
there  came  a  loss  of  personal  liberty  among  the 
laity.  In  connection  with  the  School  of  the 
Prophets  he  appointed  Church  confessors  to  go 
among  all  families.  In  1856  occurred  the  so- 
called  'Reformation,'  in  which  the  discontented 
were  weeded  out.  After  the  murder  of  the 
would-be  apostate,  William  R.  Parrish,  a  deed 
instigated  by  Young  himself,  there  came  the 
organization  of  four  hundred  'Wolf  Hunters.' 
whose  object  was  to  prevent  sneh  rare  escapes  as 
that  of  Frederick  Lobn  and  his  wife.  By  1856 
the  doctrine  of  blood  atonement  was  in  opera- 
tion. Apostasy  was  practiciitly  declared  a  capital 
crime  to  be  atoned  for  only  by  bavins  the  blood 
spilled  upon  the  ground,  and  Rosmos  .Anderson, 
who  wanted  to  marry  hi~  stepdaughter  against 
the  wishes  of  the  ward  bishop,  had  his  throat 


cut  by  the  ecclesiastical  executioners,  so  that  his 
blood  might  run  into  liis  freshly  dug  grave. 

The  murder  of  the  Aikin  party  in  1857  came 
under  Young's  policy  of  keeping  the  Uentiles 
out  of  Utah.  Six  men  from  San  Francisco,  with 
an  outfit  valued  at  $25,000,  were  shot  while  be- 
ing escorted'  by  'Bill'  Hickman,  who  was  known 
as  Brigham's  Destroying  Angel.'  In  the  same 
year  occurred  the  most  wholesale  of  these  affairs, 
the  Mountiiin  Meadows  Massacre    ((|.v.). 

Chief  among  the  reasons  for  governmental  neg- 
lect of  the  Mormons  were  the  a])pointment  of 
mere  party  hacks  as  Territorial  officers  and 
judges  and  the  impotence  of  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment at  the  ajiproach  of  the  Civil  War.  Fur- 
thermore, the  authorities  were  ignorant  concern- 
ing !Moriii(in  practices  and  ambitliius.  Upon  the 
establishment  of  the  Territory  of  Utah,  in  1851, 
Brigham  Young  was  appointed  Governor.  When 
the  Federal  ap|iointce,  .liulgc  Brocchus,  ventured 
to  criticise  polygam.v.  Young  publicly  called  him 
a  coward  and  asked  him  to  "ajjologize  to  the  sat- 
isfaction of  the  ladies."  President  Pierce's  offer 
of  the  Governorship  to  Lieutenant-Colonel  Step- 
toe  led  Young  to  threaten  vengeance  for  this 
'infringement'  upon  his  indiviilual  rights  and 
])rivileges.  By  1850  the  ])olitii-al  parties  began 
to  make  capital  out  of  the  Mormon  situation. 
.Stephen  A.  Douglas  asserted  that  it  was  the 
duty  of  the  President  to  remove  Brigham  Young 
and  all  his  followers  from  office.  In  his  message 
of  1857,  President  Buchaiuui  declared  that  there 
was  no  longer  any  government  in  I'tah  but 
Brigham  Young.  All  this  was  declared  to  be  a 
Democratic  scheme  to  blind  the  Xorth  regarding 
the  pending  slavery  issue.  However,  a  force  of 
1.500  triKips  was  dispatched  under  General  Scott, 
whereupon  Y'oung  announced  that  he  "would  ask 
no  odds  of  Uncle  Sam  or  the  devil."  The  Xauvoo 
Legion  was  recruited  from  all  able-bodie<l  males 
between  eighteen  and  forty-five,  martial  law  was 
declared  in  the  Territory,  and  the  Mormons 
harassed  the  Federal  column  by  .setting  fire  to 
the  grass,  stampeding  their  cattle,  and  burning 
the  supply  trains.  An  advance  by  winter  into 
the  Salt  Lake  Valley  being  deemed  out  of  the 
question.  Colonels  .Tobnsfon  and  Ali'xander 
joined  forces  near  Fort  Bridger.  Jleanwhile 
Young,  determined  upon  being  the  civil  as  really 
as  he  was  the  ecclesiastical  head,  commissioned 
Col.  T.  L.  Kane  as  lobbyist  at  Washington. 
Taken  with  the  pro-ilormon  report  of  Governor 
Cumming.  the  result  was  a  full  and  free  pardon 
offered  by  President  Buchanan  to  the  very  leaders 
whom  .Tudge  Eckles  had  chargeil  with  adultery. 
The  attitude  of  the  Church  being  considered 
treasonable  during  the  Civil  War,  in  ilay.  1862, 
Utah  was  put  under  military  supervision.  Colonel 
Connor's  plans  to  overawe  Yoimg  were  frustrated 
by  Lincoln's  kl -alone  policy,  and  it  was  not 
imtil  the  lapse  of  a  generation  (hat  the  TMormon 
leaders  unwillingly  traded  polygamy  for  State- 
hood. 

The  anti-polygamy  legislation  began  with  the 
Morrill  bill  of  February.  ISfiO.  The  severest  pun- 
ishment beint'  nierely  the  statutory  penalty  for 
biframv.  the  measure  was  ineffective.  The  CuUom 
bill  of  1800  was  fought  by  Delegate  Hooper  on 
the  groimd  that  (he  Mormon  views  of  the  mar- 
riage relation  were  an  essential  part  of  their 
relipious  faith  and  therefore  constitutionally 
(T'arnnteed.  Convictions  under  the  Poland  bill 
of   1874   being  appealed,  the   Unit«d   States  Su- 


MORMONS. 


preme  Court  ruled  that  religious  belief  cannot 
be  accepted  as  a  justification  for  an  overt  act 
made  criminal  by  the  law  of  the  land.  President 
Hayes,  in  his  message  of  December,  1879,  struck 
at  the  root  of  the  matter  by  declaring  that 
polygamy  could  only  be  suppressed  by  taking 
away  the  political  power  of  the  sect  which  en- 
couraged and  sustained  it.  Like  remarks  of  Presi- 
dents Garfield  and  Arthur,  in  1881,  led  to  the 
Edmunds  bill  of  1882,  wliieh  provided  that  no 
polygamist  should  be  entitled  to  vote  in  any 
Territory  or  to  hold  office  under  the  United 
States.  Within  two  years  12,000  voters  were 
disfranchised  by  this  act,  and  within  eight  years 
468  persons,  mostly  in  the  rural  districts,  were 
convicted  for  pol3'gamy  or  unlawful  cohabitation. 
When  in  1890  the  courts  declared  the  ecclesias- 
tical property  confiscated  because  the  Mormon 
Church  was  an  organized  rebellion.  Young's  suc- 
cessor. President  \\'ilford  Woodruff,  issued  a 
manifesto  in  which  he  advised  the  Latter-Day 
Saints  to  "refrain  from  contracting  any  marriage 
forbidden  by  the  law  of  the  land."  The  difficul- 
ties of  obtaining  Statehood  and  the  unseating  of 
Congressman  Roberts  in  1899  led  the  Church  to 
so  modify  its  views  of  political  dominion  as  to 
declare  that  the  Mormons  "form  not  a  rival 
power  as  against  the  Union,  but  an  apostolic 
ministry  to  it,  and  their  political  gospel  is  State 
rights  and  self-government."  A  late  estimate 
places  the  nimiber  of  Mormons  in  the  United 
States,  exclusive  of  the  Reorganized  Church,  at 
about  300,000.  They  are  no  longer  receiving  large 
accessions  from  foreign  propaganda  among  Teu- 
tonic races. 

According  to  the  present  official  handbook,  the 
religion  of  the  Latter-Day  Saints  consists  of 
doctrines,  commandments,  ordinances,  and  rites 
revealed  from  God  to  the  present  age.  The  first 
principle  is  faith  in  God  and  in  .Jesus  Christ; 
the  next  is  repentance  from  all  sin,  then  follows 
baptism  for  the  remission  of  sin,  as  a  ])repara- 
tion  for  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Ijestowed  by 
the  laying  on  of  hands.  Obedience  to  these  prin- 
ciples is  necessary  to  membership  in  the  Church 
of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-Day  Saints.  Faith  in 
God  is  the  beginning  of  religion,  and  confers 
spiritual  gifts  such  as  healings,  miracles, 
tongues,  the  interpretation  of  tongues,  discern- 
ment, visions,  dreams,  prophecy,  and  revelation. 
Authority  to  administer  in  the  name  of  the  Deity 
must  of  necessity  come  from  God.  This  involves 
revelation.  There  having  been  no  communication 
with  heaven  for  hundreds  of  years,  the  world  was 
without  divine  authority  to  administer  gospel 
ordinances  until  .Joseph  Smith.  By  .John  the 
Baptist  he  was  ordained  to  the  lesser  or  Aaronic 
priesthood,  and  by  Peter.  James',  and  .John  to  the 
higher  or  Melchizedek  priesthood,  receiving  the 
Holy  Apostleship  and  the  keys  of  the  kingdom 
with  power  to  seal  on  earth  so  that  it  might  be 
sealed  in  heaven.  The  religion  of  the  T^atter-Day 
Saints  is  progressive.  It  cannot  be  defined  in  a 
written  creed.  It  is  added  to  by  the  revelations 
*f  God  as  the  capacities  of  the  Saints  enlarge 
and  the  needs  of  the  Church  increase.  Every 
member  of  the  Church  is  entitled  to  the  blessings 
of  divine  communion  and  revelation  for  his  or 
her  own  comfort  and  guidance.  Revelations  for 
the  whole  Church  are  only  given  through  its 
President,  who  is  its  earthly  head  and  holds  the 
keys  of  the  kingdom.  Among  the  later  revela- 
tions to  the  Church  are  the  doctrines  of  baptism 


13  MORMONS. 

for  the  dead  and  of  celestial  marriage.  As  there 
was  no  authority  among  men  to  administer  the 
ordinances  of  the  gospel  from  the  days  of  the 
early  Apostles  or  shortly  after,  to  the  time  of 
the  restoration  of  the  priesthood  to  Joseph  Smith 
the  Prophet,  all  the  baptisms  during  the  inter- 
vening period  were  void.  The  friends  of  the 
dead,  however,  are  permitted  to  take  their  names 
and  be  baptized  in  their  stead,  the  ceremony 
being  duly  witnessed  and  recorded  on  earth  and 
accepted  and  ratified  in  heaven.  Other  ordinances 
may  also  be  admitted  by  proxy,  the  living  in 
behalf  of  the  dead. 

Celestial  marriage  is' marriage  unto  all  eter- 
nity. According  to  the  revelation  on  this  sub- 
ject all  the  marriages  entered  into  without  divine 
authority  are  dissolved  by  death.  Celestial  mar- 
riage is  entered  into  by  those  who  have  obeyed 
the  gospel  and  become  the  sons  and  daughters  of 
God  by  adoption.  The  woman  is  given  to  the 
man  and  thej'  become  one  flesh.  That  which  is 
thus  sealed  on  earth  is  sealed  in  heaven,  and  is 
as  valid  as  though  performed  in  person  by  the 
Deity.  If  a  wife  thus  sealed  to  her  hu.sband 
should  precede  him  in  death,  it  would  be  his 
privilege  to  wed  another.  The  second  wife,  or 
third,  if  the  second  should  die,  would  be  sealed 
to  him  in  the  same  manner  as  the  first.  They 
would  all  be  his  equally.  In  the  resurrection  he 
would  have  three  wives,  with  their  children,  be- 
longing to  him  in  the  everlasting  covenant.  The 
revelation  on  celestial  marriage  declares  that  if 
given  to  man  in  the  everlasting  covenant  in  the 
way  appointed  of  God,  he  is  not  under  condemna- 
tion, but  is  justified  in  receiving  more  wives 
than  one.  They  are  sealed  to  him  and  become 
his,  and  he  cannot  commit  adultery  with  them 
because  they  are  his  and  his  alone.  None  of 
them  are  concubines  or  mistresses,  or  mere  min- 
isters of  lust.  Celestial  marriage  in  its  fullness 
is  ordained  of  God.  It  is  an  establishment  ot 
religion.  It  is  ecclesiastical  in  its  nature  and 
government.  It  is  therefore  outside  the  domain 
of  constitutional  law.  Being  within  the  pale  of 
the  Church,  its  free  exercise  cannot  of  right  be 
prohibited. 

The  ISIormon  system  of  proselyting  is  simple. 
Twice  each  year,  at  the  annual  and  semi-annual 
conferences  held  in  Salt  Lake  City,  a  number  of 
the  faithful  elders  of  the  Church  are  selected 
by  the  authorities  and  'called'  by  the  assembled 
saints  to  visit  the  home  or  the  foreign  field. 
They  travel  at  their  own  charges.  Each  mission 
is  presided  over  by  some  elder  selected  by  the 
general  authorities  of  the  Church,  and  the  minor 
divisions  of  branches  and  conferences  have  their 
proper  officers.  The  Utah  missionaries  remain 
in  their  fields  of  labor  from  two  to  four  years 
and  until  released  by  competent  authority  to  re- 
turn home.  Mormon  missionaries  have  gone  to 
every  State  and  Territory  of  the  Union,  also  to 
Canada.  Mexico,  the  Antilles,  Brazil  and  Peru, 
Great  Britain,  Germany.  Switzerland.  France, 
Italy.  Denmark.  Sweden.  Norway,  Iceland.  Fin- 
land, South  Africa,  India,  the  East  Indies.  China, 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  the  Society  Islands,  and 
the  Hawaiian  Islands.  The  Church  has  an  or- 
ganization known  as  the  Perpetual  Emigration 
Fund  Company,  which  makes  advances  of  money 
to  assist  the  faithful  to  Utah  and  adjoining  dis- 
tricts. 

The  Mormon  hierarchy  is  complicated.  Joseph 
Smith    and   Oliver   Cowderv   were   the   first  two 


MORMONS. 


14 


MORNY. 


elders  and  aposlles  in  tlie  Cliurch.  Smith,  who 
bore  the  title  of  Trophet,  Seer,  and  Revelator, 
stood  at  the  head  of  the  >Ielchizedek  priesthood, 
of  which  three  presiding  High  Priests,  chosen 
by  the  body,  form  a  quorum  of  the  Presidency  of 
the  Cliurch.  The  President  of  the  Church  and 
his  two  counselors  form  the  First  Presidency, 
and  the  three  together  represent  the  Trinity.  The 
Twelve  Apostles  form  a  quorum  equal  in  au- 
thority and  power  to  the  three  Pic-idents  pre- 
viously mentioned.  The  Twelve  are  a  traveling 
presiding  High  Council,  under  the  direction  of 
the  Presidency  of  the  Church,  to  build  up  the 
Church  and  regulate  its  affairs  in  all  nations. 
The  Seventies  are  also  called  to  preach  the  gos- 
pel and  form  a  quorum  equal  in  authority  to 
that  of  the  Twelve.  The  Seventy  Elders  have 
seven  presidents  to  preside  over  them,  chosen  out 
of  the  number  of  the  Seventy.  There  are  now 
over  120  of  these  Seventies.  In  addition  to  these 
the  officers  of  the  JIelchize<lek  priesthood  are 
high  priests  and  elders.  The  ollicers  of  the 
Aaronic  or  lesser  priesthood  are  priests,  teach- 
ers, and  deacons.  There  are  twenty-one  Stakes 
of  Zion  in  Utah.  Over  each  stake  there  is 
a  presidency  consisting  of  a  president  and  two 
counselors,  who  are  high  priests.  This  presi- 
dency Iwars  the  same  relation  to  the  stake  that 
the  Kirst  Presidency  bears  to  the  whole  Church. 
A  high  council  in  each  stake,  consisting  of 
twelve  members,  who  are  also  high  priests,  act 
for  the  stake  as  the  traveling  presiding  High 
Council  act  for  the  Church  in  all  the  worhl.  It 
is  the  province  of  the  high  priests  to  preside, 
while  the  special  calling  of  the  Seventy  is  to 
travel  ami  preach  the  gospel  and  build  up  the 
Church. 

BiBUOGBAPHT.  The  four  chief  collections  of 
Mornioniana  in  America  are:  The  Church 
Archives  at  Salt  Lake  City;  Government  publica- 
tions at  Washington;  the  Berrian  Collection, 
New  York  Pul)lic  Library,  rich  in  first  editions 
and  rare  publications  of  tlie  Karly  Church;  the 
collection  of  the  State  Historical  Society  of  Wis- 
consin, at  Madison,  which  includes  the  unique 
private  collection  of  Mr.  A.  T.  Schroedcr.  late 
of  Salt  Lake  Citv.  Alormon  Periodicals: 
Deserel  .\riis  (Salt  Lake  City,  IS.Vi-STi;  Ehhrs- 
Journal  (Kirlland,  Ohio,  and  Far  West.  Mo., 
1837-39)  ;  Krtiiiufi  aiitl  Moniinfi  Star  (Independ- 
ence, Mo.,  and  Kirtland.  Ohio,  1832-34)  ;  Journal 
of  Dinroumrs  (by  Brighani  Young  and  the 
Church  leaders.  Liverpool.  18.54-8fi)  ;  Lntlrr-Dai/ 
Saints'  ilcHnrnqi r  and  Advocate  (Kirtland.  Ohio, 
1834-37):  I.a'ttrrDati  Haintu'  Millrnnial  fitar 
(Liverpool,  1840)  ;  Times  and  ftrasons  (Xnuvoo, 
III.,  18,34-4.';;  vol.  iii.  ed.  by  Smith;  early  files 
suppressed  liv  llri'.'ham  Young).  Pro-Mormon 
Works:  Baiicriifl,  Ilislori/  nf  I'tah  (San  Fran- 
cisco. 18!I0|  :  I/andhook  of  Rrfrrenrr  to  Uistort/, 
etc.  (Salt  Lake  City,  1882);  .Joseph  Smith,  .Jr., 
Book  of  C'nnniandntcnis  (Zion,  .lackson  County, 
Mo..  1833;  exo-edinglv  rare:  Salt  Lake  Tribune 
reprint.  1884):  Itonh' of  Mormon  (1st  ed..  Pal- 
myra. N.  Y..  1830;  2d  ed.,  equally  rare.  Kirtlaml. 
Ohio.  1835)  ;  The  I'earl  of  firm t  Price  (selections 
from  the  writings  of  Smith,  Salt  Lake  City, 
1891);  Lucy  Smitli,  Hionraphieal  Skelehrs  of 
Jonepli  Smith  ami  flis  I'rofli  nitom  (by  the 
mother  nf  the  Prnphet :  suppressed  by  Brigham 
Young:  Liverpool.  1853,  and  Piano,  111..  1880)  ; 
Joseph  Smith,  3d.  and  Henian  C.  Smith,  fji.itorii 
of   the   Church    of   Jcxus    Christ    of   T.ntter-Day 


Saints  (from  the  standpoint  of  the  Reorganized 
Church,  Lamoui,  Iowa,  1901);  Thompson,  Em- 
dcnces  in  Proof  of  the  'Book  of  Mormon'  (sup- 
I)ressed  by  Brighani  Young;  Batavia,  N,  Y,, 
1841)  ;  TuUidge,  History  of  Salt  Lake  City  (the 
work  of  a  reformer,  but  censored  by  the  Church; 
Salt  Lake  City,  1880)  :  Whitnier,  An  Address  to 
All  Believers  (written  by  a  primitive  non-polyga- 
mous ilormoii,  Richmond,  ^Mo.,  1887).  Anti- 
Mormon  Works:  Ferris,  Utah  and  the  Mormons 
(Xew  Y'ork.  18.54)  ;  Gunnison,  The  Mormons 
(description  of  early  life  in  Utah  by  an  army 
officer:  Philadelphia,  185G)  :  Howe,  Mormonism 
Unveiled  (the  earliest  first-hand  information 
against  Smith,  very  rare;  Paincsville,  Ohio, 
1834)  ;  Hyde,  Mormonism:  lis  Leaders  and  De- 
signs (the  confessions  of  an  apostate;  New  \"ork, 
1857);  Linn,  The  Story  of  the  Mormons  (the 
most  comi)leto  and  exhaustive  history  of  Mor- 
monism; Xew  York,  1902)  :  Riley.  The  Founder 
of  Mormonism  (a  psychological  study  of  .Jose])h 
Smith,  .Jr.:  Xew  York.  1902)  ;  Stenhimse,  The 
Rocky  Mountain  Saints  (a  vivid  portrayal  by 
an  able  e.x-Mormon;  London,  1870):  Tucker, 
Origin,  Rise,  and  Progress  of  Mormonism  (the 
expose  of  a  fellow-townsman  of  Smith :  Xew 
Y'ork,  1867)  :  Utah  Commission  (Government  Re- 
ports under  the  Edmunds  Law,  Washington). 

MOKMYR'ICa;  (Xeo-Lat.  nora.  pi.,  from 
MoriHiiius.  from  Gk.  /iopnipos,  mormyros,  sort  of 
sea-tisli ) .  A  family  of  malacoiiterous  fishes,  allied 
to  the  pike  family,  but  according  to  Cope  forming 
a  separate  group,  Scyphophori,  having  rather  long, 
compressed  bodies,  and  a  slender  tail,  swelling 
out  at  the  origin  of  the  caudal  fin.  The  skin  of 
the  head  is  naked,  envelops  the  gill-covers  and 
gill-rays,  and  leaves  only  a  slit  for  gill-ojiening, 
and  the  color  is  dark.  The  mouth  is  small.  All 
the  dozen  or  more  species  inhabit  the  rivers  of 
Xorthern  Africa  and  are  nocturnal  in  their  ac- 
tivities. The  beaked  or  sharp-nosed  mormyrus 
{Mormyrus  I'elrrsi)  is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
be.st  fishes  of  the  Xile,  and  is  distinguished  by 
the  production  of  the  lower  jaw  into  an  elon- 
gated (Icsliy  ap]iendage.  It  is  caught  by  lines 
baited  with  worms,  and  is  represented  on  many 
Egyptian  monuments. 

MORNAY.  in.'.r'nA'.  PniUPPEDE.  A  Huguenot 
statesman.    Sii>  Hi    Pi.Kssi.s-MoRNAT,  Philippe. 

MORNING-GLORY.  Various  species  of  Tpo- 
moa.  especially  I iiomoa  purpurea,  cultivated  for 
their  large  funnel-shaped,  diversely  colored  flow- 
ers, whicli  open  in  the  early  morning,  and  close 
during  the  heat  of  the  day.  The  garden  varieties 
are  propagated  from  seeds  sown  in  sunny  situa- 
tions in  ordinary  garden  soil.  Their  large  and 
abundant,  roundish  heart-shaped  leaves  make  an 
excellent  screen,  the  vines  often  attaining  a  height 
of  ten  feet  or  more  by  midsummer.     See  Plate  of 

DiCOTYLEDOX.S. 

MORNY,  niAr'n*',  Charles  Aiovste  Loris 
.JosKPii  iiK.  Duke  (1811-05).  A  noted  French 
politician  of  the  second  P'lmpire.  He  was  the 
illegitimate  son  of  Queen  Hortense  and  of  the 
Comte  lie  FInhanlt.  and  conseciuently  half-brother 
to  Lonis  Xapoleon  (later  Xapcdeon  lit).  He 
was  born  in  Paris.  October  23.  ISll.  The  secret 
of  his  parc'ntage  was  well  kept  for  a  time  and 
the  Comte  de  Morny  received  800.000  francs  to 
adopt  him :  but  he  was  educated  by  his  'grand- 
mother.' Madame  de  Souza-Flahault ;  and  Queen 


MORNY. 


15 


MOROCCO. 


Hortense  left  him  at  her  death,  in  1837,  an 
annuity  of  40,000  francs.  Morny  took  a  nominal 
part  in  the  Revolution  of  July,  1830,  and  entered 
the  army  in  1832  as  a  sublieutenant.  He  served 
with  .some  distinction  in  Algeria,  being  made  a 
Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor;  but  he  soon 
abandoned  military  life,  and  in  1838  made  his 
appearance  as  a  manufacturer  of  beet-root  sugar, 
and  publislied  a  pamphlet  on  the  subject.  From 
that  time  he  was  involved  in  all  .sorts  of  commer- 
cial and  financial  speculations.  Chosen  a  Deputy 
in  1842,  he  became  the  leader  of  fashion  at  Paris, 
but  liis  financial  schemes  began  to  go  wrong, 
and  after  the  Revolution  of  1848  he  attached 
himself  to  the  cause  of  his  half-brother  and  was 
one  of  the  prime  instigators  of  the  subtle  and 
treasonable  policy  which  cuhninated  in  the  coup 
d'etat  of  1851.  The  morningafterthe  deed  was  done 
Morny  was  made  Minister  of  the  Interior.  This 
office  he  soon 'resigned,  however,  and  in  1854  he 
became  President  of  the  Corps  L^gislatif ,  and  was 
Ambassador  to  Russia  during  1856-57,  where  he 
married  the  rich  and  handsome  Princess  Trou- 
betzkoi.  Morny  was  created  a  duke  in  1862,  and 
continued  his  gay  and  extravagant  life  up  to  the 
time  of  his  death  on  March  10,  1865.  His  char- 
acter was  sketched  by  Alphonse  Daudet  as  the 
Due  de  Mora  in  Le  nabab.  An- extract  from  his 
memoirs  appeared  under  the  title.  Line  uinbassude 
en  Russie  (1856).  Consult:  Castille,  M.  de 
Morny  (Paris,  1859)  ;  De  la  Guerroni^re, 
Etudes  et  portraits  poUtiques  (Paris,  1S56)  ; 
Imbert  de  Saint-Anuuul,  The  Court  of  Napoleon 
III.  and  the  Second  Empire  (Eng.  trans..  New 
York,  1890). 

MORO,  mo'rd.  A  general  designation  for  Mo- 
hammedan Malay  peoples,  with  infusion  of 
Semitic  blood,  living  in  the  southern  portions  of 
the  Phili])pines,  chiefly  in  the  Sulu  Archipelago 
and  the  adjoining  portions  of  Mindanao.  In  the 
fourteenth  century  Islam,  witli  Moliammedan 
culture,  reached  the  islands  from  Borneo,  and  its 
influence  was  still  extending  when  the  Spaniards 
arrived  in  1521.  Subdivisions  are  named  llano, 
Joloano,  Maguindanao,  Samale,  etc.  See  Philip- 
pine Islands. 

MOROCCO,  or  MAROCCO,  md-i^k'6,  called 
b}'  the  natives  Ua>jhrih-cl-Aksa,  'the  extreme 
west,'  or  briefly  Maghrib.  An  empire  or  sultan- 
ate in  the  northwest  of  Africa,  bovmded  on  the 
east  by  Algeria  and  on  the  north  and  west  by  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  and 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  extends  southward  into 
the  Sahara,  but  the  boundary  in  that  direction  is 
not  exactly  determined  (Map:  Africa,  D  1).  The 
Sultan  has  considerable  influence  as  far  south  as 
the  Sakiet-el-Hamra,  south  of  Cape  Juby;  and  the 
whole  of  the  Dra  territory.  Tafilelt  and  Tekna, 
but  not  Tuat,  are  conceded  to  be  parts  of  Mo- 
rocco. The  latest  estimate  of  the  area  of  Morocco 
is  234,000  square  miles. 

Topography.  The  country  is  generally  moun- 
tainous, the  Atlas  (q.v.)  range,  which  attains  an 
elevation  of  nearly  15,000  feet,  traversing  it  in 
several  parallel  chains  from  southwest  to  north- 
east, and  sending  out  numerous  spurs  to  both 
the  coast-country  and  the  desert.  There  are, 
however,  many  level  tracts,  especially  at  the  west- 
ern and  eastern  extremities,  and  on  the  borders 
of  the  desert.  Through  the  heart  of  Northern 
Morocco  extending  east  and  west  is  a  depression, 
passing  just  north  of  Fez,  the  northern  capital, 


to  Oran,  Algeria.  The  central  range  of  the  Atlas 
forms  the  water-parting  .separating  the  streams 
which  flow  into  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean 
from  those  which  run  .soutliward  to  the  desert. 
The  former  rivers  liave  the  shorter  course  and 
less  volume,  but  they  are  perennial;  while  the 
latter  become  drj'  in  summer,  and  even  when 
running  are  lost  in  tlie  sands  of  tlie  Sahara.  The 
chief  river  is  the  Muluya,  with  its  tributary 
tlie  Sharef,  which  drains  the  northeast  of  the 
country,  and  falls  into  the  Mediterranean  after 
a  course  of  400  miles.  The  JIuluya  is  an  old 
waterway  of  much  commercial  importance.  Tlie 
Sebu  is  the  most  important  river  of  Northwest 
Morocco  draining  to  the  Atlantic.  The  Kus, 
Bu-Regreg,  I'm-er-Rebia,  Tensift,  Sus,  and  Assaka 
drain  the  central  and  western  districts,  and  fall 
into  the  Atlantic;  the  Dra,  Ziz,  Ghir,  and  other 
streams  irrigate  the  dry  plains  of  Tafilelt,  the 
first  mentioned  emptying  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
The  other  rivers  are  lost  in  the  desert.  All  the 
rivers  flowing  to  the  sea  are  obstructed  at  their 
mouths  by  sandbars,  whicli  only  small  vessels  can 
cross  at  high  tide. 

Climate.  The  climate  between  the  central 
range  of  the  Atlas  and  tlie  sea  is  temperate,  the 
thermometer  seldom  falling  lower  than  40°  F., 
or  rising  above  90°  F.,  owing  partly  to  the  regu- 
lating influence  of  the  .sea  breeze,  and  the  shelter 
afforded  by  the  mountains  from  the  scorching 
winds  of  the  desert;  but  in  the  southeastern  dis- 
tricts extremes  of  heat  and  cokl  prevail,  and 
rain  is  there  unknown.  The  entire  country  is 
very  healthful.  Malaria,  the  pest  of  the  other 
Atlas  lands,  is  almost  unknown.  Along  the 
Atlantic  coast  the  winter  precipitation  is  so  large 
that  good  pasturage  is  found  as  far  south  as 
Cape  Juby.  But  dryness  prevails  throughout  the 
Atlas  region,  though  the  winter  precipitation  cov- 
ers the  mountain-tops  with  snow :  this  fact,  to- 
gether with  the  infrequence  of  wide  valleys,  makes 
the  mountain  region  unfavorable  for  a  large 
population ;  the  settlement  among  the  moun- 
tains is  confined  to  the  valleys  where  irriga- 
tion is  possible,  and  to  the  lower  slopes.  In 
the  Saharan  steppes  cultivation  is  impossible, 
excepting  where  streams,  fed  by  the  mountain 
snows,  bring  surface  or  underground  supplies  of 
water. 

Flora.  The  flora  is  richer  in  flowers  and 
shrubs  than  in  trees.  The  forests  that  once 
covered  Western  Barbary  have  disappeared  and 
Morocco  is  largely  a  treeless  country,  though 
some  well-wooded  valleys  are  found  among  the 
northern  ranges.  The  cedar,  walnut,  and  cork- 
oak  are  the  principal  trees.  The  date  and  oil 
palms,  the  fig  tree,  pomegranate,  oranges  and 
lemons,  apricots,  peaches,  the  almond,  and  other 
varieties  of  fruit  and  nut  trees  are  all  important. 

Fauna.  The  wild  animals  include  the  leopard, 
bear,  hyena,  and  wild  hog.  Tlie  bustard,  part- 
ridge, and  water  fowl  abounil.  The  domestic 
animals  comprise  the  dromedary  and  the  horse, 
both  bred  extensively,  and  mules,  asses,  cattle, 
fat-tailed  sheep,  and  goats. 

Mineral  Re.sot'Rces.  The  country  is  rich  in  de- 
posits of  copper,  iron  ore,  antimony,  and  rock 
salt  (north  of  Fez),  and  gold  and  silver  are  re- 
ported. The  exploitation  of  all  this  mineral 
wealth,  however,  is  hardly  to  be  thought  of 
under  the  existing  conditions  on  account  of  the 
deep  aversion  of  the  official  classes  to  foreigners. 


MOROCCO. 


16 


MOROCCO. 


AowcrLTiRE.  Agriculture  and  stock-raising 
are  almost  tlie  only  iuduslrii-s.  The  alluvial  soil 
of  tile  wide  plains  of  tUe  west  and  east  is  espe- 
cially adapted  to  tlie  cultivation  of  cereals,  and 
could  be  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  productive- 
ness by  the  application  of  modern  agricultural 
methods.  Uut  the  strict  prohibition  of  the  ex- 
portation of  grain  prevents  the  natives  from 
utilizing  the  natural  resources  of  the  country 
and  large  tracts  of  fertile  land  remain  idle. 
Agriculture  is  also  greatly  hindered  by  the  gen- 
eral misrule  prevailing  in  the  country,  and  espe- 
cially tiie  corrupt  system  of  ta.xation.  The  chief 
agricultural  products,  besides  wheat,  barley,  and 
other  cereals,  arc  olives,  dates,  oranges,  (igs,  and 
other  kinds  of  southern  fruit,  as  well  as  numer- 
ous varieties  of  vegetables.  Cotton  and  sugar- 
cane, once  extensively  cultivated,  have  now  en- 
tirely disappeared,  and  the  cultivation  of  tobacco 
is  greatly  hindered  by  the  adverse  sentiment  to- 
ward its  use.  The  manufacturing  industries  of 
Morocco  are  chiefly  devoted  to  tlie  production  of 
leather,  pottery,  textiles,  including  carpets, 
metal  goods  of  eop|)er  and  brass,  and  silver 
filigree.    Fezes  are  chielly  imported  from  Austria. 

CoMMKKCK.  The  chief  exports  are  beans,  skins 
and  hides,  fruits,  olive  oil,  and  wool.  The  ex- 
port of  grain,  horses,  cattle,  and  many  other 
articles  is  forbidden.  Imports  include  metal 
products,  cotton,  sugar,  and  tea.  Purchases  of 
clothing  stulTs  and  metal  wares  from  Europe  are 
constantly  increasing.  The  commerce  with  Eu- 
rope is  carried  on  through  tlie  ports  of  Tan- 
gier, Tetuan.  Larash,  Kabat.  Mogador,  Ma- 
zagaii,  and  Sati.  all  of  tlieiii.  with  the  exception 
of  Tetuan,  situated  on  the  .\tlantic.  Fez  in  the 
north  and  the  city  of  Morocco  in  the  south  arc 
the  centres  of  the  interior  caravan  trade.  The 
commercial  statistics  of  the  country  are  very 
incomplete,  but  from  the  partial  returns  of  most 
of  the  Moroccan  ports  it  is  estimated  that  the 
imports  amount  to  about  .$6,000,000  and  the 
ex|K>rts  to  about  .$5,000,000  a  year.  The  trade 
would  be  much  smaller  were  it  not  that  the  Euro- 
pean I'owers  have  used  their  joint  influence  to 
keep  the  Atlantic  ports  open  to  commerce.  Great 
Britain  leads  in  the  trade,  with  Kranee.  Germany, 
Belgium,  and  Spain  following  in  the  order  named. 
As  wagon  roads  and  bridges  are  unknown,  com- 
modities can  be  move<l  only  at  large  expense. 

GovKR.VMENT.  In  its  form  of  government  Mo- 
rocco presents  an  example  of  perfect  absolutism. 
The  Sultan  is  in  unrestricted  control  of  both  the 
secular  and  the  religions  .ilTairs,  but  his  Cabinet 
of  six  ministers  has  considerable  influence  in  the 
management  of  the  State.  The  country  is  divided 
into  provinces  administered  by  Governors,  or 
"Kaids,"  whose  sway  is  as  absolute  in  the  re- 
Bpectivc  provinces  as  that  of  the  Sultan.  In 
some  of  these  provinces,  particularly  among  the 
Rif  Mountains  of  the  Mediterranean  coast,  the 
rule  of  the  Sultan  is  hardly  recognized.  The 
revenue  (for  which  no  reliable  statistics  are 
available)  is  ilerived  from  monopolies,  taxes, 
tithes,  and  gifts.  The  receipts  from  the  tariti 
on  foreign  I'oininerce  iit  the  seaports  are  from 
$1,. 500.000  to  .$2,000,000  a  year.  Taxes  are  col- 
lected without  any  system  or  control,  each  tax- 
gatherer  being  obliged  to  deliver  a  certain  sum 
regardless  of  the  amount  nctiially  collected.  .Any 
reluctance  to  pay  taxes  is  imunlly  followed  by 
bloody  punitive  expeditions  not  infrequently  un- 
der the  personal  direction  of  the  Sultan.     .\n  im- 


partial and  well-regulated  system  of  administra- 
tion of  justice  is  naturally  out  of  tlic  ipu'stion. 
The  evidence  of  a  Jew  or  a  Clirisliau  against  a 
Mohammedan  is  considered  invalid  by  tlie  native 
judges.  I'ersons  who  are  under  tlie  protection 
of  foreign  consuls  are  exempti'd  from  the  juris- 
diction of  native  judges.  Tlie  army  of  the 
Sultan  consists  of  about  12.000  drilled  men,  of 
whom  about  10,000  are  infantry.  Most  of  them 
are  usually  stationed  at  that  one  of  the  three 
cajiitals  ( I'Vz.  Jlorocco.  or  Mekinez)  where  the 
fsultan  is  in  residence;  liluropean  ollicers  are  used 
to  drill  the  army.  The  militia  forces  number 
about  18,000  men,  and  the  number  of  men  avail- 
able in  case  of  emergency  is  estimated  at  about 
40,000. 

PopiLATiON.  The  number  of  inhabitants  is 
believed  to  be  about  8.000.000.  The  iioiiula- 
tion  consists  of  Berbers  (about  4.000,000),  Arabs 
and  Moors  (about  .3.(i00.000 ) .  Jews  (about  150.- 
000),  and  negroes  and  mixed  blood  (about  250,- 
000).  The  number  of  Europeans  is  between  4000 
and  5000.  The  natives,  with  the  exception  of  the 
.lews,  are  !Moliaiiiiuedans  of  the  most  fanatical 
stripe.  The  capitals  are  Fez  ( 140.000  esti- 
mated). Morocco  (50.000).  and  Mekinez  (25.- 
000).  The  population  of  Tangier,  an  important 
commercial  ccntw  and  the  seat  of  the  foreign 
consuls,  is  estimated  at  .30.000. 

Hi.STOKV.  Morocco  was  the  Roman  Province, 
of  Mauretania  Tingitana,  and  shared  in  the  vicis- 
situdes of  the  other  Roman  provinces  of  Northern 
Africa  during  the  decline  of  the  Kmjiire.  It  was 
reached  by  the  tide  of  Arabian  Mohaniniedan  in- 
vasion in  (ins  and  was  reiluced  to  submission 
and  to  Molianimedanism  after  a  spirited  resist- 
ance. Its  people  participated  in  the  conquest  of 
Spain.  For  a  number  of  centuries  its  history 
is  the  rise  and  fall  of  successive  dynasties,  of 
which  the  most  celebrated  were  the  Almoraviiles 
and  the  Almohades  (qq.v.),  who  passed  over  into 
Spain  and  established  their  power  in  that  coun- 
try. In  fact,  during  the  later  Jliddle  .Ages  Mo- 
rocco was  the  source  whence  new  reenforcements 
were  constantly  drawn  for  the  declining  power 
of  the  Moors  in  Spain.  After  the  fall  of  (Jrauada 
in  1402  the  population  of  Morocco  was  reenforced 
by  Moors  expelled  from  the  Peninsula.  In  1546 
ttie  sherifs  of  Tafilelt  conquered  both  Morocco 
proper  and  Fez.  and  united  the  whole  country 
under  one  government.  This  is  the  present  ruling 
dynasty,  chiiniing  direct  descent  from  .Mi.  son- 
in-law  of  Mohammed.  In  the  sixteenth  century 
Morocco  was  compelled  to  meet  attacks  by  Spain 
and  Portugal.  In  1578  Sebastian.  King  of 
Portugal,  was  defeated  and  slain  in  the  battle 
of  Kasr-el-Ki'bir  ( .\lcaz;uquivir) .  In  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century  the  Empire  of 
Morocco  embraced  part  of  the  present  Algeria, 
and  extended  south  as  far  as  Guinea.  From 
that  time,  however,  its  decline  has  been  almost 
unchecked.  Morocco  has  had  as  little  as  possible 
to  do  with  the  outside  world.  .Since  the  com- 
mencement of  the  nineteenth  century  the  rebel- 
lion of  the  wild  mountain  tribes,  the  wars  of  the 
French  in  .Mgiria.  and  difTiculties  with  foreign 
States,  caused  by  the  aggressions  of  (he  Rif 
pirates,  have  occupied  the  attention  of  the  sul- 
tans. In  1S14.  under  pressure  from  the  Christian 
nations,  the  slavery  of  Christians  was  abolished; 
and  in  1817  piracy  was  prohibited  throughout 
Morocco.  The  Sultan  .Miderrahinan.  having 
espoused  the  cause  of  .Abd-el-Kader.  sustained  a 


MOROCCO. 


17 


MORONG. 


crushing  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  French  at 
Isly  in  1S44.  ilogudor  was  bombarded  and 
peace  soon  followed.  In  185'J  a  Spanish  force 
under  Marshal  O'DonncU  invaded  iloroeco.  Two 
battles  were  fought,  several  ports  were  bombard- 
ed, and  Tetuan  was  taken.  A  treaty  was 
signed  April  27,  1800,  by  which  the  .Sultan 
ceded  some  portions  of  his  territory  and 
granted  commercial  privileges  to  Spanish  mer- 
chants. Since  that  time  the  history  of  Morocco 
has  been  externally  uneventful ;  but  the  steady 
weakening  of  the  Sultan's  power  has  made  future 
complications  with  foreign  States  not  unlikely. 
Local  revolts  in  IS'M  nearly  led  to  the  interven- 
tion of  the  Powers,  but  mutual  distrust  still 
keeps  them  in  cheek.  Jlulai  Hassan,  who  be- 
came Sultan  in  1S73,  died  in  1894,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Mulai  Abd-el-Aziz,  born  Feb- 
ruary 24,  1878.  The  younf;  Sultan  was  the  son 
of  a  Circassian  slave  and  had  received  an  excel- 
lent education,  which  served  to  imbue  him  with 
a  fondness  for  Western  civilization.  The  Govern- 
ment, however,  was  in  the  hands  of  the  powerful 
Grand  Vizier,  Sidi-Ahmed  ibn-Musa.  who  left  little 
opportunity  for  the  Sultan  to  put  his  ideas  into 
effect.  After  the  Vizier's  death,  in  May,  1900, 
Mulai  Abd-el-Aziz  assumed  personal  eharfie  of 
the  Government,  and  almost  immediately  entered 
upon  a  series  of  reforms  looking  toward  the  re- 
construction of  Morocco  on  something  of  a  Euro- 
pean basis.  The  improvement  of  the  State 
prisons,  which  had  become  iftere  plague  spots 
where  atrocious  cruelties  were  practiced  on  the 
prisoners,  first  received  his  attention.  He  also 
set  about  reducing  the  onerous  customs  duties 
which  were  levied  on  goods,  especially  food  prod- 
ucts, carried  from  port  to  port  within  the  Em- 
pire. European  influence  was  welcomed  at  the 
capital,  British  interests  being  especially  favored. 
The  mass  of  the  population  regarded  the  progres- 
sive policy  of  their  sovereign  with  great  dissatis- 
faction, and  the  introduction  of  such  Western 
innovations  as  the  railway  and  the  automobile 
aroused  profound  disgust.  A  growing  spirit  of 
hatred  for  foreigners  speedily  asserted  itself.  In 
October,  1902,  an  English  missionary  was  mur- 
dered by  a  fanatic  in  Fez  and  on  the  murderer's 
seeking  refuge  in  a  mosque,  the  Sultan  caused 
him  to  be  seized  and  punished,  an  act  which  was 
regarded  by  the  Moslems  as  a  breach  of  sanctuary 
and  served  to  stir  up  further  dissatisfaction.  A 
formidable  insurrection  among  the  Berber  tribes 
broke  out  late  in  1902  under  the  leadership  of 
one  Omar  Zarabuni.  known  also  as  Bu  Hamara 
or  Son  of  the  She  Ass.  He  proclaimed  himself 
an  elder  brother  of  the  Sultan  and  succeeded  in 
rallying  around  him  the  tribes  between  Fez  and 
Mekinez.  Unchecked  by  several  reverses,  he  suc- 
ceeded finally  in  defeating  the  royal  troops  under 
a  brother  of  the  Sultan  (November  29th) .  and  to- 
ward the  end  of  December  made  himself  master 
of  the  country  around  Fez.  In  January.  1903, 
the  capital  was  invested  by  the  forces  of  Bu 
Hamara. 

Bibliography.  Eohlfs,  Adventures  in  Momcco, 
etc.,  trans.  (London,  1874)  ;  Leared,  Morocco 
and  fhr-  Moors  (ib.,  187.t)  :  Amicis.  Morocco  and 
Its  People,  trans,  (ib.,  1879)  ;  Conrinj;.  Mnroklco, 
*  dns  Land  und  die  Lentc  (Berlin.  1884)  :  Marcet, 
Le  Maroc  (Paris.  188.5)  ;  Erckniann,  Le  ^faroc 
moderne  (Paris,  188.5)  ;  Stutfield,  El  Maqhreh 
(London,  1886)  ;  De  Campon,  Vn  empire  qui 
croule.    le   Maroc   contemporain    (Paris,    1886)  ; 


Thompson,  Travels  in  the  Atlas  and  fiouthem 
Morocco  (London,  1889);  MartiniSre,  Morocco 
(ib.,  1889),  which  has  a  bibliography;  Bonsai, 
Morocco  us  It  /s(il).,  1892)  ;  Uiercks,  Matvrialien 
zur  Kciinlnis  der  Maroklio-l'rage  (Berlin,  1894)  ; 
Ganniers,  Lc  Muroc  d'aHJourdhui.  d'hier  et  de 
dcmaiii  (Paris,  1894)  ;  Keane,  Africa  (London, 
1894)  ;  Harris,  Lund  of  an  African  Hultan  (ib., 
1889)  ;  Hay,  Morocco  and  the  Moors  (ib.,  1890)  ; 
Castellanos,  Historia  de  Marruecos  (Tangier, 
1898)  ;  Niessel,  Le  Maroc:  aperQii  giographique 
(Paris,  1901);  Meakin,  The  Moorish  ICmpire 
(London,  1899)  ;  id..  The  Land  of  the  Moors  1  ib., 
1901);  Canal,  Gcogruphie  general  du  Maroc 
(Paris,  1903)  ;  Fischer,  "Marokko,"  in  Geo- 
graphische  /etfsc/iriff  (Leipzig,  1903)  ;  and  Play- 
fair  and  Brown,  Bibliography  of  Morocco  (Lon- 
don,  1892). 

MOROCCO,  or  MAROCCO.  One  of  the  cap- 
itals of  the  Sultaiuite  of  -Morocco.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  the  north  slope  of  the  Great  Atlas 
Range,  90  miles  from  the  Atlantic  coast  and  250 
miles  southwest  of  Fez  (Map:  Africa,  D  1).  Its 
location  is  very  favorable.  The  city  has  a  liealth- 
ful  climate,  but  is  in  a  very  backward  and 
dilapidated  condition.  It  covers  a  large  area, 
surrounded  by  high  walls,  now  more  or  less  in 
ruins.  A  large  part  of  the  space  within  is  occu- 
pied by  gardens,  open  areas,  and  market  places, 
but  in  the  built-up  portions  the  streets  are  nar- 
row, crooked,  and  dirty,  and  the  houses  are  ill- 
kept,  one-storied,  lime-and-earth  buildings,  with 
unglazed  window-openings.  There  are  nineteen 
mosques  in  the  city.  The  Imperial  Palace  com- 
prises an  irregular  conglomeration  of  buildings 
and  gardens  in  the  southern  part  of  the  city, 
covering  180  acres,  and  surrounded  by  a  wall. 
Of  late  years  it  is  but  seldom  visited  by  the  Sul- 
tan. The  industries  of  the  city  are  unimportant. 
There  is  still  considerable  local  trade  carried  on 
with  the  surrounding  country  and  with  the  port 
of  Mogador  ( q.v. ) .  Traffic  is  largely  in  the 
hands  of  the  .Jews,  who  number  about  7000,  but 
live  under  repressive  conditions  in  a  separate 
quarter  of  the  city.  The  entire  popidation  is 
estimated  at  50.0(10  to  60,000.  There  are  no 
])ermanent  European  residents.  Morocco  was 
founded  about  1072.  It  reached  the  height  of  its 
prosperity  in  the  thirteenth,  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies, when  its  population  is  said  to  have  been 
700,000.  It  was  then  a  famous  Mohammedan 
seat  of  learning.  Its  decline  was  brought  about 
by  .several  centuries  of  civil  wars  and  rebel- 
lions. 

MORON,  or  Mor6n  de  l.v  Froxter.\.  mA'ron' 
da  la  fron-ta'ra.  A  town  of  Southern  Spain,  in 
the  Province  of  Seville,  32  miles  southeast  of  the 
city  of  that  name,  on  the  Guadaira  ( Jlap:  Spain, 
C  4).  On  one  of  the  high  and  steep  hills  sur- 
rounding the  town  are  the  remains  of  a  once 
almost  impregnable  castle  erected  by  the  Moors 
on  Roman  foundations,  and  sinrounded  by  triple 
walls  and  towers.  The  castle  was  occupied  by 
the  French  in  1810,  and  was  blown  up  by  them 
on  their  departure.  Tlie  inhabitants  are  engaged 
in  the  production  of  olive  oil,  and  in  the  vicinity 
are  marble  quarries  and  mines  of  red  hematite. 
Population,  in   1900,   14,4.59. 

MORONG.  A  town  of  Central  Luzon.  Philip- 
pines, in  the  Province  of  Rizal  (ifap:  Philippine 
Islands.  F  5).  It  is  situated  on  the  north  shore 
of  the  Laguna  de  Bay,  17  miles  east-southeast  of 


MOKONG.  18 

Manila,  and  has  a  population  of  0430.     It  was 
the  capital  of  the  fonucr  I'rovince  of  JlOrong. 

MOBONG,  Thomas  (1827-94).  An  American 
botanist.  Iicnu  at  C'aluiba,  Ala.  The  family  re- 
uioveil  to  Massacliust'tts  while  he  was  a  boy,  and 
lie  graduated  at  Amiierst  in  1848.  He  studied 
law,  but  later  entered  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary, and  completed  his  studies  in  1853.  During 
his  early  life  he  was  devoted  to  botany  as  an 
amateur;  and  in  1888  he  undertook  an  extended 
voyage  of  exploration  and  botanical  collection  in 
(south  America,  and  visited  .\rgentina.  Paraguay, 
and  Chile.  Upon  his  return,  in  1800,  he  was 
made  curator  of  the  herbarium  of  (\dumbia  Col- 
lege, in  New  York  City.  In  conjunction  with 
Dr.  X.  L.  Britton  he  published  An  Enuiurnition 
of  thf  Plants  Cnllcrtrd  bi/  l>r.  Thoiniis  Muniiiij  in 
I'tiriiiinujl.  IfiSS-'JO.  He  was  one  of  the  contrib- 
utors to  the  International  Enci/t'loprrdia. 

MOKONI,  mft-ro'nf,  or  MORONE,  Ci,\Mn.\T- 
TISTA  (c.l;")-i5-78).  An  ll:ili;ni  portrait  jiainter. 
born  at  Albino,  near  Bergamo.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Moretto,  and  became  one  of  the  most  noted 
portraitists  of  the  Venetian  school.  He  passed 
his  life  in  and  about  Bergamo.  In  the  Uflizi  (!al- 
lery  in  Florence  there  are  five  portraits  by  him, 
including  one  of  him.self.  The  National  flallery 
in  London  has  several  of  his  works,  including  his 
masterpiece,  the  portrait  of  a  tailor.  His  altar- 
pieces  are  of  less  value. 

MOROSINI,  mo'ro-ze'nf^,  originally  JIoRosi. 
A  family  of  Venetian  nobles,  dating  from  the 
eighth  {'I'litury.  Four  of  (be  family  became  doges 
and  many  of  them  occupied  other  public  ])osi- 
tions.  The  first  celebrated  member  of  the  family 
was  OoMEMCO  MoKo.sixi.  who  was  Doge  from 
1148  to  11.50. — Marino  Moho.sini.  who  was  Doge 
from  1240  to  1252,  introduced  the  Inquisition  into 
Venice. — Miciiet.e  .Mokosixi  was  Doge  for  le.ss 
than  a  year  (1.382).  He  was  celebrated  as  a 
financier. — Andrea  Morosini  (1358-1(118)  became 
historiographer  of  the  Rejuiblic  (1508).  and  held 
several  public  oHiees,  besides  being  one  of  the 
Council  of  Ten.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Venice 
frinn  1521  to  I(!I5.  first  published  in  lt!2.'!.  and 
Iinfiri'sr  cd  <:si)cdizioni  di  Terra  Santa  r  I'aniiiislo 
fatto  dell'  impcrio  di  VonxtantinopoVi  dalla  re- 
pubblica  di  Venezia  (1627),  a  history  of  the 
Fourth  Crusade.  His  other  works  have  not  been 
edited. — Francesco  .Moro.sini  ( 1018-04)  gallantly 
but  unsuccessfully  defended  the  fortress  of  Can- 
dia  against  the  Turks  in  10r)7-(iO.  About  20 
years  later  he  confpiered  nearly  all  of  the  Atorea. 
which  gained  him  the  surname  of  il  Pelo])on- 
nesiaeo.  He  was  elected  Doge  in  1088.  (^)nsult: 
^lorosini.  Francesco  Moronini  il  Pcloponm siaco 
(Venice,  1885)  ;  Bruzzo,  /■'.  Morosini  nclla  (fiirrrn 
di  Candid  e  nella  conquista  di  it  area  (Forli, 
1800). 

MOROT,  mft'rA'.  Ai.vfi::  Niroi.A.s  (18.50—).  A 
French  painter,  born  at  Nancy.  He  studied 
under  Cabanel,  and  at  the  Rcole  des  Beavix-.Arls, 
where  he  was  awanlcd  the  Prix  de  TJome  in  187.'!. 
His  yjictures.  mainly  historical  sidijects  and  por- 
traits, are  notable  in  color  and  composition.  One 
of  the  best  of  them.  "I.a  bataille  de  Peicbshofen" 
(1887),  is  in  the  Luxembourg. 

MOROTOCO,  mo'rA  (o'kA.  One  of  a  group  of 
sedentary  aL'ric\iltural  tribes  residing  about  the 
Oxufpiis  River,  on  the  border  of  the  Chaco  region, 
in  Southeastern  Bolivia.     The  entire  group  con- 


MORPHINE. 


stitutes  a  distinct  linguistic  stock,  the  Samucuan. 
Their  language  is  singularly  musical.  The  iloro- 
toco  are  remarkable  in  being  apparently  ruled 
by  the  women.  The  men  do  the  lujusehold 
drudgery,  although  they  i^re  tall  and  robust,  and 
daring  lumters.  The  women  refu.se  to  have  more 
llian  two  children,  strangling  any  born  above  that 
numltcr. 

MOR'PETH.  A  markel-town  and  municipal 
l)orough  in  Northumberland,  England,  on  the 
W'ansbeck,  15  miles  north  of  Newcastle  (Map: 
Kngland,  El).  The  principal  buildings  are  the 
parish  church,  the  free  gramnuir  school  of  Ed- 
ward VI.,  founded  in  1552,  and  the  town  hall, 
erecle<l  by  Sir  .John  Vanbrugh.  The  town  owns 
renuinerative  pro|)erty,  the  markets,  and  jirovidcs 
a  free  water  supply.  It  has  llannel  manufactures, 
iron  foundries,  collieries,  and  quarries.  There  are 
remains  of  a  castle  and  gateway.  Morpeth  was  a 
Saxon  town  of  importance  before  the  Conquest, 
and  was  granted  corporate  ])rivileges  by  Charles 
IL     Population,  in  1891,  5200;  in  1001,"  01.50. 

MORPHEtrS,  mor'fus  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  yjop- 
<peis,  >lia|)cr.  fasliioncr).  In  classic  mythology, 
the  son  of  Somnus  (Sleep),  because  he  shapes  or 
molds  the  dreams  that  visit  the  sleeper.  He  is 
first  mentioned  by  Ovid,  and  is  represented  as  an 
old  man  with  wings,  pouring  somniferous  vapor 
out  of  a  horn. 

MORPHINE,    or     MORPHIA     (from     Lat. 

.l/o;/./o  ».v.  go<l  of  (iB-cams  ) .  I  •,;ll,,XO:,  +  H^O,.  The 
most  important  of  the  eighteen  alkaloids  exist- 
ing in  ojiium,  of  which  it  constitutes  one-eighth 
to  onesixteenlh  by  weight.  It  was  first  isolated 
in  1810  by  Serliirner,  a  chemist  of  Hanover.  It 
occurs  in  combinatiim  with  meconic  and  some- 
times sulphuric  acid,  as  colorless,  shining,  pris- 
nuitic  crystals,  odorless,  and  having  a  bitter  taste. 
It  is  soluble  in  1000  parts  of  cold  and  in  400 
parts  of  boiling  water :  in  20  parts  of  cold  and 
in  13  parts  of  boiling  alcohol.  It  is  less  soluble 
in  ether  and  chhuoform..  The  following  are  the 
ordinary  tests  for  mor|ihine:  Concentrated  nitric 
acid  when  applied  to  morphine  or  its  salts  gives 
an  orange  color,  changing  to  yellow:  when  it  is 
mixed  with  iodic  aci<l  iodine  is  liberated,  which 
may  be  recognized  by  the  well-known  starch 
test:  a  neutral  solution  of  a  morphine  salt  pro- 
duces a  blue  color  witli  a  neutral  solution  of 
ferric  chloride. 

Morphine  is  the  only  opium  alkaloid  soluble  in 
lime  water,  and  this  property  alTords  one  of  the 
best  means  of  extracting  it.  .Morphine  cond)ines 
with  acids  to  form  crystallizable  salts,  which 
are  readily  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol.  Of 
these  the  sulphate  hy<lrochlorate  (or  muriate) 
and  acetate  are  used  in  medicine.  Apomorpliine 
(q.v.).  a  powerful  emetic,  is  prepared  by  heating 
morphine  for  some  hours  with  an  excess  of 
hydrochloric  acid. 

The  therapenlic  uses  of  morphine  and  its  salts 
are  similar  to  (hose  of  opium  (q.A-.).  but  mor- 
phine acts  more  certainly  and  quickly  and  is 
more  readily  absorbed  than  opium,  is  more  suit- 
able for  hypodermic  use,  and  is  less  apt  to  con- 
stipate and  cause  gastric  disturbances.  The  or- 
ilinary  dose  for  an  adult  is  from  one-eighth  to 
one-half  a  grain. 

The  habitual  taking  of  morphine  is  not  un- 
conunon.  Those  addicted  to  this  habit  become  de- 
pendent for  a  comfortable  existence  on  the  drug, 
and  graduallv  increase  the  dose  until  enormous 


MORPHINE. 


19 


MORPHY. 


amounts  are  taken.  Their  wills  become  utterly 
destroyed  and  their  moral  .sense,  especially  in 
regard  to  truth,  lost.  The  bodily  functions  are 
depressed,  digestion  disordereil,  and  the  indi- 
vidual becomes  pale,  .sal  low,  and  emaciated. 
Finally  there  is  obstinate  sleeplessness,  a  violent 
diarrha^a,  and  cramps  in  the  muscles.  The  liabit 
can  be  ett'cctually  treated  only  in  institutions 
where  the  patient  can  be  kept  under  constant 
surveillance.    See  Opium. 

MOR'PHOGEN'ESIS  (XeoLat.,  from  Uk. 
iu)p<t>il,  morphv,  form  +  ■y4ve(ri.s,  yeiwsis,  origin, 
from  ylyvdrSai,  g iynest hit i,  to  become) .  A  term 
projjosed  by  llaeckcl,  who  divides  morphology  into 
the  tno  coiirdinateed  branches  of  anatomy  and 
morphogenesis  or  morphogeny,  ilorphogenesis  is 
the  equivalent  of  embnology  or  developmental  his- 
tory. It  takes  into  account  the  gradual  develop- 
ment and  building  up  of  the  form  of  the  adult; 
i.e.  the  scries  of  changes  and  the  mode  by  which 
the  body  and  its  organs  become  shaped.  Haeckel 
further  subdivides  morphogenesis  into  ontogeny 
(q.v. )  and  phylogeny  (q.v. ).  Consult  Haeckel, 
denerelle  Morphologie   (Berlin,  18G6). 

MORPHOL'OGY  (from  Ok.  /lopffi^,  morphO, 
iorm  -j-  -Xoyla.hir/iii,  account,  from  \(yei.i>,  legein, 
to  say).  In  zoiilogy,  the  science  of  form  and 
structure  of  animals.  It  is  based  on  comparative 
anatomy  and  embryolog}',  and  lays  the  foundation 
for  ph3'siology.  We  cannot  well  understand  the 
structure  or  anatomy  of  the  fully  grown  animal 
unless  we  have  the  history  of  the  development 
of  the  organism  as  a  whole,  and  of  the  separate 
organs.  The  morphologist.  whose  methods  of 
study  are  based  on  observation  and  comparison, 
must  not  only  be  a  comparative  anatomi.st,  but 
also  an  cmbryologist.  He  should  not  only  be 
acquainted  with  the  individual  development 
(ontogeny,  q.v.),  but  also  that  of  the  cla.ss  or 
phylum  to  which  the  organism  belongs  (phylog- 
eny, q.v. ) .  Jliireover,  as  the  existing  living  be- 
ings are  the  descendants  of  long  lines  of  ancestry, 
the  morphologist  should  have  at  his  command  all 
the  available  facts  as  to  the  fossil  relatives  of 
existing  forms.  Though  we  owe  the  word  'mor- 
phology' to  Goethe,  it  was  first  brought  into 
its  present  extended  use  by  the  zoiilogists  J. 
Miiller  and  Lenckart.  But  long  before  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  the  general  mor- 
phology of  organisms  was  in  part  discussed  by 
Oken,  Carus,  Goethe,  Geoffroy  Saint  Hilairo, 
Lamarck,  Cuvier,  Savigny,  Owen,  and  Agassiz. 
For  example,  Goethe  compared  the  flowering 
plant  to  an  axis  bearing  modified  or  meta- 
morphosed parts  or  leaves;  Savigny  discov- 
ered that  the  mouth-parts  or  appendages  of  the 
heads  of  insects  were  modified  legs;  and  Carus, 
Audouin,  and  Strauss-Durckheim  perceived  that 
their  head  was  composed  of  a  number  of  seg- 
ments. Goethe,  and  also  Oken,  discovered  the 
segmental  natiire  of  the  vertebrate  skiill.  a  prob- 
lem still  earnestly  discussed  by  morphologists. 
That  jinrtion  of  the  history  of  zoology  called  the 
Period  of  jror|ihology  was  signalized  liy  tlie 
brilliant  results  in  dcvelo|imontal  work  of  Von 
Baer,  Pander,  J.  Miiller,  Rathke,  followed  by 
the  later  researches  of  Schwann,  Schieiden,  Koel- 
liker.  Huxley,  Vogt,  Gegenbaur.  Haeckel,  and 
their  followers.  As  the  result  we  see  numerous 
morphological  problems  either  solved  or  in  a 
fair  way  of  solution.     See  Symmetry. 

BiBOOGRApnY.     Spencer,  Principles  of  Biology 


(New  York,  1898-l'.i00)  ;  Leuckart,  Ueber  die 
Morphologic  und  die  Verwandtschaflsverluilt- 
iiisse  dcr  loirbvlloaeii  Thiere  (Braunschweig, 
1848)  ;  Gegenbaur,  Elements  of  C'uinparulive 
Anatomy  (Kng.  trans.  London,  1878);  Haeckel, 
Generelle  Morphologie  (Leipzig,  180(i)  ;  Carus, 
(leschichte  der  Zoologie  (Munich,  1872)  ;  His, 
Vnsere  Korperform  (1875);  also  the  works  of 
Oken,  Cuvier,  Owen,  Agassiz,  Huxley,  O.  and  R. 
Ilcrtwig.  and  others. 

MORPHOLOGY  (in  Plants).  The  study 
which  treats  of  the  origin  and  structure  of 
plants  and  their  organj.  The  aims  of  plant  mor- 
phology are  in  all  respects  the  same  as  those 
of  animal  morpliologj'.  (See  Botany.)  The 
best  conception  of  the  present  condition  of  plant 
morphology  may  be  obtained  by  reading  the  gen- 
eial  articles  on  Bryophytes;  PTEitiDOPHVTEs; 
Spermatopiiytes;  Thallophytes;  and  the  more 
special  articles  on  Alg.e;  AngiospebmS; 
Equi.setum;  Fern;  Fungi;  Gymnosperms; 
Hep.atic.e;  LYCOPODIALE.S ;  and  Musci.  A  still 
more  detailed  account  of  plant  structures  may 
be  obtained  from  the  separate  titles  which 
deal  with  the  prominent  phenomena  and  organs, 
such  as  Alternation  of  Generations;  Anthe- 
RiDiiM;  Arciiegonilm;  Heterospory  ;  Leaf; 
Root;  Seed:  Spore;  Stem. 

Bibliography.  Among  elementary  works  that 
treat  of  the  modern  aspects  of  morphology  are 
the  following:  Atkinson,  Elementary  Botany 
(New York,  1898)  ;  Barnes,  Ptoa  Lt/^e  ( New  York, 
1808);  Bessey,  Botany  (New  York,  1892); 
Campbell,  structural  atid  Hyxtemntic  Botany 
(Boston,  1890):  id..  The  Evolution,  of  Plants 
(New  Y'ork,  1899)  ;  Coulter.  Plant  Structures 
(New  Y'ork,  1899).  More  advanced  works  are 
as  follows:  Goebel,  Outlines  of  Classification 
and  Special  Morphology,  trans,  by  Garn.sey  (Ox- 
ford, 1887)  ;  Strasburger,  Noll,  Schenck,  and 
Schimper,  .4.  Text-Boole  of  Botany,  trans,  by  Por- 
ter (New  Y'ork,  1898)  ;  Vines,  Student's  Text- 
Book  of  Botany  (New  Y'ork,  189.5)  ;  Warming 
and  Potter,  Handbook  of  Systematic  Botany 
(New  York.  ISflf.). 

MORPHOT'ROPISM  (from  Gk.  /xop0i, 
morphe,  form  +  rpo-wfi,  trope,  a  turning,  from 
Tpivuv,  trepein,  to  turn).  The  study  of  the 
exact  role  which  each  cliemieal  constituent  or 
each  atomic  (radical)  group  of  a  substance  plays 
in  modifying  the  form  of  its  crystals.  By  com- 
paring the  crystal  forms  of  a  series  of  closel}' 
related  substances,  the  part  played  by  each  con- 
stituent substance  may  be  inferred,  especially 
when  the  substitution  methods  of  organic  chem- 
istry are  applied  to  substances  having  very  large 
chemical  molecules.     See  Crystallography. 

MOR'PHY,  Paul  Ciiarle.s  (18.37-84).  An 
American  chess  player,  born  in  New  Orleans,  La. 
He  was  jcmarkably  precocious,  especially  as  a 
chess  player,  and  before  he  w'as  thirteen  had  de- 
feated many  well-known  amateurs.  He  studied 
law  for  several  years  at  the  College  of  South 
Carolina,  playing  chess  only  occasionally.  At 
the  first  American  Chess  Congress,  which  as- 
semble<l  in  New  York  in  18.57,  IMorphy  defeated 
with  ease  the  best  players  that  could  be  brought 
to  meet  him.  He  visited  Europe  in  1858.  and  in 
England  beat  Liiwenthal.  Boden,  and  Bird,  and 
performed  the  most  astonishing  feats  in  simul- 
taneous games  without  the  board.  In  Paris  he 
won  five  out  of  eight  games  with  Harrwitz,  and 


MORPHY. 


20 


MORRIS. 


continued  his  exhibitions  of  blindfold  playing. 
After  his  return  to  the  United  States.,  in  1851),  he 
won  seven  out  of  eleven  games  with  the  visiting 
Gernmn  expert  Aiulerssen.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  and  began  the  practice  of  law  in  New 
Orleans.  The  strain  occasioned  by  his  blindfold 
contests,  however,  had  been  too  great  for  his 
mental  faculties,  and.  though  he  abandoned  chess 
altogether,  he  was  soon  forced  to  relinquish  all 
mental  occupation,  and  died  in  retirement.  Dur- 
ing the  comparatively  short  period  of  his  activity 
Morphy  displayed  a  skill  that  was  inexplicable. 
He  was  at  no  time  a  close  student  of  chess  and 
he  played  without  preparation  and  with  little 
hesitation;  but  an  analysis  of  his  games  reveals 
combinations  remarkable  for  finesse,  depth,  ele- 
gance, and  soundness.  These  qualities,  combined 
with  a  wonderful  memory,  made  him  perhaps  the 
most  remarkable  chess  player  in  modern  times. 
Consult  Ldwenthal,  Murphy's  Games  of  Chess 
(London,   1860). 

MOR'RILL,  .JiSTix  Smith  (1810-98).  An 
eminent  American  legislator  and  political  leader. 
He  was  born  in  Stratford.  Vt..  received  a  com- 
mon school  education,  became  a  clerk  in  a  coun- 
try store  at  tlic  age  of  hfteeu,  and  until  1855 
was  largely  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits, 
though  he  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  private 
study.  He  entered  the  Xational  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives in  1854,  was  live  times  reelected,  was 
transferred  to  the  Senate  in  1807,  and  retained 
his  seat  continuously  luilil  his  deatli.  having  at 
that  time  served  in  Congress  for  a  longer  con- 
secutive period  than  any  other  man  in  the  history 
of  the  L'nited  States.  During  the  latter  part  of 
his  .service  in  the  House,  he  was  the  leading 
member  of  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Jleans, 
and  chairnuin  of  the  Sub-Committee  on  Tariflf 
and  Taxation,  and  in  the  Senate  he  was  a  mem- 
ber after  1867  and  chairman  for  many  years  of 
the  Committee  on  Finance,  and  was  also  at  vari- 
ous times  a  member  of  the  Committee  on  Public 
Buildings  and  Grounds,  on  Education  and  Labor, 
on  the  Census,  and  on  Revolutionary  Claims.  He 
made  many  able  speeches  which  attracted  wide 
attention,  and  had  much  inlluence  both  in  and 
out  of  Congress,  but  he  will  be  remembered 
chiefly  for  his  connection  with  two  significant 
and  important  measures.  In  1857  he  intro- 
duced a  bill  for  the  establishment,  through  the 
aid  of  public  land  grants,  of  State  colleges 
throughout  the  country  primarily  for  the  pur- 
pose of  teaching  agriculture  and  the  mechanic 
arts,  other  svibjeets,  however,  not  to  be  ex- 
cluded. This  bill  was  passed  by  both  House  and 
Senate,  but  was  vetoed  by  President  Buchanan. 
In  ISfil  it  was  again  introduced  by  Morrill, 
was  again  passed,  and  this  time  became  a  law 
thro\igh  the  signature  of  President  Lincoln. 
In  IS90  Senator  Morrill  introduced  a  bill 
providing  an  additional  grant  for  this  pur- 
pose, which  also  was  passed  by  both  Houses 
and  signed  by  the  President.  By  virtue  of 
these  enactments  there  had  been  e-tablished 
by  1899,  in  the  various  States,  sixty-four  insti- 
tutions giving  instruction  to  36.000  sUnlents. 
Morrill  framed  and  introduced  in  the  House  the 
famous  Morrill  TarilT  .\et  of  ISfil.  which,  with 
the  enactments  of  18(i'2  and  1804.  in  the  passage 
of  which  he  also  took  a  prominent  part,  modified 
the  tariff  system  of  the  United  States.  (See 
Tajbifk.  )      Morrill    was   also   conspicuous   as   an 


energetic  opponent  of  Government  paper  money 
and  esi)ecially  of  the  Legal  Tender  Act  of  1861- 
02,  and  of  the  annexation  to  the  United  States 
of  outlying  territory,  such  as  Santo  Domingo, 
Saint  Thomas,  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Phil- 
ipjiines.  He  published  The  iiclf-Consciousness  of 
\uU'(l  Mm    (Boston,  1886). 

MORRILL,  Lot  Myrick  (1813-83).  An 
American  legislator  and  Cabinet  officer,  born  at 
Belgrade,  Maine.  He  entered  \\  aterville  College 
(now  Colby  University)  in  1833,  but  left  before 
graduating  to  enter  a  law  office  at  Readtield.  In 
1837  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  for  several 
years  practiced  in  partnership  with  Timothy  O. 
Howe.  In  1841  he  removed  to  Augusta,  where 
he  won  wide  distinction  as  a  lawyer  and  public 
speaker.  Although  strongly  opposed  to  the  ex- 
tension of  slavery,  he  was  in  all  other  matters 
in  perfect  agreement  with  the  Democratic  Party, 
and  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Maine 
Democracy.  In  1S53  and  1854  he  was  elected  to 
the  Lower  House  of  the  State  Legislature,  and  in 
1850  was  elected  to  the  State  Senate.  After 
Buchanan's  nomination,  disapproving  of  his 
party's  platform,  he  resigned  from  the  Demo- 
cratic .State  Committee,  and  allied  himself  with 
the  Republican  Party.  He  was  elected  Governor 
of  the  State  by  that  party  in  1857.  and  was 
reelected  in  1858  and  1859.  In  1801  he  was 
chosen  United  States  Senator  to  succeed  Han- 
nibal Handin.  Reelected  for  a  full  term  in 
1803,  he  was  defeated  by  a  single  vote  in  1808 
by  Uaudiu,  but  in  the  following  year  was 
elected  to  succeed  William  P.  Fessenden.  In 
1870  he  resigned  to  enter  the  Cabinet  of  Presi- 
dent Grant  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  This 
portfolio  he  held  until  after  the  inauguration  of 
President  Hayes,  when  he  became  Collector  of 
Customs  at  Portland.  Maine. 

MOR'RILLTON.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Conway  (  ounty.  Ark..  .50  miles  northwest  of 
Little  Rock:  on  the  Arkansas  River,  and  on  a 
branch  of  the  Saint  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and 
Southern  Railroad  (Map:  Arkansas,  C  2).  It 
has  a  trade  in  cotton  and  live  stock,  and  manu- 
factures of  cottonseed  oil.  woolens,  machine  shop 
products,  lumber,  furniture,  etc.  Population,  in 
1890.  1044:  in  1900,  1707. 

MOR'RIS.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Grundy  Comity.  111.,  02  miles  southwest  of  Chi- 
cago; on  the  Illinois  River,  the  Illinois  and 
Michigan  Canal,  and  the  Chicago.  Rock  Island 
and  Pacific  Railro:ul  (M.np:  Illinois.  D  2).  It 
has  Saint  .-Angela's  .\cademv.  a  Roman  Catholic 
instiluticm  for  women.  The  city  is  the  centre  of 
a  considerable  trade  in  grain  and  cattle,  and 
there  are  mines  of  bituminous  coal,  and  manu- 
factories of  oatmeal,  hardware,  paper  car  wheels, 
leather,  bricks,  and  tile.  The  water-works  are 
owned  by  the  iimnicipality.  Morris  was  settled 
in  1834  and  incorporated  first  in  1857.  Popula- 
tion, in  ISnO.  3053:  in  1900.  4273. 

MORRIS.  A  village  and  the  county-seat  of 
Stevens  County.  Minn..  157  miles  west  by  north 
of  Saint  Piuil  :  on  the  Northern  Pacific  and  the 
Great  Northern  railroads  (Map:  Minnesota, 
C  5).  It  is  near  the  Pomme  de  Terre  River, 
which  furni^bc  goo<l  w;itcr  power.  It  is  in  a  fer- 
tile agricultural  region,  and  has  several  grain 
elevators  and  Hour  mills.  There  is  a  public 
librarv.  Population,  in  1890.  1266;  in  1900, 
1934.  ■ 


MOKRIS. 


21 


MORRIS. 


MORRIS,  Alexander  (1826-90).  A  Cana- 
dian statesman,  born  at  Perth,  Ontario.  He 
studied  in  Scotland  at  Saint  Andrew's  and  Glas- 
gow University,  graduated  at  ilctlill  University, 
Montreal,  and  was  called  to  tlie  bar  in  1851.  In 
18(il  he  was  elected  Conservative  member  from 
South  Lanark,  in  180!)  was  made  Minister  of  In- 
land Eevenue,  and  later  was  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Court  of  Queen's  Bench  in  Manitoba  ( 1872- 
77).  He  was  elected  to  the  Ontario  Legislature 
(1878)  as  member  for  East  Toronto.  He  was  a 
strong  advocate  of  the  confederation  of  tlie  prov- 
incss,  and  the  author  of  Treaties  of  ('(iiutdd  icith 
the  Indians  of  the  Northwest  (1880);  Nova 
Britannia  (188-1);  and  Canada  and  Her  Re- 
sources (1885). 

MORRIS,  Bexjamix  Wistar  (1819—).  An 
American  elergj'nian.  He  was  born  at  Wellsboro, 
Pa.,  graduated  from  the  General  Theological 
Seminary  in  1846,  receiving  that  year  the  ordina- 
tion of  deacon  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  and  the  following  year  was  ordained 
priest.  He  was  stationed  as  rector  at  Sunbury, 
Wanayunk,  and  Germantown,  all  in  Pennsjd- 
vania.  In  1868  he  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Oregon  and  Washington,  his  diocese  subse- 
quently being  restricted  to  the  former  State. 
During  his  incumbency  he  has  actively  advanced 
the  educational  and  philanthropical  interests  of 
his  diocese,  being  instrumental  in  establishing 
Saint  Helen's  Hall,  a  boarding  and  day  school 
for  gii'ls,  the  Bishop  Scott  Academy,  and  the 
Good  Samaritan  Hospital  in  Portland.  He  is  the 
author  of  Preshtjterian,  Baptist,  and  Methodist 
Testimoni/  to  Confirmation  (1860). 

MORRIS,  Charles  (1745-1838).  An  English 
song-writer  of  \A'elsh  origin.  He  was  reared  by 
his  mother,  went  to  America  in  the  17th  foot 
in  1764.  and  on  his  return  to  England  he  was  for 
many  years  punch-maker  and  bard  of  the  famovis 
Beef  Steak  Club,  a  convivial  society  founded  in 
1735.  He  associated  with  the  party  of  Fox,  for 
which  he  wrote  many  political  songs,  as  ''Billy 
Pitt  and  the  Farmer."  Neglected  by  his  Whig 
friends,  he  composed  the  lament,  "The  Old  Whig 
Poet  to  His  Burt'  Waistcoat."  The  French  song- 
writer B^ranger  also  wrote  a  charming  ditty 
on  an  old  coat  of  his,  but  quite  unlike  that 
by  Morris.  Morris  met  tlie  Prince  of  \A"ales  and 
was  a  frequent  guest  at  Carlton  House,  where 
he  was  known  as  "The  Sun  of  the  Table."  Among 
his  best  known  pieces  are :  "The  Town  and  the 
Country;"  "A  Reason  Fair  to  Fill  My  Glass;" 
"The  Triumph  of  Venus;"  and  "Ad  Poculum." 
The  Prince  granted  liim  an  annuity  of  £200;  and 
the  Beef  Steak  Club  gave  him  a  villa  near  Dork- 
ing, where  he  passed  his  last  years,  living  to  be 
ninety -three.  His  songs  were  gathered  vinder  the 
title  Li/ra  Vrbanica  (1840;  2d  ed.  1844). 

MORRIS,  Charles  (1784-1856).  An  Ameri- 
can naval  oflicer,  born  in  Woodstock,  Conn.  He 
entered  the  United  States  Xavy  in  1799,  took  an 
active  part  in  the  war  with  Tripoli,  and  in  the 
famous  recapture  of  the  Philadelphia  (1804)  in 
the  harbor  of  Tripoli  was  the  first  of  the  hoarders 
to  reach  the  deck  of  that  vessel.  When  the  War 
of  1812  broke  out  he  was  executive  officer  of  the 
Constitvtion,  and  in  the  engagement  between  that 
vessel  and  the  Guerriere  was  wounded.  He  re- 
ceived command  of  the  frigate  John  Adams,  and 
after  a  successful  cruise  was  blockaded  in  the 
Penobscot  River  by  an  English  fleet  and  forced 


to  destroy  his  vessel  to  prevent  her  capture.  He 
commanded  the  Congress  in  the  war  with  Al- 
giers, and  in  1825  carried  Lafayette  back  to 
France  in  the  Brandyaine.  He  was  for  years 
naval  connnissioner,  for  a  considerable  time  super- 
visor of  the  Xaval  .\cadem_v  at  Annapolis,  and 
at  his  death,  in  1856,  was  chief  of  the  Bureau 
of  Ordnance  and  Hydrography.  Consult  his  Au- 
tobiograptiy  (Annapolis,  1880). 

MORRIS,  Charles  o'Urban  (1827-86).  An 
American  classical  pliilologi.st  and  educator,  born 
in  Charmouth,  Dorset.  His  grandmother  was 
Mary  Philipse  Morris  (q.v. ) .  He  was  educated  at 
Worcester  College,  Oxford,  and  after  three  years 
as  a  scholar  at  Lincoln  College,  was  a  fellow  of 
Oriel  (1851-54).  In  1853  he  came  to  New  York, 
was  rector  of  Trinity  School  until  1856,  and  then 
founded  the  Mohegan  School,  near  Peekskill. 
From  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York  he 
went  in  1876  to  .Johns  Hopkins  as  collegiate 
professor  of  Latin  and  Greek.  His  publications, 
which  are  marked  by  many  original  pedagogical 
methods,  are:  A  Compendious  Grammar  of  Attic 
Greek  (1869;  4th  ed.  1876);  a  Latin  Grammar 
(1870;  4th  ed.  1876);  and  several  Latin  and 
Greek  primers  and  readers. 

MORRIS,  Cl.\ra  (1849? — ).  An  American 
actress,  especially  noted  for  her  success  in  the 
interpretation  of  "emotional'  roles.  She  was  born 
in  Toronto,  Canada  (her  real  name  being  Mor- 
rison), but  was  reared  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  where 
at  the  Academy  of  ilusic  she  became  a  member 
of  the  ballet  and  afterwards  leading  actress. 
Later  she  played  in  Cincinnati.  She  came  to 
New  York  in  1870  as  a  member  of  Daly's  com- 
pany. In  1872  she  made  a  sensation  in  L'Article 
\l.  Conspicuous  among  her  subsequent  successes 
were  those  won  in  Alixe  (1873),  Camille  (1874), 
and  Miss  Multon  (L^'nion  Square  Theatre,  1876), 
and  she  soon  became  well  known  as  a  star  whose 
acting  was  distinguished  for  spontaneity  and 
naturalness.  She  was  married  to  F.  C.  Harriott 
in  1874.  About  1885  she  began  to  devote  herself 
mainly  to  literary  work,  among  her  publications 
being:  Little  Jim  Crow,  and  Other  Stories  of 
Children  (1899);  A  Silent  Singer  (1899);  Life 
on  the  Stage:  Mij  Personal  Ejyperiences  and  Rec- 
ollections (1901)  ;  A  Pasteboard  Crown  (1902)  ; 
Stage  Confidenees  (1902).  Consult  McKay  and 
Wingate,  Famous  American  Actors  of  Today 
(NewY'ork.  1896)  ;  Matthews  and  Hutton,  AcJors 
and  Actresses  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States   (ib.,  1886). 

MORRIS,  DrxAH.  In  George  Eliot's  Adam 
Bede,  the  cliaraetcr  which  really  becomes  the 
centre  of  interest  for  the  novel.  The  book  was 
suggested  by,  and  the  character  partly  drawn 
from,  the  author's  aunt,  who.  like  Dinah,  was  a 
Jlethodist  evangelist ;  but  the  prominence  which 
the  character  assumes  is  due  to  the  criticism  of 
Lewes.  Sir  Leslie  Stephen  calls  it  "not  only  an 
elaborate  but  a  most  skillful  and  loving  portrait 
of  a  beautiful  soiil." 

MORRIS,  Edward  Joy  (1815-81).  An  Ameri- 
can  diplomat  and  translator,  born  in  Philadel- 
phia. He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1836.  and 
began  the  practice  of  the  law  in  Philadelphia. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  State 
Assembly  in  1841-43.  and  in  November,  1842, 
was  elected  as  a  Wliig  to  the  Twenty-eighth 
Congress,  serving  from  1843  to  1845.  From  1850 
to  1854  he  was  charge  d'affaires  for  the  United 


MORRIS. 


22 


MORRIS. 


States  at  Naples.  After  liis  return  he  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  movement  for  the  organiza- 
tion of  tlic  Republiean  Party  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  in  185G  was  elected  to  Congress  by  that 
party,  serving  from  1857  to  1801.  From  1801 
to  1870  he  was  United  States  Jljnister  to 
Turkey.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to 
American  magazines  for  many  years,  and  pub- 
lished Sotes  of  a  Tour  Throuyh  Turkey.  Greece, 
Eyypt,  and  Arahia  Peirwa  to  the  Holy  Land  (2 
vols.,  1842).  He  translated  with  copious  notes 
and  additions  The  Turkish  Empire,  Social  and 
Political  (18.54),  from  the  German  of  Alfred  de 
Besse.  He  also  translated  Theodore  Miigge's 
Afraja,  or  Life  ami  Love  in  Soru-<iy  (1854),  and 
Ferdinand  Gregorovius's  Corsica,  Picturesque, 
Historical,  and  Social   (1856). 

MORRIS,  Edward  Parmelee  (1853—).  An 
American  Latinist.  He  was  born  at  Auburn, 
N.  Y.,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1874,  and  after- 
wards studied  at  the  universities  of  Leipzig  and 
Jena.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  at  Drury 
College  (1879-84).  professor  of  Latin.  \Villiams 
College  ( 1885-91 ) ,  and  in  the  latter  year  he  was 
appointed  to  the  same  position  in  Y'ale  Univer- 
sity. He  was  editor  of  Plautus's  Mostellaria 
(1880),  Pscudolus  (1890),  and  Captives  and 
Triiiummus  (1898);  also  tlie  author  of  various 
philological  monographs  and  reviews  and  On 
Principles  and  Methods  in  Latin  Syntax  (1902). 
MORRIS,  George  Pope  (1802-04).  An 
Amcriraii  jiiurnalist  and  poet,  bmn  in  I'liiladol- 
phia.  He  founded  with  Samuel  Woodworth  (q.v. ) 
in  New  York  The  Mirror  (182."5-42),  a  literary 
weekly,  which  became  The  Xeir  Mirror,  and  Tlie 
Evening  Mirror.  In  these  journals  appeared 
much  early  work  of  Bryant,  Hallcck.  Poe.  Pauld- 
ing, Willis,  Hoffman,  and  others,  making  these 
periodicals  important  elements  in  the  literaiy  de- 
velopment of  the  time.  Morris  also  founded  The 
yational  Press:  (1845).  out  of  which  was  devel- 
oped The  Home  Journal  (1840),  in  which  Willis, 
who  had  long  been  associated  with  Jlorris,  again 
collaborated.  His  drama  liriarcliff  (1S2.5)  was 
a  popular  success.  His  Poems,  collected  for  the 
last  time  in  1800,  contained  the  familiar  ballads, 
"Woodman,  Spsire  That  Tree"  (  founded  on  a  real 
incident),  "My  Mother's  Bil)le."  "We  Were  Boys 
Together,"  and  "A  Long  Time  Ago."  He  also 
published  a  number  of  prose  sketches  and  was 
prominent  in  the  New  York  militia.  Morris  died 
in  New  York,  July  0,  1804. 

MORRIS,  Georue  Sylvester  (1840  89).  An 
American  educator  and  philosojjhiial  writer, 
born  at  N'orwich.  Vt.  He  graduated  in  1861  at 
Dartmouth,  served  in  the  Federal  Army  during 
the  first  two  yi'ars  of  the  Civil  War,  and  was  a 
tutor  at  Dartmouth  in  1S6.S04.  .\f(er  spending 
several  years  abroad  in  the  study  of  philosophy 
and  theology,  he  was  appointed,  in  1870,  pro- 
fessor of  modern  languages  and  literature  in  the 
University  of  Jlichigan.  and  in  1881  professor 
of  logic,  ethics,  and  the  history  of  philosophy 
there.  From  1878  to  1885  he  also  lectured  on 
ethics  and  the  history  of  philosophy  at  .Johns 
Hopkins  University.  He  translated  Ueberweg's 
flislory  iif  Philosophy  (1871):  edited  Gregg's 
Philoso/ihical  Classics:  and  wrote  Kant's  Cri- 
tic/ue  of  Pure  Reason:  A  Critical  Exposition 
(1882):  Philosophy  and  Christianity  (laS.T); 
and  Reqrl's  Philosophy  of  the  State  and  of  His- 
lory  (1887). 


MORRIS,  George  Ui'iiam  (1830-75).  An 
Anici'iiau  naval  ollicer,  born  in  ilassachusetts. 
He  entered  the  navy  in  1840.  was  commissioned 
lieutenant  in  1855,  and  still  held  that  rank  when 
Connnander  William  Radfonl's  absence  on  March 
8,  lSti2.  left  him  the  senior  ollicer  on  the  Cum- 
herland  during  its  battle  with  the  Confederate 
lam  Merrimac.  Lieutenant  Morris's  gallantry 
in  fighting  his  ship  until  she  sank  with  her  flags 
still  Hying  aroused  the  greatest  enthusiasm  in 
the  North,  and  earned  his  promotion  to  the 
grade  of  lieutenant-commander,  .July  16.  1802, 
a  rank  which  he  held  until  1860,  Avhen  he  was 
comniissiiiiicil  commander. 

MORRIS,  GorvERXEUR  (1752-1816).  An 
American  statesman  and  diplomat.  He  was 
born  at  Morrisania,  N.  Y.,  January  31,  1752, 
and  graduated  at  King's  (now  Columbia)  Col- 
lege in  1708.  He  studied  law  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1771.  In  1775  he  was  chosen  to 
represent  \\'estehester  County  in  the  first  Pro- 
vincial Congress  of  New  York,  and  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  advocacy  of  the  American  cause. 
He  served  in  two  succeeding  Congresses  in  the 
same  and  the  following  year.  He  was  one  of  the 
recognized  leaders  of  the  Congresses;  served  on 
nearly  all  the  im|)ortant  committees,  among 
them  the  conuniltce  that  drafted  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  State  of  New  York;  and  with 
.Jay  and  Livingston  bad  much  to  do  with 
framing  the  plan  of  government  for  the  State.  In 
1777,  when  only  twenty-five  years  of  age,  he  was 
elected  to  the  Continental  Congress,  in  which  he 
served  until  1780.  Immediately  upon  taking  his 
seat  he  was  appointed  on  a  committee  to  investi- 
gate the  condition  of  the  army  at  Valley  Forge, 
and  afterwards  devoted  his  energies  to  securing 
the  adoption  by  Congress  of  Washington's  plans 
for  the  organization  ami  |iay  of  the  army.  His 
ability  won  for  him  the  chairmanship  of  the 
committee  to  confer  with  the  British  commis- 
sioners on  reconciliation  who  arrived  in  1778. 
As  chairman  of  the  committee  to  publish  an 
address  to  the  jicople  of  the  colonies  on  the  exist- 
ing condition  of  all'airs,  he  drew  up  a  masterly 
account  of  the  causes  of  the  war.  the  efforts  that 
had  been  made  to  achieve  independence,  and  the 
transactions  with  the  British  commissioners. 
The  address  was  entitled  Ohscrrations  on  the 
.imeriean  h'evolulion.  In  1779  he  was  chairman 
of  three  other  important  committees  and  per- 
formed the  whole  duties  of  each.  Dtiring  his 
career  in  Congress  Morris  drew  up  several  re- 
ports and  papers  on  finance  which  showed  evi- 
dence of  marked  ability.  His  services  were 
recognized  by  his  appointment  as  assistant  super- 
intendent of  finance  in  1781,  a  position  which 
he  held  with  great  credit  until  1785.  It  was 
in  this  capacity  that  he  drew  up  a  scheme  for  a 
system  of  coinage  which,  though  not  adopted  at 
the  time,  viltiniately  became  the  basis  of  our  pres- 
ent system.  He  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the 
Constitutional  Convention  of  1787  at  Philadel- 
phia; took  a  leading  part  in  the  debates  of  that 
body,  and  the  published  proceedings  showed  that 
he  made  more  speeclies  than  any  other  member, 
always  championing  a  strong  national  govern- 
ment. He  urged  the  proportional  representation 
of  the  States  in  the  Senate,  and  favored  a  free- 
bohl  suffrage,  a  good  behavior  tenure  for  the 
executive,  and  representation  in  Congress  appor- 
tioned according  to  the  number  of  free  inhabit- 
ants.   In  1789  Morris  went  to  France  on  private 


MORRIS. 


23 


MORRIS. 


business,  and  was  in  Paris  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  French  Revolution.  He  kept  a  diary  dur- 
ing his  stay,  and  wrote  letters  which  threw 
much  light  on  the  character  of  the  events 
which  he  witnessed.  In  1790  he  went  to  London 
as  private  agent  to  the  British  Government  to 
conduct  negotiations  regarding  the  unfulfilled 
stipulations  of  the  treaty  of  1783.  His  mission 
was  not  successful,  and  he  again  returned  to  the 
Continent.  In  17',I2,  while  still  in  Europe,  he 
was  appointed  Minister  to  France,  and  served 
in  that  capacity  during  the  stormy  scenes  of  the 
two  ensuing  years.  In  1794  the  French  Govern- 
ment requested  and  obtained  his  recall.  He  re- 
mained in  Europe  until  1798.  In  1800  he  was 
elected  from  New  York  to  the  Unit«d  States 
Senate,  where  he  acted  with  the  Federalists. 
After  his  retirement  from  the  Senate  in  1803  he 
took  great  interest  in  the  Erie  Canal  project, 
and  .served  as  chairman  of  the  Canal  Conunis- 
sion  from  1810  to  the  time  of  his  death,  which 
occurred  November  6.  1816.  His  biography  has 
been  written  for  the  "American  Statesmen 
Series"  by  Theodore  Roosevelt  (Boston,  1900). 
An  elaborate  biography  was  prepared  by  .Tared 
Sparks  (3  vols.,  Boston,  1832).  Morris's  diary 
and  letters  have  been  published  in  two  volumes 
(New  York,   1888). 

MORRIS,  Henry  W.  (180G-63).  An  Ameri- 
can naval  ollicer.  He  was  born  in  New  York 
City,  entered  the  United  States  Navy  in  I8I9, 
and  became  a  captain  in  1856.  For  some  time 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  in 
\^"ashington  superintending  the  construction  of 
the  Pen^acola,  wliich  vessel,  when  completed  in 
January,  1862.  he  took  safely  by  the  Con- 
federate batteries  on  the  Potomac.  He  then 
joined  the  Federal  blockading  squadron  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  distinguishing  liiniself  in  the 
attacks  upon  Forts  .Jackson  and  Saint  Philip, 
and  after  the  capture  of  New  Orleans  was  in 
command  for  a  short  time  of  the  squadron  sta- 
tioned there.  He  was  made  commander  in  .Tuly, 
1862.  His  health  giving  way,  he  went  to  New 
Y'ork,  wliere  soon  afterwards  he  died. 

MORRIS,  John  Gottlieb  (1803-95).  An 
American  clergyman,  born  at  Y'ork,  Pa.  He  grad- 
uated at  Dickinson  College  in  1823.  then  studied 
theology  at  Princeton  and  at  Gettysburg  Semi- 
nary, and  in  1827  was  licensed  as  a  preacher.  In 
the  same  year  he  went  to  Baltimore,  where  he 
founded  the  Trinity  English  Lutheran  Church, 
of  which  he  continued  to  be  pastor  until  1860, 
when  he  became  librarian  of  the  Peabody  Insti- 
tute. In  1864  he  became  pastor  of  the  Third 
English  Lutheran  Church,  and  in  1874  accepted 
a  call  to  Lutherville.  JId..  where  he  was  actively 
interested  in  the  founding  of  the  College  for 
Women.  He  held  a  number  of  academic  posi- 
tions, founded  the  Lutheran  Historical  Society, 
presided  over  the  General  Synod  in  1843  and 
in  1883,  contributed  frequently  to  scientific  and 
religious  journals,  edited  the  Lutheran  Observer 
(1823-34),  and  wrote  a  number  of  books,  among 
■which  may  be  mentioned  Life  of  John .  Arndt 
(18.53):  Life  of  Catherine  de  Bora  (1856); 
Quaint  Sayings  and  Doings  Concerning  Luther 
(1859)  ;  and  Fifty  Years  in  the  Lutheran  Min- 
istry  (1878). 

MORRIS,  John  Thom.^.s  (1826—).  An 
English  Jesuit.  He  was  born  at  Ootacamund, 
Madras,    India ;    entered    Trinity    College,    Cam- 


bridge, where  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic; 
completed  his  education  in  the  English  college 
at  Rome,  and  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood. 
After  passing  three  years  in  the  diocese  of 
Northampton  he  returned  to  Rome  and  became 
vice-rector  of  the  English  college.  At  the  end 
of  three  years  he  went  back  to  England,  where 
he  was  appointed  canon  residentiary  of  the  Lon- 
don Chapter.  He  also  acted  as  private  secre- 
tary to  Cardinal  Wiseman  and  his  successor, 
Cardinal  Manning.  In  1867  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Society  of  .Jesus.  He  was  for  a  time 
rector  of  a  .Jesuit  college  in  Malta,  professor 
of  canon  law  and  Church  history  in  Saint 
Bruno's  College  near  Saint  Asaph,  and  from 
1879  rector  and  master  of  novices  at  Roehamp- 
ton.  He  published  a  Life  of  Saint  Thomas  of 
Canterbury  (1860;  2d  ed.  1885);  Condition  of 
Catholics  Under  James  I.  (1871)  ;  The  Troubles 
of  Our  Catholic  Forefathers  (1875)  ;  The  Letter- 
books  of  Sir  Amias  Paulet  (1874)  ;  and  Cardinal 
^yiseman's  Last  Illness   (1871). 

MORRIS,  Lewis  (1671-1746).  An  American 
colonial  Governor.  He  was  born  on  Manhattan 
Island,  the  son  of  Richard  Morris,  an  officer  of 
Cromwell's  army,  who  had  emigrated  to  the 
West  Indies  after  the  Restoration  and  a  few 
years  later  purchased  a  tract  of  3000  acres  of 
la»d  on  the  west  side  of  Manhattan  Island,  in 
the  region  later  named  Morrisania,  after  his 
family.  Lewis  Morris  was  well  educated  by 
private  tutors,  studied  law.  and  after  .several 
years'  practice  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the 
Superior  Court  in  East  Jersej'.  After  the  union 
of  East  and  West  Jersey  and  the  establishment 
of  New  Jersey  as  a  royal  colony,  he  continued  to 
take  a  prominent  part  in  its  affairs,  serving  for 
many  years  in  both  the  Colonial  Council  and  the 
Assembly.  He  served  for  a  time  as  Chief  Justice 
of  both  New  Jersey  and  New  York,  was  appointed 
Acting  Governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1731,  and  from 
1738  until  his  death  was  Governor  of  the  colony. 

MORRIS,  Lewis  (1726-98).  An  American 
patriot  during  the  Revolutionary  War.  and  one 
of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. He  was  born  at  Morrisania,  N.  Y.,  grad- 
uated at  Yale  in  1746,  and  as  early  as  1767 
became  conspicuous  as  an  opponent  of  the  re- 
strictive measures  of  the  British  Ministry.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1775, 
and  at  the  close  of  the  session  was  sent  to 
Pittsburg  to  secure,  if  possible,  the  adherence  of 
the  Indians.  In  1776  he  again  sat  in  Congress, 
and  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence.  Giving  up  bis  seat  in  1776 
in  favor  of  his  half-brother,  Gouverneur  Mor- 
ris he  returned  to  bis  estate,  and  subse- 
quently served  as  a  member  of  the  New  York 
Legislature  and  as  major-general  of  the  State 
militia. 

MORRIS,  Sir  Lewis  (1833—).  An  English 
poet,  born  at  Carmarthen,  Wales,  in  June,  1833. 
After  graduating  from  .Jesus  College,  Oxford 
(B.A.  1855.  M.A.  18.58).  he  studied  law  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  (1861).  He 
practiced  as  a  conveyancer  till  1880.  He  has 
taken  an  active  part  in  higher  education  in 
Wales,  serving  on  the  governing  boards  of  three 
Welsh  colleges.  On  several  occasions  he  has 
stood  for  Parliament  in  the  Liberal  interest,  but 
without  success.  In  1895  be  was  knighted.  His 
verse  comprises  Songs  of  Two  Worlds   (3  vols.. 


MORRIS. 


24 


MORRIS. 


1871-74-75)  ;  the  Epic  of  Uatlts  (3  books,  187C- 
77)  ;  Owen:  A  Drama  in  Monologue  (1879)  ;  the 
Ode  of  Life  (1880);  !Sonys  L'nsung  (1883); 
Oycia:  A  Drama  (1880);  Songs  of  Britain 
(1887);  A  Vision  of  Saints  (1890);  Songs 
Without  A'o<fs  (1894);  Idylls  and  Lyrics 
( 1896)  ;  and  Harvest-Tide  ( 1901 ) .  To  the  critic, 
Morris  writes  slight  and  easy  verse  on  preten- 
tions tlieines.  But  ho  lias  been  exceedingly 
popul:ir. 

MORRIS,  Mary  (Phiui>se)  (1730-1825). 
One  of  the  celebrated  Philijjse  family,  born  in 
the  Philipse  manor  house  on  the  Hudson.  She 
possessed  much  personal  beauty,  and.  according 
to  tradition,  she  received  an  oli'cr  of  marriage 
from  Washington!  whom  she  met  in  1756  while 
visiting  her  brother-in-law  Beverly  Robinson 
in  New  York.  Two  years  later  she  married 
Captain  Roger  Morris,  an  English  ollicer,  and 
lived  for  many  years  in  an  elegant  mansion — 
now  known  as  the  .Juniel  mansion — on  tlu-  out- 
skirts of  New  York.  When  the  Revolution  broke 
out,  she  remained  loyal  to  the  Crown,  and  as  a 
result  she  was  attainted  of  treason  and  her  prop- 
erty was  confiscated.  Her  mansion  was  subse- 
ijuently  used  by  General  Washington  as  his  head- 
quarters. In  1809  her  children  sold  their  rever- 
sionary rights  in  the  conliscated  property  to 
.lohn  .Tacob  Astor  for  .$100,000.  In  recognition 
of  her  loyalty,  the  English  Government  made  her 
a  grant  "of  $S5,000. 

MORRIS,  iliciiAEL,  Baron  Killanin  (1827- 
1901).  An  Irish  jurist.  He  was  born  in  Gal- 
way;  studied  at  Trinity  College.  Dublin;  and 
was  called  to  the  bar.  Ills  great  popularity 
made  his  advance  in  politics  very  rapid.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  in  ISfio  as  a  Conser- 
vative; was  named  Solicitor-General  of  Ireland 
in  1866,  a  puisne  judge  in  the  following  year, 
and  after  the  abolition  of  his  post  of  Chief 
•lustiee  of  Common  Pleas.  Lord  Chief  .Justice.  In 
1900  he  retired  from  the  bench,  and  the  same 
year  was  made  an  hereditary  baron. 

MORRIS,  RiciiARi)  (1833-94).  An  English 
philologist.  He  was  Ikuii  in  London,  was  edu- 
cated at  Saint  .John's  College.  Battersea.  in  1869 
became  lecturer  on  the  English  language  and 
literature  in  King's  College  School,  and  in  1871 
took  holy  orders.  Four  years  later  he  was  made 
headmaster  of  the  Royal  Masonic  Institution  for 
Boys.  He  edited  a  number  of  publications  for 
the  Early  English  Text  Society,  the  Chaucer 
Societj',  and  the  Philnlogical  Society :  and  in 
1874  was  elected  presiilent  of  the  latter.  Besides 
his  editions  of  early  English  works,  he  pub- 
lished: The  EliimdUigy  (if  Lmiil  y<imrs  (  18o7 )  ; 
Specimens  of  Early  English  (1867);  Historical 
Outlines  of  English  Accidence  (1872);  Elc- 
mentiry  Lessons  in  Historical  English  Orammar 
(l.'<7lt:    I'riiner  of  English   (Irammar   (1875). 

MORRIS,  RonERT  (17341806).  An  eminent 
American  financier  and  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  born  at 
Liverpool.  England.  .Tanuary  31.  1734.  At  the 
ape  of  fourteen  he  was  sent  to  America  and 
placed  in  the  counting  house  of  Charles  Willing, 
a  rich  Philadelphia  merchant,  whose  partner  he 
became  in  1754.  continuing  as  such  until  1793. 
The  firm  of  Willing  &  Morris  became  one  of  the 
lending  mercantile  cstalilisbnients  in  America, 
and  by  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolutionary  War 
Morris    had   already    acquired    a    large    fortune. 


Although  naturally  averse  to  a  rupture  with 
Great  Britain,  he  sacrificed  his  personal  inter- 
ests, signed  the  nonimportation  agreement  of 
1705,  and  served  as  a  member  of  the  citizens' 
committee  that  compelled  the  stamp  distributer 
for  Philadelphia  practically  to  relinquish  his 
ollice.  In  .June,  1775,  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Committee  of  Safety;  in  October 
of  the  same  year  he  was  elected  to  a  seat  in 
the  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania  (to  which  he 
was  reelected  in  1776),  and  in  November  he  was 
appointed  by  that  body  a  delegate  to  the  Con- 
tinental Congress.  All  three  of  these  offices 
were  held  by  him  at  the  same  time.  As  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress  he  served  on  several  important 
committees  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, although  he  had  opposed  IvCe's  resolu- 
tion of  .lune  7th  and  absented  himself  from  the 
Congressional  hall  on  .July  4th,  when  the  final 
vote  was  taken.  At  the  expiration  of  his  term 
in  Congress,  in  1778.  he  was  elected  again  to  the 
State  Legislature,  but  on  account  of  miscel- 
laneous charges  against  him  in  connection  with 
his  mercantile  operations,  he  failed  of  reelection 
in  the  following  year.  In  October,  1780,  how- 
ever, he  was  returned  to  the  Legislature  for  the 
fourth  time.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  for- 
tunes of  the  Colonial  Army  reached  their  lowest 
ebb.  Charleston  had  fallen ;  Gates  had  been  de- 
feated by  Cornwallis ;  Arnold's  treachery  cast 
gloom  on  the  country-.  Munitions  and  supplies 
were  sadly  wanting,  and  Continental  currency  had 
depreciated  vmtil  it  was  worth  but  little  more 
than  the  paper  on  which  it  was  printed.  In  this 
almost  desperate  situation.  Congress  resolved  to 
supersede  the  old  treasury  board  by  a  superin- 
tendent of  finance.  Morris  was  chosen  to  the 
position  February  20.  1781,  at  a  salary'  of  $6000 
a  year,  and  receivi'd  large  powers  over  the 
finances  of  the  Confederation.  His  chief  pro- 
gramme was  to  relieve  the  situation  by  import 
duties,  loans  and  subsidies  from  France,  and  to 
inaugurate  a  policy  of  retrenchment.  He  was 
unable,  however,  to  carry  out  the  first  part  of 
his  scheme  on  account  of  the  refusal  of  the  States 
to  confer  the  necessary  jiower  ujion  Congress  for 
the  laying  of  import  duties.  On  .several  occasions 
he  succeeded  in  borrowing  large  sums  on  his  per- 
sonal credit,  without  which  some  of  the  im- 
portant campaigns  of  the  war  would  have  been 
impossible.  Thus  the  means  which  enabled  Wash- 
ington and  Greene  to  carry  out  the  campaign 
of  1781  were  raised  mainly  by  his  exertions. 
In  1781,  with  the  ajiproval  of  Congress,  he 
fotinded  the  Bank  of  North  America,  and  he- 
came  a  large  stockholder  in  it.  This  institution 
became  of  great  service  to  the  American  cause 
and  was.  to  a  certain  extent,  under  the  control  of 
!Morris.  He  continued  to  hold  the  difficult  and 
vexatious  office  of  Superintendent  of  Finance 
tmtil  November.  1784.  wiien  he  resigned  it  with 
a  sense  of  relief.  In  the  same  year  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Legislature  hiul  annulled  the  charter  of  the 
bank,  and  in  order  to  olitain  its  rei'stablishment 
Morris  secured  an  election  to  the  Legislature  in 
17.85  and  succeeded  in  having  the  charter  re- 
newed in  1786.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
again  elected  to  the  Legislature,  and  in  1787 
became  a  member  of  the  Constitutional  Con- 
vent ion  at  Philadcliihia.  He  had  the  honor  to 
uiiMiinate  Washington  for  the  Presidency  of  the 
Cimvention.  but  did  not  take  a  prominent  part 
in  the  proceedings  of  that  body.    Upon  the  organ- 


MORRIS. 


25 


MORRISBURG. 


ization  of  the  new  Government,  President  Wash- 
iugttjii  uU'ered  him  the  position  of  Secretary  of 
tlie  Treasury.  He  declined  the  oiler  and  recom- 
mended Alexander  Hamilton,  who  was  appointed. 
At  the  same  time,  however,  he  accepted  a  seat  in 
,the  United  States  Senate,  where  he  served  with- 
out special  distinction  until  1795.  Unfortunate 
business  speculations  proved  disastrous,  and 
on  February  16,  17'.I8,  he  entered  a  debt- 
or's prison  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  was 
confined  until  August  20,  ISOl.  He  died  May  8, 
1806.  A  short  biography  of  Robert  Morris  has 
been  written  hj  W.  G.  Sumner  (New  York, 
1892).  A  more  comprehensive  work  by  the  same 
author  is  The  Fiitaiickr  and  the  Fiitaiires  of  the 
American  Rc^^oUltioll  (New  York,  1891).  Con- 
sult also  Bolles,  The  Financial  Administration  of 
Robert  Morris   (1878). 

MORRIS,  Thom.\s  (1776-1844).  An  Ameri- 
can anti-slavery  leader,  born  in  Augusta  Count}', 
Va.  His  fatli?r  removed  to  Ohio  in  1795.  ^Yhile 
Avorking  on  a  farm  in  Clermont  County,  he 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1804. 
From  1806  to  1830  he  was  a  member  of  the  Ohio 
State  Legislature.  In  1832  he  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate,  as  a  Democrat.  He 
very  soon  took  ground  on  the  slavery  question, 
however,  in  radical  opposition  to  that  held  by  the 
majority  of  his  party.  He  willingly  presented 
anti-slavery  petitions,  and  ardently  defended  the 
right  of  petition  in  the  Senate.  He  also  spoke 
strongly  against  Texan  annexation.  In  1838, 
when  Calhoun  introduced  a  series  of  resolutions 
touching  the  constitutional  status  of  slavery, 
^Morris  introduced  a  set  of  alternative  resolutions 
embodying  a  rational  and  explicit  statement  of 
the  views  of  the  anti-slavery  men.  On  the  ex- 
piration of  his  term  as  Senator  his  constituents, 
to  whom  his  views  on  the  slavery  question  had 
been  displeasing  in  the  extreme,  discarded  him 
for  Benjamin  Tappan.  In  January,  1840,  at  the 
Democratic  State  convention,  he  was  read  out  of 
the  party,  and  later  in  the  year  associated  him- 
self politically  with  the  new  Liberty  Party  (q.v. ) 
movement.  In  Slay,  1841,  he  was  nominated  for 
Yice-President  on  the  Liberty  Party  ticket,  on 
which  .James  G.  Birney  had  been  named  for 
President.  These  nominations,  which  were  for 
the  campaign  of  1844,  were  confirmed  at  the 
BufTalo  convention  of  the  party  in  1843.  Con- 
sult: Smith,  The  Liberty  and  Free-Soil  Parties 
in  the  Xorthircst  (New  York,  1897)  :  and  B. 
F.  Morris,  Life  of  Thomas  Morris  (Cincinnati, 
1856). 

MORRIS,  \ViLLi.A.M  (1834-96).  An  English 
poet,  artist,  and  socialist,  born  at  Walthamstow, 
near  London.  March  24,  1834.  Morris's  early 
boyhood  was  spent  in  the  romantic  region  near 
Epping  Forest,  where  he  showed  at  the  outset  his 
love  for  nature.  He  was  educated  at  Marlbor- 
ough School  and  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford.  Here 
he  mingled  little  in  the  college  life,  but  he  read 
swiftly  and  widely,  thus  quickly  storing  in  his 
strong  memory  a  stock  of  knowledge  which  he 
put  to  use.  In  1854  distress  of  religion  almost 
cast  him  upon  the  wave  of  Catholic  feeling,  but 
the  impulse  passed.  He  mastered  Church  history 
and  Anglican  theolog\',  but  he  soon  left  them 
in  a  new  enthusiasm  for  Carlyle.  Ruskin,  and 
Kingsley.  In  1854  Morris  visited  France,  whith- 
er he  went  again  in  1855  with  his  friend  Edward 
Burne-Jones    (q.v.).      On   this   tour    he    fell    so 


wholly  under  the  spell  of  French  Gothic  that  he 
gave  up  his  earlier  purpose  of  founding  a  re- 
ligious brotherhood  and  became  an  archi- 
tect. After  trying  his  hand  at  architecture 
and  painting,  he  found  his  true  calling  in 
1861,  when  with  Rossetti,  Burne-.Jones,  and 
other  friends,  he  established  a  firm  in  London 
for  designing  and  manufacturing  artistic  furni- 
ture and  household  decorations.  As  time  went 
on,  Morris  took  up  the  manufacture  of  tapestry 
and  other  textiles,  dyeing,  book-illumination,  and 
printing.  Tlic  old  firm  of  decorative  art  was  dis- 
.solved  in  1871;  and  in  1881  Morris  transferred 
his  works  to  Merton  in  Surrey.  In  1890  he 
founded  the  famous  Kelmscott  Press  at  Hammer- 
smith. For  the  practical  advancement  of  the 
lesser  arts,  and  of  the  rare  doctrine  that  all 
things  should  be  made  beautiful,  Morris  did  more 
than  any  other  man  of  his  time.  At  Oxford,  Mor- 
ris showed  his  literary  talent  in  several  contribu- 
tions in  verse  and  prose  to  the  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge Magazine,  which  he  maintiained  (1856). 
Two  years  later  he  published  the  Defence  of 
Guenevere,  and  Other  Poems.  This  volume,  pre- 
Chaucerian  in  tone,  marks  a  date  in  later  Roman- 
ticism; and  never  again  did  ilorris  equal  it  in 
force  and  concentration.  Afterwards,  Morris 
turned  for  his  subjects  to  Greek,  Old  French, 
Norse,  and  other  mediaeval  stories,  which  he 
clothed  in  verse  with  great  facility.  By  the 
Life  and  Death  of  Jason  ( 1867)  and  The  Earthly 
Paradise  (1868-70),  he  proved  liimself  one  of  the 
best  stor3'-tellers  since  Chaucer,  his  avowed  mas- 
ter. In  the  summer  of  1871  he  made  a  trip 
through  Iceland.  In  1876  appeared  Sigurd  the 
Tolsung  and  the  Fall  of  the  Niblnngs,  a  narrative 
poem  approaching  the  dignity  of  an  epic.  Mor- 
ris wrote  many  romances  in  prose  or  in  prose  and 
verse  combined:  among  which  are  the  House  of 
the  Wolfings  ( 1888) ,  The  Roots  of  the  Mountains 
(1890),  The  Well  at  the  World's  End  (1896), 
and,  best  of  all,  the  Story  of  the  Glittering 
Plain  (1891).  In  the  same  year  he  published  a 
semi-utopian  romance,  News  from  'Nowhere,  in 
which  he  sought  to  popularizehis  socialistic  ideals. 
As  a  translator,  he  succeeded  capitally  in  his  ren- 
derings from  the  Sagas.  In  1885  he  became  an 
active  socialist,  delivering  lectures  to  workmen 
and  contributing  to  the  Com nioHicea/,  the  organ  of 
the  Socialistic  League.  He  died  October  3,  1896, 
leaving  to  the  world  an  immortal  example  of 
the  man  who  devotes  his  wealth  and  his  genius 
to  the  bettering  of  visible  things  and  to  the 
spread  of  manly  ideals.  A  collection  of  various 
papers,  entitled  Architecture.  Industrt/.  and 
Wealth,  was  not  published  till  1903.  Consult: 
Vallance,  William  Morris,  His  Art.  etc,  (contain- 
ing a  bibliography,  London.  1897)  :  Mackail.  The 
Life  of  William  Morris  (London  and  New  York. 
1899)  ;  Cary,  William  Morris.  Poet.  Craftsman, 
and  Socialist  (New  York,  1902);  Ricgel,  "Die 
Quellen  von  William  Morris's  Dichtung,  The 
Earthly  Paradise,"  in  Erlanger  Beitrage  zur  eng- 
lischen  Philologie  (Leipzig,  1890)  ;  and  see  Pre- 

RAPII.iELITES. 

MOR'RISBTJRG.  A  port  of  entry  of  Dundas 
County,  Ontario.  Canada,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Saint  Lawrence  River,  opposite  \Yaddington, 
N.  Y.,  43  miles  southeast  of  Ottawa  (Map:  On- 
tario, H  3).  It  is  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway 
at  the  entrance  to  the  Rapide  du  Plat  Canal.  It 
has  a  shipping  trade  and  is  the  seat  of  a  United 


MORRISBUEG. 


26 


States   consul.     Population,   in    1891,    1859;    in 
190',  1093. 

MORRIS  DANCE  (from  OF.  morisquc,  mo- 
rv.sijiii,  Ir.  iiiijrcsijiic,  fioui  Sp.  morisvo,  Moorisli, 
from  iiioro,  Moot,  from  ilL.  Mortis,  Lat.  Maurus, 
Gk.  MaPpos,  Miiiiios,  Moor).  An  obsolete  English 
danci-  of  Moorish  orifjin.  it  seems  to  liave  heeii 
introilueed  into  England  about  tlie  time  of  Edward 
111.,  but  it  did  not  become  universally  popular 
until  the  time  of  Henry  \'ll.  During  the  suc- 
ceeding reign  it  reached  its  highest  development. 
Wlien  danced  in  connection  with  ,May  Day  it  was 
an  ehiborate  costume  (hmce,  and  llie  characters  of 
Robin  Hood.  Eriar  Tuck,  Maid  Marian,  Little 
John,  a  dragon,  and  hobby-liorse  were  intro- 
duced. The  costumes  of  the  performers  were 
generally  decorated  with  scores  of  small  bells 
which  were  tuned  in  musical  intervals.  There 
were  several  variations  of  the  Morris  Dance,  the 
two  most  notable  being  a  sword  dance,  where  the 
performers  leaped  over  swords,  and  a  ribbon 
dance,  in  which  the  girls  danced  back  and  forth 
between  colored  streamers.  At  the  Restoration 
the  Morris  Dance  was  revived  for  a  time,  but  soon 
died  out.  There  is  at  present  in  Yorkshire  a 
country  dance  called  the  Morris,  but  the  time  ( [ ) 
is  the  only  feature  which  it  has  in  common  with 
its  prototype. 

MORRIS  ISLAND.  An  island  at  the  south- 
ern entrance  to  tlie  luirbor  of  Charleston,  S.  C. 
Three  small  batteries  on  Cumming's  Point,  at  the 
northern  end,  took  part  in  the  bombardment  of 
Fort  Sumter  on  April  12-1.3,  1801.  Later  the 
works  were  strengthened  and  called  Battery 
Oregg,  and  Battery  Wagner  was  constructed  to 
the  south.  In  the  spring  of  lSfi.3  .Admiral  Du 
Pont  and  General  Hunter  made  unsuccessful 
attempts  to  reduce  tliese  defenses.  When  these 
officers  were  succeeded  by  Admiral  Dahlgren  and 
General  Gillmore,  early  in  .Tuly.  a  landing  was 
eflTected  on  the  southern  part  of  the  island,  but 
on  the  11th  and  18th  desperate  assaults  failed. 
A  regular  siege  was  established  and  five  parallels 
were  constructed.-  The  gims  of  Fort  Sumter, 
which  were  trained  to  protect  the  island,  were 
.silenced  by  the  Feileral  lleet.  and  on  September 
7th  (Jeneral  Beauregard  ordered  the  evacuation 
of  the  island.  Later  Battery  Gregg  was  re- 
mounted by  the  Federal  forces  and  did  mtich 
damage  to  the  city. 

MOR'RISON.  A  city  and  the  county-.seat  of 
Whitesiile  County.  111..  124  miles  west"  of  Chi- 
cago: on  the  Chicago  and  Xorthwestern  Railroad 
(Map:  Illinois.  B  2).  II  is  surrounded  by  n  sec- 
tion interested  largely  in  farming,  stock-raising, 
and  dairying,  and  manufaelures  refrigerators  and 
school  furniture,  flour,  carriages,  and  wagons. 
!t  has  a  public  museum  and  library.  Population, 
in   IS'ii).   iOH^:    in   1900.  2.108. 

MORRISON,  Artihr  (ISfi,-?— ).  An  English 
novelist,  widely  known  for  the  remorseless 
realism  with  which  he  depicLs  London  life.  His 
publications  comprise:  Tnlrit  of  .Vrnii  fUrrrtn 
(1894):  .V«r/in  ftfiritt.  Inrextiqntor  (1804): 
Chrotiirirs  of  Mnrlin  Uririll  (189.5)  :  AilirnturrK 
of  Mnrliii  nnrilt  (ISOfi)  ;  1  Chilfl  of  thr  .Inqo 
(1890);  Thi-  Dorriiiqliin  nrrd-fioT  (1897):  To 
London  Toirn  (1809)  :  Ciiimintj  MurreU  (1900), 
the  scene  of  which  is  laid  in  Essex;  and 
Thr  note  in  the  Wall,  n  .storv  of  Wappinjt 
(1902). 


MORRISON. 

MORRISON,  .James  Dow  (1844—).  An 
American  Episcopal  bishop,  burn  of  Scottish  par- 
ents in  W  addinglon,  N.  Y.  Ue  received  his  early 
educatiou  in  Canada,  graduated  from  MuGill 
University,  Montreal,  in  1805,  and  three  years 
afterwards  was  ordained  a  deacon  in  Quebec.  Be-« 
coming  a  priest  in  1870,  he  took  a  charge  in 
Canada,  but  the  following  year  was  called  to 
Herkimer,  N.  Y'.,  and  thence  to  Ogdensburg  in 
187.3,  where  he  was  archdeacon  from  1881  until 
1897,  when  he  was  consecrated  first  Protestant 
Episcopal  Missionary  Bishop  of  Duluth.  In 
1898  he  was  appointed  Paddock  lecturer  by  the 
General  Thculogical  Seminary  of  New  Y'ork. 

MORRISON,  KOBKRT  (1782-1834).  The  first 
Protestant  missionary  to  China,  born  at  BuUer's 
Green,  Jlorpeth,  England.  Three  years  later  his 
father  removed  to  Newcastle.  He  learned  the 
trade  of  boot-tree  maker  after  leaving  school. 
In  1797  he  was  converted,  joined  the  Preshyterian 
Church,  and  began  to  improve  himself  by  study. 
In  1803  he  was  admitted  to  Hoxton  Independent 
Academy,  and  in  the  following  year  entered  the 
Mission  College  of  Gosjjort.  The  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  decided  in  1807  to  begin  mission 
work  in  China,  and  Morrison,  having  been  or- 
dained, was  sent  out  as  the  first  missionary, 
L'ndcr  the  protection  of  some  merchants  from  the 
United  States  settled  at  Canton,  he  assumed 
Chinese  dress  and  began  the  study  of  Chinese. 
In  1809  he  was  appointed  translator  to  the  East 
India  Comimny's  factory  here,  and  while  in  this 
position  he  ])repared  a  (Inimmnr  of  the  Chinese 
lAimiUiiye,  published  in  1815.  Between  1815  and 
1823  appeared  the  six  thick  quarto  volumes  of 
his  Dictionary  of  the  Chinese  Language,  a  work 
of  great  learning.'  btit  now  superseded.  He  also 
produced  several  vocabularies  of  Canton-English 
and  English-Canton.  His  New  Testament  in  Chi- 
nese was  published  in  1815.  and  the  Old  Testa- 
ment appeared  in  1818.  In  that  year  he  founded 
the  .Vnglo-ChiiH'se  College  at  .Malacca.  It  was  re- 
moved to  Hung  Kong  in  1S4.'>.  He  died  in  Canton. 
Consult:  the  Memoir  by  his  widow  (2  vols., 
London,  1839)  :  and  Townscnd,  Robert  Morrison 
(New  York  and  Chicago,  1888), 

MORRISON,  William  (c.1783-1866).  A 
Canadian  explorer  and  fur  trader,  born  at 
Montreal.  He  began  trapping  and  trading  for 
Sir  Alexander  MacKenzie  &  Co.  at  Fond  du  Lac 
in  1802,  and  joined  the  Northwest  Company  in 
1805.  .\fler  .John  .lacob  Astor  gained  control  in 
1818  of  the  business  in  the  United  States.  Mor- 
rison worked  for  him  until  1826.  Morrison 
claimed  to  have  explored  during  the  winter  of 
1803-04  Lac  La  Biche.  or  Elk  Lake,  which  was 
long  afterwards  (1832)  identified  as  the  source 
of  tlie  Mississippi  by  Schoolcraft  and  renamed 
Itasca.  He  was  probably  naturalized  as  an 
American  citizen,  but  spent  the  last  years  of 
his  life  in  Canada.  Consult  ]tinnesota  Historieal 
Soeieti/  Collections  (vol.  i..  Saint  Paul,  1S72:  vol. 
vii..  Minneapolis,  1893;  vol.  viii..  Saint  Paul, 
1S!)S). 

MORRISON,  William  Kai.ls  (1825- ).  An 
.American  politician  and  Congressman,  horn  in 
Monroe  County.  111.  He  was  educated  at  McKen- 
dree  College,  but  left  before  graduation  tn  enlist 
as  a  private  in  an  Illinois  volunteer  resinient  fur 
the  Mexican  War.  and  participated  in  most  of 
the  battles  of  Tavlor's  campaign,  .\fter  bis  re- 
ttirn  he  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar. 


MORRISON. 


27 


MORSE. 


and  from  1855  to  1859  was  a  Democratic  mem- 
ber of  the  Lower  House  of  the  Illinois  Legisla- 
ture, serviug  as  Spealier  in  tlie  last  year.  At 
the  outbreak  of  tlie  Civil  War  lie  organized  and 
became  colonel  of  tile  Forty-ninth  Illinois  In- 
fantry, serving  in  that  capacity  until  December, 
18G3,  wlien  he  resigned  to  talve  Ids  seat  as  a 
Democrat  in  the  Thirty-eighth  Congress,  to  whicli 
he  had  been  elected  wliile  at  tlie  front  in  the 
preceding  year.  He  practiccil  law  from  1805  un- 
til 1873,  and  from  that  year  until  1887  was 
again  a  member  of  t!ie  National  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives. During  liis  Congressional  career  lie 
attained  wide  distinction  as  an  advocate  of  a 
radical  reduction  in  the  tarifT,  l)ut  was  never  able 
to  secure  the  support  of  enough  members  of  liis 
own  party  to  assure  the  passage  of  bills  which 
as  chairman  of  the  Ways  and  ileans  Committee 
he  introduced  in  1876.  1884,  and  1880.  The  bill 
of  1884,  embodying  the  famous  'horizontal'  tariff 
scheme,  which  proposed  a  straiglit  (or  hori- 
zontal) reduction  of  20  per  cent,  from  the  tariff 
of  1883.  was  defeated  by  a  slender  majority  ob- 
tained through  the  opposition  of  the  protection- 
ist Democrats  under  the  lead  of  Samticl  J.  Kan- 
dall.  In  1885  Morrison  was  defeated  for  election 
to  the  United  States  Senate  by  John  A.  Logan 
by  one  vote,  and  in  the  following  year  failed  of 
reelection  to  the  House.  He  was  appointed  l\v 
President  Cleveland  a  member  of  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  in  1887,  and  served  until 
1897,  for  the  last  six  years  as  chairman. 

MOR'RISTOWW.  A  town  and  the  county- 
seat  of  ilorris  Cotmty,  X.  J.,  18  miles  west  of 
Newark;  on  the  Lackawanna,  the  Eockaway  Val- 
ley, and  the  Whippany  River  railroads  (Jlap: 
New  Jersey,  C  2 ) .  Among  the  features  of  the 
town  are  Memorial  and  All  Souls'  hospitals,  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and  Young 
Men's  Catholic  Association  buildings,  a  public 
park  with  a  Soldiers'  Monument,  and  a  large  pub- 
lic library  and  lyceum,  occupying  a  handsome  edi- 
fice. Here  is  the  site  of  Fort  Nonsense,  erected  by 
Wasliington  and  marked  by  a  memorial  monu- 
ment. Four  miles  from  the  town,  at  Morris  Plains, 
is  the  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  which  cost 
nearly  .$3,000,000.  has  accommodations  for  1500 
patients,  and  at  the  time  of  its  completion  was 
the  largest  institution  of  its  character  in  the 
United  States.  Morristown  is  in  the  rose  and 
peach  belt  of  the  country,  on  a  tableland  sur- 
rounded by  hills,  rising  nearly  700  feet  aliove  sea 
level,  and  is  in  a  great  measure  a  wealthy  resi- 
dential iilace  with  large  villas.  No  cffoi-t  has 
been  made  to  foster  manufacturing,  but  the  trade 
of  the  town  with  the  surrounding  country  is  ac- 
tive. Its  comparatively  dry  and  hraciiig  winter 
climate  attracts  invalids.  The  government,  as 
jn-ovided  tinder  the  original  charter  of  incorpora- 
tion, is  vested  in  a  mayor  and  a  municipal  coun- 
cil, of  which  the  executive  is  a  member.  The 
school  commissioners  are  chosen  bv  popular  vote. 
Population,  in  1890,  8150:  in  1900.  11,207. 

Settled  about  1710,  Morristown  was  known  as 
\Vest  Hanover  until  in  1740  it  received  its 
present  name  in  honor  of  Lewis  Jlorris.  then  fiov- 
ernor  of  New  .Jersey.  During  the  Revolution 
Washington  made  his  headquarters  hero  from 
.Tanunry  to  Jlay,  1777,  and  again  from  Decem- 
ber, 1779,  to  .Tune.  1780,  occupying  during  the 
latter  period  the  old  Ford  mansion,  which  now 
belongs  to  the  Washington  Association,  and  in 
Vol    XIV.— 3. 


which  numerous  Revolutionary  relics  are  ex- 
hibited. At  the  old  Speedwell  Iron  Works  here 
the  shaft  o.f  the  Hacannah,  the  first  steamboat  to 
cross  the  Atlantic,  was  cast,  and  here,  from  1837 
to  1843,  Professor  Morse  and  Alfred  Vail  per- 
fected the  electric  telegraph.  jNIorristown  was 
incorporated  in  1805.  Consult:  Colles,  Authora 
a)id  ^Yrit()■s  Associated  with  Morristown,  etc. 
(Morristown,  1893)  ;  Tnttle,  History  of  Morris- 
town. 

MORRISTO'WN'.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Hamblen  County,  Tenn.,  42  miles  nortlieasl 
of  Kno.wille;  on  the  Morristown  and  Cumberland 
Gap  and  the  Southern  railroads  (Jlap:  Tennes- 
see, H  4).  It  is  tlie  seat  of  the  ilorristown  Nor- 
mal College,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  institution 
for  negroes.  Morristown  is  the  commercial  cen- 
tre of  a  rich  agricultural  section,  and  is  an  im- 
portant stock  market.  The  manufactures  in- 
clude flour,  tobacco,  stoves,  wagons,  leather, 
brooms,  agricultural  implements,  and  sash  and 
blinds,  and  there  are  quarries  of  variegated  mar- 
ble and  zinc,  lead,  and  iron  mines  in  the  vicinity. 
Population,  in   1890,   1999;   in   1900,  2973. 

MORS.  The  largest  island  in  the  Limfjord, 
in  the  northwestern  part  of  Jutland,  Denmark 
(Map:  Denmark,  B  2).  Its  area  is  139  square 
miles.  It  is  in  marked  contrast  with  the  sur- 
rounding mainland,  being  much  more  fertile,  and 
having  a  somewhat  elevated  (250  feet)  interior, 
with  steep  coasts.  Population,  in  1901,  22,237. 
The  chief  town  is  Nj'kjobing. 

MORSE  (probably  from  Icel.  mar,  sea  +  ros, 
horse,  cf.  Norweg.  rosinar,  walrus;  less  plausibly 
from  Russ.  rnvryii,  niorzhii,  morse,  from  more, 
sea ) .    An  old  name  for  the  Atlantic  walrus   ( q.v. ) . 

MORSE,  Edwaed  Sylvester  (1838 — ).  An 
American  naturalist  and  archaeologist,  born  at 
Portland,  Maine.  He  was  educated  at  Bethel 
Academy.  Maine,  and  at  the  Lawrence  Scientific 
School,  Cambridge.  He  was  professor  of  com- 
parative anatomy  and  zoology  at  Bowdoin  Col- 
lege from  1871  to  1874,  and  at  the  Imperial  Uni- 
versity. Tokio.  Japan,  from  1877  to  1880.  In 
1881  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Peabody 
Academy  of  Sciences,  of  which  he  was  a  founder. 
He  also  became  known  as  a  popular  lecturer  on 
natural  history  aiul  Oriental  travel.  Morse  es- 
tablished a  reputation  early  as  a  zoologist  by  the 
following  studies  of  brachiopods,  which  proved 
them  not  to  be  mollusks:  Early  Stages:  nf  Tere- 
Tiratulina  (1870)  ;  Emhryology  of  TercbratuJina 
(18721;  Systematic  Position  of  Brachiopods 
(1873).  He  also  wrote  Ascending  Process  of  the 
Astragalus  in  Birds  (1880).  'Cvhile  in  Japan 
Morse  interested  himself  greatly  in  the  art.  an- 
tiquities, social  customs,  and  folk-lore  of  the 
people,  and  he  made  extensive  collections  of  pot- 
tery and  investigated  its  prehistoric  archopology. 
Some  of  the  results  were  published  in  the  books: 
Japanese  Homes  and  Their  Surroundings 
(1880);  On  the  Older  Forms  of  Terra-Cotta 
Roofing  Tiles  (1892);  and  other  pamphlets 
and  papers,  which  are  regarded  as  highly  iin- 
liortant  by  specialists.  His  unique  collec- 
tion of  .Tapanese  pottery  and  objects  of  art 
was  bought  by  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  in 
Boston,  where  it  is  installed  separately  as  the 
'Morse  Collection.'  of  which  Professor  Morse 
was  made  curator.  An  illustrated  Catnlogiir  of 
it,    prepared   by   Morse,    was    published   by   the 


MOUSE.  28 

museum  in  1901 ;  it  is  regarded  by  critics  as  "a 
masterpiece  of  hard  work  and  intelligence,"  and 
a  line  example  of  licautiful  book-making.  .Morse 
has  also  had  charge  for  many  years  of  the 
Museum  of  the  Peabody  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Salem,  Mass. 

MORSE,  John  Tobrey  ( 1840—  ) .  An  Ameri- 
can biographer.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege in  18U0,  lectured  there  on  history  (lH7(>-79), 
was  co-editor  witli  Henry  Cabot  Lodge  of  the 
Jntemational  J/eineiv,  and  practiced  law  in  Bos- 
ton. His  work  is  to  be  found  in  various  re- 
views. His  books  include:  a  Treatise  on  the 
Law  Relating  to  Banhn  and  liankin;/  (1870); 
Lair  of  Arbitration  and  Aicard  (1872)  ;  Famous 
Trials  (1874);  a  Life  of  Alexander  Hamilton 
(1870);  Life  and  Letters  of  Olirer  Wendell 
Holmes  (1806),  and  in  "The  -Vmerican  States- 
men Series,"  edited  by  him,  the  lives  of  •John 
Quiney  Adams  (1883),  Thomas  Jefferson 
(1883).  John  Adams  (1884),  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin   (1880),  and  Abraham  Lincoln   (1893). 

MORSE,  S.\.\HEL  Fin-ley  Bree.se,  LL.D.  ( 1791- 
1872).  An  American  artist  and  inventor.  He 
was  born  at  Charlestown,  Jlass.,  and  graduated 
at  Vale  College  in  1810.  later  visiting  England 
with  the  American  painter  Washington  Allslon, 
where  he  .studied  painting  with  him  and  Ben- 
jamin West.  In  1813  he  received  the  gold  medal 
of  the  Adelphi  Society  of  Arts  for  his  lir.st  effort 
in  sculi)ture,  tlie  "Dying  Hercules."  Keturning 
to  New  York  in  1815,  he  became  in  182G  the 
fir.st  president  of  the  National  Academy  of  De- 
sign, and  was  appointed  in  183o  professor  of  the 
arts  of  design  in  the  University  of  the  City  of 
New  York.  He  did  not  give  liis  entire  at- 
tention to  art,  but  was  interested  in  chemistry 
and  especially  in  electrical  and  galvanic  experi- 
ments; his  interest  doubtless  being  awakened  in 
the  sul)jeet  of  electro-magnetism  through  con- 
versation with  Prof.  .1.  Freeman  Dana,  who  lec- 
tured in  New  York  on  that  subject  in  182(!27. 
and  exhibited  an  electro-magnet.  Morse  first 
conceived  the  idea  of  the  telegraph  while  on  board 
the  packet-shi])  Siilli/  on  his  way  from  Kurojie  to 
-America  in  1832.  while  discussing  the  then  recent 
discovery  in  France  of  a  method  for  olitaining  the 
electric  spark  from  the  magnet.  Before  the 
close  of  that  year  a  portion  of  the  apparatus 
which  he  had  devised  had  been  constructed  in 
New  York,  but  it  was  not  until  three  years  later 
that,  in  a  room  in  the  New  York  riiiversity 
building,  he  showed  the  telegraph  operating  with 
half  a  mile  of  wire.  In  September,  1S37,  he 
made  a  public  exhibition  of  his  discovery,  and 
in  that  year  filed  his  caveat  at  Washington.  No 
result  followed  his  appeal  to  Congress  for  aid 
during  that  session,  and  Professor  Morse  visited 
Knrope  with  the  hope  of  enlisting  the  interests 
of  foreign  governments  in  his  invention.  In 
this  attempt  he  was  unsuccessful,  and  he  re- 
turned to  New  York,  where,  as  well  as  in  Wash- 
ington, he  struggled  under  serious  privations 
during  the  four  years  which  elapsed  before  he 
obtained  (1843)  Congressional  aid.  In  that  year, 
after  he  had  almost  yielded  to  despair.  Congress 
at  midniglit.  in  the  la-sl  moments  of  the  session, 
appriipriaird  .*30.000  for  an  experinientnl  line 
between  Wasliiiiglon  and  Biiltimore.  .\fter  this 
aid  hail  liiin  "..'ranted.  Morse  succeeded  iifter 
many  diniiultir^  in  <>stablishing  a  working  tcle- 


MORSHANSK. 


graph  line,  and  the  first  message,  "What  hath 
tiod  wrought  V  was  sent  from  the  rooms  of  the 
Inited  States  Supreme  Court  in  the  Capitol  at 
Washington  to  Baltimore  on  May  24,  1844.  From 
this  time  the  telegraph  was  an  assured  success, 
but  Professor  Morse  was  frequently  invcdved  in 
litigation  to  maintain  his  rights  under  his  pat- 
ents. He  also  was  engaged  in  immerous  contro- 
versies. But  the  number  and  character  of  the 
honors  heaped  upon  Professor  Morse  on  account 
of  his  invaluable  invention  have  probably  never 
been  equaled  in  the  case  of  any  other  American. 
See  Telkorapii. 

Professor  Morse  set  up  the  first  daguerreotype 
apparatus,  and  with  Prof.  John  W.  Draper  was 
associated  in  taking  the  first  daguerreotypes  in 
America ;  he  also  laid  the  first  submarine  tele- 
graph line  (in  New  York  Harbor  in  1842)  ;  and 
from  him,  in  a  letter  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  of  the  United  States  in  1843,  seems  to 
have  come  the  first  suggestion  of  an  .Vtlantic 
telegraph.  His  death  occurred  about  tliree 
months  after  his  last  ]mlilic  act — the  unveiling  of 
the  statue  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  in  Printing- 
house  Square,  New  Y'ork.  lie  died  in  New  York, 
April  2,  1872.  Consult  Prime,  Life  of  S.  F.  B. 
Morse    (New  York.    187.')). 

MORSE,  SiD.NEY  Edwards  (1794-1871).  An 
AiiH-rican  journalist,  geographer,  and  inventor, 
a  brother  of  Sammd  F.  B.  Morse.  He  was  born 
in  Charlestown.  Mass.,  graduated  at  Y'ale  in 
1 81 1,  studied  theology  and  law.  and  in  1815  es- 
tablished the  Boston  ficcorder,  a  weekly  religious 
news|)aper,  which  he  edited  for  more  than  a  year. 
In  1820  he  published  a  small  geography,  and  in 
1823  a  larger  one  called  .-l  A'f ir  f^i/slcm  of  "od- 
cm  ncotfrnphii.  of  which  more  than  five  hundrecl 
thousand  copies  were  ultimately  sold.  The  suc- 
cess of  the  liook  was  partly  due  to  the  later  use 
in  it  of  superior  niaji-jirints  in  color  produced 
by  a  new  ju-ocess  called  cerograjjhy.  which  he, 
with  the  assistance  of  Henrv  .\.  Miuison.  devel- 
oped in  1839.  In  1823.  with'his  brother  P.ichard. 
he  established  the  New  York  Ohserrrr.  another 
religious  weekly,  and  he  continued  to  be  its  chief 
editor  and   proprietor  until   1858. 

MORSELLI,  mor-sel'le.  ExRico  Agostino 
(1852—).  An  Italian  alienist  and  neurologist, 
born  at  Modena,  and  graduated  at  the  university 
of  that  city  in  1874.  He  studied  psychiatry  at 
Reggio  under  Livi.  and  anthropcdog^"  at  Florence 
luider  Mantegazza,  and  subsequently  became  pro- 
fessor of  psychiatry  in  the  Turin  medical  sehoid 
and  physician  in  cliarge  of  the  insane  asylum  in 
the  same  city.  He  is  llie  author  of  a  number  of 
medico-legal  and  neundogical  papers.  Among 
his  published  works  are:  Critiea  e  rifor^iia  del 
melodo  in  antropologia  (Rome,  1880)  :  fitiicidc: 
An  Essaji  on  Comparative  Moral  {Statistics  (New 
York.  1882)  ;  Mnnuale  delle  mnlattie  mentnli 
(Milan.  1885);  11  inagnctismo  animale  (Turin. 
ISHIi).  Mor.selli  was  co-editor  of  the  Ririsia 
sfirrimentale  di  freniatria  e  di  medicina  legale 
in  1875;  and  of  the  Archivo  di  psichiatria  in 
1 885. 

MORSHANSK,  m6r-shan.sk'.  An  important 
commeni.il  town  in  the  Covernment  of  Tambov, 
Russia,  situated  near  the  river  Tsna.  about  60 
miles  nortli-northeast  of  the  city  of  Tambov 
(Map:  Ru-i'^ia.  F  4).  It  produces  tallow,  soap, 
ami  spirits  on  a  large  scale,  and  is  the  seat  of  an 


MORSHANSK. 


29 


MOBTARA. 


extensive    trade    in    agricultural    products    and 
live  stock.     Population,  in  18'J7,  27,756. 

MORTALITY,  Statistics  of.  See  Vital 
Statistics. 

MORTAL  SIN.  In  Roman  Catholic  theology, 
the  name  given  to  tlie  graver  class  of  sins,  in 
distinction  from  venial  sins  (q.v.).  For  a  sin 
to  be  mortal,  it  must  be  a  conscious  violation  of 
a  known  divine  law,  decided  upon  deliberately  by 
a  free  will,  and  it  nmst  be  in  a  matter  of  im- 
I)ortance;  thus,  for  example,  the  theft  of  a  few 
|icniiies,  without  aggravating  circumstances, 
would  not  be  a  mortal  sin.  Mortal  sin,  as  its 
name  implies,  is  believed  to  destroy  absolutely 
the  divine  life  of  grace  in  the  soul  and  render  it 
deserving  of  eternal  punishment,  unless  remitted 
by  perfect  contrition,  or  b}'  attrition  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  sacrament  of  penance   (q.v.). 

MORTAR  (OF.,  Fr.  morticr,  from  Lat.  »ior- 
tariiim,  mortar;  connected  with  tnarcus,  hammer, 
Skt.  mar,  to  crush).  A  mixture  or  paste  of 
cement  or  lime  and  sand.  Mortars  may  be  clas- 
sified according  to  the  nature  of  the  cementing 
substance  used,  into:  Common  lime  mortar, 
hydraulic   lime  mortar,  and  cement  mortar. 

Common  Lime  Mortab.  Jlortar  made  of  com- 
mon lime  is  extensively  used  beeau.se  of  its  in- 
trinsic cheapness  and  the  ease  with  which  it  can 
lie  prepared.  It  sets  or  becomes  hard  only  in 
air,  however,  and  should  consequently  not  be 
used  under  water  or  in  wet  places.  Its  small 
strength  compared  with  cement  mortar,  however, 
limits  its  use  to  str\ictures  in  which  great 
strength  is  not  required.  In  making  lime  mortar 
the  proportions  of  the  mixture  are  usually  about 
one  volume  of  lime  to  from  two  and  one-half  to 
three  volumes  of  sand.  The  lime  is  placed  in  a 
layer  in  a  shallow  bo.x  or  in  a  depression  scooped 
out  of  the  sand  and  then  sprinkled  with  a  quan- 
tity of  water  from  two  and  one-half  to  three  times 
I  lie  volume  of  the  lime.  This  being  done,  the  lime 
sliould  be  left  to  'slack'  undisturbed.  It  is  gen- 
erally held  by  engineers  that  the  lime  should  be 
slacked  at  least  twenty-four  hours  before  it  is 
mixed  with  the  sand.  Tliis  is  frequently  not 
dime,  through  haste  or  carelessness,  in  common 
building  operations.  It  is  also  important  that 
all  tlie  water  required  for  slacking  should  be 
added  to  the  lime  at  one  time,  since  the  addition 
of  water  after  slacking  has  begun  retards  that 
]irocess  and  results  in  the  production  of  a  lumpy 
mortar.  After  the  lime  has  been  slacked  the 
sand  is  spread  in  a  layer  over  its  top  and  the 
two  materials  are  mixed  and  remixed  by  means 
of  a  hoe  or  shovel  until  a  uniform  jiaste  is 
secured.     The   mortar  is   then   ready   for   use. 

IIydraclic  Lime  Mortar.  In  hydraulic  lime 
mortars  the  proportions  of  the  ingredients  and 
the  manner  of  mixing  them  are  substantially  the 
same  as  for  common  lime  mortar.  The  only 
cliange  practically  is  the  use  of  hydraulic  lime 
instead  of  common  lime.     See  Cement. 

Cement  Mortar.  The  most  valuable  of  all 
mortars  are  those  made  with  hydraulic  cements 
(see  Cement)  as  a  binding  material.  The  pro- 
portions of  the  ingredients  that  are  most  com- 
monly use  are  one  part  cement  and  two  or  three 
parti^sand.  To  make  the  mixture  about  half 
the  sand  is  spread  in  a  layer  over  the  bottom 
nf  the  mixing  box:  the  cement  is  then  spread  in  a 
layer  over  this  sand  bed.  and  is  in  turn  covered  . 
with  the  remainder  of  the  sand.     The  mass  of 


cement  and  sand  is  then  turned  and  re-turned 
with  a  shovel  until  the  two  ingredients  are 
thoroughlj'  intermingled.  Water  is  then  added  to 
the  mixture,  which  is  again  turned  by  the  -shovel 
until  it  is  uniformly   wet. 

Grout.  A  thin  or  liquid  mixture  of  lime  or 
cement  is  called  grout.  It  is  used  to  fill  up  small 
interstices  by  pouring  it  upon  the  masonry,  into 
the  voids  of  which  it  is  expected  to  find  its  way 
because  of  its  liquid  nature. 

For  a  comprehensive  discussion  of  mortars,  see 
Baker,  A  Treatise  on  Masonry  Construction  (New 
York,  1902).     See  Building. 

MORTAR.  A  type  or  form  of  ordnance  used 
for  high-angle  tire.  In  design  it  is  short  in  length 
in  proportion  to  its  calibre  or  size  of  bore.  In 
the  United  States  and  England  mortars  are 
almost  entirely  used  for  coast  defense  purposes. 
In  the  former  countiy  mortar  batteries  consist  of 
either  eight  or  sixteen  mortars  each,  four  mortars 
to  a  pit.  The  pits  arc  fortified  with  parapets 
constructed  of  sand  reenforced  on  the  interior  by 
a  concrete  wall.  They  are  separated  by  sub- 
stantial traverses  which  contain  the  necessary 
magazines,  bomb-proofs,  etc.  ( See  illustration 
under  Fortification.)  The  batteries  are  con- 
trolled by  an  oflicer  (the  predicting  officer),  who 
observes  the  plotting  board,  the  target,  and  the 
effect  or  destination  of  the  projectile,  in  order  to 
give  the  projjer  direction  and  elevation  to  the  men 
working  the  pieces  in  the  pit.  France  has  taken 
the  lead  in  the  manufacture  of  these  types  of 
ordnance,  the  Creusot  works  of  Messrs.  Schneider 
&  Co.  being  perhaps  the  best  known  in  the  world. 

The  use  of  field  mortars  has  not  been  as  yet 
put  to  the  test  of  modern  battle  conditions,  so 
that  their  employment  is  largely  a  matter  of 
conjecture.  In  1903  Russia  led  the  world  with 
a  regularly  organized  and  equipped  division  of 
24  batteries,  C  mortars  to  a  battery.  Austria 
and  Germany  come  next,  the  latter  country  dif- 
fering from  Russia  in  details  of  organization. 
Although  the  advantages  of  field  mortars  are 
conceded  to  be  greater  than  their  disadvantages, 
the  latter  are  still  sufficiently  important  to  delay 
their  general  immediate  employment.  The  most 
important  disadvantage  is  the  difficulty  of  getting 
men  so  thoroughly  trained  that  they  are  equally 
expert  with  the  ordinary  flat  projectory  field  gun 
and  the  high-angle  mortars.  Another  defect 
in  field  mortars  is  their  utter  inability  of  de- 
fending themselves  at  close  range.  For  illus- 
tration of  the  12-inch  breech-loading  mortar 
used  in  the  United  States  service,  see  Coast 
Artillery,  and  for  an  illustration  of  the  10-inch 
cast-iron  muzzle-loading  mortar,  see  Artillery. 
See  also  Coa.st  Defense;  Howitzer;  Ordnance. 
Under  the  latter  head  the  construction  of  a  mod- 
ern mortar  is  described. 

MORTARA,  mor-til'ra.  A  town  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Pavia.  Italy,  situated  on  the  Arhogna, 
and  at  the  junction  of  several  railroads.  25  miles 
southwest  of  .Milan  (Map:  Italy.  C  2).  There 
are  a  Gothic  church  (San  Lorenzo),  with  paint- 
ings, a  theatre,  and  a  high  school.  Manufactures 
of  machines  and  hats  are  carried  on.  At  the 
battle  of  Mortara.  March  21.  1849.  the  Austrians 
defeated  the  Sardinians.  Population  (commune), 
in  ISSl.  snsS:  in  1901,  80.31. 

MOBTARA,  En(,AR.  A  .fewish  boy  whose  al- 
leged abduction  excited  nuich  interest  in  Europe 
in  1858  and  following  years.     He  was  the  son  of 


MORTARA. 


30 


MORTGAGE. 


Momolo  Mortara,  a  resident  of  Bologna,  and, 
as  was  said,  was  forcibly  taken  from  his  father's 
liouse  on  June  23,  1808,  by  the  authorities  on 
the  ground  that  he  had  been  baptized  into  Chris- 
tianity by  a  Roman  Catholic  maid-servant.  The 
efforts  of  tiie  parents  to  recover  the  boy  aroused 
mucli  sympathy,  but  were  unsuccessful.  Ap- 
jiarcntly  of  his  own  choice,  he  remained  with  the 
Church  authorities,  was  educated  for  tlie  priest- 
hood, became  an  Augustinian  monk,  and  preached 
his  first  sermon  in  1874.  Consult  Thv  True  Story 
of  theJeu--ish  Boy  Edfiar  Mortara  (London,  18G0). 

MORTAR  VESSEL.  A  vessel  fitted  for 
carrying  and  operating  a  mortar.  tSuch  a  vessel 
requires  good  beam  and  a  strong  deck  to  resist 
the  recoil  of  the  mortar.  During  the  Civil  War 
schooners    were    used    as    mortar    vessels.  In 

Europe,  ketch-built  vessels  were  largely  used  for 
this  purpose,  the  so-called  bomb-keteli  being  a 
frequent  adjunct  to  a  fleet  in  c<mducting  opera- 
tions against  land  defenses.  Ketch-built  vessels 
are  not  only  stoutly  framed  and  broad  of  beam, 
but  the  length  of  deck  foi-ward  of  the  masts  gives 
ample  room  for  working  a  mortar. 

MORTE  D' ARTHUR,  mort  dar'tyr'  (OF., 
the  death  of  Arthur).  The  name  applied,  in 
slightly  varying  forms,  to  several  versions  of 
the  Arthurian  legend  and  cognate  stories.  (See 
Arthub.)  There  are  two  English  metrical  ro- 
mances of  the  name,  each  e.\isting  in  a  single 
manuscript,  and  probably  based  on  French  orig- 
inals. But  in  more  than  one  vay  the  most  im- 
portant work  bearing  this  name  is  the  celebrated 
reduction  or  blending  by  Sir  Thomas  Malory  of 
French  and  English  romances.  It  was  completed 
in  14(i0  and  first  printed,  by  Caxton,  in  1485. 
Of  this  edition  but  two  copies  exist,  the  only 
j)erfect  one  in  Xew  York:  a  scholarly  reprint 
of  it.  with  valuable  editorial  matter,  was  made 
by  Sommer  (London,  1889).  Probably  very 
])opular  for  a  time,  this  'noble  and  joyous  book,' 
as  Caxton  calls  it.  fell  later  into  disrepute  with 
an  age  out  of  harmony  with  its  spirit,  and  was 
scornfully  condemned  by  .\scham  in  a  well-known 
passage  of  The  Sehnnlmaxler.  But  the  nineteenth 
eentur}'  recognized  fully  its  extraordinary  merits. 
"There  was,"  says  .Saintsbury.  "at  .\scham's 
date,  no  more  exquisite  example  of  English  prose 
in  existence.  There  is  not  to  this  ilay  a  book, 
either  in  prose  or  in  verse,  which  has  more  of  the 
true  romantic  charm."  .\part  from  the-  skillful 
combination  of  diverse  elements  to  make  a  story, 
in  which  Malory  shows  little  short  of  genius,  his 
style,  in  its  stately  harmony  and  graceful  pic- 
turesqneness,  is  most  remarkable  for  its  period. 
Indeed,  he  may  l)e  called  the  first  English  writer 
who  shows  a  .sense  of  the  rhythmical  flow  and 
gracious  music  of  which  the  language  is  so  richly 
capable.  The  book  probably  did  more  than  any 
other  influence  to  nationalize  the  .\rthurian  le- 
gend: and  the  poets,  from  Spenser  to  Tennyson 
(in  the  Idylla  of  the  Kiufi),  have  drawn  abun- 
<lantly  <ui  its  treasures.  The  best  modern  edi- 
tions, besides  that  mentioned  above,  are  by  Rhys 
(  London,  1S!)4  I  ;  Wright!  ib.,  IS.-)(i)  ;  Strachey  ( ib., 
IHiiSi  :  and  1  ;(illanez,"TempleClassies"  (ib.,  11)00). 

MORTGAGE  (OF.  mortgaige,  moriiaf/c,  Fr. 
mortfiniir,  fiiini  morl,  from  Lnt.  niortuus.  dead, 
from  iiiorr.  Skt.  mnr.  to  die  +  pfiqr.  'ML.  rdiliiiiii, 
iradliim.  from  Ooth.  irnrli.  OTKi.  irrtti.  Oor. 
Wellr.  AS.  wrdrl.  archaic  Eng.  trrii.  Laf.  rns, 
pledge.  Lith.  rarliiti,  to  redeem  a  pledge).    Mort- 


gage is  the  conveyance  or  transfer  of  property, 
either  real  or  personal  as  security  for  the  payment; 
of  a  debt  or  the  performance  of  a  legal  obligation. 

The  debtor  or  obligor  may,  and  usually  does, 
retain  possession  of  the  property  mortgaged — 
the  validity  of  the  security  not  depending  upon 
possession  as  in  the  case  of  pledge  (q.v.)  and 
common-law  lien  (q.v.)  This  method  of  securing 
performance  of  an  obligation  was  known  to  the 
ancient  law:  and  under  the  civil  law  the  dis- 
tinction was  well  settled  between  lii/pollieca,  in 
wliich  the  property  given  as  security  renuiined 
in  the  possession  of  the  debtor,  and  piynus,  in 
which  the  property  given  as  security  was  sur- 
rendered to  the  creditoi-. 

Some  writers  have  attributed  the  origin  of  the 
common-law  mortgage  to  the  civil  law,  while 
otliers  assert  that  it  grew  out  of  the  common-law 
conditional  gift.  However  this  may  be,  the  giv- 
ing of  security  by  mortgage  first  became  of  im- 
portance at  common  law  after  the  passage  of  the 
statute  Quia  Emptorcfi  ( 18  Edward  L),  by  which 
the  restraints  on  alienation  of  lands  held  in  fee 
were  removed.  ^Mortgages  were  then  in  form 
conditional  grants,  a  form  of  gift  or  limitation 
peculiarly  adapted  to  the  giving  of  security 
without  necessarily  changing  the  possession  of 
the  security.  At  connnun  law  the  owner  of  real 
estate  might  grant  to  anotlier  any  estate  in  fee 
with  the  right  on  the  part  of  the  grantor  or  his 
heirs  to  reenter  upon  the  property  and  revest 
the  title  in  the  grantee  or  his  heirs  upon  the 
happening  of  a  specified  condition. 

By  making  the  condition  of  reentry  the  pay- 
ment of  money  or  the  performance  of  an  obliga- 
tion due  from  the  grantor  to  the  grantee,  all 
the  essentials  of  a  common-law  mortgage  were 
created.  I 'pon  payment  of  the  sum  due  when  due, 
the  condition  of  tile  grant  orconviyance  happened 
and  title  was  thereby  revested  in  the  grantor  or 
mortgagor.  Init  if  the  mortgagor  failed  to  pay 
the  mortgaged  debt  when  due,  performance  of  the 
condition  thereafter  became  impossible,  and  the 
mortgagor  tliereby  lost  all  claim  upon  the  mort- 
gaged ]>roperty. 

Equity  early  exercised  its  jurisdiction  to  miti- 
gate the  harsh  operation  of  the  common-law 
rule  relating  to  conditional  conveyances  by  al- 
lowing the  mortgagor  wlio  had  failed  to  perform 
his  obligation  upon  the  due  date  (or  the  law  day, 
as  it  was  c:illed)  to  red<'em  the  mortgaged  prop- 
erty tljion  payment  of  the  sum  due  with  interest. 
But  as  a  means  of  limiting  this  equitable  right  of 
the  mortgagor,  equity  also  gave  to  the  mortgagee 
the  right  to  cut  ofT  the  right  of  redemption  by 
foreclosure,  which  was  an  equitable  suit  asking 
a  judicial  declaration  that  the  right  to  redeem 
had  been  forfeited. 

The  modern  law  of  mortgages,  then,  combines 
both  legal  and  equitable  doctrines:  and  many  of 
its  peculiarities,  both  of  form  and  substance, 
will  bo  explained  by  reference  to  the  historical 
development  of  the  law.  While  the  mortgage 
in  niodi'rn  practice  may.  for  most  purposes,  be 
regarded  only  as  a  lien  created  in  favor  of  the 
mortgagee,  it  is  still  in  form  a  conveyance  vest- 
ing the  title  of  the  properly  in  the  mortgagee, 
and  in  the  absence  of  statute,  it  is  generally 
the  rule  that  no  mortgage  valid  at  law  can  he 
created  without  a  conveyance. 

It  is  usual  to  incorporate  in  the  mortgage  a 
clause  providing  for  tlie  defeasance  of  the  title 
upon  payment  of  the  mortgage  indebtedness,  but, 


MORTGAGE. 


31 


MORTGAGE. 


as  will  appear,  even  that  is  not  essential.  In 
some  States  statutes  have  been  passed  author- 
izing a  mortgage  which  is  not  a  conveyance  in 
form,  but  which  for  all  practical  purposes  has 
the  same  eflect  as  the  conuuon-law  mortgage  as 
modified  by  equity.  One  imjiortant  consequence 
arising  from  tlie  fact  that  at  cunnnon  law'  the 
mortgagee  acciuired  a  title  was  tliat  Iiis  mortgage 
was  valid  against  an  innocent  purchaser  of  the 
property  for  value  without  notice  of  the  mort- 
gage, which  could  not  have  been  the  result  had 
the  mortgage  been  a  mere  lien  or  right  in  /jerso- 
wam  against  the  r.:ortgagor.    See  Equity;  Fraud. 

Tliis  rule  has  been  modified  in  the  United  States 
by  statutes  universally  adojited  requiring  mort- 
gagees and  purchasers  of  property  generally  to 
record  their  documeiils  of  title  in  order  to  protect 
them  against  claims  of  purchasers  without  notice* 

When  the  intention  of  an  agreement  is  to 
create  a  mortgage,  although  it  is  not  in  effect 
a  conveyance  and  consequently  not  a  legal  mort- 
gage, equity  will  enforce  the  agreement  against  the 
mortgagor  or  third  parties  having  notice  of  the 
agreement  as  though  it  were  a  valid  mortgage. 

Thus  where  the  owner  of  real  estate  deposited 
his  title  deeds  of  the  property  with  another  for 
the  purpose  of  scuring  a  debt  or  obligation,  the 
English  courts  of  equity  have  recognized  in  the 
transaction  a  valid  mortgage.  This  doctrine  of 
creating  a  mortgage  by  pledge  of  title  deeds  has 
not  been  recognized  in  the  United  States.  (See 
LiEX.)  When  a  conveyance  is  absolute  on  its 
face,  equity,  disregarding  the  parol-evidenee  rule, 
will  inquire  into  all  the  circumstances  of  the 
transfer  of  title,  and  if  it  appear  that  the 
transfer  was  made  only  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
security,  equity  will  treat  the  whole  transaction 
as  a  mortgage  and  allow  the  grantor  to  redeem 
the  property  upon  payment  of  the  mortgage  in- 
delitedness.  .All  mortgages,  however,  whether  ex- 
press or  implied  from  the  circumstances,  are  to  be 
distinguished  from  conditional  sales,  which  are 
agreements  to  sell  and  transfer  title  to  the 
property  upon  the  happening  of  a  certain  event. 
It  will  \ie  obser\'ed  that  the  position  of  a  mort- 
gagor is  closely  analogous  to  a  conditional  ven- 
dor who  has  agreed  to  sell  property  upon  payment 
of  a  certain  smn.  There  is,  however,  one  im- 
portant distinction  between  the  two  relations. 
In  the  case  of  conditional  sales  there  is  no  ex- 
isting indebtedness.  The  vendee  is  under  no 
obligation  to  pay  money  to  the  vendor  before 
electing  to  purchase,  while  the  mortgagor  is  so 
Iionnd.  In  determining  in  any  given  case  whether 
the  transaction  is  a  conditional  sale  or  a  mort- 
gage, courts  will  scrutinize  the  evidence  with 
great  care,  and  in  case  of  doubt  the  tendency 
is  to  hold  the  transaction  to  be  a  mortgage. 
From  the  nature  of  mortgage  it  seems  probable 
that  a  legal  liability  independent  of  the  mort- 
gage itself  is  not  essential  to  its  validity,  out 
in  general  all  mortgages  are  accompanied  by 
some  form  of  legal  ol)ligntion  for  the  performance 
of  which  the  mortgage  is  given  as  security.  This 
is  usually  a  promissory  note  or  bond  payable  to 
the  mortgagee,  and  where  tlie  purpose  is  to  issue 
numerous  lionds  secured  by  one  mortgage,  the 
)U'actice  is  to  make  the  mortgage  or  conveyance 
to  a  trustee,  who  holds  the  property  as  security 
for  all  the  bondholders.  Eailroad  mortgages  are 
usually  made  in  this  manner.  If  the  note  or 
bond  is  illegal  or  there  is  any  illegality  in  the 
mortgage  transaction,  the  mortgage  is  invalid. 


ilortgages  are  sometimes  given  to  secure  future 
advances  to  be  made  by  the  mortgagee.  Such 
mortgages  are  valid  at\d  enforceable  as  between 
the  mortgagor  and  mortgagee,  but  in  some  States 
they  are  held  not  to  be  valid  against  third 
parties,  except  as  to  advances  actually  made,  of 
which  the  third  Jiarty  has  actual  or  constructive 
notice  at  the  time  of  acquiring  an  interest  in 
the  property.  In  a  number  of  States,  statutes 
provide  that  mortgages  for  future  advances  shall 
have  no  validity  against  third  persons. 

Any  legal  iiropertj',  eitlier  real  or  personal, 
may  be  mortgaged,  even  including  future  or  in- 
clioate  property,  as  crops  planted  but  not  yet 
grown,  which  the  conunon  law  regards  as  being 
capable  of  present  ownership.  Hut  a  UKU'tgage  of 
property  not  yet  acquired  by  the  mortgagor  could 
have  no  validity  at  conunon  law.  ilortg.ages  of 
this  character  as  well  as  mortgages  of  equibible 
interests  w-ere  recognized  and  enforced  by  equity 
when  the  rights  of  iiuioccnt  third  parties  were 
not  involved.  Such  mortgages  are  now  generally 
regarded  as  valid  between  mortgagor  and  mort- 
gagee, but  there  are  a  variety  of  views  held  in 
the  several  States  as  to  their  validity  against 
third  parties — some  courts,  as  those  of  Massa- 
chusetts, holding  that  they  can  have  no  validity 
against  even  creditors  of  the  mortgagor  unless 
the  mortgaged  property  is  delivered  to  the  mort- 
gagee, and  some,  as  those  of  Xew  Jersey,  hold- 
ing that  they  are  valid  against  all  parties  having 
notice  of  the  mortgage. 

The  mortgage,  besides  a  description  of  the 
mortgaged  property  and  the  mortgage  indebted- 
ness, may,  and  usually  does,  contain  clauses  pro- 
viding that  the  whole  debt  shall  become  due  and 
payalde  upon  failure  to  pay  interest  or  taxes 
and  assessments  upon  the  mortgaged  property. 
The  mortgage  may  also  include  a  power  of  sale 
enabling  the  mortgagee  to  sell  the  mortgaged 
property  without  foreclosure  upon  the  mort- 
gagor's failure  to  pay  the  debt.  In  many  States 
such  a  provision  is  made  inoperative  by  statutes 
which  require  foreclosure  of  the  mortgage  ex- 
clusively by  judicial  proceedings.  A  stipulation 
that  the  mortgagor  shall  have  no  right  to  redeem 
will  be  disregarded  by  the  courts  upon  the  same 
principle  that  courts  of  equity  disregarded  the 
condition  of  the  common-law  mortgage. 

The  estate  of  the  mortgagor  in  possession  has 
been  likened  to  a  tenancy  at  will  or  by  sufferance, 
and  as  between  himself  and  the  mortgagee,  the 
analogy  is  very  close.  At  common  law  the 
mortgagee  having  the  title  could  take  possession 
at  will,  the  sole  right  of  tlie  mortgagor,  if  the 
mortgagee  exercised  this  right,  being  to  redeem 
by  payment  of  the  mortgage  indebtedness  on  the 
due  date,  but  as  to  all  others,  the  mortgagee  in 
possession  is  clothed  witli  substantial  ownership. 
He  is  entitled  to  the  rents,  issues,  and  profits  of 
the  mortgaged  property;  he  may  sell  or  incumber 
it  subject  to  the  mortgage,  and  upon  his  death 
the  property  goes  to  his  heirs  at  law. 

In  many  States  the  mortgagee's  common-law 
right  to  take  jiossession  of  the  mortgaged  prop- 
erty by  ejc'ctment  or  other  appropriate  action 
has  been  cut  off.  and  he  can  only  secure  possession 
of  the  mortgaged   ]iroperty   through   foreclosure. 

-Vlthough  the  mortgagee  holds  the  title  to  the 
mortgaged  property,  the  law  recognizes  that  he 
holds  it  as  an  incident  to  his  claim  against  the 
debtor,  which  is  personal  property.  The  mort- 
gagee's estate,  therefore,   in  both   real  and  per- 


MORTGAGE. 


3'i 


MORTIER. 


sonal  property,  is  regarded  as  personal  proportj' 
only,  and  passes,  upon  his  death,  to  his  next  of 
kin  and  not  to  his  lieirs. 

In  general,  the  mortgagee  out  of  possession 
is  in  the  position  of  one  having  a  mere  lieu  or 
personal  claim  against  the  mortgagor.  But  the 
mortgagee  in  possession  of  the  mortgaged  prop- 
erty, who  was  at  conuiKm  law  substantially  in  the 
position  of  owner  of  the  ])roperty.  was  cunipellcd 
by  equity  to  account  for  the  rents,  issues,  and 
prolits,  and  to  apply  them  upon  the  mortgage 
in(lel)tednpss.     This  is  now  the  established  rule. 

Both  the  mortgagor  and  the  mortgagee  may 
freely  assign  their  interests.  It  is  not  unusual 
for  the  assignee  of  the  mortgagor  to  assume  the 
mortgage  indebtedness  by  the  instrument  of  as- 
signment, and  it  is  the  general  rule  tliat  the 
mortgagee  may  enforce  this  undertaking  either 
upon  the  theory  of  subrogation  or  that  the  mort- 
gagee may  sue  upon  a  contract  made  for  his 
benefit.  For  other  incidents  of  the  estates  of 
mortgagor  and  mortgagee,  see  Clrtesy;  Doweb; 
rixTiKEs ;  Waste. 

\\'hen  several  mortgages  are  given  upon  the 
same  property  they  have  priority  in  the  order  of 
their  creation  unless  otherwise  provided.  This 
rule  may  be  varied  by  the  operation  of  the  va- 
rious recording  acts. 

A  mortgage  may  be  extinguished  by  payment 
of  the  mortgage  indebtedness,  or  by  a  legal  tender 
of  the  amount  due  on  the  day  when  due.  Tender 
after  that  time  had  no  effect  at  common  law,  and 
in  ecpiity  the  only  effect  was  to  prevent  interest 
accruing.  A  mortgage  may  also  be  terminated  by 
a  release  of  the  mortgagor,  or  by  a  merger.  If 
the  merger  is  accomplished  by  a  conveyance  of  the 
mortgaged  property  liy  tlie  mortgagor  to  the 
mortgagee,  the  courts  will  scrutinize  the  trans- 
action with  the  greatest  care,  and  if  there  appear 
to  have  l)een  any  unfairness  or  undue  influence  on 
the  part  of  the  mortgagee,  will  allow  the  mort- 
gagor to  redeem.     S<>e  Merger. 

A  mortgage  is  extinguished  by  the  final  judg 
ment  or  decree  in  an  action  to  forecdose  the 
mortgaged  property  or  in  an  action  to  redeem  it 
from  the  mortgagee.     See  Foreclosure;  Eqi'Ity 

OF  REDEMPrlOX. 

Courts  have  always  favored  the  mortgagor's 
right  to  re<leem,  and  at  any  time  before  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  mortgage  will  allow  him  to  compel 
a  cancellaticm  and  snrrender  of  the  mortgage 
upon  payment  of  the  mortgage  indebtedness  with 
interest,  and,  as  an  incident  to  the  redenijition, 
will  c()mi)el  the  mortgagee  to  account  for  rents 
or  other  income  whicli  he  has  received  from  the 
mortgaged  property.  Consult:  .Tones,  'I'rcalixe  on 
the  1,(111-  of  Mi/rtiiiifics  (t(  It'riil  I'riifirrlji  (oth  ed., 
Boston,  IHiM).  and  of  I'rrxoHdl  I'ropcrli/  (4th  ed., 
Boston.  1S!»4)  :  Pingrey,  Trralisr  on  the  I.air  of 
Chattel  Morlgiifics  (.Jersey  City.  1801):  On  the 
Late  of  Morlfiaf/es  of  Rrtil  I'ropcrl;/  (. Jersey  City, 
1803)  ;  and  the  authorities  referred  (o  \mder 
T?E\r   T'uoi'tiiTV. 

MORTGAGE  BANKS.  Banks  designed  pri- 
marily to  furnish  credit  on  land,  houses. 
mines,  and  other  immovable  property.  The  loans 
are  usnally  for  periods  from  ten  to  seventy-five 
years,  and  are  secured  by  mortgage.  The  loan 
rontrnct  provides  for  the  extinguishment  of  the 
del)t  by  mi'ans  of  etpial  annual  payments,  com 
prising  interest  and  amortization;  but  the  debtor 
has  the  option  of  paying  the  principal  in  anticipa- 
tion, .nnd.  as  a  nuittcr  of  fact,  n  large  percentage 


of  the  loans  made  by  nuirtgage  banks  are  can- 
celed before  maturity.  The  bank  secures  funds 
by  selling  its  obligations  or  mortgage  pledges, 
the  dillerence  between  tlie  interest  on  the  loans 
made  by  the  bank  and  the  interest  whicli  it  pays 
on  its  obligations  constituting  its  profit.  Mort- 
gage banks  arc  found  in  many  Kuropean  coun- 
tries. The  first  important  one  was  the  Credit 
Foncier  of  France,  which  has  been  in  existence 
since  1852  and  has  had  an  organization  similar 
to  that  of  the  Bank  of  France  since  1854.  It 
can  make  loans  on  first  mortgages  to  the  amount 
of  one-half  of  the  estimated  value  of  houses  and 
farms,  and  one-third  of  that  of  vineyards  and 
other  plantations.  The  rate  of  interest  on  loans 
must  not  exceed  the  rate  paid  by  tjie  bank  on  its 
obligations  by  more  than  six-tenths  of  one  per  cent. 
The  Credit  Foncier  of  Algeria  and  the  CrOdit 
Foncier  Cohmial  were  formerly  branches  of  the 
Credit  Foncier  of  France,  but  are  now  inde- 
pendent. Instead  of  one  large  national  organiz;i- 
tion,  (Germany  has  forty  mortgage  banks,  fourteen 
of  which  are  in  Prussia.  In  1808  these  institu- 
tions had  an  aggregate  capital  of  554,297,'2.56 
marks  and  held  mortgages  to  the  amount  of 
6,207,880,143  marks.  Some  of  them,  however, 
issued  other  forms  of  credit.  In  Belgium  the 
only  bank  which  deals  in  mortgages  exclusively  is 
the  Credit  Foncier,  but  there  are  banks  at  Bru.s- 
sels  and  Antwerp  which  deal  largely  in  land 
credit.  Similar  institutions  are  found  in  .\ustria- 
Ilungary,  Holland.  Italy.  Spain,  Portugal,  Swe- 
den, and  Russia,  The  chief  .service  of  mortgage 
banks  consists  in  making  mortgages  negotiable. 
In  Europe,  the  owners  of  land  and  houses  are 
able  to  get  loans  at  a  low  rate  of  interest — less 
than  3  per  cent,  in  France  and  4  per  cent,  in 
Germany.  Tlu'y  can  pay  tlieir  debts  in  small 
yearly  installments  from  the  produce  of  their 
cai)ital.  In  the  United  States,  where  there  is  no 
legislative  provision  for  the  establishment  of 
mortgage  banks,  the  lender  and  the  luoperty 
owner  can  be  brought  together  only  by  a  form  of 
brokerage,  and  the  terms  of  the  debt  \isually  re- 
quire the  payment  of  the  principal  in  a  few 
years.  Consult  the  article  on  "Hypotheken- 
banken."  in  Conrad,  Hantlirnrlcrbiich  drr  Utatits- 
visscnsrhnflrn  (.Icna,  1808-1001);  Taft,  "Mort- 
gage Banks."  in  Jounitil  of  Political  Economy 
(Sept<>mber.  1808). 

MOBTIER,  mor'tvA'.  Kiwiard  Adolpiie  Casi- 
MIK  .l()si:rii,  Duke  of  Treviso  ( 17li8-18;!5) .  A 
French  marshal.  He  was  born  at  Cateau-Cam- 
bresis.  IVliniary  13,  17C>8.  His  father  was  a 
Deputy  to  the  States-General  in  1780,  and  though 
;Morfier  was  educated  for  a  business  career,  he 
entered  the  service  of  the  Republic  as  a  lieu- 
tenant of  carbineers  in  1701.  He  rose  rapidly,  and 
in  1703  became  adjutant-general.  After  greatly 
distinguishing  himself  under  Aloreau  and  Kleber, 
he  was  made  a  general  of  division  in  1700.  In 
1803  he  was  in  command  in  Hanover,  and  in 
the  administration  of  that  country  showed  the 
utmost  probity  and  sagacity.  Created  a  marshal 
of  the  Knii)ire  in  1804.  and  placed  in  charge  of 
an  army  corps  in  1805.  Mortier  showed  his  mili- 
tary geniiis  l>y  holding  in  check  a  sujierior  force 
of  Russians  at  Tx'oben.  In  ISOfi  he  occupied  Han- 
over. Hesse-Cassel.  and  Hamburg,  and  defeated 
the  Swedes  in  several  encounters.  He  com- 
manded the  left  wing  of  the  French  army  at 
Fricdland.  and  after  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  was  in- 


MORTIER. 


33 


MORTMAIN. 


trusted  with  tlie  j;ovcrnmi'nt  of  Silesia  and 
fi-eati'd  Dul<o  of  Tiwiso.  Sent  to  Spain  in  1808, 
he  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Saragossa  and  de- 
feated the  Spaniards  at  Ocaila  ( Xovemlx-r  19, 
ISOil)-  After  sharing  in  tlie  Uussiaii  eampaignof 
1812  Jlortier  took  a  decisive  part  in  the  battle  of 
l.iitzen  (  Ma.y  2,  181.'{)  and  in  all  the  subsecpient 
military  events  of  1813-14.  When  Napoleon's 
cause  was  lost,  Jlortier  at  last  gave  in  his  ad- 
hesion to  the  (io\erninent  of  Louis  XVI II.  Dur- 
ing the  period  of  tlie  Hundred  D.i\  s  Mortier  first 
saw  the  King  safely  out  of  I^rance  and  then 
joined  his  old  leader.  After  the  second  Bourbon 
restoration,  he  was  crossed  otV  the  list  of  peers 
for  refusing  to  sit  on  the  court  martial  of  Ney. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
in  181().  and  was  restored  to  the  Chamber  of 
Peers  in  1819.  After  the  Revolution  of  1830,  he 
was  made  Ambassador  at  Saint  Petersburg,  be- 
came Grand  Chancellor  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
in  1833,  and  Jlinister  of  War  and  president  of 
the  Council  in  1834-3;').  He  was  killed  on  the 
Boulevard  du  Temple.  July  28,  183.5,  by  a  missile 
from  the  infernal  machine  of  Fieschi   (q.v.). 

MORTILLET,  mor'te'ya',  Louis  Laurent 
O.vDRiEL  DE  ( 1821-98) .  A  French  anthropologist, 
bom  at  Meylan,  Isfere.  His  interest  in  prehis- 
toric archaeology  dates  from  a  trip  to  Italy  in 
1858,  and  he  began  to  study  the  Swiss  lake 
dwellings.  In  1804,  after  his  return  to  France, 
he  founded  a  review,  Materiaux  pour  I'histoire 
positive  et  philosophique  de  I'homme,  and  in 
1808  became  an  assistant  at  tlie  Museum  of  Saint 
Germain,  In  1870,  with  Broca,  he  planned  the 
Eeole  d'Anthropologie.  His  published  work  in- 
cludes: ^igne  de  la  croix  avant  le  christianisme 
(180(i):  Ijcs  habitations  laciistres  du  lac  du 
Boiii-fict  (1807)  ;  Origine  du  hronze  (1870)  ;  Le 
pn'liistorifjiie  (1882)  :  and  Origines  de  la  chasse, 
(Ic  la  pcclie  et  de  rar/riculture   (1890). 

MOR'TIMER,  .JonN  Hamilton  ( 1741-79) .  An 
Englisli  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  East- 
bourne. He  was  a  pupil  of  Hiidson  and  of  Reyn- 
olds, and  won  the  first  prize  of  the  Society  of 
Arts  in  1703.  His  vigorous  if  somewhat  uncer- 
tain talent  and  his  love  of  the  terrible  are 
shown  in  such  works  as  the  "Battle  of  Agin- 
court,"  "Vortigern  and  Rowena,"  and  "Hercules 
Slaying  the  Hydra."  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum,  South  Kensington.  He  was  elected  a 
Royal  Academician  in  1779.  His  etchings  are 
notable  for  their  bold  execution.  They  include 
several  after  his  own  works.  He  also  made  de- 
siuMs  for  stained-glass  windows  in  Salisl)ury 
Cathedral  and  Brasenose  College,  Oxford. 

MORTIMER,  Roger  DE  (1287?-13.30) .  First 
Earl  of  March  and  eighth  Baron  of  Wigmore. 
For  some  years  he  was  a  faithful  adherent  of 
Edward  U.  of  England,  and  from  1310  to  1321 
his  re]n'esentative  in  Ireland  to  oppose  Edward 
Bruce;  but  when  recalled  in  1.321  Mortimer 
joined  the  insurgent  barons  who  were  hostile  to 
t!ic  Des])ensers.  with  whom  he  had  been  al- 
lied for  a  year.  In  1322  Mortimer  submitted  to 
Edward  and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  of  Lon- 
don, but  escaped  to  France  two  years  later. 
There  he  met  and  fascinated  Queen  Isabella, 
wife  of  Edward,  became  her  paramour,  and  deter- 
mined upon  the  overthrow  of  the  King.  With  a 
small  force  the  two  landed  on  the  English  coa.st 
in  1320,  and  were  soon  joined  by  large  numt>ers 
of  the  discontented  nobles  and  common  people. 
The    King    was    defeated,    taken    prisoner,    and 


probably  nuirdcrcd  in  his  prison  in  1327.  Mor- 
timer look  the  title  of  Earl  of  March  in  1328, 
and  received  confiscated  estates  and  olfiees  of 
inunense  value,  while  his  creatures  controlled 
the  administration.  Edward  III.  was  a  minor, 
and.  though  a  council  held  the'  regency,  Morti- 
mer's infinenee  was  supreme.  Mortimer  became 
verv  unpopular  when  he  made  the  'Shameful 
Peace'  witlk  the  Scots  in  1328.  Finally  Edward 
111.  resolved  to  be  King  in  fact  as  well  as  in 
name,  had  the  Earl  of  March  seized  at  Notting- 
ham Castle,  anil  summoned  a  new  Parliament. 
Jlortimer  was  tried  on  charges  of  treason,  con- 
demned, and  in  1330  hanged,  drawn,  and  quar- 
tered. (See  Edward  111.)  Consiilt:  Stubbs.  Con- 
stitutional Historij,  vol.  ii.  (4th  ed.,  Oxford, 
1896),  and  Longman.  Eduard  III.,  vol.  i.  (Lon- 
don,   1809), 

MORTIMER,  HIS  FALL.  A  fragment  of  a 
tragi'ily  \i\  Hen  .loiison,  consisting  of  only  the 
argument  and  a  few  lines.  It  was  completed  in 
1091  by  W.  Mountfort  as  King  Edicard  III.,  with 
the  Full  of  Mortimer.  Co.xeter  states  that  it  was 
written  by  John  Bancroft,  who  presented  it  to 
Mount  fort . 

MORTIMER'S  CROSS,  Battle  of.  See  Ed- 
WAiu)  IV.;  R0.SES,  Wars  of  the. 

MORTISE  (OF.  mortaise,  mortoise,  Fr.  mor- 
tuise,  Sp.  mortaja,  mortise;  possibly  from  Ar. 
mtirtazz,  fixed,  p.p.  of  firlu:;~u.  to  be  fixed,  from 
razxa,  to  lay)  AND  TENON  (OF.,  Fr.  tenon. 
from  tenir,  to  hold,  from  Lat.  teuere^  to  hold). 
A  form  of  joint  in  carpentry.  The  tenon  is  a 
projection,  generally  rectangular  in  form,  on 
the  end  of  a  piece  of  wood,  cut  so  as  to  fit  exact- 
ly into  a  deep  groove  (called  the  mortise)  in 
another  piece,  so  that  the  two  are  united  at  a  re- 
quired angle.  The  framing  of  doors,  shutters,  and 
such  pieces  of  joinery  is  usually  fitted  together 
with  mortise  and  tenon  joints.  Mortise  holes 
are  also  made  to  receive  locks  and  other  fittings, 

MORTMAIN  (OF.  morlemain,  from  ML. 
mnrtua  manus.  dead  hand),  St.\tutes  OF.  The 
term  mortmain  is  applied  to  the  perpetual  tenure 
of  lands  by  corporations,  particularly  church  cor- 
porations, whose  •members  and  ofllcers,  being  ec- 
clesiastics, were  by  the  early  law  deemed  civilly 
dead,  and  hence  the  derivation  of  the  term  as 
signifying  land  held  by  the  dead  hand  of  the 
Church,  In  later  times  the  term  has  been  ap- 
plied to  the  tenure  of  lands  by  corporations  gen- 
erally, whether  ecclesiastical  or  lay. 

Mortmain  first  became  a  matter  for  the  seri- 
ous attention  of  English  legislators  and  lawyers 
as  early  as  the  reign  of  Edward  1.  The  policy 
of  the  various  ecclesiastical  corporations  of 
acquiring  large  holdings  of  land  and  retaining 
them  became  a  menace  to  the  well  being  of  the 
State,  partly  because  it  afforded  a  ready  means 
of  accumulating  wealth  and  power  which  were 
held  in  strict  allegiance  to  the  Church,  whose 
interests  were  often  in  conflict  with  those  of 
the  civil  authority,  but  primarily  because  the 
ownership  of  land  by  ecclesiastical  corporations 
was  inconsistent  with  feudal  teinire.  Tlie  feudal 
system  presupposed  the  holding  of  land  by  a 
tenant  who  could  render  to  his  overlord  certain 
services  or  dues  upon  the  happening  of  certain 
events.  The  most  important  of  these  were: 
(a)  Ttelief. — A  sum  which  an  heir  was  accus- 
tomed to  pay  to  the  lord  upon  coming  into  his 
ancestor's   tenancy.      (b)    Wardship. — The   right 


MORTMAIN. 


34 


MORTMAIN. 


of  the  lord  to  becouic  llic  guardian  of  the  infant 
heir  of  his  tenant.  (c)  Maiiiniji-. — The  right 
of  the  lord  to  dispose  of  tlie  tenant's  daughter 
in  marriage,  (d)  Esclwal. — The  riglit  of  tlie 
lord  to  the  freehold  upon  the  death  of  the  ten- 
ant without  heirs. 

It  is  apparent  that  the  acquisition  of  land  by 
an  ecclesiastical  corporation  which  could  not 
die  or  contract  marriage,  and  which  had  not  any 
of  the  other  attributes  of  a  natural  person, 
struck  at  the  very  basis  of  the  feudal  system, 
and  was  regarded  with  jealousy  by  the  great 
lords  and  civil  otlicers  of  the  Crown.  The  icsult 
was  a  series  of  legislative  enactments,  extend- 
ing over  a  period  of  nearly  six  hundred  years, 
having  for  their  purpose  the  restraint  of  aliena- 
tion in  mortmain.  No  sooner  did  the  will  of 
the  State  find  expression  in  appropriate  legis- 
lation for  this  purpose  than  the  powerful  inihi- 
enee  of  the  Church  sought  to  evade  or  nullify  it 
by  j\ulicial  interpretation  or  by  resort  to  legal 
fictions  invented  by  skillful  lauyers  and  urged 
by  thoni  upon  the  courts  with  such  success  that 
ultimately  new  legislation  became  necessary. 
To  this  liistoric  struggle  between  the  Church 
and  the  landed  aristocracy  are  attributable  many 
of  the  peculiarities  of  the  common  law  of  real 
property. 

The  earliest  statute  relating  to  the  subject 
after  the  fall  of  the  Western  Emi)ire  was  an 
edict  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa  in 
1158  prohibiting  conveyances  to  church  corpora- 
tions. In  England  there  have  been  enactcil  in 
all  twenty-one  statutes  affecting  the  i)ower  to 
alienate  in  mortmain.  The  earliest  of  these 
(a  provision  contained  in  the  Magna  Charta, 
eh.  43,  that  there  should  l)e  no  transfer  of 
land  to  church  corporations  by  a  tenant  without 
the  consent  of  his  lord)  seems  to  have  fallen 
into  disuse  or  to  have  been  evaded  by  convey- 
ances direct  to  the  oliicers  of  the  religious  houses, 
who  held  the  property  for  the  benefit  of  such 
houses. 

The  next  statute  of  importance,  and  the  first 
to  curb  eflectivcly  the  ac<iuisition  of  land  by  the 
ecclesiastical  corporations,  was  the  statute  De 
Rcligiosis  (7  Edw.  I.,  Stat.  11.^  ch.  13),  passed 
in  127n.  The  preamble  of  this  interesting  piece 
of  legislation  reads  as  follows : 

"Uhcre  of  late  it  was  provided  that  religious 
men  should  not  enter  into  the  fees  of  any  without 
license  and  will  of  the  chief  lord  of  whom  such 
fees  l)e  holclcn  imnieiliately,  and  notwithstand- 
ing such  religious  men  have  entered  as  will  into 
their  own  fees  as  into  the  fees  of  other  men, 
*  appropriating  and  buying  them,  and  sometimes 
receiving  them  of  the  gift  of  others,  whereby 
the  services  that  are  due  of  such  fees  and  which 
at  the  Ix'ginning  were  provided  for  defense  of  the 
realm  arc  wrongfully  withilrawn.  and  the  chief 
lords  do  lose  their"  escheats  of  the  same — " 
etc. 

This  statute  made  all  alienations  in  mortmain 
imlawfnl,  and  made  the  pro\  i-<ion  cirective  by  en- 
acting that  all  such  conveyances  should  work  a 
forfeiture  to  the  lord  of  the  land  attempted  to  be 
conveyed.  The  lawyers  of  the  time,  however, 
soon  devised  a  method  for  evading  the  statute 
by  the  use  of  eonunon  re<-overy  (q.v. ).  Tliis 
development  in  the  I'ommon  law  was  met  by  a 
new  legislative  enactment  (13  Edw.  I.,  ch.  ■'52). 
in  liS.'i,  which  forbade  alienation  of  lands  in 
mortmain    by    common    recovcrj',    and    attached 


the  same  penalty  to  sucli  alienation  as  in  case 
of  the  conveyances  forbidden  by  the  Statute  De 
Keligiosis.  The  Statute  l,)uia  Emptores  (IS  Edw. 
I.,  ch.  1 ) .  which  removed  some  of  the  common- 
law  restraints  upon  alienation,  expressly  excluded 
from  its  o[H'ration  all  alienation  in  mortmain. 

These  statutes  in  time  were  evaded  by  the 
practice  of  conveying  lands  to  a  layman  to  be 
by  him  held  for  the  use  or  benefit  of  an  ecclesi- 
astical corporation,  which  ol)Iigation  came  to  be 
enforced  by  the  Chancellor.  The  use  was  the 
forerunner  of  the  modern  trust  and  the  basis 
of  eii'iity  jurisdiction  over  trusts.  And  it  is  to 
the  great  struggle  over  alienation  in  morluiain 
more  than  to  any  one  other  factor  that  the 
growth  of  the  modern  law  of  trusts  is  due. 
In  1391  this  practice  was  forbidden  on  pain 
of  forfeiture,  unless  such  conveyance  to  uses 
was  licensed  by  the  King  (15  Richard  II.,  ch.  5). 

The  Statute  of  \\'ills,  allowing  testators  to 
dispose  of  their  property  by  will,  did  not  in 
terms  permit  the  testator  to  devise  real  estate  to 
a  corporation.  By  judicial  interpretation,  how- 
ever, the  power  was  established  to  devise  lands  to 
corporations  for  charitable  inirposes. 

From  this  period  down  almost  to  the  present 
time  statutes  have  been  enacted  modifying  or 
further  restraining  the  power  of  alienation  to 
corporations,  whenever  judicial  interpretation 
or  the  ingenious  devices  of  lawyers  made  such 
enactments  nec'essary. 

The  statute  9  Geo.  II.,  ch.  36  (173G),  is  note- 
worthy in  that  it  shows  that  the  policy  on  which 
the  Statute  of  ^Mortmain  had  hitherto  been  based 
had  then  changed  somewhat.  This  statute,  re- 
citing that  "'public  mischief  had  greatly  increased 
by  many  large  and  improvident  dis])ositions 
made  by  languishing  jind  dying  persons  to  chari- 
table uses,  to  take  place  after  their  deaths,  to 
the  disinhersion  of  their  lawful  heirs,"  enacted 
that  in  future  no  lands  or  sums  of  money  to  be 
laid  out  in  land  should  1k!  given  to  any  person 
or  body  unless  such  gift  or  conveyance  should 
be  made  or  executed  in  presence  of  two  wit- 
nesses twelve  numths  before  the  death  of  the 
donor  or  grantor,  and  be  enrolled  in  the  Court 
of  Chancery  within  six  months  after  the  execu- 
tion. Under  this  act.  therefore,  a  person  on 
his  dcathlK'd  cannot  in  England  give  land,  or 
money  to  buy  land,  for  a  charitable  purpose. 
It  can  only  be  done  in  the  life  of  the  donor  at 
least  twelve  months  before  his  death,  and  the 
property  must  be  completely  alienated  so  that 
he  has  no  further  control  over  it.  The  deed  must 
have  a  present  operation,  and  must  not  reser\"o 
any  life  interest  to  the  donor;  it  must  be  done 
at  "once  and  forever.  The  policy  of  this  statute 
has  sometimes  been  questioned,  and  several  well- 
known  modes  of  evading  the  statute  have  been 
adopted  from  time  to  time. 

.Ml  the  English  statutes  of  mortmain  were 
revised  and  consul i<lated  by  the  statute  51  and 
5-2  Victoria,  ch.  42.  In  general  the  statute  still 
restricts  alienation  to  corporations,  but  makes 
nuinerotis  cxce|itions  in  favor  of  gifts  to  churches, 
]uiblic  [jarks.  museums,  and  for  literary  and 
scientific  ]iurposcs.  Gifts  to  charity  by  will  arc 
regulated  l)y  54  and  55  Victoria,  ch.  73.  which 
in  general  ]iermits  stich  gifts  of  land  to  charities 
if  the  land  l)e  sold  within  one  year  from  the  tes- 
tator's death.  Throughout  the  period  of  mort- 
main legislation  it  was  possible  for  the  Crown 
to   grant   a    mortmain    license    enabling   a    cor- 


MORTMAIN. 


35 


poration  to  piircliasie  ami  hold  luiuls,  a  preroga- 
live  wliicli  at  times  was  freely  exercised. 

Owing  yeiienillj-  to  tlie  absence  of  great  reli- 
gions coriKiiatioiis  in  this  country,  and  to  the 
laet  that  the  feudal  system  never  obtained  a 
foothold  here,  the  mortmain  acts  were  not  re- 
enacted  in  the  United  States,  with  possibly  one 
or  two  exceptions.  Pennsylvania  has  a  mort- 
main act,  and  Xew  York  has  a  statute  which, 
like  the  statute  of  9  George  II.,  seems  calculated 
rather  to  restrain  a  testator  from  making  un- 
wise and  im|iri)vident  gifts  to  charity  than  to 
prevent  .land-holding  by  corporations.  The  stat- 
ute provides  tliat  a  testator  who  leaves  surviv- 
ing him  a  wife,  child,  or  ])arent  shall  not  devise 
or  bequeath  more  than  one-fourth  of  his  estate 
to  a  charital)lc  corjioration ;  and  no  such  devise 
or  bequest  shall  be  valid  unless  made  more  than 
two  months  before  the  death  of  the  testator. 

In  many  States  business  corporations  may  not 
receive  real  estate  by  devise,  but  generally  chari- 
table corporations  may  do  so;  and  in  most 
States  there  is  no  restraint  upon  conveyance 
of  lands  inter  vivos  to  corjiorations,  unless  the 
charter  of  the  corporation  or  the  general  law 
under  which  it  is  created  limits  the  total  amount 
of  land  which  the  corporation  may  hold.  See 
CuABiTABLE  TRUSTS;  UsEs ;  and  Trust;  and 
considt  the  authorities  there  referred  to,  and 
also  under  Real  Estate.  Also  consult:  High- 
more.  T'l'ciy  of  the  History  of  Mortmain  (Lon- 
don, 1800)  ;  Rawlinson,  y'otcs  on  the  Mortmain 
Acts    (London,   1877). 

MOETO  DA  FELTKE,  mor'to  da  fel'tra 
(c.l474-c.l.51'J) .  An  Italian  painter,  bom  at 
I'eltre.  His  fame  rests  upon  Vasari's  statement 
that  he  was  the  first  to  use  classic  arabesques  in 
ornamentation.  Of  his  life  nothing  certain  is 
known,  nor  do  any  authenticated  works  by  him 
survive.  Cambruzzo.  a  seventeenth-century  his- 
torian of  Feltre,  identified  him  with  Pietro 
Luzzi  (also  called  Zarato)  of  that  town,  who 
was  an  assistant  of  Giorgione  at  Venice.  Luzzi 
is  recorded  as  having  been  at  Rome  in  1495, 
at  Florence  in  1506,  and  at  Venice  in  1508.  He 
is  known  to  have  decorated  with  frescoes  the 
town-hall,  the  Church  of  San  Stefano,  and  two 
houses  in  liis  native  town.  According  to  the  usual 
account,  Jlorto  was  killed  fighting  in  the  Vene- 
tian army  at  the  battle  of  Zara ;  but  if  he  bo 
identical  with  Luzzi,  he  cannot  have  died  till 
after  lolil,  in  which  year  the  latter  was  active 
in  his  native  town. 

MORTON,  Ch.\rles  (1627-98).  An  English 
clergyman  and  educator,  born  at  Pendavy,  Corn- 
wall, and  educated  at  Wadham  College,  Oxford. 
He  renounced  the  Royalist  traditions  of  his 
family  and  Ijecame  a  Puritan,  though  he  did 
not  leave  the  Anglican  communion  until  1662. 
He  opened  a  school  for  dissenters  at  Stoke 
Xewington,  near  London,  which  he  maintained 
until  1685,  having  Daniel  Defoe  among  his  pupils. 
Contrary  to  the  custom  of  the  universities,  he 
made  his  pupils  write  their  dissertations  and 
hold  their  disputations  in  English — a  practice 
which,  Defoe  allirms,  made  his  pupils  excel  in 
English  those  of  any  other  school.  In  1GS6  he 
emigrated  to  New  England.  He  settled  first 
at  Charlestown.  Mass.,  and  became  the  pastor 
of  a  church  there.  He  became  connected  with  Har- 
vard College,  and  two  of  his  manuscript  works 
— A  System  of  Logic  and  Compendium  Physicoe 


MORTON". 

— were  used  as  text-books.  He  was  made  vice- 
president  of  the  college  at  the  establishment  of 
that  olliee,  and  hoped  to  succeed  Increase  Jlather 
as  president.  His  death  [irevented  the  fulfill- 
ment of  this  ambition.  Consult  Josiah  Quincy, 
History  of  Harvard  University  (Cambridge, 
1S40). 

MORTON,  James  Douglas,  fourth  Earl  of 
(1530-81).  Regent  of  Scotland.  The  second 
son  of  Sir  George  Douglas  of  Pittendriech,  in 
1553  he  succeeded  in  right  of  his  wife,  Eliza- 
beth, daughter  of  the  third  Earl  of  Douglas,  to  the 
title  and  estates  of  the  earldom.  He  early  favored 
the  cause  of  the  Reformation,  and  in  1557  was  one 
of  the  original  lords  of  the  congregation.  S«orn 
a  Privy  Councilor  in  1561,  he  was  appointed 
l>ord  High  Chancellor  of  Scotland,  January  7, 
1503.  As  one  of  the  chief  conspirators  against 
Rizzio  (q.v.),  he  fled  with  his  associates  to 
England,  but  obtained  his  pardon  from  the 
t,!ueen.  Though  privy  to  the  design  for  the 
murder  of  Darnley,  on  the  marriage  of  the  Queen 
to  Bothwell  he  joined  the  confederacy  of  the 
nobles  against  her.  After  Mary's  imprisonment 
in  the  Castle  of  Lochleven,  he  was  restored  to 
the  office  of  High  Chancellor,  of  which  he  had 
been  deprived,  and  constituted  Lord  High  Ad- 
miral of  Scotland.  On  the  death  of  the  Earl  of 
Mar,  in  October,  1572.  he  was  elected  Regent  of 
the  kingdom.  His  rule,  chiefly  directed  toward 
the  benefit  of  the  masses  and  toward  the  forma- 
tion of  a  Protestant  league  with  England,  in 
anticipation  of  the  iniion  of  the  two  kingdoms, 
made  him  obnoxious  to  many  of  the  nobles,  and 
as  the  young  King,  .James  VI..  desired  to  assume 
the  reins  of  government,  Morton  resigned  the 
regency  in  March,  1578.  Two  months  later,  how- 
ever, he  obtained  possession  of  the  Castle  of 
Stirling,  with  the  person  of  the  King,  and  for  a 
time  recovered  his  authority.  Intrigue,  however, 
was  active  against  him ;  he  was  accused  of 
having  participated  in  the  murder  of  Darnley, 
and  was  beheaded  at  Edinburgh,  .June  2,  1581, 
bearing  himself  with  dignitj-  and  composure, 
and  maintaining  his  innocence  of  'art  and  ])art' 
in  the  murder  of  the  King's  father.  Consult: 
Crawford,  Crown  and  State  Officers  of  Scotland 
(Edinburgh,  1720)  ;  Froude.  History  of  Eng- 
land, ch.  Ixiii.    (London,  1881-82). 

MORTON,  George  (c.l585-c.l628).  An  Eng- 
lish colonist  in  America.  He  was  born  in  Eng- 
land, became  a  separatist,  and  removed  to  Hol- 
land with  his  brother,  Thomas  Jlorton,  settling 
at  Leyden,  where  for  some  years  prior  to  1620 
he  was  an  agent  of  the  London  Puritans.  In 
1623  he  sailed  for  Kew  England  in  the  ship 
Ann,  in  charge  of  a  party  of  new  settlers 
for  the  Plymouth  Colony.  He  remained  at  Plym- 
outh .several  years,  and  then  returned  to  Eng- 
land. Tlie  book  known  as  Monrt's  Relation 
(1622),  which  was  the  first  published  accoimt 
of  the  New  England  settlement,  comprising  a 
journal  of  the  first  twelve  months  of  the  Plym- 
outh Colony,  has  the  name  'G.  Mourt'  subscribed 
to  the  preface,  and  for  that  reason  has  been 
ascribed  to  Jlorton.  Careful  investigators,  how- 
ever, among  them  Dr.  H.  M.  Dexter,  who  re- 
printed the  work  with  critical  and  historical  notes 
in  1S64.  while  agreeing  that  the  name  'CI.  Jlourf 
evidently  referred  to  George  Jlorton.  are  inclined 
to  think  that  the  account  itself  was  the  work  of 
Bradford  and  Winslow. 


MORTON. 


MORTON,    IlENKY     (1830-1902).      A    distin- 
jniislii'il    American    scientist   and   educator,      lie 
tvas  born  in  New  York,  and  was  educated  at  the 
Episcopal  Academy  in   I'liiladelphia  and  at   tl.e 
University    of    Tennsvlvania.      He    tirst    studied 
law    but  "afterwards  took  up  diemistry.  and   in 
1803  became  professor  of  diemistry  in  the  Phila- 
delphia   Dental   College.      In    180'J   he   took   the 
cliair  of  chemistry-  in  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania.     In    1870    he    became    president    of    the 
Stevens    Institute    of    Technolog\-,    at    lloboken, 
K    J     toward  the  endowment  of  which   he  con- 
tributed   over    .$00,000.      Dr.    Morton    conducted 
the  photographic  work  of  the  eclipse  ex|)cdition 
that  went  to  Iowa  in  1869.     In  1873  lie  carried 
out  a  series  of  important  investigations  on  the 
fluorescent  and  absorption  spectra  of  the  uranian 
salts,    on    the    lluoiescent    liydrocarbon    thallene, 
discovered   by   him    in   petroleum    residues,   etc. 
In    1878   he  'was   a   member  of   Heniy   Draper  s 
eclipse   expedition,   and  while  a   member   of  the 
Lighthouse   Board    (1878-85)    carried   out   valu- 
able experiments  on  electric  lighting,  fog  signals, 
illuminating   buoys,    etc.      His    publications    in- 
clude  numerous   papers    in   scientific   periodicals 
and  the  ,^tude>ifs  I'rnrtic«1  f/icmi'sfn/    (written 
jointly  with  Leeds  and  published  at  Philadelphia 

in  1808). 

MORTON,  James  Saint  Clair  (1829-64).  An 
American  soldier,  a  son  of  Samuel  George  Mor- 
ton (q.v.).  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1851, 
and  from  1855  to  1857  was  assistant  professor  of 
engineering  in  that  institution.  In  1860  be  con- 
ducted an  exploration  for  a  railway  route  across 
Central  America  for  the  Covcrnment:  in  1861 
was  promoted  to  be  ca|)tain:  in  1862  became 
chief  engineer  of  the  Army  of  the  Ohio,  and 
later  in  the  year  was  transferred  to  a  like  Jiosi- 
lion  in  the  .\rmv  of  the  Cumberland.  He  com- 
niandcd  a  Ijrigade  at  Stone  River,  was  wounded 
at  Chiekamauga.  and  was  made  major  of  engi- 
neers in  July.  1803.  As  chief  engineer  of  the 
Ninth  .Vrmy"  Corps  he  participated  in  Grant's 
Virginia  campaign,  and  was  killed  while  leading 
the'^assault  on  Petersburg.  In  recognition  of 
his  gallantry  in  this  engagement  Congress  voted, 
after  his  death,  that  he  be  ranked  as  a  brigadier- 
general  in  the  Pegular  .\rmy.  Previous  to  the 
war  lie  pul)li~he.l  a  number  of  works  on  fortifica- 
tjiiii  :iiid  1-ngineering. 

MORTON,    John-    {U20?-1500).     Archbishop 
of   Canterbury    and    cardinal.      He    was   born    in 
Dorset,  and  educated  at  Cernc  .\bbey.  a  Benedic- 
tine  fouiulatioii.  and   at   Palliol   College.  Oxford. 
Having  studied  law.  he  took  orders  and  began  to 
practice  in  the  Court  of  Arches,  the  ecclesiastical 
tribunal  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.     Here 
lie  attracted  the  att«'ntion   of   Archbishop   Rour- 
chier.  who  presented  him  to  Henry  VI..  and  the 
latter  made  him  a  member  of  the  Privy  Council 
about   14.50.  and  also  gave  him  valuable  ecclesi- 
astical  lienefices.     Though   he  had   followed   for 
a   time   the    fortunes   of   the   Lanca-^trians.    Ed- 
ward IV.  took  him  into  favor,  made  him  Master 
of  the  Rolls  in  1473.  and  in  1479  IJishop  of  Ely. 
He  was  not  in  favor  with   Uichard  III.,  who  ar- 
rested   him   and    committed    him    to   the   custody 
of    the    Duke    of    Buckingham,    from    whom    he 
e«c;iped  and  (led  to  th<'  Earl  of  Richmond  on  the 
Continent.      He   is    said   to   have    suggested   the 
union   of  the   houses  of  York   and  Lancaster  by 
the    marriage   of    Richmond    with    the    daughter 
of   Edward    IV.      TTenrv    VII.    on   his   accession 


3G  MORTON. 

made  Morton  a  memlicr  of  tlie  Privy  Council, 
and  on  the  death  of  Cardinal  Bouivhier,  in  1480, 
he  was  promoted  to  the  Sec  ul  Canterbury.  In 
1487  he  was  appointed  Lord  Chancellor,  and 
in  1493  Pope  Alexander  VI.  made  liim  a  cardi- 
nal. Alorton  was  the  chief  councilor  of  Henry 
VII  and  hence  has  been  held  responsible,  per- 
haps uniustlv,  for  Henry's  avarice.  (See  Mob- 
ton's  Fokk.)  He  died  October  12,  1500.  Ihe 
history  of  Richard  III.  which  bears  the  name  of 
Sir  Thomas  More  was  probably  written  in  Latin 
by  Morton.  At  Ely  he  drained  the  fens  by  Mor- 
ton's Dvke.  Consult  Hook.  Liici  of  llw  Arch- 
()is/io/«"o;  Canterbury,  vol.  v.  (London,  18G7). 

MORTON,  John  ( 1724-77 ) .    One  of  the  sign- 
ers of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  of 
Swedish   ancestry,   in   Ridley  Township,   Chester 
County,  Pa.     He  was  a  surveyor  for  some  years, 
but  subsequently  became  a  lawyer.     He  was  for 
several  years  a  ■member  of  the  Pennsylvania  As- 
sembly,  and  in    1705   was  chosen   a   delegate_to 
the   SUunp   Act  C.mgress.      From   1766  to    1/70 
he  was  high  sherilT  of  Chester  County.     During 
all    this    period    he    continued    to    serve    in    the 
Pennsylvania  Assembly,  and  from   1772  to  1775 
was   S'pcaker  of  that    body.     He  was  an  earnest 
champion  of   the   rights   of  the   Colonies  in   the 
pre-ltcyolutionarv  controversies,  and  was  active 
in  furthering  the  cause  of  the  Revolution  after 
the   outbreak    of    ho.stiiities.      In    1774    he    was 
elected  a   member  of  the  Continental   Congress, 
and   remained  a  memljer  of  that  body  until   his 
death,  taking  a  leading  part  in  the  debates  and 
helping  to  frame  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 
MORTON,  JiLir.s  Sterling  (1832-1902).  An 
\merican    political    leader.      He    was    born    in 
Adams.  JelTerson  County,  N.  Y.,  and  when  two 
years  old. was  taken  to  "Michigan  by  his  parents. 
He    was   educated    in    the    Metho<list    Episcopal 
\cademy    at    Albion,    and    in    1850    entered    the 
University  of  Michigan.     He  comi)leted  his  course 
at    Union     College,    graduating    in     1854,     and 
in     the    year     following     settled     in     Nebraska, 
first  at   'Belleyuo   and    later   at   Nebraska    City, 
where    he    founded    and    edited    the    Nebrask\i 
City    Vcics.    the    first    newsj.aper    to    be    estab- 
lished in  the  State.     In   1856  and   1857  he  was 
elected  to  the  Nebraska  Territorial  Legislature, 
and    in    1858    was    appointed    by    President    Bu- 
chanan  secretary   of   tlic   Territory,   and   became 
.\cting   Goyerno'r   upon    the    resignation   of   Gov. 
\V.    A.    Richardson,    a    few    months    later.      In 
1806    he    was    the    Democratic    candidate    for 
Governor,   but   was   defeated.      From   that   time 
until    1881.   when  he  was  again   a  candidate   for 
Governor,  he  took  no  part  in  politics.     In  1893 
he  entered   the   Cabinet   of   President  Cleveland 
as  Secretary  of  Agiiculture.  remaining  in  office 
until   1897."    Vpon  the  advent  of  \Villiam   .Ten- 
nings   Bryan   into   Nebraska   politics  he  became 
one  of  his  most  active  opp<ments.  and  identified 
himself   with    the   Gold-Democratic   wing   of    the 
Democratic   Party.     In    1901    he  was   appointed 
by  President  McKinlev  one  of  the  United  States 
Commissioners  for  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Expo- 
sition.    He  was  a  student  of  forestry,  and  was 
Ihe  originator  of  'Arbor  Day'  in   Nebraska,  the 
observance  of  which  has  extended  to  many  other 
Stales      At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  editing 
a    weekly    paper    entitled    Thr    fUmfni-ntive.    m 
which  he  opposed  most  of  the  doctrines  advocated 
in   Bryan's   Commoner. 


MORTON. 


87 


MORTON. 


MORTON,  Levi  Parsons  (1824—).  An 
Ainciiiaii  banker  ;iud  political  leader.  He  was 
born  at  Sliorcliam,  Vt.,  and  waa  educated  at 
tlie  academy  in  that  town.  In  1843  he  estab- 
lislied  himself  in  a  mercantile  business  in  Han- 
over, X.  11.  In  18.50  he  removed  to  Boston,  where 
he  entered  the  Iianking  business,  and  four  years 
later  lie  settled  in  New  York  City,  where  he  was 
.successful  from  the  start.  In  1803  he  founded 
the  banking-house  of  Levi  P.  Morton  &  Co.,  later 
Morton,  Bliss  &  Co.,  which  became  one  of  the 
most  successful  private  banking  firms  in  the 
country.  A  London  branch,  Morton,  Rose  &  Co., 
was  subsequently  established.  In  1878  Jlorton 
was  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Republican.  From  the 
completion  of  his  term  until  1885  he  was  United 
States  ilinister  to  France.  In  1888  he  was  the 
successful  candidate  for  Vice-President  on  the 
Republican  ticket.  From  1894  until  1896  he  was 
Ciovernor  of  New  York. 

MORTON,  :NLuicu.s  (1784-1864).  An  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  politician,  born  at  Freetown, 
JIass.  He  graduate<l  at  Brown  University  In 
1804,  and  at  the  Litchfield  (Conn.)  Law  School, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1807,  and  established 
himself  in  the  practice  of  his  profession  at  Taun- 
ton, Mass.,  where  he  remained  for  the  rest  of 
his  life.  From  1817  until  1821  he  was  a  member 
of  Congress.  In  1823  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Governor's  Council,  in  1824  was  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor, and  in  1825  began  a  notable  career  as 
Jtidge  of  the  Supreme  Court.  He  remained  on 
the  bench  until  1839,  when  he  was  the  candi- 
date of  the  Deniocaatie  Party  for  Governor,  and 
was  elected  by  one  vote  over  Edward  Everett,  the 
Whig  nominee,  although  the  Whigs  carried  the 
State  electoral  ticket.  In  1840  he  failed  of  re- 
election. b>it  in  1842  was  again  elected.  From 
184.5  to  1848  he  was  Collector  of  the  Port  of 
Boston.  In  the  same  year  he  became  a  violent 
opponent  of  the  Democratic  policy  as  to  slavery 
extension,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  the  organ- 
ization of  the  Free-Soil  Party,  by  which  he 
was  elected  to  the  State  Legislature  for  one 
term.  Later  he  identified  himself  with  the  Re- 
publican Party. 

MORTON,  Nathaniel  (1613-85).  An  Ameri- 
can colonial  historian,  born  of  English  blood  in 
Leyden.  Holland.  He  came  to  Plymouth.  Mass., 
in'l023.  and  dwelt  there  till  his  'death.  On  the 
death  of  his  father  he  was  taken  into  the  family 
of  Governor  Bradford,  whose  wife  was  his  mater- 
nal aunt,  and  early  helped  the  Governor  in  pul)- 
lic  business.  He  was  Secretarv  of  the  Colonv  from 
1645  till  his  death.  In  1669,  at  the  request  of 
the  commissioners  of  the  New  England  colonies, 
he  compiled  and  ])ublished  at  Cambridge.  JIass., 
his  Xeir  Eiiftknid's  Memorial,  or  a  Brief  Relation 
of  fhe  Most  Remnrlcahle  find  Memorable  Passages 
of  the  Proridenee  of  God  M nnifested  to  the  Plant- 
ers of  Vetr  Enfiland.  etc.,  a  work  which  was  re- 
printed in  England  and  several  times  in  the  colo- 
nies, and  was  the  chief  autliority  for  the  events  of 
which  it  treated  until  tlie  discovery  in  1855  of 
Bradforil's  tfixtori/  of  Plymouth,  on  which,  to- 
gether with  the  journals  of  Winslow,  Morton. 
who  had  little  originality,  drew  largely.  ^Tor- 
ton  also  wrote  a  Si/nnpsis  of  the  Chureh  Histoni 
of  Phimonth  (1680).  and  oliituarv  poems  of  the 
style  then   in  vogue. 

MORTON,  Oliver  Perry  (1823-77).  An 
American    political    leader,   best    known    as   the 


'War  Governor'  of  Indiana.  He  was  born  In 
Salisbury,  Wayne  County,  Ind.,  August  4,  1823, 
attended  the  \Vayne  County  Seminary,  spent  two 
years  at  Miami  University,  studied  law,  and  in 
1847  was  admitted  to  practice.  He  soon  be- 
came a  prominent  member  of  the  Indiana  bar, 
and  in  1852  was  elected  circuit  judge.  He  entered 
politics  as  a  Democrat,  but  opposition  to  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  led  him  on  Jlay  2,  1854, 
to  withdraw  from  the  Democratic  State  conven- 
tion ;  and  ultimately  he  assisted  in  the  formation 
of  the  Republican  Part}^,  to  whose  first  national 
convention  he  was  a  delegate.  In  1856  the  People's 
Party,  as  the  Republican  Party  in  Indiana  was  at 
first  called,  nominated  him  for  Governor,  but  after 
a  close  contest  he  was  defeated.  Four  years  later 
he  was  elected  Lieutenant-Governor,  and.  upon 
the  Governor's  election  as  United  States  Senator, 
Morton  became  Governor,  .January  16,  1861.  LIpon 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  threw  himself 
with  extraordinary  energy  and  success  into  the 
work  of  raising  troops.  The  election  of  1862, 
however,  resulted  in  the  choice  of  a  Democratic 
Legislature  and  Democratic  State  officers,  who 
bitterly  opposed  the  war,  and  threw  obstacles  in 
his  way.  His  task  was  still  further  complicated 
by  the  presence  in  the  State  of  a  large  secret 
society  called  the  Knights  of  the  Golden  Circle 
( q.v. ) ,  which  resisted  the  draft,  encouraged  de- 
sertion, and  even  plotted  the  assassination  of 
the  Governor  and  the  carrying  of  Indiana  otit 
of  the  LTnion.  But  Morton  triumphed  over  all 
difficulties.  He  borrowed  sufficient  money  on  his 
own  personal  responsibility  to  meet  the  exigencies 
of  the  situation :  put  down  the  treasonable  asso- 
ciations and  brought  the  leaders  to  trial;  and  he 
secured  the  triumph  of  his  party  and  his  own  re- 
election as  Governor  in  1864.  In  the  opinion 
of  such  men  as  Chase  and  Stanton  his  services 
during  this  period  were  greater  than  those  ren- 
dered by  any  other  of  the  great  'War  Governors.' 
Shortly  after  the  close  of  the  war,  Morton  was 
stricken  with  paralysis,  and  was  obliged  to  go 
to  Europe.  On  his  return  to  the  United  States, 
he  resumed  his  duties  as  Governor.  In  1867  he 
was  elected  ITnited  States  Senator,  and  was  re- 
elected in  1873.  In  the  Senate  he  became  a 
recognized  leader  of  the  Republicans,  and.  despite 
his  poor  health,  accomplished  a  prodigious 
amount  of  work,  serving  on  the  committees  on 
foreign  relations,  agriculture,  military  affairs, 
private  land  claims,  and  privileges  and  elections. 
At  first  an  opjwnent  of  sufl'rage  for  the  freedmen, 
he  ultimately  did  much  to  promote  the  passage 
of  the  Fifteenth  Amendment.  He  was  one  of 
President  Grant's  chief  advisers,  and  sustained 
the  Administration  in  the  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
carry  through  the  Senate  the  proposed  treaty  for 
the  annexation  of  Santo  Domingo.  In  return  for 
this  last  service,  the  English  mission  was  offered 
to  him,  but  he  refu.sed  it.  In  1873.  on  the  death 
of  Chief  Justice  Chase,  he  declined  also  to  become 
Chief  .Tustice  of  the  Supreme  Court.  At  the  Re- 
publican national  convention  in  1876  he  was  a 
strong  candidate  for  the  Presidential  nomination, 
and  received  124  votes  on  the  first  ballot.  He 
subsequently  served  on  the  Electoral  Commission 
(q.v.).  .\t  this  time  his  infirmities  were  such 
that  he  required  assistance  in  moving  about,  and 
had  to  be  carried  from  the  lobby  of  the  Senate 
chamber  to  his  carriage.  He  died  at  Indianapolis, 
November  1.  1877.  as  the  result  of  an  attack  of 
paralysis.    Morton  possessed  a  powerful  intellect. 


MORTON. 

a  determined  will,  ami  liigli  exetiirtve  ability,  and 
was  an  orator  of  grL-at  jjopiilurily  and  force.  An 
admirable  bioj;rai)liy  has  been  written  by  W.  D. 
i'oulke   (2  vols.,  Indianapolis,  181)9). 

MORTON,  S.\MiEL  Georoe  (1790-18.51). 
An  Airicricaii  physician  and  natural  scientist. 
He  was  born  in  Philadelphia.  He  became  a  stu- 
dent of  medicine  under  Dr.  .Joseph  Parrish,  and 
was  assisted  in  his  studies  by  Dr.  Richard  Har- 
lan, the  natural  historian,  from  whom  he  im- 
bibed the  stron-?  taste  for  general  science  which 
always  distinguished  him.  He  became  a  doctor 
of  medicine  in  1820,  and  after  three  years  of 
EuroiK'an  study  received  a  degree  from  Kdin- 
burgli  Iniversity.  In  1824  he  began  practice  in 
Philadelphia,  and  soon  attained  a  prominent  posi- 
tion. In  1839  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
anatomy  in  the  Pennsylvania  College  at  Phila- 
delphia, which  chair  he  continued  to  fill  until 
1S4.'J.  Besides  his  contributions  to  medical  litera- 
ture Morton  was  always  engaged  in  general 
scientific  investigation  and  writing.  While 
abroad  he  studied  the  geology  of  Scotland,  and 
on  his  return  jjresented  to  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ence a  collection  of  the  greenstone  rocks  of  Scot- 
land. In  1827  he  published  an  Aniih/sis  of  Tubu- 
lar Spar  from  liuclcs  Count ii,  and  in  the  succeed- 
ing j'ear  some  Heoloyical  Obsrrfations.  He  was 
besides  an  ethnologist  of  wide  fame,  and  pos- 
sessed an  immense  collection  of  skulls  from  all 
races  of  the  world.  His  medical  works  are:  II- 
lii.ttrntinns  of  Pulmonriri;  Coii.iiimption  (Philadel- 
phia, 1834)  ;  an  American  edition  of  Mackin- 
tosh's Principlm  of  Pdtlwloqy  and  Prnclice  of 
Phi/sic  (Philadelphia.  1830)  {An  [Iliislratcd  %s- 
tem  of  Human  Anaiomif  (Philadelphia.  1839); 
and  Crania  Americana   (Philadelphia,  1839). 

MORTON,  Thomas  ( ir)04-10.59).  An  English 
prelate,  born  in  York,  and  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  was  ordained  a  deacon  in  1.592,  and 
became  chaplain  to  Lord  Huntingdon.  Tpon 
the  death  of  Elizabeth  he  became  chaplain  to 
the  Earl  of  Rutland.  In  his  first  work.  Apologia 
Callwlica  (1005).  he  defended  the  Church  of 
England  and  attacked  the  Jesuits,  which  he  con- 
tinued to  do  throughout  his  life.  A  royal  chap- 
lain, he  was  also  successively  Bishop  of  Chester, 
of  Lichfield  and  Coventry,  and  of  Dur- 
ham. In  1041  he  was  mobbed  by  the  jwople 
anil  was  one  of  the  twelve  l)ish()ps  impeached 
by  the  Parliament  for  high  treason.  Jlorton  suf- 
fered four  months'  imprisonment  and  never  re- 
sumed his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords.  His  works 
include:  A  Treatise  of  the  Threefolde  Stale  of 
Man  (1.506);  An  Exact  Discoverie  of  Romish 
Doctrine  (1605)  ;  .1  Catholic  Appeal  for  Protes- 
tants (IfilO);  The  firand  Imposture  of  the 
Church  of  Rome  (1028)  ;  The  Xecessiti/  of  Chris- 
tian Subjection  (1643)  :  and  A  Treatise  of  the 
Xnlurr  of  God   (1600). 

MORTON,  TnoMAS  (c.  1.590- 1646).  An  Eng- 
lish adventurer,  by  profession  an  attorney.  He 
visited  Xew  Enghiiid  with  Weston's  expedition 
in  1022:  and  in  1025  he  returned  with  Captain 
Wolliiston's  colony,  which  settled  at  Mount  Wol- 
laston.  within  the  present  limits  of  Quincv.  Mass. 
After  Wolliiston's  departure  to  \'irginia  the  next 
year.  Morton  ousted  Fitcher.  who  had  been  left  in 
charge,  and  changed  the  name  of  the  settlement 
to  Mare-Mount  or  Merrv-Atount.  He  began  to 
trade  with  the  Indians,  and  the  settlement  be- 
came the  rendezvous  for  the  reckless  and  disso- 


38 


MORTON. 


lute.  In  1027  he  erected  a  .May-pole  eighty  feet 
high,  and  the  revels  lasted  for  days.  \\  hen  this 
and  the  fact  that  he  was  supplying  the  Indians 
with  firearms  in  defiance  of  Kiug  .James's  proela- 
maliou  of  1022  became  known  at  Plymouth,  a 
remonstrance  was  sent  to  him.  In  1028  he  was 
captured  by  Capt.  Allies  Standish  and  sent  back 
to  England  with  charges.  There  he  ingratiated 
himself  with  Sir  Ferdinaudo  Ciorges.  Meanwhile 
Endecott  visited  Meriy-MounI,  cut  down  the 
May-pole,  and  renamed  the  place  ilount  Dagon. 
In  1029  Morton  returned  to  Plymouth  and  to 
ilerry-Mouut.  In  1030  he  was  "again  arrested 
after  several  luisuceessful  attempts,  and  was 
placed  in  the  stocks,  while  his  house  was  burned, 
and  his  property  seized,  on  a  charge  of  disorderly 
conduct  and  oppression  of  the  Indians.  When 
sent  to  England  he  again  joined  the  (Jorges  claim- 
ants and  furnished  much  information  against  the 
Massachusetts  Colony.  \\  hen  the  New  England 
Council  surrendered  its  charter  in  1035  and  di- 
vided the  territory,  Morton  was  appointed  solici- 
tor to  press  the  confirmation  of  the  deeds  and 
the  revocation  of  the  Alassachusetts  charter.  Only 
want  of  money  prevented  the  destruction  of  the 
colony.  In  1037  lie  published  the  yew  English 
Canaan,  which  had  probably  been  written  in 
1034-35.  The  first  ])art  is  an  account  of  the  In- 
dians, the  second  a  description  of  the  country, 
and  the  third  a  confused,  somewhat  humorous  ac- 
count of  the  "precise  separatists'  of  Plymouth  and 
Massachusetts  Bay.  In  1043  he  again  appeared 
in  Plymouth,  and  remained  through  the  winter. 
He  then  appeared  in  Maine  and  Rhode  Islands 
In  1()44  he  was  captured  by  the  Massachusetts 
authorities,  kept  in  jirison  a  year,  and  fined  £100 
on  charce  of  having  made  a  complaint  of  the 
colonies  to  the  council.  He  was  released  with- 
out payment  of  the  fine,  and  died  in  Maine. 
Morton's  life  and  his  settlement  at  Merry-Mount 
form  the  subject  of  .John  Lothrop  Motlev's  novels. 
Morion's  Hope  (1839)  and  Mcrrji-Mouiit  (1849), 
and  one  of  Hawthorne's  short  stories  is  entitled 
The  Maypole  of  Merrg-Mount.  Motley's  book  has 
been  reprinted  with  an  elaborate  memoir  and 
full  notes  by  C.  !•'.  Adams,  .Ir.,  in  the  "Prince 
Society  Publications"  (Boston,  1883).  Consult 
-Adams.  7'7ircr  Episodes  in  Massachusetts  Bis- 
torg    (Boston.   1892). 

MORTON,  WirxiAM  James  (1845—).  An 
American  physician,  son  of  William  T.  O.  Mor- 
ton, the  introducer  of  ether  ana'sthe^ia.  He  was 
born  in  Boston.  Massi.,  educated  at  the  Boston 
Latin  School,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1807. 
He  engaged  in  teaching  for  a  year,  and  then  en- 
tered the  Harvard  Medical  School,  where  he 
graduated  in  1872,  taking  the  Boylston  prize 
for  his  thesis  on  .Xna-stheties.  After  a  hospital 
experience  he  engaged  in  practice  in  Bar  Har- 
bor. Maine,  and  in  Boston.  From  1873  to  187-4 
he  pur'^ucd  his  studies  at  Vienna,  going  from 
there  to  Kinibcrlcv,  in  South  Africa,  where  he 
built  up  a  large  practice  and  engaged  in  diamond 
mining.  After  two  more  years  of  European 
sturly  he  returned  to  America  and  sehled  in  Xew 
York.  Here  he  was  for  a  time  editor  of  the 
Journal  of  Xcrrous  and  Mental  Diseases;  was 
adjunct  professor  of  nervous  diseases  at  the  New 
York  Post-fJiaduate  Jledical  School  from  1882 
to  1885:  neurologist  to  the  Xew  York  Infant 
.\syliim  from  1887  to  1890.  Since  1800  he  has 
been   professor  of  nervous  diseases  and  electro- 


MORTON. 


39 


MORTUARY  CUSTOMS. 


therapeutics  at  the  New  York  Post-Graduate 
Aledioal  Stlioul.  Dr.  ilortoa's  mime  has  been 
intimately  connected  with  the  recent  advances 
in  electro-tlierapculics,  and  he  lias  contributed 
not  a  little  to  the  advanooment  of  this  science. 
In  1880  he  devised  a  meclianism  consisting  of 
a  Holt/,  machine  and  Lejdcn  jars  bj'  means  of 
which  a  new  variety  of  electric  current  was 
established  (condensed  currents  in  rapid  dis- 
charge) and  named  by  him  the  'static  induced 
current.'  By  the  aid  of  this  Jlorton  current,  {is 
it  is  called  in  the  scientific  world,  the  X-ray 
can  be  produced,  and  Dr.  Morton  probalily  made 
the  fifst  X-ray  picture  in  this  country.  He  has 
made  many  contributions  to  medical  literature, 
and  is  a  member  of  numerous  scientific  bodies. 
He  is  a  member  of  the  State  and  county  so- 
cieties; of  the  Xew  York  .Academy  of  Jledicine; 
was  president  of  the  New  York  X'eurological  So- 
ciety in  1874;  of  the  New  York  Electro-thera- 
peutic Society  in  1894:  of  the  American  Electro- 
therapeutic  Association  in  1893;  and  is  a  member 
of  several  foreign  societies. 

MORTON",  WiLUAM  Thomas  Green  (1819- 
G8 ) .  An  Ajnerican  dentist,  exploiter  of  the 
general  anaesthetic  properties  of  sulphuric  ether. 
He  was  born  at  Charlton,  Mass.  In  1840  he  took 
up  the  study  of  dentistry  at  the  Baltimore  Col- 
lege of  Dental  Surgery,  then  recently  eslablislied 
by  the  new  Society  of  American  Dental  Surgeons. 
On  his  return  to  Boston  in  1842  to  practice 
Morton's  attenti<m  was  drawn  toward  medicine, 
and  in  1844  he  began  study  with  Dr.  Jackson  of 
Boston,  and  continued  in  the  Harvard  Medical 
School.  He  did  not  complete  his  course,  but  was 
afterwards  awarded  the  degree  of  M.D.  honoi-is 
causa,  by  the  present  College  of  Pliysicians  and 
Surgeons,  Baltimore.  The  art  of  dentistry  was 
at  that  time  in  a  transition  stage,  and  Morton's 
inventive  genius  discovered  many  improvements, 
especially  in  attaching  false  teeth.  He  first  de- 
vised a  new  solder  by  which  teeth  could  be  at- 
tached to  gold  plates,  and  further  contrived  to 
ol>viate  dependence  upon  old  fangs  in  inserting 
new  teeth.  The  removal  of  these  stumps  or  roots 
was  attended  with  great  pain,  and  alcoholic  stim- 
ulation, laudanum,  and  the  galvanic  current  were 
tried  to  diminisli  it,  without  avail.  In  the  course 
of  his  investigations  ilorton  became  acquainted 
with  the  value  of  sulphuric  ether  as  a  local 
anaesthetic  and  used  it  in  minor  operations.  After 
a  long  series  of  exiieriments  on  animals,  he 
finally  succeeded  in  )iroving  the  efficacy  of  vapor- 
ized ether,  and  making  known  his  results  to  Dr. 
John  C.  ^Varren,  he  administered  ether  at  the 
latter's  refjucst  in  the  Massachusette  General 
Hosjiital,  the*operation  being  that  of  removing 
a  tumor  from  the  jaw.  The  first  public  demon- 
stration was  made  October  16.  1S40.  At  the  sug- 
gestion of  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  the  new 
form  of  narcosis  was  christened  'anaesthesia.' 
Dr.  Alorton  obtained  a  patent  for  the  use  of  ether, 
under  the  name  of  'lethcou.'  in  1840.  a  month  after 
the  operation  in  the  hos])ital,  and  a  month  after 
this,  in  England.  Dr.  C.  T.  .Tackson  also  claimed 
the  honor  of  having  made  the  discovery,  and  the 
Montyon  prize  of  the  French  Academy  was 
equally  awarded  to  Dr.  Morton  and  to  Dr.  Jack- 
son, hut  Dr.  Morton  declined  to  accept  it.  which 
resulted  in  his  receiving  in  18.52  the  large  gold 
medal,  the  Montyon  prize  in  medicine  and  sur- 
gery.    He  claimed  compensation  from  Congress 


for  his  invention,  the  Government  having  used  it, 
and  also  from  individuals,  and  he  was  involved 
in  many  suits.  He  received,  however,  no  com- 
pensation, and  his  life  was  spent  in  contests, 
literary  and  legal,  in  regard  to  his  invention. 
Memorials  weie  presented  to  Congress  signed  by 
many  physicians,  but  for  one  reason  or  another 
they  failed  to  secure  what  was  asked. 

MORTON'S  FORK.  A  famous  dilemma  said 
to  have  been  proposed  by  the  Chancellor  of  Henrj' 
^'II.  of  England,  .John  Morton  (q.v.).  In  1491 
Henry  resorted  to  the  unconstitutional  method  of 
obtaining  money  by  a  benevolence  (q.v.),  and 
Jlorton  in  carrying  out  the  scheme  is  supposed 
to  have  told  those  who  lived  well  that  their 
opulence  was  proved  by  their  large  expenditure; 
while  those  who  spent  little  were  told  that  they 
must  have  saved  considerable  by  their  economy. 
Either  class  could  well  afford  to  assist  the  sov- 
ereign. 

MORTUARY  CUSTOMS.  Observances  con- 
nected with  death  and  burial.  The  care  of  the 
dj'ing  and  of  the  dead  is  a  marked  feature  of  re- 
ligion among  all  peoples,  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest,  and  is  associated  most  closely  with  spirit 
belief  and  custom.  It  is  possible  to  treat  the 
subject  ethnically,  enumerating  and  classifying 
peoples  by  their  mortuary  customs,  or  culturally, 
studying  the  genesis  and  development  of  each 
class  of  actions  and  beliefs  involved.  The  latter 
method  is  here  adopted.  ^Mortuary  customs,  for 
the  convenience  of  study,  may  be  considered  un- 
der the  following  heads,  which  by  their  character- 
istics as  well  as  by  their  presence  or  absence  are 
worthy  of  note. 

( 1 )  Customs  concerning  the  dying. 

(2)  Treatment  of  the  corpse,  including  the 
posture  of  the  body,  bathing,  cutting,  decapitat- 
ing, embalming,  or  cremating  the  corpse,  or 
scraping  the  bones. 

(3)  Clothing  or  wrappings  of  the  corpse. 

(4)  Incasement  of  the  corpse  in  the  crate, 
basket,  jar,  box,  or  other  receptacle  which  may 
answer  to  the  coffin.  In  this,  protection  and  con- 
venience of  carrying  are  the  ends  desired. 

(5)  Watching  the  corpse,  including  the  -wake 
and  funeral  feast. 

(6)  Bearing  the  corpse  to  the  place  intended 
for  it,  the  funeral,  with  all  its  apparatus,  pro- 
cessions, and  rites. 

(7)  Disposal  of  the  corpse. 

(8)  Post-mortem  ceremonies,  passing  under 
the  general  term  mourning. 

(9)  Cult  of  and  for  the  dead,  beliefs  about  the 
dead,  the  ghost,  necromancy. 

(10)  Memorials  for  the  dead,  mementos  pre- 
served or  worn,  and  monuments  of  every  kind. 

(11)  Ascriptions  to  the  dead,  epitaphs,  mor- 
tuary sayings,  and  literature. 

CrsTOMS  Concerning  the  Dying.  In  the  belief 
of  the  lower  races,  death  from  natural  causes  is 
a  thing  unknown;  it  is  always  the  act  of  some 
god  or  personage,  designed  and  chiefly  malevolent. 
Every  disease  and  every  death  among  the  Poly- 
nesians is  held  to  be  caused  by  the  gods  for  some 
crime  against  taboo  or  as  the  result  of  some  of- 
fering Iw  an  enemy.  Hence  the  neglect  and  cruel 
treatment  of  the  sick.  Even  death  caused  by 
poison  is  thought  to  be  due  to  the  displeasure  of 
the  gods. 

Care  for  the  dying  can  scarcely  be  said  to  ex- 
ist among  savages,  although  the  most  strenuou."! 


MORTUARY  CUSTOMS. 


40 


MORTUARY  CUSTOMS. 


efforts  of  tlic  niayiciiin  and  friends  arc  put  forth 
to  e.xorcise  thf  di-stroj'iii^  aiigrl  and  thus  to  re- 
store the  patient.  Tlie  moment  hope  lias  de- 
parted, the  preparations  for  hurial  arc  begun 
almost  before  the  breath  has  left  the  body.  So 
strong  is  the  belief  in  the  necessarj'  connection 
l)et\veen  magic  and  death  among  the  Australians 
that  when  a  man  believes  he  has  been  'pointed  at' 
or  run  through  with  a  magic  spear  that  has  been 
'sung'  he  fre(piently  dies.  \Vell  authenticated 
cases  are  on  reeor<l  in  which  tlie  slightest  ailment 
or  wound  has  res\ilted  fatally,  because  the  vic- 
tim was  convinced  that  the  instrument  had 
been  charmed  by  magic.  l'"or  many  forms  of 
conjuring  there  is  no  remedy.  In  others  a  cure 
is  possible  by  the  aid  of  a  magician  belonging 
to  Die  totem  of  the  person  who  'pointed'  at  the 
sick  man.  The  practices  of  the  medicine  men  are 
almost  universally  the  same.  They  make  the  same 
passes,  suck  the  wound,  and  nmtter  incanta- 
tions, and  the  imagination  of  the  patient  often 
effects  a  cure. 

Tkeatment  of  the  Corp.sk.  No  sooner  has  life 
become  extinct  tliau  the  jncparation  of  the  body 
begins.  l''or  economy's  sake  most  primitive 
tribes  double  the  corpse  into  the  smallest  com- 
pass, the  chin  resting  on  the  knees.  Kven  among 
such  an  advanced  people  as  the  ancient  Peruvians 
this  custom  of  packing  the  body  into  the  smallest 
compass  prevailed,  a  strong  rope  being  used  to 
draw  the  limbs  into  place  and  bind  them  fast. 
It  has  been  said  that  the  motive  in  this  is  to 
imitate  the  posture  of  the  unborn  infant,  but 
aside  from  the  fact  that  cnmching  is  a  conunon 
position  in  life  among  savages,  economy  of  space 
in  the  grave  or  tondj  has  nuich  to  do  witli  the 
custom. 

Embalming  the  dead  was  at  first  only  a  natural 
process.  There  are  regions  where  the  arid  cli- 
mate desiccates  all  tlesli,  as  cm  the  plains  of  the 
West,  and  in  Peru,  Kgypt,  and  Arabia.  Here, 
the  drying  up  of  the  body  suggested  to  the  primi- 
tive mind  religious  ceremonies  which  found  their 
culmination  in  the  all-absorbing  mortuary  cult  of 
Kgypt.  The  I'olynesians  wlieii  (irsl  discovered  had 
an  elaborate  ceremony  of  embalming  their  dead 
priests.  The  brains  an<l  inlcstines  were  removed, 
and  all  moisture  was  carefully  wiped  from  the 
body,  which  was  anointed  with  fragrant  oils  and 
dried  in  the  sun.  It  was  then  clothed  and  seated 
in  a  little  house  erected  for  the  purpose,  where  a 
table  was  set  before  il  for  food,  fruits,  and  flow 
ers.  Here  also  belong  such  ceremonies  as  call- 
ing the  dead,  anointing,  closing  the  eyes  and  lijis, 
balbing.  kissing,  placing  coin  in  the  mouth,  all  of 
which  have  symbolical  meanings  with  reference 
to  the  future  well-being  of  the  (lead,  as  well  as  to 
the  immediate  relations  of  the  ghost  with  the 
living. 

f'rx)TiiiNO  on  Wrappin'o.s  of  the  Corpse. 
Scarcely  any  people  consigns  its  dead  to  the  last 
resting  jilace  naked.  The  corpse  is  clad  cither 
with  the  clothing  worn  in  life,  or  the  best  attire, 
or  s|)ecial  grave  cloths,  shrouds,  or  winding 
sheets.  Fnthermore,  masks  are  frequently  placed 
over  the  whole  body  or  over  the  face.  .Among 
the  very  lowest  peoples  the  corpse  may  be  put 
away  naked,  but  this  takes  place  only  among 
those  tribes  that  wear  no  clothing.  The  prepa- 
ration of  a  special  shroud  has  its  prototype  even 
among  very  primitive  races,  and  begins  with 
the  chiefs  or  leading  men,  who  in  life  wear  an 


ollicial  or  professional  dress.  Tlic  order  of  the 
development  of  cerements  seems  to  have  been 
first,  the  disposal  of  the  body  naked ;  second, 
dressing  the  corpse  as  in  life  in  order  to  take 
up  the  new  life  in  the  spirit  world  at  once; 
third,  arraying  it  in  its  best  ilothing.  to  make 
a  good  impression  on  the  ghosts  among  whom  it 
goes;  fourth,  wra]>ping  it  in  a  shroud  for  .senti- 
mental reasons.  .Among  the  lOgyptians  the  corpse 
was  wrapped  with  narrow  strips  of  linen.  In 
Turkestan  a  similar  |)ractice  is  now  in  vogue, 
in  Ivimbtindo  leather  is  used,  and  in  Mashona- 
land  the  toes  an<l  lingers  are  tied  up  each  in  a 
se])aratc  piece  of  cloth. 

Inca.sement  of  the  Corpse.  The  receptacles 
for  the  dead  body  are  of  many  sorts.  Among 
the  ancient  .\leuts  the  corpse  was  doubled  up  and 
fully  clothed.  It  was  then  crated,  hung  on  the 
wall  of  a  cave,  or  set  in  a  safe  place  on  the  floor. 
The  Eskimo  employ  tough  walrus  hide  as  a  case 
for  the  dead.  The  Pacilic  Coast  tribes,  wherever 
the  giant  cedar  grows,  make  boxes  or  hollow  logs 
for  the  corpse.  The  Plains  Indians  crated  the 
bodies  of  the  dead  and  all  their  belongings  be- 
fore placing  them  on  the  platforms,  and  the 
old  cave  people  of  I'tah  packed  Ihem  in  burden 
baskets. 

The  Southern  Indians  made  hurdles  of  cane 
and  rolled  them  about  the  corpse.  Farther  south 
no  coIRn  was  needed,  for  the  bodies  were  exposed 
in  qmohorioyix  or  dead  houses  until  the  iiesh 
was  gone,  after  which  the  bones  were  liuried  in 
the  earth  or  in  jars.  Some  of  the  ancient  mound- 
builders  made  a  stone  box  or  coffin  in  the  grave 
for  the  bones. 

A  common  motive  among  primitive  tribes  in 
using  the  coffin  was  to  hold  the  bones  together 
for  burial.  Custom  demanded  it.  and  the  ever 
watchful  and  jealous  ghost  required  it.  Again, 
the  coffin  or  its  substitute  guarded  the  corpse 
from  ravenous  beasts  and  l)irds  of  prey,  and 
it  may  also  be  possible  that  among  some  tribes 
the  dead  are  boxed  uj)  to  prevent  them  from 
escaping  or  l)eing  spirited  away  by  unfriendly 
ghosts.  In  many  tribes  the  baliitation  motive 
prevails:  the  coffin  or  tomb  is  regarded  as  the 
liouse  of  the  dead. 

Watching  the  Corp.se.  Between  death  and 
burial  the  spirit  or  the  double  of  the  dead  hovers 
around  the  body,  and  expects  the  most  rigid  ad- 
herence to  custom.  This  belief  is  the  origin  of 
the  widespread  custom  of  lykcwake,  or  watch- 
ing the  corpse,  .\niong  many  ]irimitive  tribes 
till'  dead  arc  not  hurried  to  burial,  but  the  cere- 
monies of  UKUirning  begin  around  the  corpse.  The 
Polynesians  placed  the  body  of  the  dead  on  a 
bier-like  frame  covered  with  white  tapa,  which 
wa.s  dec(natcd  with  flowers,  or  ufon  a  bed  of 
fragrant  leaves,  Relatives  sat  around  lamenting 
and  cutting  them.selves  with  sharks'  teeth.  Vigils 
about  the  dead  are  widespread  among  the  white 
races.  The  folk-lore  of  the  civilized  abounds 
in  I'ustcmis  during  the  day  or  two  that  intervene 
between  death  rind  burial.  The  watch  feast,  or 
wake,  has  dwindled  to  a  company  of  a  few 
frienils.  Salt  is  placed  on  the  breast  of  the  dead, 
a  candle  Inirns  night  and  day  at  the  head  of  the 
collin.  The  sin-cater  takes  bread  and  publicly 
<lcvours  it   for  the  misdeeds  of  the  deceased, 

Pemovixc  the  Corpse  to  the  Place  Tntrnoei) 
FDR  I  r.  The  funeral  proper  is  one  of  the  most 
solenm  of  rites  the  world  over,  .\mong  many 
trilies  the  corpse  must  he  taken  out  of  the  dwell- 


MOBTTTARY  CUSTOMS. 


41 


MOKTXTARY  CUSTOMS. 


ing  tlirougli  llie  roof  or  by  some  roumlabout  way, 
ill  onk'r  lliat  tlie  gliost  may  get  bewildered  and 
not  return.  Tlic  procession  to  the  grave,  among 
savages,  lias  cluuiged  little  in  the  course  of  cen- 
turies. t'.sually,  mutilations  of  a  more  or  less 
cruel  character  are  then  observed  by  certain 
persons,  while  among  other  tribes  only  a  small 
number  carry  the  dead  away  and  are  thereafter 
unclean. 

Di.sposAL  OF  THE  CoEPSE.  The  disposal  of  the 
corpse  docs  not  necessarily  mean  interment.  We 
may  distinguish  five  methods  which  have  under- 
gone countless  modifications  as  outgrowths  of 
race,  climate,  soil,  and  grade  of  culture.  ( 1 ) 
Exposure. — The  bodies  are  not  .scaled  up,  but  are 
left  to  destruction  on  the  ground  (rare),  or  are 
hidden  in  clefts,  caves,  or  grottoes;  in  the  hut 
where  the  death  took  place;  on  trees,  posts,  scaf- 
folds, or  platforms ;  in  boxes  or  canoes ;  in  log 
pens,  or  dead  houses ;  or  in  Towers  of  Silence. 
(2)  Aquatic  Burial. — The  corpse  is  placed  on  the 
water  or  under  the  water,  as  among  the  Hindus, 
who  consign  dead  bodies  to  the  Ganges.  (3) 
Inhumation. — The  corpse  is  buried  in  a  single 
grave,  which  is  often  shelved  or  recessed;  in  pits 
or  Golgothas ;  in  cairns,  or  under  mounds  or 
tumuli ;  under  the  floor  of  the  home  or  in  con- 
secrated structures.  (4)  Encysted. — The  body 
is  inclosed  in  rude  boxes  of  wood,  stone,  or  other 
materials,  which  are  placed  in  dolmens,  vaults, 
sepulchres,  house-tombs,  kistvaens,  or  mauso- 
leums. (5)  Cremation. — The  corpse  is  burned 
and  the  ashes  are  abandoned,  scattered,  buried, 
boxed,  or  inurned. 

In  this  ccinucction  belongs  the  custom  of  mak- 
ing deposits  with  the  dead.  No  other  part  of 
this  complicated  series  of  customs  comes  so  near 
to  the  world  of  shades.  Thus  in  Dahomey  the 
bodies  of  wives  and  slaves  were  sacrificed  with- 
out number,  and  in  the  days  of  knighthood  the 
horse  and  armor  accompanied  the  warrior.  It 
is  through  these  relics  found  with  the  dead  that 
archaeology'  is  to  a  large  extent  possible.  Most 
extinct  peoples  were  without  the  art  of  writing; 
hut  stone  implements,  pottery,  objects  in  bone 
and  metal,  and  even  textile  fabrics  reveal  enough 
to  enable  the  archfeologist  to  reconstruct  ancient 
society.  Among  some  American  tribes  articles  of 
use  were  punctured  or  broken  before  being  placed 
in  the  grave.  One  of  the  tribe  who  robbed  a  grave 
would  not  be  tolerated,  but  an  inimical  tribe 
might  be  tcniptcd.  The  Polynesians  would  rob 
sacred  inclosures  of  the  enemies'  dead  in  time  of 
war  and  steal  the  bones  of  distingilislied  men  to 
make  tools,  fish-lumks,  and  other  degrading  im- 
plements. To  avoid  this,  bones  were  carried  to 
the  caverns  far  away  and  hidden  in  clefts  of 
rocks.  In  the  Fiji  Islands  favorite  wive.s  as  well 
as  slaves  were  strangled  on  the  death  of  a  chief 
in  order  that  they  might  wait  upon  him  and  be 
happy  with  him  in  the  spirit  world.  To  this 
they  gladly  submitted,  not  only  in  the  prospect 
of  greater  happiness,  but  to  avoid  unspeakable 
miseries   in  after  life. 

Po.sT-jMoRTEM  Ceremonies.  These  may  be 
grouped  together  under  the  general  head  of 
mourning,  including  both  what  is  done  and  what 
is  left  undone  in  dress,  conduct,  etiquette,  and 
rites.  As  soon  as  a  burial  takes  place  among  the 
-Australians  and  other  savage  races,  the  camp  is 
burned  down,  evervthing  in  it  is  destroyed,  and 
the  people  move  to  another  place.  During  the 
mourning   period    no    person    may    mention   the 


name  of  the  dead  except  in  case  of  necessity, 
when  it  must  be  done  in  a  wliisper  for  fear  of 
annoj'ing  the  ghost.  If  the  ghost  should  hear 
the  name  mentioned  it  would  come  to  the  con- 
clusion that  tlie  relatives  were  not  properly 
mourning,  and  they  would  be  in  consequence  lia- 
ble to  liis  vengeance;  for,  if  their  grief  were 
genuine,  it  would  cause  them  too  much  pain  to 
hear  his  name  mentioned  to  allow  them  to  speak 
it. 

Many  seemingly  absurd  customs  about  the 
graves  or  tombs  of  the  dead  are  easily  explained 
when  it  is  kept  in  mind  that  the  dead  are  not 
regarded  as  really  dead.  Putting  rags  or 
parts  of  torn  clothing  about  the  tombs,  or  on 
trees  near  by,  as  a  notice  to  the  ghost  that  the 
appropriate  rending  of  garments  had  taken  place, 
is  one  of  these  customs.  A  complete  list  of  them 
would  fill  a  volume.  It  is  enough  to  mention  the 
tolling  of  bells,  choice  and  fashions  of  mourn- 
ing, cutting  one's  flesh,  calling  the  dead,  turn- 
ing pictures  toward  the  wall,  feeding  the  dead, 
scrupulous  care  of  the  grave,  hired  mourners,  and 
the  imperative  customs  as  to  who  shall  mourn, 
when,  how  long,  and  how,  sacrifices  at  the  grave, 
naming  the  dead,  and  the  widow's  lot. 

Cult  of  and  for  the  Dead.  The  ghostly  world 
of  savages  is  never  far  away.  The  anthropomor- 
phism of  nature  does  not  end  with  this  life.  The 
dead  go  at  once  to  some  place  on  the  earth  or 
under  the  earth  where  the  most  congenial  occu- 
pations are  renewed.  When  the  ghost  of  the 
Polynesian  leaves  the  body  it  is  drawn  out 
through  the  head  as  the  sword  is  pulled  out  from 
the  scabbard.  Evil  powers  also  lie  in  wait  for 
the  ghost  to  seize  it  when  it  is  drawn  out.  Arriv- 
ing safely  at  the  place  of  the  blessed,  it  is  de- 
voured by  the  gods,  cannibalism  being  in  full 
vogue  above. 

Not  in  savagery  only,  but  in  all  races,  ages, 
and  grades  of  culture  this  belief  in  the  nearness 
of  lost  ones  is  held.  More  than  this,  reinearna- 
tiiin  and  metempsychosis  are  believed  to  be  pos- 
sible. The  savage  woman  comiilacently  murders 
her  babe  thinking  that  the  same  one  will  enter 
into  the  mother's  womb  and  be  born  again.  As 
the  dead  are  not  considered  dead,  but  are  even 
more  powerful  as  ghosts  than  they  were  as  men, 
a  complex  and  wide-reaching  cult  of  almost  uni- 
versal extent  has  been  evolved,  which  has  for  its 
object  the  propitiation  and  gratification  of  the 
spirits  of  the  dead.     See  Demoxology  ;  Ghosts. 

Memorials  for  the  Dead.  Combined  with  the 
fear  of  the  dead  is  a  desire,  primarily,  perhaps, 
based  on  anxiety  to  propitiate  the  ghost  by  a 
proof  of  suitable  mourning,  and  later  founded 
on  real  affection,  to  preserve  the  memory  of  the 
departed.  The  Andamanese  widow  carefully  dries 
the  skull  of  her  deceased  hu.sband,  paints  it  with 
ochre,  decorates  it  with  rude  lace-work,  and 
wears  it  for  a  memorial  about  the  neck.  Analo- 
gous synecdochic  preservation  of  the  dead  is  al- 
most universal  among  primitive  peoples.  The 
Eskimo  place  by  the  side  of  the  grave  the  huge 
jaw  of  a  whale.  The  Northern  Pacific  tribes  set 
up  great  posts  of  cedar.  The  ancient  people  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley  built  mounds  of  earth  and 
stone.  In  Easter  Island  images  cut  in  lava  were 
memorials.  The  Tahitians  set  up  little  models 
of  their  houses  about  six  feet  high  where  the  body 
of  .a  chief  clothed  and  rubbed  with  aromatic  sub- 
stances was  laid  while  offerings  were  made.  These 
all   tell    the   same   story.     As   culture   advanced 


MORTUARY  CUSTOMS. 


42 


MOSAIC. 


inonuiiicnts  (q.v.)  became  more  elaboiate,  and 
the  moilern  cemetery  differs  I'rom  the  primitive 
memorials  in  degree  rather  than  in  kind. 

AscKii'Tlox.s  TO  THE  l)KAi».  The  custom  of  cu- 
lo{.'izing  the  dead  is  extremely  i)rimitive  and  an- 
cient. The  Polynesians  liad  professional  bards 
who  composed  elegies  which  were  committed  to 
memory  and  i)rcscived.  Tliese  \v<Me  recited  on 
special  occasions  when  the  dead  were  mentioned. 
The  American  Indians  had  a  solemn  style  of 
speech  for  such  occasions  quite  ahovo  the  grasp 
of  the  ordinary  man,  while  the  great  epics  of 
Greece  and  Home  abound  in  passages  over  the 
dead  of  dee])est  pathos.  Here,  too,  belong  the 
entire  body  of  epitaphs,  or  memorial  inscriptions 
placed  on  tombs  in  honor  of  the  dead  who  are 
laid  in  them.     See  Bi-kial. 

MORVI,  mdr-ve'.  A  native  (iujarat  State  of 
Bombay.  India,  on  the  Katliiawar  Peninsula. 
Area,  821  square  miles.  Population,  estimated 
at  100,000.     Capital,  Morvi. 

MOSAIC  (ML.  mosaicuf!,  Gk.  jaowaros,  mou- 
saios.  mosaic,  artistic, relating  to  the  Muses,  from 
(ioDiTo,  iiioiisu,  .Muse).  A  branch  of  fine  art 
which  was  especially  prominent  during  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  though  not  luiUnown  to  antiquity,  and  is 
.still  practiced  to  a  limited  extent.  .Mosaic  work, 
when  it  attained  full  growth,  hail  various  branch- 
es. It  was  used:  (1)  on  lloors ;  (2)  on  walls; 
(3)  on  detached  objects,  monuments  or  furniture. 
It  consisted  of  the  grouping  of  pieces  of  marble, 
glass,  or  enamel  so  as  to  form  ornamental  or 
figured  compositions.  In  the  opus  scctilc  the  thin 
marble  plates  were  cut  so  as  to  follow  the  out- 
lines of  the  design,  and  it  is  not  properly  a  branch 
of  mosaic.  Ojiii/f  IcHfii'lhiliiiii  is  the  best  technical 
term,  the  tcssrila;  meaning  the  small  cubes  form- 
ing the  mosaic.  Marble  cubes  were  used  for 
floors  altogether,  though  glass  was  occasirmally 
mingled  with  them  in  the  .Middle  .\ges.  Fin-  wall 
compositions,  architectural  details,  and  furniture, 
though  marbles  were  at  first  used  almost  exclu- 
sively, the  possibility  of  producing  a  greater 
variety  of  shades  in  artificial  enamels  led  to 
their  exclusive  use  on  walls  as  early  as  the  fifth 
century  and  in  furniture  after  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. The  cubes  used  for  figures  were  usually 
smaller  than  those  used  for  decorative  work. 
Some  are  as  small  as  three  millimeters,  more 
than  one  hundred  tlwaisand  being  containe<l  in 
a  square  meter.  CJilt  cubes  were  made  by  inelo.s- 
ing  the  gold  leaf  between  two  pieces  of  white 
glass.  The  eid)es  were  colored  with  metallic 
oxi<les.  Colored  glass  was  first  cut  into  long 
narrow  sticks  and  these  again  liroken  into  the 
cuhp.s,  which  were  sorted  into  their  separate 
eases,  according  to  colors  and  r-haih's,  liki>  printers' 
type.  To  exectite  a  wall  composition  the  mosai- 
cist  prepared  his  cartoons;  the  mason  plastered  as 
large  n  .section  of  the  wall  as  could  be  covered  in 
n  (lay;  the  mosnicist  stenciled  or  dotted  his  car- 
toon on  to  the  wet  plaster  and  then  rapidly 
fastened  to  it  the  mosaic  cubes.  The  surfaces 
were  (latli'ned,  washed,  and  burnished.  Tn  the 
best  work  the  cubes  are  not  absolutely  evc^n  or 
adjacent,  so  that  mechanical  effects  arc  avoided. 
Oiii(!i\.  The  Greeks  before  Alexander  ap- 
parently did  not  practice  any  kind  of  mosaic 
work;  it  first  appears  in  the  .Alexandrian  age. 
and  probably  originated  in  Kgypt.  ft  came  into 
prominence  for  its  reproductions  in  permanent 
form  of  famous  paintings  on  the  floors  of  public 


and  private  buildings.  We  even  hear  that  scenes 
from  the  Trojan  War  were  represented  on  lloors 
of  the  great  ship  of  Hiero  of  Syracuse.  A  famous 
tloor  at  Pompeii  represents  in  a  grand  composi- 
tion a  scene  of  Alexander's  victory  at  Issus,  full 
of  action  and  variety.  Even  larger  and  niori'  com- 
plicated is  the  Xile  scene  of  a  lloor  found  at 
Palestrina,  with  its  inundated  city,  its  fishing 
and  other  genre  scenes. 

Roman  JIosaics.  Although  the  Romans  were 
not  ignorant  of  the  use  of  glass  cubes  on  walls, 
they  never  developed  this  branch  of  mosaic  work; 
the  fountains  and  niches  at  Pompeii  and  Ostia 
are  almost  the  only  surviving  examples.  But  in 
their  pavements  they  showed  the  greatest  variety, 
from  the  simple  crude  geometric  designs  in  black 
and  white  to  the  exquisite  gradations  of  cidor  and 
form  in  such  works  as  the  Capiloline  doves,  the 
landscapes  from  Hadrian's  villa  in  Rome  and 
Berlin,  the  Pompeian  actors  by  Dioscoridcs  in 
Naples,  the  portraits  of  poets  and  philosophers 
at  Cologne,  and  many  more.  Midway  between 
stand  such  colossal  works  as  the  gladiator  pave- 
ment of  the  Baths  of  Caracalla.  Roman  mosaic 
pavements  of  artistic  value  have  been  fotmd  not 
only  througliout  Italy,  but  in  France.  Spain,  Ger- 
many, Hungary,  Xorth  Africa,  Syria,  and  Asia 
ilinor. 

Kakly  Christian.  In  the  fourth  century. 
Christian  artists  perceived  the  value  for  church 
inferiors  of  the  rich  coloring  and  permanency  of 
mosaic.  No  form  of  painting  harmonizes  so  well 
with  architecture.  Jlosaics  were  i)laced  nearly 
always  in  the  apses  and  on  the  tviumphal  arches 
of  the  early  Christian  basilicas,  and  in  impor- 
tant cases  upon  the  walls  of  the  nave,  and  some- 
times both  on  the  inside  and  outside  walls  of  the 
facades.  The  interiors  of  mausoleums  and  bap- 
tisteries were  covered  with  them  on  dome,  walls, 
and  apse.  While  the  upper  part  of  the  walls  was 
decorated  in  this  w.av  with  figured  mosaic  com- 
position, the  geometric  mosaics  or  opus  sectile 
were  used  on  the  dadoes  below,  and  the  marble 
geometric  mosaics  covered  the  floors.  In  the 
later  iliddlc  -Ages,  the  twisted  columns,  sepulchral 
monuments,  altar  canopies,  pulpits,  choir  screens, 
and  other  details  were  entirely  inlaid  in  geo- 
metric designs,  in  the  Fast  and  in  Italy.  The 
wealth  of  works  is  concentrated  in  Italy  and  in 
the  purely  Hellenic  world.  Rome  anil  Ravenna 
had  special  schools  with  offshoots  at  Naples, 
Milan.  Grado,  and  Parenzo.  Constantinople  and 
Thessalonica,  also,  were  independent  centres, 
radiating  over  (Jreek  lands. 

Rome  preserves  the  earliest  Christian  works  at 
Santa  Costanza.  similar  to  Catacomb  frescoes, 
and  at  Santa  Pudenziana.  the  eounterjiart  of  the 
Christian  sarcophagi  with  Christ  and  the  .\pos- 
ties.  The  earliest  series  where  mosaic  painting 
attempts  a  great  scheme  of  subjects  taken  from 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  is  in  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore  in  Rome,  on  apse,  triumphal  arch,  and 
nave.  The  mosaics  over  the  chancel  arch  of 
Saint  Paul's,  representing  subjects  from  the 
.\pocalypse.  date  from  the  fifth  century.  In 
both  cases  the  composition  is  still  confused,  the 
art  has  not  yet  found  itself.  II  was  from  Greek 
artists  lli.it  the  solution  cnmc.  in  the  introduction 
of  the  uniform  irold  background,  against  which 
the  figures  stood  out  clearly,  as  compared  with 
the  old  white  ground.  .\t  Ravenna  we  see  this 
stvle  in  its  earliest  glor>'  in  the  two  baptisteries 
(fifth  century),  and  especially  in  the  mau.soleum 


MOSAIC.  43 

of  Galla  Plaoidia  (440)  and  later  in  the  Church 

of  Snnt'  Aijollinare  \uovo  (coUO-ooO) .  Tlio  lat- 
toi-  iiKJiniuK'nl  has  its  entire  main  walls  covered 
with  a  triple  row  of  mosaics.  Thorou^'hly  Greek 
also  is  the  culminating  work  of  the  .sixtli  cen- 
tury, the  decoration  of  San  Vitalc,  also  at 
llavcnna,  witli  its  two  great  historic  panels  of 
Ju^liniMu  and  Theodora,  the  Byzantine  court  and 
the  ecclesiastical  grandees. 

Jli'aiiwhile  tlie  Roman  school  had  somewhat 
fallen  from  its  su])remaey,  for  the  only  great 
work  after  Saint  Paul's  was  the  mosaic  of  Saints 
Cosmas  and  Damian  (530),  after  w'hich  Rome 
.sullVred  from  the  wars  between  the  Goths  and 
Byzantines  and  the  attacks  of  the  Lombards. 
The  decline  reached  Ravenna  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, as  is  shown  at  Sant'  .Vpollinare  in  Classe, 
and  continued  in  Rome,  with  Italo-Byzantine 
stifTness,  as  in  the  works  at  San  Lorenzo,  Sant' 
I  Agnese,  and  San  Venanzio.  The  coloring  is  still 
superb,  but  the  figures  are  rigid  and  staring. 

Medi.ev.\l.  The  Carolingiau  era  saw  a  re- 
vival in  both  East  and  West  al)out  the  year  800, 
which  lasted  for  less  tli:in  a  century  in  Italy,  but 
continued  in  the  East  from  Basil  the  Jlacedonian 
to  the  capture  of  Constantinoide  by  the  Crusaders 
in  1204.  In  Rome  the  mosaics  of  the  Church  of 
Santa  Prassede,  especially  the  scenes  from 
the  Apocalypse,  are  a  maslorpiece,  while  Santi 
Xereo  ed  Achilleo  and  San  IMarco  are  of  second- 
ary importance.  The  art  did  not  then  spread 
lipyond  Rome,  as  in  the  earlier  period.  Only  in 
the  Orient  was  it  still  supreme.  The  real  re- 
vival of  the  art  in  the  West  came  in  the  eleventh 
century  ami  was  due  to  Byzantine  inlluence  and 
imijorted  Byziintine  artists.  The  two  great 
schools  were  that  of  Sicily  and  Campania,  with 
its  masterpieces  of  Cefalfl,  Palermo,  and  ilon- 
reale,  and  that  of  Venice,  represented  at  San 
Marco,  Torcello.  and  Murano.  In  variety  of 
subject,  in  splendor  of  color,  and  in  sheer  amount, 
these  works  surpass  the  mosaics  of  the  fifth  and 
sixth  centuries. 

The  Roman  school  took  part  in  this  revival, 
hut  mingled  antirpie  traditions  with  Byzantinism, 
and  retained  a  freedom  and  beauty  of  decoration 
and  detail  foreign  to  the  other  .schools.  It  can 
best  be  studied  at  San  Clemente,  Santa  Maria  in 
Trastevere,  .Santa  ilaria  Maggiore,  and  Saint  .Tohn 
Lateran.  In  some  of  these  works  we  ('an  trace 
the  first  steps  in  the  great  revival  of  painting 
usuallv  connected  with  the  names  of  Cimabuc  and 
Giotto". 

PAVEMEXT.S  AND  Dkcokation.  IMcanwhile  the 
mcdia'val  mosaicists  had  been  executing  pave- 
ments far  more  lieautiful  than  any  geometric 
floors  of  antiquity.  The  Byzantine  school,  as 
usual,  took  the  lead,  and  the  exquisite  designs 
and  coloring  of  the  jiavements  of  San  Marco  and 
the  Torcello  Cathedral  at  Venice  are  but  lepeti- 
tions  of  the  pavements  of  the  churches  of  Con- 
stantinople. Saloniki,  Mount  .A,thos.  Chios,  and 
elsewhere.  The  Italian  school,  though  centring 
at  Rome,  did  similar  work  in  C'ampania  and 
Sicily.  The  small  marble  cubes  were  worked 
in  patterns  around  large  circular,  square,  long, 
or  polygonal  slabs  of  porphyry',  serpentine,  verde 
nntico.  rosso  antico.  or  other  rich  marbles  which 
formed  the  centre  of  each  design. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  geometric  designs 
of  the  floors  were  transferred  to  the  various  de- 
tails and  objects  in  the  church  interiors,  thus 
forming  a  perfectly  harmonious  whole.  The 
Vol.  XIV. -4. 


MOSAIC. 


altar  fronts  and  canopies  at  Ferentino,  the 
canopies  at  Santa  Cecilia  and  San  Paolo  at 
Rome,  the  choir  seats  at  Civita  Castellana  and 
San  Lorenzo  at  Rome,  the  |)ulpits  at  Alba  I'u- 
cense,  San  Lorenzo,  Palermo.  Salerno,  and  Ra- 
vello,  the  clioir  screens  at  the  two  latter  cathe- 
drals and  at  All)a,  tlie  Paschal  candlesticks  at 
Anagni,  Eerentino,  Santa  Cecilia,  and  Salerno, 
the  episcopal  thrones  at  San  Lorenzo  and  Kondi, 
the  sepulchral  monuments  at  San  Francesco  in 
Viterho,  at  the  Cathedral  of  Perugia,  at  Orvieto, 
at  Assisi,  Rome  (.Santa  Maria  Maggiore.  Sojjra 
Alinerva,  Ara  C(eli,  etc.),  are  a  few  among  hun- 
dreds which  made  the  interiors  of  churches 
wonderfully  rich  in  this  part  of  Italy. 

The  geometrical  mosaic  patterns  even  invaded 
tlie  field  of  architecture.  The  portals  w<'re  sur- 
rounded by  it;  it  formed  the  nuiin  decoration  of 
the  colonnaded  porticoes,  and  even  of  the  clois- 
ters. The  cloisters  of  San  Paolo  and  of  the 
Lateran  at  Rome  would  lose  all  their  beauty  if 
their  colunms  and  friezes  were  divested  of  the 
color  and  design  given  by  these  mosaics.  Even 
Tuscan  church  architecture  felt  this  influence  to 
the  extent  of  ol)taining  a  faintly  similar  cflTect 
by  opus  sectile  with  lu'oader  design — as  at  Pisa 
(baptistery)   and  San  Jliniato.  near  Florence. 

Xone  of  the  European  countries  besides  Italy 
and  (jjreeeo  used  mosaics.  An  occasional  work 
is  found  in  Germany.  France,  or  England;  but, 
as  at  Westminster  Abbey,  it  is  the  work  of  an 
Italian  or  a  Greek.  Only  in  Russia,  as  at  Kiev 
and  Novgorod,  can  we  trace  the  existence  of  a 
regular  branch  of  the  art. 

JloiiAMMKPAN.  The  art  passed  from  the  By- 
zantine Greeks  in  the  East  to  the  Mohammedans, 
and  was  used  by  them  for  fiavements  and  the 
revetments  of  walls  in  nearly  all  the  schools, 
but  especially  in  Egypt,  Spain,  and  Syria.  Fig- 
un'd  mosaics  were  substantially  forbidden  by  the 
law  of  the  Pro])hct,  so  that  decorative,  and  espe- 
cially geometric,  patterns  were  alone  used. 
Mosques,  fountains,  palaces,  baths,  and  other 
buildings,  between  the  tenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies, had  them  in  profusion.  The  mosques 
of  Cairo  (.see  Mo.sque)  contain  an  unbroken 
series  which  is  paralleled  in  the  old  Coptic 
churches  of  the  city.  It  is  probable,  in  fact, 
that  most  of  the  mosaicists  of  the  mosques 
were  Christian  Copts.  The  Alhambra  at  Grana- 
da contains  dadoes  of  this  geometric  ornament, 
though  here  and  in  Syria,  and  especially  in 
Persia,  it  was  less  used  than  the  enameled 
tiles. 

IMoDEBN.  \\'ith  the  rise  of  the  Giottesque 
school  early  in  the  fourteenth  century  the 
golden  age  of  mosaic  painting  ended,  frescoes 
taking  its  place.  Such  works  as  appear  on  the 
facades  of  Or\'ieto  and  Siena  cathedrals  by 
Oreagna  and  his  contemporaries  in  the  four- 
teenth century  are  piirely  decorative.  Hence- 
forth mosaic  loses  its  individuality,  and  seeks 
to  imitate  the  delicate  soft  tones  of  fresco  and 
then  of  oil.  Great  artists  like  Raphael  (Santa 
Maris  del  Popolo,  Rome),  Titian,  and  Tintoretto 
(San  Marco.  Venice)  furnished  cartoons  to  be 
carried  o>it  by  mosaicists.  who  are  no  longer 
artists,  but  mechanics.  The  atelier  of  the  Vati- 
can, laisy  producing  altar-pieces  for  S.aint  Peter 
in  exact  imitation  of  masterpieces  in  oils,  multi- 
plying shades  and  minimizing  the  size  of  the 
mosaic  cubes,  has  perfected  this  mechanie.al 
method.     The  atelier  at  Venice  is  the  only  other 


MOSAIC. 


44 


MOSCHELES. 


moilcrii  centre  of  iinportance.  These  modern 
artisans,  in  tlieir  restorations  of  medieval  mo- 
sairs.  have  done  immense  damage  by  trying  to 
'improve'  on  the  originals,  setting  the  cubes 
closer  together  and  willi  greater  regularity  and 
smoothness,  thus  ruining  their  art.  They  have 
long  since  abandoned  the  method  of  working 
directly  on  the  wall,  which  had  previously  been 
luiiversal,  and  they  either  set  the  cubes,  face 
up,  in  portable  compartments,  which  when  tilled 
are  covered  with  linen  prepared  with  glue  and 
then  transferred  to  the  wall,  the  linen  or  paper 
being  then  wet  an<l  removed,  or  else  they  set  the 
cubes,  face  down,  directly  on  the  ailhesive  paper 
or  linen,  on  which  the  design  is  marke<l,  with 
similar  frames,  and  then  ellect  the  transfer  to 
the    prepared   wall. 

Hiisi.ioiiii.viMiY.  The  subject  of  mosaics  is  well 
treated  in  \\  oltmann  and  Woermann,  lliKtory  of 
I'ainliity  ( Kng.  trans.  New  York.  ISSD)  :  a  good' 
general  monograph  is  (ierspach,  La  iiio.f(i'i<iue 
(Paris,  1885) .  The  techni(|Ue  is  carefully  ilescribed 
by  E.  Milntz  in  La  mosak/ue  chn'-ticnnc  ( I'aris, 
1893).  All  the  mosaics  of  the  Roman  churches 
are  reproduced  in  large  colored  plates  and  de- 
scribed by  De  Kossi,  Musdici  cristiani  di  lioma 
(Rome.  187(i-04).  The  same  has  been  done  for 
those  of  .Saint  Mark's  in  Venice  by  Organia  in 
/.((  hnsilicd  di  .S'.  .l/((reo  (Venice.  1881-88)  :  for 
Monreale  by  Gravina,  II  diiomo  di  Monrnilr  (Pa 
lernio,  18/>!)).  All  the  figured  mosaics  earlier  (ban 
A.I).  000  arc  outlined  and  described  in  Carrucci. 
Slorin  dril'  arte  crifiliuita  ( Prato,  18T.'i-Sl). 
Consvilt  also:  Pohl,  Die  alirhrinlliclir  Frislco- 
uiid  Mosnilmalerci  (Leipzig,  1888),  and  Kurth, 
Die  Moaaiken  der  cliriKllirhen  A(-i<i  (ib.,  1002 
et  seq.). 

MOSAIC  DISEASE.     8ee  Tobacco. 

MOSAIC  'WOOL.     See  Rigs. 

MOSASAU'RIA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  Mosa, 
the  rivc^r  Meusc  +  (ik.  iroCpos.  xdiirox,  lizard). 
An  order  of  e.xtinct  marine  reptiles — the  Pytho- 
nomorpha  of  Cope.  The  reptiles  possessed  the 
slcnilerness  of  a  snake  combined  with  strong 
paddles,  .such  as  those  of  the  whale,  together 
with  many  lizard-like  characters.  The  first 
specimen  of  a  nearly  -ijcrfect  head  skeleton  was 
discoveri'd  in  1780  in  the  upper  chalk  of  Saint 
Pietersberg.  in  Holland,  on  the  Meuse  River. 
A  few  other  specimens  have  been  found  in  (he 
Cretaceous  of  Knglan<l  aiul  Europe.  In  North 
America  this  re])tile  seems  to  have  attained  its 
most  nourishing  existence,  for  over  fifty  species, 
incbidid  in  several  genera,  have  been  found. 
The  Cretaceous  of  New  .Tersey  has  yielded  fif- 
teen species.  The  Yale  College  eidlection  con- 
tains a  great  lunnber  of  specimens.  .1/o.w.sinn-H.'! 
/)n'»c<;j.v  from  New  .Tersey  is  estimated  to  have 
iiecii  40  feet  long,  and  Tillo.inunix  dtispehir  from 
Kansas  «a-i  aliout  .'iO  feel  in  lengtli.  Consult: 
Marsh,  "Cretaceous  Vertebrates  of  the  West." 
Viiilrd  Sliitr.i  drolnpicnl  iS'i/rrri/  Reporln  (Wash- 
ington, IST."))  :  T.iiens,  Animals  of  Ihr  Past  (New- 
York.    lOOll. 

MOSBY,  nir.zlil,  .ToiiN  Sinoi.eton  (183."?—). 
.\n  .Vmeriean  soldier  in  the  Confederate  service, 
born  at  Kdgemont.  Powhatan  County.  Va.  He  was 
educated  at  the  I'liivcrsity  of  VirL'inia.  studied 
law.  and  was  practicing  his  profession  at  Uristol, 
Washington  Comity.  \a,.  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War.  .\fler  s<■r^•ing  under  .Toscph  E. 
Johnston  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  in  the  win- 


ter of  1801-G2,  he  was  appointed  by  Gen.  J.  E.  B. 
Stuart  an  independent  scout,  and  guided  that 
ollicer's  cavalry  in  a  bold  raid  in  the  I'ear  of 
ilcClellan's  army  on  the  Chickahominy,  in  June, 
18G2.  Returning  to  Richmond  after  a'  short 
captivity  early  in  lSt)3.  Mosby  recruited  an  inde- 
liendent  bod,v  of  cavalrv  for  scouting  and  raid- 
ing purposes,  and  he  then  began  his  remarkable 
career  as  a  'partisan'  leader  of  an  irregular 
force  known  as  rangers,  with  which,  until  the 
close  of  hostilities,  he  operated  in  Virginia  and 
-Maryland.  His  force  was  subsetpiently  organized 
as  a  regular  branch  of  the  Confederate  service  as 
the  Forty-third  Battalion  of  Virginia  Cavalry. 
His  most  brilliant  exploit  was  the  capture, 
in  March.  18(i3,  of  Hrigadier-General  Stough- 
ton,  U.S.A.,  at  that  oflieer's  head(piarters  at  Fair- 
fax Courthouse,  which  he  accomplished  by  a 
raid  insi<le  the  Federal  lines.  Promoted  to  be 
major  as  a  reward  for  this  capture,  he  followed 
Lee's  army  into  Penns.vlvania  in  June'  1863, 
and  worried  the  Hanks  of  the  Federal  army  as 
it  moved  southward  after  Gettysburg.  In  .lanu- 
ary,  1804,  he  was  repulsed  with  considerable 
loss  in  a  night  attack  on  Harper's  Ferry.  In 
Jlay  he  harassed  the  rear  of  Grant's  army  as 
it  advanced  on  l''rcdcrieksburg.  and  later  made 
a  long  raid  in  ilarvland.  In  August  he  made 
one  of  the  most  im[)ortant  captures  of  his  career, 
consisting  of  Sheridan's  entire  supply  train, 
which  he  surprised  near  Uerryville.  The  loss 
was  such  a  heavy  one  to  Sheridan  as  to  compel 
him  to  fall  back  on  Harper's  Ferry.  In  Septem- 
ber he  was  wounded  at  Falls  Church,  Init  in  the 
following  month  was  again  in  the  saddle,  cap- 
ture<l  two  Federal  paymasters  witli  .•fiHiS.OOO  in 
greenbacks,  tore  u]i  the  liallimorc  and  Ohio  Rail- 
way tracks,  destroyed  rolling  stock  and  made 
a  prisoner  of  Brigadier-General  Duffi<^.  In  De- 
cend)cr.  IS04.  he  was  promoted  to  be  colonel. 
After  being  disabled  for  a  short  time  by  a  wound, 
he  continm'<l  his  oi)erations  until  Lee's  surrender, 
when  he  disbanded  his  troops,  gave  himself  up, 
and  by  ( Icneral  tirant's  intercession  was  paroled. 
.\fter  the  war  he  ojiened  a  law  olhce  at  Warren- 
ton.  \'a..  and  became  a  mcnd)er  of  the  Repub- 
lican Party,  which  he  thought  could  best  settle 
the  ipiestion  of  rci'onst  ruction  satisfactorily. 
From  1S7S  to  1885  he  was  I'nited  States  Consul 
at  Hong  Kong.  On  his  return  to  .\ineriea  he 
established  himself  in  law  ])ractice  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. He  published  an  account  of  his  exidoits 
entitled  War  I't'iiiinixccnres  (1887).  Consult 
also:  Scott.  Partinan  Life  irith  Mosbti  (New 
York.  1807):  Crawford.  Moshji  and  His  Men 
(18(i7):  Williamson,  .Mosltt/'s  Ranarrs  (New 
York.   180ti). 

MOSCHELES.  uuVsIk -les.  Feu.x  (1833-). 
.\n  I'.nglish  painter  and  author.  He  was  born 
in  London,  and  studied  art  in  Paris  and  undiT 
Van  Lerius  in  Antwerp.  Afterwards  he  exhibit- 
ed in  .Antwerp,  at  the  Paris  Salon,  and  at  the 
.\eademy  and  New  Gallery  in  London.  His 
works  include  genre  scenes  and  portraits  of  Maz- 
zini.  Gounod.  Browning.  l!\ibiiistein.  Stanley, 
and  exPri'sident  (Cleveland.  He  wrote:  reli.v 
Meiiililxsolni's  Letters  lei  Ifina:  and  Vhiirlntte 
Miisrhiles  (ISSS)  ;  hi  liohemia  nilli  llii  Maiirirr 
(1807):  and  I'rafimenis  of  an  .Xutuhiiiiirnphii 
(1800).  He  also  wrote  pamphlets  on  the  subject 
of  internal iomil  arbitration  and  peace  associa- 
tions, 8uch  as  Patriotism  as  nn  Incentive  to  War- 
fare. 


MOSCHELES. 


45 


MOSCOW. 


MOSCHELES,  Ignaz  (1794-1870).  An  Aus- 
triiiii  iiiaim  virtuoso  and  comijoser,  born  in 
Prague,  of  .lowisli  parentage.  Alter  a  course  of 
study  at  tlie  Prague  Conservatory  lie  went  to 
Vienna,  where  lie  lieeanie  a  pupil  of  Alhreclits- 
liergcr  and  Salieri.  He  was  a  remarkable  im- 
provisator, and  won  his  greatest  sueeesses  as 
inueh  by  that  gift  as  by  the  more  important 
(liseovery  of  the  'singing  tone'  by  whieh  he  se- 
cured niodilications  of  tone  and  variations  in 
tone  color  by  means  of  touch — an  art  subsequent- 
ly developed  by  Liszt  and  his  school.  Although 
he  was  very  successful  in  his  tours  of  Russia, 
Holland,  (Jerniany.  and  Fiance,  his  greatest  fame 
was  won  in  London,  in  which  city  he  took  up  his 
residence  in  1821.  He  did  not,  however,  sever 
his  connection  with  the  Continent,  for  in  1824 
he  was  giving  lessons  in  Berlin,  where  he  mim- 
bered  Jleiuhdssohn  among  his  pupils,  and  formed 
a  friendship  with  him  that  was  of  great  mutual 
profit.  He  was  of  much  assistance  to  Mendels- 
sohn when  that  master  first  visited  England, 
and  was  in  turn  persuaded  to  join  Mendelssohn 
in  the  manageniont  of  the  newly  formed  Leipzig 
Conservatory  (1824).  With  the  exception  of 
five  concertos  and  a  collection  of  studies  which 
are  still  highly  esteemed,  his  compositions  are 
gradually  being  forgotten.  His  works  include 
piano  concertos,  arrangements,  instrumental 
chamber  music,  sonatas,  and  numerous  etudes, 
about  140  opus  numbers  altogether.  He  died  in 
Leipzig.  Consult  .1  h.s-  Mosrheles'  Lehen.  Nach 
Brief  en  und  Tiigrbiichrrn  herausgegehen  (Leip- 
zig, 1872)  ;  English  translation  by  Coleridge. 

MOSCHEROSCH,  mo'she-r6sh,  Johann 
Michael  (1001-6!t).  A  German  satirist  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  He  came  of  an  old  Spanish 
family,  and  was  born  at  Willstett,  near  Strass- 
burg,  and  wrote  under  the  name  Philander  von 
Sittewald.  He  studied  in  Strassburg,  and  held 
various  diplomatic  positions.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  Fruchtbringende  Gesellschaft  in  164.5  with 
the  name  of  ■nreanicr,'  and  about  1640  published 
his  "Book  of  Visions,"  Wutirlerlirhe  vnd  irnhrhfif- 
tige  Geschiehte.  apparently  patterned  after  Queve- 
do's  Huefwii.  Consult:  Nickels,  Moarheroneh  nls 
Padagog  (Leipzig,  1883),  and  Pariser,  Beilriige 
zu  einer  Riographie  von  Moscherosch  (Munich, 
180!). 

MOSCHI,  mos'ki  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  M6<rx<". 
Moschoi).  An  ancient  people  of  Asia,  living 
south  of  the  Caucasus.  According  to  Pliny  they 
dwelt  around  the  sources  of  the  Pliasis  between 
the  Eu.\ine  and  Casjiian  seas.  Their  name  by 
early  writers  is  often  coupled  with  that  of  the 
Tibiireni,  and  the  two  people  are  generally  identi- 
fied with  the  Meshech  and  Tubal  of  Scripture. 
I'luler  the  appellation  of  Muskai  they  appear  in 
tlie  cuneiform  in.scriptions  as  carrying  on  war 
against  Tiglathpileser,  King  of  Assyria  (e.  11.50 
li.c),  who  defeated  their  forces  and  overthrew 
their  i'we  kings.  Consult  Rawlinson,  Five  Greut 
Miiiiiircliicn.  AssgrUi    (London,  1807). 

MOSCHUS,  mos'kfis  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Moitxoj, 
MoKi'liiif;) .  A  Greek  bucolic  poet  of  the  second 
century  B.C., apparently  a  native  of  .Southern  Italy. 
Besides  some  short  poems  we  possess  his  "Lament 
for  Bion"  ('E7riTd0ios  Biui-os),  his  teacher,  which 
is  an  imitation  of  Bion's  "Lament  for  Adonis;" 
also  his  "Rape  of  Europa"  (Eipiiirrj)  and  his 
"Cu])id  the  Runaway"  (  'Eput  Spair^TTjs).  His 
poems   were   united    in    antiquily    with    those   of 


Theocritus  and  Bion,  and  appear  with  them  in 
modern  editions  also.  He  was  translated  by 
Lang    (London,    ISilO). 

MOSCOSO  DE  ALVARADO,  mOs-ko'sA  da 
iil'va-rii'uu,  Luis  ue  (1505-01).  A  Spanish  sol- 
dier and  explorer  in  America.  He  was  born  in 
Badajoz,  and  was  a  kinsman  of  Alvarado.  whom 
he  followed  to  Peru.  Four  years  afterwards, 
with  De  Soto,  he  started  for  Florida,  and  suc- 
ceeded him  in  coMnnand  in  1542.  After  terrible 
privations  and  with  decimated  forces  he  reached 
Mexico  in  1543.  There  Mendoza  received  him 
kindly.  In  1551  Moscoso  accompanied  Mendoza 
to  rem.  where  he  died. 

MOSCOW,  mos'ko  (Russ.  Moskva).  A  gov- 
ernment of  Central  Russia,  bounded  by  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Tver  on  the  northwest,  Vladimir  on 
the  northeast,  Ryazan  on  the  east,  Tula  and 
Kaluga  on  the  south,  and  Smolensk  on  the  west 
(Map:  Russia,  E  3).  Area,  12,875  square  miles. 
It  occupies  a  portion  of  the  central  plateau  of 
Russia,  and  slopes  eastward  toward  the  Oka. 
It  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Volg.a,  and  is 
watered  by  that  river  and  the  Oka  on  the  boun- 
daries, and  by  the  Klyama,  Moskva,  and  other 
rivers  in  the  interior.  Cieologically  the  govern- 
ment belongs  to  the  Moscow  coal  basin,  the  car- 
boniferous formation  being  covered  up  with 
various  clays,  .sandstone,  and  marble.  The  soil 
is  loamy  and  not  very  fertile.  About  40  per  cent, 
of  the  area  is  clothed  in  forests,  mostly  belong- 
ing to  private  persons. 

Agriculture  is  highly  developed,  and  the  farm 
products  are  of  great  diversity.  Rye,  potatoes, 
and  oats  are  the  staples.  Ciardening  is  carried 
on  extensively,  and  vegetables  are  raised  in 
quantities  sufficient  to  be  exported  to  .Saint 
Petersburg  and  Kronstadt.  Stock-raising  is  also 
important. 

Moscow  is  the  leading  manufacturing  govern- 
ment of  Russia.  In  1806  it  had  1755  manufactur- 
ing establishments,  employing  over  207,000  hands. 
The  value  of  the  outjiut  of  that  year  was  over 
.$130,000,000.  The  chief  products  are  textiles 
(especially  cotton  and  silk) ,  which  were  manufac- 
tui'ed  in  that  year  to  the  value  of  over  .$80,000,- 
000.  Other  important  products  are  machinery, 
brick,  chemicals,  knit  goods,  etc.  An  important 
item  in  the  economic  life  of  the  government  is 
tlie  house  industry,  which  has  reached  here  a 
higher  degree  of  development  than  in  any  other 
part  of  Russia.  It  exists  all  over  the  province, 
groups  of  villages  being  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facturing of  one  product.  The  articles  manufac- 
tured in  this  way  are  of  a  very  wide  range,  in- 
cluding leather  and  leather  products,  hats,  pins, 
brushes,  cheap  chromos,  carriages  and  wagons, 
lace,  gloves,  etc.  It  is  estimated  that  agricul- 
ture furnishes  on  the  average  only  about  40  per 
cent,  of  the  income  of  a  peasant  family  in  the 
government. 

The  commerce  in  the  products  of  the  house 
industry  is  of  great  extent,  and  is  centred  chiefiy 
in  the  city  of  Moscow.  The  government  is  well 
supplied  with  transportation  facilities,  being 
traversed  by  six  of  the  most  important  railway 
lines  of  the  Empire.  Education  is  nieagreh'  pro- 
vided for.  The  proportion  of  illiterates  is  esti- 
mated at  80  per  cent.  Population,  in  1897, 
2,433,350,  chiefly  Great  Russians.  Capital.  Mos- 
cow. 


MOSCOW.  46 

MOSCOW.  The  second  capital  and  historical- 
ly tin-  most  tanious  city  of  tlie  Russian  Empire, 
capital  of  the  military  district  and  government 
of  the  same  name,  and  the  second  largest  city  of 
Russia.  It  is  situated  on  the  river  Moskva  (a 
tributary  of  the  Oka)  in  latitude  55°  45'  X.,  and 
longitude  37°  37'  E..  400  miles  southeast  of  Saint 
Petersburg,  at  an  altitude  of  from  500  to  850  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea  (Map:  Russia,  K  3). 
It  liius  a  rather  cold  climate,  the  annual  tempera- 
ture being  39°  F.,  ranging  from  a  mean  of  12°  in 
January  to  (i6°  in  .Jul}-. 

The  city  is  irregularly  built.  On  tlie  northern 
bank  of  the  river  rises  the  Krendin.  the  acropolis 
of  old  Moscow,  for  man}-  centuries  the  centre  of 
the  political  and  religious  life  of  Russia  and 
still  the  most  venerated  place  in  the  heart  of 
every  Russian.  It  was  tlie  nucleus  of  the  modern 
city  and  contained  in  the  early  periods  of  the 
history  of  Moscow  the  palace  of  the  Czar,  the 
chief  cliurchos  and  monasteries,  and  the  palaces 
of  the  nobility.  As  the  city  developed,  the  mer- 
chants and  the  numerous  artisans  began  to  settle 
outside  of  the  walls.  Tluis  grew  up  the  commer- 
cial quarter  east  of  the  Kremlin,  known  as  the 
Kitai  Ciorod  (Chinatown),  still  constituting  the 
commercial  centre  of  Moscow,  and  numerous  small 
communities  independent  in  their  internal  admin- 
istration and  composed  mostly  of  members  of  the 
same  trade.  These  divisions  are  still  retained  to 
a  large  extent  in  the  parishes  into  which  the  city 
is  divided.  They  were  subsequently  grouped  to- 
gether and  surrounded  by  walls,  and  now  form 
the  Byely  Gorod  (white  town),  siirrounding  the 
Kremlin  and  the  Kitai  Gorod,  and  the  Zenilyanoi 
(Jorod  (earthen  town),  inclosing  all  the  above- 
mentioned  quarters  as  well  as  Zamoskvoryetchye 
on  the  soulhcni  bank  of  the  river.  There  is  also 
a  fourtli  inclosure(KramerKollezh,  earthen  wall) 
surrounding  the  outer  parts  of  the  city  and  form- 
ing the  limits  of  Moscow  proper.  Only  tli(>  walls 
of  the  Kremlin  and  of  the  Kitai  Gorod  have  been 
preserved,  all  others  having  been  converted  into 
boulevards  and  avenues.  See  Kl!E.\lUN  for  illus- 
tration. 

Although  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Russia, 
Moscow  has  pres<'rved  comparatively  few  archi- 
tectural monuments  outside  of  its  churches  and 
nnon.asteries,  most  of  the  old  buildings  having 
perished  in  the  destructive  conllagrations  whicli 
figure  so  prominently  in  the  history  of  the  city. 
With  the  iul  roduction  of  Western  civilizati(]n 
into  Russia  by  Peter  the  (!reat  ami  his  successors, 
the  Russian  style  of  architecture  gradually  dis- 
appeared in  connection  with  the  swular  and  pri- 
vate buildings,  and  the  application  of  Western 
standards  not  infrequently  produced  very  peculiar 
results.  I'nder  Alexander  II.  a  revival  of  Rus- 
sian architecture  was  inaugurated  and  a  num- 
ber of  successful  restorations  have  been  accom- 
plis'ied.  The  chief  interest  of  Moscow,  as  alreaily 
stated,  is  centred  in  the  Kremlin,  both  for  its 
hi^toriial  associations  ami  for  its  churches  ami 
monasteries  with  their  semi-barbaric  splendor  and 
curious  architecture.  The  Kremlin  is  nearly  tri- 
angular in  shape  and  surrounded  by  a  wall  about 
a  mile  and  a  half  long.  The  wall  is  svirmonnted  by 
18  towers  and  pierced  by  .')  gates,  among  which  is 
the  Spasskiya  Vorota  (fiate  of  the  Saviour) — one 
of  the  most  revered  historical  places  of  Russia, 
and  associated  with  many  of  the  chief  events 
of  national  histiirv.  Within  the  walls  of  the 
Kremlin,  the  inost  famous  edifice  is  the  Uspenski 


MOSCOW. 


Sobor  (Cathedral  of  the  Assumption),  in  which 
all  the  Russian  monarchs  since  Ivan  IV.  have 
been  crowned.  The  present  building  was  erected 
by  Arislotele  Fioraventi  in  tlie  tifteenth  century 
on  the  site  of  an  older  church  founded  in' 132(3. 
It  is  Londjardo-Iiyzantine  in  style,  with  Indian 
cupolas.  The  .semi-dark  interi(n-  is  adorned  with 
numerous  icons,  covered  with  gems  and  precious 
metals.  They  are  of  great  antiijuity,  one  of  them 
being  attributed  to  Saint  Luke.  The  treasury  of 
the  cathedral,  one  of  the  richest  in  Russia,  con- 
tains many  valuable  liibles,  manuscripts,  and 
sacred  vessels,  as  well  as  numerous  relics  of 
saints.  The  Cathedral  of  Saint  Jlichael  the  Arch- 
angel is  the  former  burial  place  of  the  Russian 
monarchs.  It  dates  in  its  present  form  from  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  is  sur- 
mounted by  five  domes,  the  central  one  being  of 
gilt.  The  interior  is  richly  decorated  and  its  walls 
are  covered  with  the  portraits  of  the  Russian  mon- 
archs interred  there.  In  the  partly  Gothic  Cathe- 
dral of  the  Ascension,  founded  in  iS'J",  the  walls 
and  the  thick  pillars  are  covered  with  portraits 
of  saints  and  Greek  philosophers,  and  the  lloor 
is  made  of  semi-precious  stones  of  various  colors. 

One  of  the  sights  of  the  Kremlin  is  the  tower 
of  Ivan  the  Great,  322  feet  high  and  crowned 
by  a  gilt  dome;  it  contains  34  bells,  weigh- 
ing altogether  aliout  580.000  pounds.  In  former- 
times  the  Kremlin  contained  numerous  monas- 
teries and  convent9,of  which  only  a  few  have  been 
retained.  The  most  interesting  of  these  are  the 
Alaidon  Convent,  for  centuries  the  burial  place  of 
the  Russian  princesses,  and  the  Tchudov  Mon- 
astery, an  institution  of  great  historical  im- 
portance and  a  great  factor  in  the  devcdopment 
of  ecclesiastical  learning  in  Russia.  Xear  the 
Tower  of  Ivan  the  Great  stand  two  objects  very 
famous  in  Russia.  One  is  the  Czar  Bell,  cast  in 
1735,  and  now  resting  on  a  stone  pedestal.  Part 
of  the  bell,  broken  oil'  during  the  fire  of  1737, 
lies  near  by.  It  is  over  (iO  feet  in  circumference 
around  the  rim.  19  feet  high,  and  weighs  nearly 
199  tons.  The  other,  near  the  Museum  of  .\rms, 
is  the  Czar  Cannon,  cast  in  1580,  and  weighing 
nearly  40  tons.  The  palaces  of  the  Kremlin  are 
mostly  modern,  and  only  a  few  portions  of  the 
old  abode  of  the  Russian  mimarchs  have  sur- 
vived. The  great  [lalace.  finished  in  1819.  is  a. 
va.st  building  of  white  stone  with  a  gilt  cupola, 
and  possessing  numerous  magnificent  halls  de- 
voted to  the  dili'ereiit  orders  of  Russia.  Attached 
to  it  are  the  living  rooms  of  the  old  Russian 
rulers,  known  as  the  Terem,  and  dating  from  the 
seventeenth  century.  They  are  of  great  .irehi- 
tectural  value  and  well  preserved.  Connected 
with  the  palace  are  the  old  banquet  hall  known 
as  Granovitaya  Palata.  with  its  red  stoop,  from 
which  Russian  monarchs  used  to  address  the 
populace:  and  the  Oruzheijnaya  Palata  (hall  of 
arms),  containing  immense  treasures  in  the  form 
of  crowns,  scc])tres.  thrones,  costumes,  banners, 
armor,  gold  and  silver  plate,  carriages,  etc.  The 
j)alace  of  thi;  patriarch,  built  by  Nikon  in  1(155. 
lias  one  of  the  most  valuable  libraries  in  Russia, 
and  a  treasury  of  fabulous  wealth.  The  arsenal 
of  the  Kremlin  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the 
worM. 

The  Kitai  (!orod.  adjoining  the  Kremlin,  also 
lias  many  historical  associations.  Kspecially 
noteworthy  is  the  Red  Square,  used  repeatedly 
as  a  camp  by  the  besieging  Mongols,  as  a  forum 
by    the    Russian    monarchs,    and    as    a    place    of 


MOSCOW 


1.  CATHEDRAL  OF  7ASILI   THE    BEATIFIED 

2.  CHURCH   OF  THE  SAVIOUR 


MOSCOW. 


47 


MOSCOW. 


execution.  Facing  tlie  lied  Square  is  the  Cathe- 
ilral  of  Vasili  the  J>eati(led.  wliich  for  mixture  of 
styles,  colors,  and  architectural  lines  has  few 
rivals  in  tlie  civilized  world.  It  was  built  bj'  an 
Italian  architect  at  the  command  of  Ivan  the 
Terrililc  in  1").")4  to  commemorate  the  conquest  of 
Kazan,  and  consists  of  a  number  of  sei)arate 
liuihliugs  under  separate  cupolas,  dill'erinj,'  from 
eacli  other  in  form,  dimension,  and  glaring  color- 
ings. The  interior  does  not  ditlVr  essentially 
from  that  of  the  other  great  churches  of  Moscow, 
being  dark,  close,  and  covered  with  paintings, 
gold,  and  gems  in  great  profusion.  Contrasting 
favorably  with  the  Cathedral  of  Vasili  the  Beati- 
fied is  tlie  modern  Church  of  the  Saviour,  conse- 
crated in  1S81  in  commemoration  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Napoleon's  (Irand  Army  in  1812.  It 
is  Lombardo-liyzantine  in  style,  cruciform,  and 
well  proportioned,  biiilt  of  white  marble  and 
surmounted  with  five  cupolas.  The  paintings 
and  the  marble  reliefs  of  the  interior  have  been 
executed  by  the  best  artists  of  Russia. 

In  tlie  centre  of  the  Red  Square  stands  the 
monument  to  Minin  and  Pozharski,  who  liberated 
JIoscow  from  the  Poles  in  1012.  The  Greek  Mon- 
astery of  Saint  Nicholas  in  the  Kitai  Gorod  de- 
serves mention  for  its  influence  on  education  in 
Russia.  It  was  under  the  auspices  of  the  monks 
of  Saint  Nicholas  that  the  first  academy  for  clas- 
sical education  was  established  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  It  numbered,  among  its  pupils,  Lomo- 
nosoff  and  many  others  prominent  in  the  literary 
and  the  political  life  of  the  country.  The  Kltai 
Ciorod  possesses  a  number  of  old  residences  of  the 
boyars  (q.v. ),  of  which  the  most  interesting  is 
the  family  house  of  the  Romanoffs,  faithfully  re- 
stored in  1S.59.  The  Gostinoy  Dvor,  the  centre 
of  the  retail  trade  of  jNIoseow,  is  also  very  inter- 
esting architecturally.  Other  noteworthy  secular 
buildings  and  monuments  are  the  Petrovski 
Palace,  occupied  by  Xapoleon  during  his  stay 
at  Moscow,  the  town  hall  (duma),  the  Sukha- 
reff  Tower  (1092-95)  with  the  reservoir,  the 
triumphal  aiVh,  etc.  Moscow  has  extensive 
markets,  of  which  probably  the  most  interesting 
is  the  Tolkutchy,  where  old  clothes  are  sold 
to  the  poorer  classes.  In  the  most  northern 
quarter  of  the  Zemlyanoi  Gorod  are  still  found 
many  stately  although  somewhat  decayed  man- 
sions of  the  old  nobility,  while  Zamoskvoryet- 
chye,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  is  the 
stronghold  of  the  wealthy  merchant  class. 

Economically,  itoscow  is  exceedingly  impor- 
tant, both  with  regard  to  industries  and  com- 
merce. The  manufacturing  industries  date  from 
the  time  wlien  the  city  was  the  residence  of  the 
Court  and  attracted  skilled  artisans  from  all 
over  Russia  as  well  as  from  foreign  countries. 
At  present  Moscow  is  the  second  largest  manu- 
facturing city  of  the  Empire  and  the  centre  of  the 
textile  industries,  furnishing  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  cotton  goods  for  the  Asiatic  trade. 
According  to  the  industrial  census  of  189.5  there 
were  more  than  SOO  large  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments, employing  over  05.000  persons  and 
yielding  an  output  of  over  .$07,000,000,  of  whicli 
textiles  represented  over  one-third.  Next  to 
textiles  are  foodstuffs,  metal  products,  paper, 
leather  and  wood  products,  and  maehinery.  As 
early  as  the  fourteenth  century  Jloseow  was  an 
inq)ortant  commercial  centre.  Its  trade  grew 
up  with  the  political  power  of  the  Principal- 
ity of  Moscow,  and  received  a  great  stimulus  from 


the  settlement  of  the  Novgorod  merchants.  The 
advantageous  position  of  the  city  at  the  con- 
verging of  six  railway  lines,  which  connect  it 
with  every  part  of  European  Russia  as  well  as 
with  Siberia,  has  played  an  important  part  in  its 
recent  commercial  development.  Manufactures, 
agricultural  products  from  tlie  southern  and  the 
central  provinces  of  Russia,  minerals  from  tlie 
coast,  and  tea  from  Asia,  all  find  their  way  to 
^Moscow  and  go  partly  to  sui)])ly  the  local 
demand  and  partly  to  supply  the  trade  with  the 
interior  or  with  foreign  countries.  The  rise  of 
Saint  Petersburg  had  at  first  a  detrimental  effect 
on  the  foreign  trade  of  Moscow.  l>ut  the  de- 
velopment of  the  Asiatic  trade,  of  which  Moscow 
is  the  natural  centre,  has  mor<'  than  compensated 
for  the  loss  in  any  other  direction.  The  trade 
liy  water  is  important.  The  chief  imports  of 
iloscow  are  tea.  iron  "and  steel  products,  raw 
silk,  indigo,  cotton  yarn.  etc. 

Moscow  is  administered  by  a  Governor-CJeneral, 
who  is  also  at  the  head  of  the  military  district 
of  Moscow.  The  municipal  council  of  100  mem- 
bers is  elected  by  owners  of  real  estate  and 
merchants  of  the  first  class,  and  has  an  executive 
committee  of  si.x  members.  Both  the  municipal 
council  and  tlie  executive  committee  are  presided 
over  by  the  mayor  or  'golova,'  who.  unlike  the 
mayors  of  all  other  Russian  to\ms  except  Saint 
Petersburg,  is  appointed  by  the  Government  from 
two  candidates  suggested  by  the  council. 

The  budget  of  the  city  for  1901  balanced  at 
$7,000,000.  The  chief  items  of  reveniie  are  real 
estate  and  internal  taxes,  subvention  from  the 
Imperial  Ciovernment,  the  zenistvo.  and  returns 
from  municipal  property  and  enterprises.  Nearly 
one-fourth  of  the  revenue  is  spent  on  sanitation, 
about  12  per  cent,  on  municipal  improvements, 
and  less  than  8  per  cent,  on  eckication.  The 
municipality  owns  the  waterworks,  slaughter- 
houses, and  baths,  and  a  number  of  lodging- 
houses.  In  regard  to  facilities  for  local  trans- 
portation Moscow  is  far  behind  most  European 
cities  of  its  size  and  importance.  Moscow  has 
many  prominent  educational  establishments.  Be- 
sides the  university  (see  Moscow,  L'nivebsitt 
of)  there  are  a  the(dogieal  seminary,  a  technical 
scliool,  an  agricultural  institute,  an  institute  for 
the  study  of  Oriental  langiuigcs.  schools  of  art, 
painting,  and  architecture,  a  school  of  engineer- 
ing, two  seminaries  for  teachers,  a  number  of 
dramatic  schools,  a,  commerciaf  institute,  21 
gjmnasia,  5  Realschulen,  a  school  of  church 
music,  and  numerous  other  special  schools.  Li- 
braries are  numerous.  The  most  important  mu- 
seums and  collections  are  the  Rumyantzeff 
Museum,  consisting  of  a  fine  library  and  col- 
lections of  paintings,  sculjitures,  ethnography, 
etc.:  the  historical  museum,  and  the  Tretyakoff 
Gallery  of  modern  paintings,  now  belonging  to  the 
city.  A  number  of  prominent  scientific  organiza- 
tions have  their  home  at  Moscow,  including  the 
society  of  naturalists  and  the  society  of  Russian 
history  and  anti(|uities.  The  numerous  archives 
of  Moscow  are  also  noteworthy.  The  benevolent 
institutions  are  among  the  largest  in  Russia, 
especially  the  foundling  asylum.  The  theatres  of 
Moscow,  especially  the  'small  theatre,'  have 
played  a  prominent  part  in  the  development  of 
the  Russian  drama.  The  periodical  publications 
of  iloscow  are  numerous,  and  the  book  trade  of 
the  city,  especially  popular  publications,  is  veij 
extensive. 


MOSCOW. 


The  population  was  753,409  in  1882,  and  977,- 
2G9  in  1897.    A  very  large  percentage  is  made  up 
of    persons    born    outside    of    -Moscow.      The    pre- 
dominance of  males  is  very  marked   (about   131 
to  100  in  1897 ) .     About  50  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation   belong    to    the    lu'asantry.      The    tireek 
Orthodox  inhabitants  constitute  94  per  cent,  of 
the   total    population    of    iloscow,    as   compared 
with    84    per    cent,    in    Saint    Petersburg.      The 
environs  of  the  city  are  replete  with  historical 
interest,    and    contain    many   estates    of    the    old 
nobility  and  roval  favorites,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned    tlie"     Pelrovsko-Kazyniovskoie,     with 
its   extensive   park   and   academy   of   agriculture. 
There    are    also    many    large    parks    and    groves, 
where  the  masses  amuse  themselves  on  holidays. 
History.     The  site  of  the  city   was   probably 
inhabited   long  before   the   twelfth   century,   but 
the    first    mention    of   Moscow    dates    from    1147, 
wlien    it   was   the   estate   of   the   Suzdal    Prince 
Yuri    Dolgorviki.     The   city   began    to   rise   with 
the    Principalitv   of   Moscow   under    Daniel,    the 
son    of    Alexander     Xevski.     in     Hie    thirteenth 
century,  and  especially  under  Ivan  Kalita  (1328- 
40).  who  with  the  aid  of  the  Mongols  succeeded 
in  annexing  nianv  of  the  minor  principalities  to 
Moscow,    and    greatly    eiiiliellislied    the    capital. 
About   this  time  the   Metropolitan   Peter  trans- 
ferred  his    seat    to   Moscow,    thereby    laying   the 
foundation  of  its  future  position  as  the  religious 
capital  of  Russia.  With  the  union  of  the  Russian 
principalities  under  Ivan  III.    (1462-1505)    Mos- 
cow became  the  capital  of  Russia   and  began  to 
assume  the  proportions  and  appearance  of  a  large 
citv.      It    was    surrounded    by    stone    walls,    and 
architects    from     f<ireign    countries    were    sum- 
moned to  build  its  churches  and  palaces.    But  the 
growth   of  the   citv   was  not  infrequently   inter- 
rupted bv  the   invasions  of  the  Tatars,  repeated 
eonllagrations.  and  pests.     It  also  suffered  from 
the   internal   dissensions  and   revolts  during   the 
seventeenth    eenturv.    notably    the    Polish    occu- 
pation    in     1I!10I2.    the    revolt    of    the    people 
against   the  corrupt    favorites   of  the   Czar,   the 
riots  followini.'  the  introduction  of  religious  re- 
forms   by    Nikon,    and    the    rise    of   the   StreUst 
(q.v.)    against  the   reforms  of  Peter  the  Great. 
Peter     found     Moscow,     the    bulwark     of    Rus- 
sian   orthodoxy,   extremely   unfavorable   for   the 
introduction    "of    his    reforms,    and    transferred 
the  Court  to  Saint  Petersburg.     In  the  eighteenth 
century  the  city  was  visiteil  by  a  number  of  djs- 
astrons    conflagrations    and    the    (ilaguc   of    1771. 
On  September   14.   1812.  Moscow,  almost  entirely 
deserted    and    with    its    treasures    and    archives 
removed  to  Vladimir,  was  occupied  hy  the  army 
of  Xapolcon.  seven  davs  after  his  disastrous  vic- 
torv  at  Horodino   (q.v.).     On  the  following  day 
the"  Emperor   made  his  entry   into  the  city.     On 
the  night  of  the  15tli  to  the   10th.  in  accordance 
with    a    prearranged    plan,    fires   were   started    in 
several  parts  of  the  city,  and  soon  the  entire  place 
was  in  tlanies.  so  that,  on  Septiiiiber  \C>\\\.  Napo- 
leon  was   compelled   to   remove   his   heaihpiarters 
from  the  Kremlin.     The  churches  and  palaces  were 
meanwhile  abandoned  to  the  depredations  of  the 
invaders  and  the  criminal  classes,  the  jails  hav- 
ing been   thrown  open  by  the  order  of  the  Oov- 
ernor.     On  October   19th"  the  French  began  their 
fatal   retreat  from  the  city.     On   May   IS.   1890, 
Moscow    was    the    scene    of    a    fearful    disaster, 
brought   about   by   the  distribution   of  gifts  at    a 
popular  festival  "arranged   in  honor  of  the  coro- 


48  MOSEILIMA. 

nation  of  Nicholas  II.  Over  2000  people  were 
crushed  to  death  and  many  more  wounded.  Con- 
sult: Fabricius,  Le  Kremlin  ilc  Mascuu  (Moscow, 
1883)  ;  Zabel,  Moskaii  (Leipzig,  1902)  ;  Sabjelin, 
llisldry  of  Moscow  (in  Russian,  Moscow,  1902). 
MOSCOW.  A  town  and  the  county-seat  of 
LaUili  County,  Idaho,  94  miles  south-southeast  of 
Spokane.  Wa'sh.,  on  the  Northern  Pacitic  and  the 
Union  Pacific  railroads  (Map:  Idaho,  A  2).  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  I'niversity  of  Idaho  (q.v.)  with 
the  State  Agricultural  C.dlege.  Mining,  farming, 
fruit-growing,  stock-raising,  and  lumbering  arc 
the  leading  industries,  and  there  are  some  manu- 
factures.    Population,  in  1900,  2484. 

MOSCOW,    IMvERsiTY   OF.     The  oldest   and 
hirgot   institution  of  higher  learning  in  Russia, 
organized  in  1755.     At  its  inception  it  consisted 
of  three  faculties — law,  medicine,  and  philo.so|)liy 
— with    a   total    slatl'   of    ten    professors,    mostly 
brought  from  Western  Europe.     The  curriculum 
was  very  limited  in  its  scojie  until  1807.  when 
it    was  "reorganized    by    Alexander    I.      At    the 
burning  of  Jloscow  in  1812  the  university  build- 
ings were  destroyed.     The  most  valuable  collec- 
tions, however,  had  been  previously  removed.     In- 
struction, susiiendeii  for  a  while,  was  resumed  in 
1813,  and  new  Iniildiiigs  were  erected  in  1816-19. 
In    1835  the  number  of  chairs   was   increased   to 
thirty-five  and  a  uniform  four  years'  course  es- 
tablished   for    all    departments.      In    1841    the 
iledico-Surgical   Academy   was   united   with   the 
Universitv.     The  liberal  University  Act  of  1863 
gave  the  jirofessors  and  students  ;i  certain  amount 
of  self-government  which  was  abcdished  during  the 
reactionary  regime  of  .Mexander  111.  in  1884.     In 
1902  Moscow  Inivcrsitv  consisted  of  the  follow- 
ing faculties.:    (1)   Medicine.  (2)  law.  (3)   physi- 
cal and  natural  sciences.   (4)    historico-philologi- 
cal  faculties.     It  otl'ers  four-year  courses  leading 
to  the  degree  of  Candidate.  In  the  medical  school, 
however,  the  course  covers  five  years,  the  regular 
degree  being  'physician:'  the  degrees  of  JIaster, 
Doctor  of  the  various  sciences,  and  M.D.  arc  con- 
ferred for  special  investigation.     The  university 
library    contains    271.926     volumes    and    23,239 
pampiilets.     The  deiiartmental   libraries,  labora- 
tories, observatory,   museums,  etc.,  number  alto- 
gether   33.       The"    medical    department     has     14 
"special  clinics  and  hospitals.     The  teaching  staff 
consists  of  27  emeritus.  44  ordinary,  and  20  ex- 
traordinary professors.  175  privat-docents.  and  11 
instructors.     The  number  of  students  in  1902  was 
4091.  of  whom  363  took  the  historico-philologieal, 
321    the   mathematic:il.    683   the   natural    science. 
1073  the  hiw.  and  1100  the  meilical  course.     The 
ex))eiiditures  of  the  university  amiiunt  to  about 
.$830,000.     As  the  majority  of  the  student-s  come 
from  the  poorer  classes,  the  number  of  scholar- 
ships is  very  large,  the  number  in   1902  reaching 
as  high  as  645.     The  university   is  under  direct 
supervision  of  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction, 
who  appoints  the  rector.     There  is  a  university 
council,  but  its  powers  are  very  limited. 

MOSErLIMA,  niAsi'l.'-mA  (.\r.  Muanilimah. 
frimi  the  loiipir  name  Miisliiiuih.  from  snlinin.  to 
lie  safe).  One  of  the  most  important  of  the  rival 
jiroiihets  who  came  forwaril  in  Arabia  when 
Mohammed  had  stirred  the  religious  tlinught  of 
the  people.  He  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  the  Hem 
Henifah.  of  Yamama  in  Nejd.  The  traditions 
abciut  his  life  and  age  are  extremely  contradictory 
and    legendary.      It    appears,    however,    tolerably 


MOSEILIMA. 

certain  tliat  he  had  risen  to  a  certain  eminence 
in  his  trihe,  proljahly  as  a  religious  teacher  unly 
at  lirst,  hefure  Jlohaninieil  assumed  liis  prupheti- 
cal  ollice.  He  seems  to  liave  pro])osed  to  divide 
the  religious  leadersliip  with  ilolianimcd,  a  sug- 
gestion which  the  latter  contemptuously  refused. 
He  never  undertook  to  supplant  -Mohammed. 
After  the  death  of  the  Prophet,  iloscilima  set 
up  the  standard  of  open  opposition  and  was  de- 
feated and  killed  in  a  desperate  hattle  by 
Khalid,  who  had  been  sent  against  him  by  Abu 
Bekr.  His  "heresy'  was  stam[)e<l  out.  and  onl} 
a  few  scattered  supporters  contrived  to  escape 
to  El-Hasa  and  Basra,  where  they  may  have  laid 
tlie  foundation  of  the  later  Karmathian  creed.  See 
iloiiAiixtEPi.w  Sects. 

MOSELEY,  moz'II,  Henry  (1801-72).  An 
English  mathematician,  liom  at  Newcasile-under- 
Lyme.  He  graduated  at  Saint  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  and  in  18.31  became  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  and  astronomy  in  King's  Col- 
lege, London.  In  1853  he  was  appointed  canon 
of  Bristol  Catliedral.  and  two  years  afterwards 
■was  made  chaplain  to  the  Queen.  He  published 
a  number  of  scientific  books,  Mechanical  Princi- 
ples of  Enyincerinri  and  Architecture  (1843) 
being  the  most  important.  Moselcy  discovered 
furmuhp  for  the  dynamical  stability  of  warships, 
whicli  liave  come  into  common  use. 

MOSELLE,  mo-zel',  German  Mosel,  mo'zel. 
One  of  the  principal  affluents  of  the  Rhine.  It 
rises  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Vosges  Mountains 
in  the  northeastern  corner  of  France.  Hows  north- 
westward to  the  French  boundary,  then  north- 
ward past  Jletz  and  Thionville.  aifter  which  it 
turns  to  the  northeast,  and  with  many  windings 
tlirough  the  Prussian  Rhine  Province,  enters  the 
Rhine  at  Coblenz  ( Jlap :  Germany,  B  3) .  Through- 
out the  greater  part  of  its  length  the  Mcselle 
runs  through  a  narrow  valley  occupied  by  fertile 
fields  and  meadows,  and  inclosed  l)y  steep  hills 
and  mountains,  in  many  places  becoming  rocky 
cliffs.  In  the  lower  valley  the  hills  are  vine- 
clad,  producing  the  celebrated  Sloselle  wines, 
noted  for  their  delicate  aromatic  flavor.  Numer- 
ous ruins  and  historic  landmarks  also  make  the 
valley  notable.  The  total  length  of  the  river 
is  314  miles;  it  is  navigable  214  miles  for  small 
vessels.  Two  lines  of  steamers  ply  regularly  be- 
tween Coldenz  and  Treves. 

MOSEN,  mo'zcn,  .Julius  (1803-07).  A  Ger- 
man avitlior,  born  at  Marieney  in  the  Vogtland, 
Saxony.  He  attended  the  University  of  .lena, 
where  Goetlu'  awartled  him  the  first  prize  for  his 
competitive  anniversary  poem  on  Karl  .August's 
fiftieth  birthdav ;  completed  his  studies  at  Leip- 
zig in  1820-28,"  and  from  1828  to  1831  was  in 
the  office  of  an  advocate  at  Markneukirchen.  He 
went  to  Oldenburg  in  1844  under  appointment 
from  (Irand  Duke  Paul  Frederick  August  as 
dramaturgist  of  the  Hoftheater  with  title  of 
Councilor.  His  activity  in  that  post  was  inter- 
rupted by  illness,  and  from  18.50  he  was  pen- 
sioned. His  first  public  success  was  achieved 
by  the  epic  Lied  ri)m  Hitter  Wahn  (1831),  based 
on  the  Italian  legend  of  II  enraliere  fieiiao.  and 
his  reputation  was  much  increased  by  Ahnfiver 
(1838),  a  second  poem  in  that  kind,  whose  large, 
historical  action  is  somewhat  impeded  bv  its 
philosophy.  The  flediehte  of  1S30  (2d  ed.  i843) 
include  the  well-known  ballads,  long  since  es- 
tablished as  Volkslieder,  "Andreas  Hofer."  "Der 


49 


MOSEB. 


Trompetcr  an  der  Katzbaeh,"  and  "Die  letzten 
Zehn  vom  vierten  Regiment,"  descriptive  of  an 
episode  in  the  Polish  contest  for  independence. 
Of  his  works  of  fiction,  tiie  best,  perhaps,  are  the 
liilder  ill!  Mouse  (2  vols.,  1840),  short  stories, 
finished  in  workmanshi]).  His  dramas  were  over- 
weighted with  the  rlietorical  exposition  of  his 
ideas  on  politics  and  historj-.  Otto  HI.  (ap- 
peared with  three  others  as  Theater,  1842)  was 
the  most  important.  As  dramaturgist,  he  did 
much  to  further  German  drama,  especially 
Shakespearean  presentations.  The  best  collective 
edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  1880  (Leipzig,  0 
vols.).  Consult  the  anonymous  biographj-,  Julius 
Mosen    (Oldenburg,    1878). 

MOSENTHAL,  mc-r'zrn-tal.  .Joseph  (1834- 
90).  A  Oerman- American  musician,  born  at  Cas- 
sel.  He  studied  under  his  father  and  Spohr,  and 
in  18.53  came  to  America,  w'here  he  played  the 
organ  in  Calvary  Church,  New  York  Cit}',  from 
1800  to  1887.  He  was  conductor  of  the  Mendels- 
sohn Glee  Club  in  New  York  City  from  1807  to 
1896,  played  a  first  violin  in  the  Philharmonic 
Orchestra  for  forty  years,  a  second  violin  in  the 
Jlason  and  Thomas  Quartet  for  twelve,  and  com- 
posed much  Church  music, such  as  the  psalm  "The 
Earth  is  the  Lord's,"  and  part  songs  for  male 
voices,  Thanatopsis,  Blest  Pair  of  Sirens,  and 
Music   of   the  flea. 

MOSENTHAL,  Salomon  Hermann  von 
(1821-77).  A  tJerman  dramatist.  He  was  born 
at  Cassel,  studied  at  Marburg,  and  in  1850  be- 
came an  official  in  the  Ministry  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion at  Menna,  and  was  soon  afterwards  appointed 
Ministerial  archivist.  His  investiture  with  the 
Order  of  the  Iron  Crown  in  1871  conferred 
knighthood  upon  him.  He  is  chiefly  known  by  the 
dramas  Deborah  ( 1850 ;  numerous  later  edd.  known 
in  English  as  Leah  the  Forsaken) .  and  Der  Hon- 
nenwemlhof  (1850),  which  have  been  represented 
with  success,  and  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages. He  also  wrote  the  libretti  for  a  number 
of  well-know'n  operas,  notably  Nicolai's  Die  lusti- 
f/en  Weiber  V07i  Windsen-  (1849)  and  Goldmark's 
Die  KiJnigin  eon  Haba  (1875).  His  collected 
works  were  published  in  six  volumes  in  1877-78. 

MOSER,  me'zer,  Albert  (I835-I900).  A  Ger- 
man lyric  poet.  He  was  born  at  Giittingen,  and 
after  studying  there  became  a  teacher  in  Dresden. 
His  odes,  sonnets,  and  songs  attained  great  popu- 
larity, especially  a  ballad.  'Die  Rose  von  Mars  la 
Tour.'  and  are  marked  by  much  melody,  by  a 
dreamy  reflective  manner,  and  occasionally  by 
great  skill  in  the  reproduction  of  classical  metres. 
His  flediehte  were  published   in   1805. 

MOSER,  nuVzer.  Georoe  Michael  (1704-83). 
An  English  gold-worker  and  enamcler.  born  at 
Schaffhausen  in  Switzerland.  At  an  early  age 
he  went  to  London,  where  he  was  a  friend  of 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  of  Goldsmith,  and  of  Dr. 
.Johnson  ;  was  drawing  teacher  to  George  III.,  and 
was  one  of  the  founders  and  the  first  keeper  of 
the  Royal  Academy.  Moser  was  especially  fa- 
mous a-*  an  enameler  of  jewelry. 

MOSER,  GuSTAV  VON  (1825-1903).  A  popular 
German  dramatist,  born  at  Spaudau,  Jlay  11, 
1825.  He  was  trained  for  the  army,  entered  it 
in  1843.  and  served  till  1850.  when  he  married  the 
daughter  of  a  wealthy  landed  proprietor.  After 
an  unfortunate  venture  in  comedy,  Der  wcibliehe. 
fliissar.  he  devoted  himself  to  agriculture  till  a 
happy    meeting    with    the    Berlin    stage-director 


MOSEB. 

Wallner  brought  him  back  to  the  stage  in  1861 
for  a  career  ol  ahiiost  uiil>rokeii  popuhir  success. 
Ut"  more  than  lorty  comcilies  the  most  noteworlliy 
are:  Uus  SStiltuiiysfesl  (1S73J;  LUimu  (1873); 
Uer  \'cilcheiifixs-s<:r  (1S70);  Dtr  Jiibliothelcar 
(187S);  Kricg  iin  FrUden  (1880).  He  also 
wrote  a  number  of  plays  in  collalioration  with 
others.  A  uiiihirin  ccliliim  of  Moser's  works  was 
begun  in  1873,  and  extends  to  more  than  twenty 
volumes. 

MOSER,  JoiiAXN  Jakob  (1701-85).  A  Ger- 
man iniblicist,  born  in  Slutlgart.  He  studied  at 
the  University  of  Tlibingen,  wlierc  in  1720  he 
became  professor  of  law.  In  consequence  of  some 
Uillieulties  with  the  censor,  he  resigned  this  po- 
sition in  1732,  and  in  1736  answered  a  call  to 
the  t'niversity  of  Frankfort-on-the-()dor.  Here 
he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Frederick  William 
1..  and  in  1739  was  again  comjxdled  to  resign.  In 
1747  he  became  Privy  Councilor  and  chief  of  the 
chancery  in  the  service  of  the  Landgrave  of  Hcsse- 
Homburg,  btit  two  years  later  he  went  to  Ilanau 
and  in  1751  returned  to  his  native  cily,  where 
he  entered  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  \\'iirtteni- 
berg.  In  175'J,  being  held  responsible  for  certain 
manifestoes  directed  against  the  Duke,  he  was 
imprisoned  in  tlie  fortress  of  Hohcntwiel,  where 
he  remained  for  five  years.  After  his  release  his 
oliices  were  restored  to  him.  Among  his  works 
are:  Deutsches  Stafilsrecht  (1766-75,  21  vols., 
besides  two  supplementary  vols.,  and  an  index)  ; 
Xeucs  dcutschoi  .^trirititrecht  (1766-75,  21  vols. 
and  additions,  1781-82.  3  vols.)  ;  Deutsches 
Staaisarchiv  (13  vols.,  1751-57)  :  and  his  Lehcns- 
geschichlc  (3d  cd.,  4  vols..  1777-83).  Consult 
Wiicliter,  ./.  .;.  iloser  (Stuttgart,  1885). 

MOSER,  me'zer,  .JrsTis  (1720-94).  A  Ger- 
man historian  and  ])ul)licist,  horn  at  OsnahriicK. 
He  studied  law  at  Jena  and  Gijttingcn,  and  in 
1747  was  chosen  (idvocatua  pat  rim.  He  was  sent  to 
Kngland  in  1763  on  financial  business  of  the  Allies. 
During  the  minority  of  the  Duke  Frederick  of 
York,  who  became  afterwards  Bishoi)of  Osnabriick, 
Moser  was  the  principal  adviser  of  the  Regent. 
He  founded  in  1766  the  weekly  Die  Osnabriick- 
ischcn  Iiitelligcnzbl-iiltcr,  from  which  he  reprinted 
in  1774  ['atrioti.sche  I'hnntasicn.  a  scries  of  bril- 
liant and  valuable  essays,  llis  Osnahriirl.ischc 
Geschichte  (1768;  3d  ed."  1819)  is  an  ant icijiation 
of  the  best  results  of  the  modern  German  histor- 
ical methods.  His  collected  works,  edited  by 
Abeken  (Berlin,  1842-44),  include  a  hiogra[)hy 
by  Nicolai  and  Miiscr's  poetry.  Consult:  Kreys- 
sig,  .7i/s/i(,<t  ilOscr  (Berlin,  1857)  :  and  Rupprccht, 
./.  Miinfrs  soziale  nml  voILmnrtschaftUclie  An- 
schaininficn    (Stuttgart,    1892). 

MOSES,  mr/zes.  The  most  prominent  figure 
in  the  earlier  portion  of  the  Old  Testament  nar- 
rative. According  to  the  modern  view  which 
regards  the  Pentateuch  as  a  conihination  of  dif- 
ferent sources,  those  portions  relating  the  career 
of  Moses  (in  the  main,  the  books  of  Kxodns  and 
Numbers)  conibinc  three  distinct  documents  or 
strata  of  traditifm.  It  is  still  possible  in  most 
eases  to  separate  the  historical  compilation 
known  ns  .TK  (see  Ki.oiiist  Axn  Yaiiwist) 
into  its  two  component  parts.  Tn  addition  to 
these  is  the  so-called  Priestly  narrative  (see 
HEXATETcn),  which  is  considerably  later  tlinn 
either  J  or  V,.  A  brief  summary  of  the  career 
of  Moses  as  given  by  each  of  these  sources  will 


50 


MOSES. 


make  clear  wherein  they  dilTer,  and  also  indicate 
their  value  as  historical  material. 

In  the  narrative  of  the  Yalnvist,  Moses  first 
appears  as  a  fugitive  in  Midian.  A  story  is  told 
of  his  lielping  the  daughters  of  a  priest  of  Midiau 
to  water  their  sheep,  the  tale  reminding  of  a 
similar  incident  in  Jacob's  life  (Gen.  xxix.  1- 
10)  ;  and  just  as  Jacob  married  Rachel,  so  Moses 
marries  Zipporah,  a  dauglitcr  of  tlie  priest.  After 
the  dealh  of  the  king  from  wlioin  he  had  lied,  and 
of  tho.se  who  had  sought  his  life,  Moses  returns 
to  Egypt.  On  the  way  Yah\v<li  appears  tu  him 
in  a  burning  bush  and  gives  him  the  command  to 
deliver  his  ])eople,  the  Hebrews,  from  the  op- 
pression in  Kgypt,  and  bring  them  to  Canaan. 
Moses  hesitates,  but  is  reassured  by  three  signs 
given  him.  He  delivers  his  message  to  the  elders 
of  Israel,  and  Pharaoh  is  requested  to  let  the 
Israelites  go  into  the  wilderness  to  perform  a 
sacrifice.  Upon  the  refusal  of  Pharaoh,  .seven 
plagues  (see  I'LACiLEs  of  Egypt)  are  sent  in  suc- 
cession, Pharaoh  propo.ses  a  compromise,  which 
Moses  refuses,  and  at  last,  when  the  first-born  in 
every  Egyptian  family  is  stricken  with  death, 
the  Egyptians  in  a  panic  hurry  the  Israelites 
out  of  l<",gypt.  Pharaoh  recovers  from  his  terror 
and  starts  in  pursuit  of  the  fugitives,  who  are 
guided  by  a  cloiul  at  day  and  by  a  i)illar  of 
fire  at  night;  but  tlie  King  and  liis  army  are 
drowned  in  the  sea  after  the  Israelites  have 
crossed  in  safety.  The  people  are  led  into  the 
wilderness  and  endure  hardships  vuitil  they  reach 
Mount  Sinai,  where  Yaliweh  appears  and  calls 
Moses  to  Him  on  the  Mount.  'He  remains  there 
forty  days  and  forty  nights,  and  receives  from 
Yahweh  two  tables  of  stone.  Moses'  father-in- 
law.  Ilohab,  the  son  of  Reuel,  the  Midianite, 
visits  him  and  decides  to  accompany  the  Israel- 
ites, .  They  continue  their  wanderings  amid 
many  hardships  till  they  reach  Kadcsh.  Caleb 
and  others  arc  sent  into  Canaan  as  far  as 
Hebron  and  bring  back  rcjinrts  about  the  fertility 
of  the  land  and  the  powerful  character  of  the 
inhabitants.  Israel  marches  along  the  borders 
of  Edoni  to  Moab.  conquering  Heshbon  and  other 
Amorite  cities.  Balaam  is  sent  for  by  Balak.  the 
King  of  Moab.  to  curse  Israel,  but  fails  to  do 
so;  final  laws  and  exhortations  are  delivered  by 
Moses  to  his  people.  He  is  then  called  to  the 
top  of  Pisgah.  where,  after  being  shi>wii  all  of 
Canaan,  he  dies,  being  buried  by  Yahweh  Himself 
in  a  valley  of  Moab  o|)posite  Beth-peor.  Aaron 
in  this  narrative  is  completely  ignored. 

In  the  Elohistic  narrative,  the  birth  of  Moses  in 
Egv'pt  is  related  with  the  story  of  his  miraculous 
deliverance  from  the  decree  of  Pharaoh.  His 
sister  (Miriam)  was  by  him  when  he  was  found 
in  an  ark  of  bulrushes  by  Pharaoh's  danshter. 
He  is  educated  as  an  Egv-ptian  noble,  but  learning 
that  he  is  an  Israelite,  goes  out  to  see  how 
his  people  fare,  and  observing  an  Eg^-ptian  ill- 
treating  an  Israelite,  he  slays  the  former,  and 
when  the  deed  becomes  known.  Hees  to  Midian. 
While  tending  the  flocks  of  his  father  in-law, 
.Tetliro,  on  lloreh,  'the  mountain  of  God'  [Elo- 
himl,  God  reveals  Himself  and  announces  His  new 
name,  Yahweh-,  Moses  is  ordered  by  Yahweh, 
who  has  heard  the  cry  of  the  oppressed  people,  to 
go  to  Pharaoh  and  demand  the  release  of  the 
Israelites.  On  his  way  to  Egv'pt.  he  is  joined 
by  Aaron.  Together  they  appear  before  Pharaoh. 
Five  plagues  are  brought  upon  Egvpt.  and  when 


MOSES. 


51 


MOSES. 


the  last — the  death  of  the  (irst-born — is  sent, 
Fharaiih  gives  Moses  and  Aurou  jjcrniission  to 
dejiait  with  the  Israelites.  The  latter,  loaded 
Willi  presents  from  tlie  Kgyptians,  and  carrying 
with  them  the  bones  of  Joseph,  start  on  their 
jonrney.  Pharaoh  follows  in  pursuit  with  GOO 
ehariols,  but  Aloses  lifts  up  his  rod.  An  angel 
plaees  himself  between  Israel  and  the  pursuers 
and  the  latter  perish.  The  people,  fed  by  bread 
from  heaven,  reach  Horeb,  where  Yahweh  appears 
amid  thunder  and  lightning,  and  delivers  to 
the  people  the  Ten  Commandments.  (See  Deca- 
LOGL'E. )  Mo.ses  and  Josluia  ascend  the  Jlount 
and  during  their  absence  Aaron  makes  a  golden 
calf  for  the  people,  l^pon  the  return  of  Jloses 
and  Joshua,  they  see  the  people  dancing  around 
the  calf,  and  in  anger  Jloses  breaks  the  two 
tal>Ies.  Jloses  returns  to  Y'ahweh,  intercedes  on 
behalf  of  his  people,  and  receives  laws  which  he 
communicates  to  the  people.  Jethro  visits  Jloses 
and  suggests  the  apiiointment  of  subordinates  to 
assist  in  the  government  of  the  people.  Miriam 
and  Aaron  revolt  against  Moses  and  are  pun- 
ished ;  Amalek  attacks  Israel  and  is  completely 
routed:  Dathan  and  Abiram  rebel  against  Moses 
and  are  swallowed  up  by  the  earth.  The  people 
reach  Kadesh,  where  Miriam  dies.  Jloses  urges 
Israel  to  invade  Canaan,  and  12  men  are  sent 
out  to  survey  it,  who  bring  back  discouraging  re- 
ports so  that  the  people  ask  Moses  for  a  leader 
to  take  them  back  to  Egypt.  Because  of  the 
complaints  of  the  people  at  their  hardships,  fiery 
serpents  are  sent  as  a  plague ;  Moses  makes  a 
brazen  serpent  by  looking  at  which  the  sufferers 
are  healed.  Yahweh  announces  to  Moses  that  he 
is  about  to  die,  and  .Tosluia  is  appointed  as  his 
successor.  Moses  delivers  final  laws  and  ex- 
hortations and  dies  in  the  land  of  Jloab.  His 
burial  place  is  ind<nowTi. 

The  Priestly  narrative  brings  Aaron  into  con- 
stant association  with  Moses,  but  ignores  Miriam. 
■  God  speaks  to  Jloses  and  Aaron  in  Egypt ;  the 
former  is  at  tlie  time  eighty  years  old — the  lat- 
ter eighty-three.  Six  plagues  are  wrought  in  a 
miraculous  \\ny  by  Jloses  and  Aaron  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Pharaoh  and  his  magicians,  who  at  first 
are  able  to  perform  the  same  miracles.  The 
Israelites  leave  Egypt  to  observe  the  Passover 
festival.  They  are  pursued  by  Pharaoh,  and 
Moses  stretches  out  his  liaiid  over  the  sea,  the 
waters  of  which  are  divided  and  afford  a  pass.ige 
for  Israel.  After  the  Israelites  reach  the  farther 
shore,  Jloses  again  stretches  out  his  hand,  the 
waters  return  and  the  Egj'ptians  are  drowned. 
After  long  wanderings,  the  people  come  to  Sinai, 
wlierc  Yahweh  appears.  Moses  ascends  into  the 
cloud  that  hovers  over  the  mountain  and  receives 
instruction  from  Y'ahweh  regarding  the  taber- 
nacle and  its  furniture,  and  the  duties  of  the 
priests  and  their  vestments.  He  also  obtains  two 
tablets  of  stone.  Moses  and  Aaron  proceed  to 
organize  the  nation  and  its  worship.  A  census 
is  taken,  and  the  people  leave  the  wilderness. 
Korah  and  2.50  princes  rebel  against  Jloses  and 
Aiiron  and  a  sign  is  given  by  Y'ahweh — the  blos- 
soming of  Aaron's  rod — proving  the  choice  of 
Aaron  and  his  family  for  the  priesthood.  .Toshua, 
Caleb,  and  ten  others  are  sent  to  survey  Canaan. 
The  ten  bring  hack  discouraging  reports  against 
which  .Toshua  and  Caleb  protest.  Y.ihweh  ap- 
pears and  announces  that  .Toshua  and  Caleb  alone 
of  the  grown  men  shall  enter  Canaan;  the  ten 


are  stricken  with  death.  A  second  census  is 
taken  by  -Moses  and  Eleazar.  Joshua  is  appuinted 
the  successor  of  -Moses,  who,  after  delivering  hnal 
laws,  ascends  Jlount  Nebo,  and  dies  at  the  age 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty  years  in  the  full  pos- 
session of  all  his  faculties. 

The  Book  of  Ueuteronomj',  taken  up  with  the 
linal  adilresses  and  ordinances  given  by  Jloses, 
adds  nothing  to  the  above  traditions  of  his 
career. 

A  general  survey  of  these  narratives  reveals 
certain  features  in  the  career  of  Jloses  that  must 
luive  become  permanently  fixed  in  the  minds  of 
the  people,  before  the  attempt  was  made  to  adjust 
the  figure  to  the  pragmatic  theory  w-liich  guides 
the  Old  Testament  writers  in  their  survey  of  the 
past.  These  are:  (1)  his  presence  in  Egypt :  (2) 
his  association  with  Jlidian  and  the  cult  at  Horeb 
or  Sinai  (q.v. )  ;  (3)  his  leadership  of  certain 
clans.  The  popular  reminiscences  of  a  sojourn 
of  the  Hebrews  in  Egj'pt  point  to  the  presence  at 
one  time  in  that  land  of  some  of  the  clans  that 
afterwards  formed  part  of  the  Hebrew  confedera- 
tion. (  See  Jews.  )  These  clans  subsequently 
left  Egypt  and  returned  to  the  wilderness,  whence 
they  originally  issued.  Joining  other  clans  at 
Horeb  (or  Sinai),  they  adopted  a  eult  which  ex- 
isted there.  The  mountain  was  a  sacred  one  and 
the  deitj'  who  dwelt  on  the  top  was  known  as 
Y'ahweh.  The  relationship  of  Jloses  to  these 
incidents  depends  upon  the  question  whether  he 
is  to  be  regarded  as  an  individual  or  as  the  rep- 
resentative of  a  clan.  It  must  be  confessed  that 
at  times  Jloses  is  spoken  of  as  though  he  were 
merely  the  eponymous  ancestor  of  a  elan,  and  yet, 
taking  all  things  into  consideration,  the  balance 
of  evidence  is  in  favor  of  the  assumption  that 
there  was  an  individual  by  the  name  of  Jloses, 
of  whom  some  faint  reminiscences  survived,  and 
who  gradually  became  the  favorite  personage  to 
whom  all  traditions,  legends,  and  myths  asso- 
ciated with  the  exodus  from  Egypt  and  the  birth 
of  the  nation — traditions,  legends,  and  myths 
coming  to  the  Hebrews  from  various  sources  and 
at  various  times — were  attached.  The  result  of 
this  process  lies  before  us  in  the  majestic  figure 
of  Jloses  as  portrayed  in  the  union  of  the  three 
'strata,'   already  outlined. 

BiBLiOGR.\PUY.  Consult  the  histories  of  Penan, 
Stade,  Guthe,  Kittel,  Wellhausen,  Winckler, 
Piepenbring,  etc. ;  also  the  commentaries  on 
Exodus  and  Xumbers  enumerated  in  the  articles 
upon  these  books;  Kiienen,  Rrliriioii  of  Israel, 
vol.  i.  (Eng.  trans.  Edinburgh,  1874-73)  ;  Budde, 
RcUriion  of  Israel  to  the  Exile  (New  York,  1899)  ; 
Driver  in  Authority  and  Archa'olorjj/,  pp.  .54-79 
(London,  1899).  For  the  mass  of  additional 
legends  that  gathered  around  Jloses.  see  Beer, 
'"Das  Leben  Jloses  nach  Auflfassung  der  jiidischen 
Sage,"  ill  Jahrbuch  fiir  die  Geschichte  der  ■hidcn 
uiid  des  Jiide}ithums,  vol.  iii.  (Leipzig.  ISfiS)  ; 
Weil,  liihiisclie  Leffenden  der  MuKelminmer 
(Frankfort,  1845:  Eng.  trans,  under  the  title 
The  Bihle,  the  Koran,  and  the  Talmud,  London. 
1840). 

MOSES.  A  colossal  statue  in  the  Church  of 
San  Pietro  in  Vincoli.  Rome,  one  of  the  most  fa- 
mous works  of  Jlichelangelo.  The  gigantic  fig- 
ure is  seated  in  the  attitiide  of  one  about  to 
spring  to  his  feet.  The  left  hand  is  pressed  to 
the  body  to  restrain  his  indignation  at  the  wor- 
ship of  the  golden  calf,  at  which  he  appears  to 


MOSES.  52 

gaze  witli  tlashing  cjcs  and  frowning  face,  while 
llie  light  hand  grasps  the  tables  of  the  law.  The 
head  sho«s  two  short  horns,  based  on  a  mistaken 
interpretation  of  Ezekiel  xxxiv.  21.  The  "Moses" 
was  one  of  thirtj'  proposed  statues  for  the  tomb 
of  Pope  Julius  II.  in  Saint  Peter's,  which  was 
not  toiiiploled.     See  Plate  under  JIiciiei^.ngELO. 

MOSES,  Assiiii'Tio.N  OF,  and  Kevelatio.n  of. 
See  Ai'ocuvpii.v,  section  ou  Old  Testament. 

MOSES,  Ber.naku  (1846—).  An  American 
professor  of  history  and  political  economy,  born 
at  liurlington.  Conn.  He  graduated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Micliigan  in  1870,  studied  at  Heidel- 
berg, and  became  professor  of  history  in  Albion 
College,  N.  V.,  in  1875.  The  following  year  he 
was  appointed  to  the  faculty  of  the  University  of 
California.  His  first  book.  Politics  (1884),  was 
written  in  collaboration  with  W.  W.  Crane;  af- 
terwards he  produced:  The  Federal  Government 
of  Sioilzerland  (1889);  Democracy  and  Social 
Uroicth  in  America  (1892)  ;  and  The  Establish- 
ment of  Spanish  Rule  in  America  (1898).  He 
was  one  of  the  Philippine  Commissioners  ap- 
pninfi-d   by   President    .McKinley. 

MOSES  OF  CHORENE,  k.Vre'ne.  An  Ar- 
menian author,  belonging  to  the  fifth  century. 
The  only  extant  works  now  generally  admitted  to 
be  his  are  a  Khetoric.  and  a  llislor/i  of  Armenia. 
which  ap])eared  in  a  (ierman  vcrsiim  by  Lauer 
at  Regensburg  in  1869,  and  entitles  him  to  the 
foremost  place  among  Armenian  historians.  .\ 
work  on  geography  once  ascribed  to  him  is  now- 
assigned  to  the  seventh  century.  Consult  Von 
Gut.schmid,  Leber  die  Glaubiriirdijikeit  der  ar- 
menischen  Geschichte  des  Hoses  von  Khoren 
(Leipzig,  1876). 

MOSGTJ,  mos'knn.  or  MASA,  mji'sa.  Pagan 
niLrrui-^  in  the  Chad  Hasin.  Sudan,  south  of  the 
lake,  divided  into  many  tribes  or  branches,  and 
numbering  about  a  million.  Less  than  a  third  of 
them  have  come  under  the  sway  of  Mohammedan- 
ism. 

MOSHEIM,  mos'hini,  Joiiaxn  Lorenz  vox 
(  1 1194-1 7.'>.")).  -\  distinguished  (Jerman  Church 
historian  and  theologian.  He  was  born  at  Lii- 
beck.  October  9.  1694.  and  studied  at  Kiel.  In 
1723  he  became  ordinary  professor  of  thcologj-  at 
Helmstedt  and  in  1747  at  Giittingen, where  he  died 
as  chancellor  of  the  university,  September  9,  17.55. 
His  theological  works  are  numerous,  among  them 
a  work  on  Hible  morality.  Siltrnlrhrc  drr  heili- 
flcn  Schrift  (17.35-5:i;  4th  ed.  US.^-fil.  continued 
by  J.  P.  Miller,  1770-78) ,  and  discourses.  Ileilirie 
lieden  (17.32:  4th  ed.  1765).  But  his  contribu- 
tions to  theological  literature  in  the  department 
of  ecclesiastical  history  are  most  important, 
by  reason  of  their  gre;>t  learning,  fullness,  and 
accuracy.  The  following  have  been  translated 
from  the  original  Latin:  Commentarie»  on  the 
Affairs  of  f'hrisfian.'i  Before  the  Time  of  Con- 
stanlinr  Ihr  Great  (London,  181.3-151  ;  hi.'itilutrs 
of  Ecelesiaslical  Tlistory  (Murdock's  trans.,  od. 
by  W.  Stubbs.  1S6.3:  new  ed..  Boston.  1892)  ;  his 
valuable  Vrrsiirh  etner  unpnrtciisehen  Ketzerpe- 
.srhirhlr   (1746-48)    is  untranslated. 

MOSKVA,  moskvii'.  A  river  of  Kuropean 
Russia,  a  left  affluent  of  the  Oka.  which  is  itself 
nn  affluent  of  the  Volaa.  It  rises  in  the  Covern- 
Tiient  of  Smolensk,  flows  eastward  through  the 
ritv  of  Mospow.  and  joins  the  Oka  near  Kolomna, 
in  the  Government  of  Moscow,  after  a  course  of 


MOSQUE. 


285  miles  (Map:  Russia,  E  3).  It  is  navigable 
between  Moscow  and  the  Oka,  a  distance  of  112 
miles,  and  is  an  important  commercial  route.  On 
its  banks,  September  7,  1812,  occurred  the  fa- 
mous battle  of  the  .Moskva  or  Borodino  between 
the  Russians  and  Napoleon. 

MOSLEM,  moz'lem,  or  MUSLIM,  niQz'lim. 
A  ciimuiun  designation  in  the  West  for  a  Mo- 
hammedan. It  conies  from  the  Arabic  muslitn, 
a  derivative  of  .lalima,  'to  be  .safe,'  which  is  often 
used  by  .Mohammed  in  the  sense  of  a  'true  be- 
liever.' generally  in  contrast  to  kafir,  an  un- 
believer, infidel.  The  name  Mussulman,  often 
used  in  the  same  sense,  is  derived  from  the  Per- 
sian plural  of  muslim   (nnisliman).   See  Mouam- 

ilEDA.MSM. 

MOSLER,  moz'ler,  Henry  (1841—).  An 
American  genre  painter,  born  in  New  York  City. 
He  studied  in  Cincinnati  under  .J.  H.  Beard. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  was  on  the  staff  of 
Harper's  Weekli).  and  afterwards  went  to  Paris. 
There  he  studieil  \inder  Hebert.  "Still  later  he 
received  some  instruction  at  the  Munich  Acad- 
emy under  Piloty,  and  in  Diisseldorf.  He  became 
especially  well  known  in  Paris,  where  he  lived 
many  years  and  exhibited  much.  He  was  elected 
a  National  .Academician  in  1895, and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  won  the  Clark  Prize.  He  also  won  a 
gold  medal  at  the  Salon  of  1888,  a  silver  medal 
at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1889.  and  a  medal  and 
diploma  of  honor  at  the  Atlanta  Exposition  in 
1895.  In  1S92  he  was  awarded  the  cross  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor.  His  more  notable  works  in- 
clude: "Le  relour"'  (1879),  which  was  bought  by 
the  Frencli  Government  for  the  Luxembourg; 
"The  Purchase  of  the  Wedding  Gown"  (1880); 
"The  Last  Sacrament"  (1885);  and  "The  Com- 
ing Stornr"  (1885).  His  "Wedding  Morning" 
was  bouglit  by  the  Sydney  Museum,  Australia. 

MOSQUE  (Fr.  mosrjuee,  from  Sp.  mezquita, 
from  Ar.  masjid,  temple,  from  sajudu.  to  pros- 
trate one's  self,  to  ])ray).  A  Molmnunedan  house 
of  prayer  and  wor.ship.  Examples  of  these  build- 
ings are  found  wherever  the  Mohanuiiedan  faith 
has  prevailed,  from  S])ain  to  India  and  Turkes- 
tan. There  is  no  fixed  form  of  structure  for 
them;  in  jioor  comnuinities  a  bare  room  provided 
with  a  milirub  to  mark  the  kihlah  (q.v.)  often 
serves  the  purpose.  In  general  the  earliest  type 
of  mosque  was  an  open  court,  surrounded  on  all 
sides  by  an  arcaded  portico,  like  the  atrium  or 
cloister  of  a  church  or  the  peristyle  cinirt  of  an 
Egyptiiin  temple,  but  sometimes  difi"ering  fnun 
them  in  having  not  a  single  row,  but  two  or  more 
rows  of  columns  or  piers.  The  side  of  the  court 
toward  Mecca  is  usually  deeper  than  the  other 
three,  with  more  rows  of  supports;  it  contains 
the  mlhriib  and  to  the  right  of  it  the  mimbar 
(pulpit),  and.  in  front,  generally  a  platform  and 
reading  desk.  In  the  open  court  (.w7ih)  is  the 
fountain  for  ablutions,  often  of  large  size  and 
covered  with  a  dome. 

The  mosques  of  India  and  Central  Asia  are 
generally  constructed  after  this  plan.  The  Mo- 
hammedans, however,  have  always  been  influenced 
by  the  native  forms  of  architecture  in  the  dif- 
ferent countries  which  they  have  entered.  The 
Spanish  mosques,  for  example,  closely  resembled 
churches,  having  many  parallel  aisles  supported 
on  a  forest  like  the  old  Cordova  mosque,  or  fewer 
aisles,    like    the    mosque    at    Toledo,    now    San 


MOSQUE.  53 

Cristo  de  la  Luz.  The  dome  was  not  used  to  any 
extent  till  the  fourteenth  century,  when  two  new 
types  made  it  their  central  form:  the  mausoleum 
mosque  originating  in  Cairo,  and  the  Turlsish 
mosque  derived  from  the  Byzantine  plan  of  Saint 
Sophia  (q.v. )  at  Constantinojih^  The  master- 
piece of  the  first  tj-pe  is  the  Hasan  mosque  at 
Cairo  (135U),  followed  by  those  of  Barkuk, 
Khawand  al-Baraka,  and  others.  Of  the  second 
type,  besides  the  several  superb  examples  at  Con- 
stantinople (Sulaiman,  Ahmad,  and  others)  there 
is  the  earlier  one  at  Isnik,  and  the  model  spread 
even  to  F-nyjit,  as  in  the  Sinan  mosque  at  Bulak. 
Still  another  way  of  employing  the  dome  ap- 
peared in  certain  of  the  mosques  of  India,  as  the 
Doshamnia  mos(iue  at  Delhi.  Among  the  most 
famous  and  sacred  of  the  early  mosques  were  the 
Musjid  al-Ifarutn  at  Mecca  (q.v.),  the  Masjid 
ul-\uhi  at  Jledina  (q.v.),  the  Muxjid  al-AkuCi, 
the  Mosque  of  Omar  at  .Terusalem,  and  the 
great  Mosque  of  Walid  at  Danuiseus.  All  of  these 
have  been  rebuilt  so  that  their  early  form  is  no 
longer  recognizable.  The  old  mosque  at  Kairwan 
(q.v.)  is  a  well  preserved  early  example  (eiglith 
century)  ,as  is  also  the  Jlosque  of  Tulun  at  Cairo  ; 
the  Mosque  of  Aniru  at  Cairo  is  of  even  earlier 
foundation,  and  still  retains  portions  of  old  work. 
The  ilosque  of  Omar  represents  the  concentric 
mausoleum  type.  It  is  now  two  or  three  cen- 
turies since  mosques  of  any  architectural  impor- 
tance have  been  erected.  The  poorer  mosques 
have  bare  whitewashed  walls  with  no  decoration 
of  any  kind.  The  larger  and  more  pretentious 
are  often  elaborately  and  artistically  decorated 
with  carvings,  arabcsqiies,  and  passages  from 
the  Koran  in  the  most  involved  style  of  orna- 
mental calligraphy.  Hundreds  of  oil  lamps  and 
sometimes  ostrich  eggs,  elephant's  tusks,  and  the 
like  hang  from  the  ceiling.  The  floor  is  usually 
covered  with  matting.  A  striking  feature  of 
mosque   architecture    is   the   minaret    (q.v.). 

The  five  prayers  are  said  in  the  mosque  daily. 
(See  MoH.\MMEDANiSM.)  The  worshiper  on  en- 
tering removes  his  shoes,  carries  them  in  his  left 
hand,  sole  to  sole,  and  puts  his  right  foot  first 
over  the  threshold.  He  performs  the  necessary 
ablutions  and  takes  his  place  in  the  congregation 
facing  the  iiiihrub.  The  attendance  is  more  gen- 
eral on  Friday,  when  some  special  prayers  are 
said  and  a  sermon  (klititbah)  is  often  added. 
A  mosque  which  has  this  service  is  called  masjid 
al-jdmi'  ('mosque  of  the  general  assembling')  or 
simply  jiimV.  Women  are  not  forbidden  to  en- 
tei'  the  mosque,  but  their  presence  is  not  con- 
sidered seemly  during  the  time  of  prayer:  some- 
times a  special  place,  secluded  by  a  screen,  is  pro- 
vided for  them.  There  are  few  mosques  to  vi'hieh 
unbelievers  do  not  now  have  access.  The  utmost 
decorum  and  solemnity  are  ob.served  during  ser- 
vices, and  the  mosques  are  deeply  reverenced  by 
tlie  failliful.  At  the  same  time  they  are  intended 
for  daily  use,  and  when  services  are  not  going 
on  are  general  gathering  and  lounging  places; 
persons  may  be  seen  there  sewing,  spinning,  or 
engaged  in  some  similar  handicraft:  and  they 
serve  as  resting  places  for  travelers  and  wan- 
derers. It  has  been  the  custom  from  the  begin- 
ning for  teachers  and  professors  to  give  lectures 
and  hold  classes  in  the  larger  mosques,  which 
thus  serve  as  college  buildings.  The  teacher 
takes  his  place  at  a  pier  or  column  at  stated 
hours,    his    favorite    pupil    holds    his    books    or 


MOSQUITIA. 

notes,  and  the  audience  sits  around  on  mats. 
Several  such  courses  are  carried  on  simultane- 
ously in  ditlerent  parts  of  the  covered  arcades. 
Until  uiedressehs  were  built  in  the  eleventh 
century,  the  mosques  were  probably  the  only 
regular  seat  of  advanced  teaching.  In  recent 
times  the  advanced  education  in  the  mosques  has 
been  largely  confined  to  the  preparation  of  can- 
didates for  the  position  of  imam,  but  there 
are  still  notable  exceptions.  The  Azhar  Mosque 
in  Cairo  has  long  been  the  main  centre  of  ad- 
vanced instruction  in  Mohammedan  countries, 
the  only  survivor  of  many  finer  mediieval  insti- 
tions,  and  its  courses  are  attended  by  between 
5000  and  10,000  students.  Minor  build'ings,  such 
as  school-rooms,  academies,  libraries,  hospitals, 
dormitories,  public  kitchens,  and  almshouses,  are 
often  connected  with  the  mosques. 

The  revenues  of  the  mosques  are  derived  not 
only  from  the  contributions  of  the  faithful,  but 
also  from  investments  in  landed  property 
{ictikuf),  often  from  gifts  made  centuries  ago; 
this  property  is  in  the  hands  of  trustees.  The 
income  serves  to  keep  the  building  in  repair  and 
to  pay  necessary  ex]ienses.  The  mosque  officials 
and  attendants  include  the  'imum,  who  leads  the 
prayers,  the  learned  men  who  teach  {viniclmvi. 
'uUinu'i).  the  khdiih  or  preacher  (in  a  jami'). 
the  muezzins  (q.v.),  who  call  to  prayers,  door- 
keepers, lamp-lighters,  etc.  Their  number  depends 
entirely  upon  the  revenues ;  sometimes  a  single 
imam  combines  in  his  person  the  functions  of  all 
the  others.  The  imam  has  a  salary  from  the 
revenues,  but  the  teachers  are  dependent  entirely 
upon  the  gifts  of  their  pupils.  See  Moiiam- 
MEDAXISM.  Consult  the  Bibliography  of  MonAM- 
MEnAN  Art. 

MOSQtTEKA,  me'is-k;"i'ra.  ToM.is  Cipriano  de 
(1708-1S78).  A  Colombian  politician  and  sol- 
dier, born  at  Popayan.  At  thirty-one  he  was  gen- 
eral and  Ambassador  Extraordinary  to  Peru, 
and  in  1833  was  made  Senator.  From  1845  to 
1840  he  was  President  of  New  Granada,  and 
greatly  increased  the  material  prosperity  of  the 
country.  He  headed  the  revolt  against  Ospina 
in  18.59,  and  in  1861  became  President  of  the 
coimtry  reorganized  as  the  United  States  of 
Colombia;  but  was  deposed  in  1867  for  arrogat- 
ing to  himself  the  power  of  adjourning  Congress. 
He  returned  from  banishment  in  1860.  and  be- 
came Governor  of  Cnuca   and  a   Congressman. 

MOSQTJE  SWALLOW.  One  of  a  group  of 
related  Asiatic  and  North  African  swallows 
within  the  genus  Hirundo,  whose  prevailing 
colors  are  blue,  with  chestnut  on  the  rump 
and  side  of  the  head,  and  buff  or  brownish 
streaked  breasts.  They  are  familiar  town  swal- 
lows wherever  they  occur,  and  take  their  English 
name  from  the  habit  of  placing  their  nests  com- 
monly on  the  walls  and  minarets  of  mosques.  These 
nests  and  their  eggs  are  much  like  those  of  the 
American  eaves  swallow.  The  commonest  Ori- 
ental species  are  Hirundo  daitrica  and  Hirundo 
Ncpalensis,  and  a  conspicuous  African  one  of 
large  size  is  Hirundo  Senepalensis.  Consult 
Sharpe  and  Wyatt.  Mononraph  of  the  Hirundi- 
vidre  (London.  188.1-04).  and  authorities  upon 
East   Indian  birds  cited  under  Bird. 

MOSQTIITIA,  mos'ke-te'A.  A  strip  of  terri- 
tory on  the  east  coast  of  Central  America.  See 
Mosquito  Coast. 


MOSQUITO.  54 

MOSQUITO  (Sp.,  Port,  mosquito,  diminutive 
of  iiioxcu,  lly,  from  Lat.  musca,  fly).  A  biting  fly 
of  the  family  Culicidic.  Thuse  flies  belong  to 
the  group  of  nemocerous  Diptera,  anil  their  near- 
est allies  are  the  crane-flies,  the  midges  of  the 
families  Dixidse,  Stenoxenida-,  and  Chironomidje, 
the  fungus-gnats,  gall-gnats,  and  motli-llies.  from 
all  of  which  true  mosquitoes  are  distinguished 
by  the  fact  that  the  veins  of  the  wing  and  the 
body  itself  bear  flattened  scales,  readily  perceived 
under  a  low  power  of  the  microscope,  'the  fam- 
ily is  a  large  one,  and  includes  22  genera  and 
about  300  species.  The  number  of  described 
species  has  doubled  within  the  last  few  years, 
since  especial  attention  has  begun  to  be  paid  to 
this  gi-oup,  and  activity  in  research  is  now  so 
great  that  it  is  probable  that  it  may  again  be 
doubled  before  the  mosquito  fauna  of  the  globe 
is  fairly  well  known. 

GKOfiK.M'uic  DiSTRiBtTlON.  The  mosquitoes 
form  a  cosmopolitan  group,  and  extend  practi- 
cally to  all  known  portions  of  the  globe.  Certain 
species  are  excessively  abundant  in  the  Arctic 


MOSQUITO. 


ATLANTIC  COAST  MOSQUITO  (Culex  solkitaus). 

regions,  while  the  greatest  number  of  species  is 
to  be  found  in  the  tropical  and  subtropical  life- 
zones.  Certain  of  the  genera  are  very  widely 
distributed,  the  typical  genus.  Culex,  being  found 
practically  everywhere.  Anopheles  is  represented 
in  all  regions  except  the  Boreal  and  the  Arctic; 
Stegomyia  occurs  in  Southern  Europe,  Xorth, 
South,  and  Central  America.  West  Indies,  Afri- 
ca, India,  Malay  Archipelago,  Eastern  Asia,  and 
Australasia.  A  similar  distril>ution  is  found 
with  others  of  the  less  conspicuous  genera.  Cer- 
tain species  are  also  of  almost  world-wide  dis- 
tribution, and  this  is  doubtless  largely  due  to 
the  ease  and  frequency  with  which  mosquitoes 
are  transported  by  seagoing  vessels  ami  liy  rail- 
way trains,  and  to 
the  extraordinary 
facility  with  which 
they  accommodate 
themselves  to  a  nov- 
el environment.  It 
is  a  well-substanti- 
ated fai't,  for  exam- 
ple, that  there  were 
no  mosquitoes  in  the 
Hawaiian  Islands 
until  they  were 
brought  there  by 
sailing  vessels.  Cer- 
tain  species  have  a 

""^'^''i?.  "^a^utcn^U"'""''-  rcnarkable  r  a  n  g  e 
through  different 
life-zoni'S,  and  the  group  as  a  whole  has  only  a 
slight  faunistic  value.  Culex  cnnlniis,  forexample, 
occurs  in  Canada  and  the  United  States,  through- 
out Europe,  and  in  Southern  India;  Culex  pi- 
piens  occurs  throughout  Europe  from  Scandi- 
navia to  Malta,  all  over  Nortli  and  Central 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  and  is  also  found 
in  Oriental  regions. 

Classification.    The  family  has  been  divided 


MOSQriTO   OK  YELLtlW    KEVKR 

{Stegouij-ia  fitsciata). 


by  Theobald  into  six  subfamilies.  Anopheles, 
Jlegarhinus,  Culex,  .Edomyia,  Trichoprosoon,  and 
Corethra  being  the  typical  genera  of  these  sub- 
families. The  last  named,  however,  has  a  short 
proboscis  not  formed  for  piercing,  and  does  not 
belong  to  the  bit- 
ing mosquitoes 
proper.  The  char- 
acters which  have 
been  relied  upon 
mainly  in  the  dif- 
ferentiation of  the 
genera  have  been 
the  comparative 
length  of  the  palpi 
in  the  difl'ereiit 
sexes,  the  charac- 
ter of  the  terminal 
joints  of  the  palpi, 
the  relative  pro- 
portions of  certain 

of  the  cells  of  the  wings,  the  characters  of  the 
scales  of  the  legs  and  head,  the  bristles  upon  the 
metanotum,  and  certain  other  points  connected 
with  the  relations  of  the  veins  of  the  wings. 
The  species  for  the  most  part  have  been  sepa- 
rated upon  colorational  characters,  altliough  cer- 
tain characteristics  of  the  wing-venation  are 
specific  rather  than  generic,  and  the  study  of 
the  body  scales  reveals  specific  characters.  There 
are  also  some  interesting  characters  connected 
with  the  teeth  of  the  foot-claws  which  are  both 
specific  and  generic. 

Lli'E  Hlstohv.  Jlosquitoes  in  their  early 
stages  are  all  aquatic.  The  larviE  need  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  standing  water  for  their  develop- 
ment. The  eggs  are  laid  by  the  adult  insects,  in 
the  majority  of  eases  upon  the  surface  of  stand- 


a 


y.iiii   or  .vNornKLES. 
n,  upper  enrface:  b,  uiulcr  surfucp.    These  eg^  float  to 
discouiiected  masses.    (Giwatl.v  niagiilfled.) 

ing  water.  They  may  be  laid  upon  end,  at- 
tached side  by  side  in  raft-shaped  masses,  as  in 
Culex  pipicits  and  as  in  the  genus  Uranotienia, 
or  they  may  be  laid  singly  on  their  sides,  as  in 
Anopheles,  Stegomyia  fasciata,  Psorophora,  and 
several  species  of  Culex.  They  may  also  be  laid 
upon  moist  earth  in  swampy  places,  as  with 
Culex  soUciluils,  or  upon  the  leaves  of  pitcher- 
plants,  as  with  ll'.i/fonii/m  Smithii,  hatching  in 
these  eases  when  water  eventually  reaches  them. 
The  eggs  of  some  species,  as  those  last  named 
and  f>li<jomi/iii  fasciata,  will  bear  desiccation; 
but  the  vitality  of  others,  as  those  of  Anopheles, 
is  destroyed  when  tliey  are  removed  from  the 
water  for  any  length  of  time.  The  egg  stage  is 
temporary  with  perhaps  the  majority  of  species, 
but  with"  others  it  is  much  longer,  and  may  be 
the  hibernating  stage  with  certain  forms.  The 
larva  is  an  active  and  voracious  little  creature, 
and  is  commonly  known  as  a  'wiggler'  or  "wrig- 


MOSQUITO. 


55 


MOSQUITO. 


gler.'  Its  life  as  a  rule  is  short,  and  with  the 
great  majnritj-  of  the  species  it  is  a  true  air- 
breather,  coming  to  tlie  surface  of  the  water  at 
fre<|unnt  inten-als  and  extruding  its  respiratory 
tube  in  order  to  suck  air  into  its  tracheae.  With 
at  least  one  species    (Wyeomyia  Smithii) ,  and 


EQG8  AND   LART.E. 

a.  a  *  raft  *  of  pgKs  of  the  cnmtnou  mosquito  (culex)  :  b, 
a  sinjcle  larva  ('  wigg-Ier ')  takiug  breath  at  the  surface  :  c, 
a  larva  (enlarged). 

perhaps  with  others,  the  anal  locomotory  flaps 
have  an  abundantly  branched  tracheal  supply, 
and  at  least  during  part  of  the  lanal  life  these 
Haps  function  as  air-gills,  rendering  it  possible 
for  the  larva  to  remain  below  the  surface  of  the 
water  for  a  prolonged  period  of  time.  The  food 
of  mosquito  larva;  is  most  variable.  They  swal- 
low all  sorts  of  minute  organisms  which  float 
upon  the  surface  or  are  held  in  suspension  in  the 
water.  The  larvie  of  Anopheles  feed  for  the 
greater  part  of  their  life  at  the  surface,  and  con- 
sequently ilevour  mainly  the  spores  of  alga; 
whi(?li  float  there.  Later  in  life  in  shallow  water 
they  descend  to  tlie  bottom  and  feed  upon  heavier 
objects.  The  larvte  of  Culex  feed  below  the  sur- 
face upon  small  organisms,  animal  and  vegetable, 
and  mineral  as  well,  which  are  held  in  suspen- 
sion. The  larvae  of  Psorophora  seem  largely 
carnivorous,  and,  on  account  of  their  large  size, 
are  able  to  overpower  and  to  devour  other  mos- 
quito larva;  and  other  aquatic  insects.  They  are 
even  cannibals,  and  will  feed  upon  small  indi- 
viduals of  their  own  kind.  All  mosquito  larvie 
are  very  active,  wriggling  quickly  through  the 
water  by  abrupt  and  rapid  bendiugs  of  the  body, 
aided  in  some  cases  by  long  lateral  hairs,  and 
especially  by  a  well-developed  group  of  flaps  at 
the  anal  end  of  the  body.  Food  is  brought  into 
the  mouth  by  the  active  movement  of  long  oral 
cilia.  In  many  forms  the  jaws  are  undeveloped, 
hut  in  some,  as  in  Psorophora,  they  are  well 
formed  and  adapted  for  piercing  and  tearing. 

The  pupa  is  also  active,  but  does  not  feed,  and 
possesses  no  mouth  parts.  As  a  rule  it  floats 
at  the  surface  of  the  water,  breathing  through 
two  respiratory  tubes  which  issue  from  the 
thorax — a  curious  change  from  the  respiratory 
tube  of  the  larva,  which  is  single  and  issues 
from  the  anal  end  of  the  abdomen.  Although 
generally  floating  at  the  surface,  the  pupa  when 
disturbed  rapidly  vanishes  below  the  surface  by 
energptic  movements  of  the  abdomen  and  of  the 
anal  flaps,  and  is  thus  enabled  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent to  avoid  the  attacks  of  fish  and  other  ene- 
mies. The  pupal  stage  is  usually  of  short  dura- 
tion, and  the  adult  issues  through  the  cracking 
of  the  skin  of  the  thorax.  With  many  mosquitoes 
there  are  several  generations  annually.  With 
Cnlfx  pipinis  and  Anophelen  tnnriilipriivis,  for 
example,  there  may  be  from  eight  to  twelve  such 


generations  in  a  long  summer.  With  other  spe- 
cies it  seems  reasonably  certain  that  the  life- 
duration  of  the  individual  is  much  greater,  and 
that  in  some  cases  there  may  be  but  a  single 
generation  each  year,  ilost  mosquitoes  hibernate 
as  adults,  stowing  themselves  away  in  protected 
places  at  the  beginning  of  cold  weather.  Other 
species  und<nil)tedly  hibernate  in  the  egg  stage, 
and  still  others  unquestionably  hibernate  as 
larva-,  readily  standing  extremes  of  temperature, 
and  even  emerging  in  good  condition  with  the 
warm  weather  of  spring  from  bloclvs  of  ice  in 
which  they  have  been  solidly  frozen. 

Agency  of  Mosquitoes  ix  C'.\rkiage  of  Dis- 
ease. Since  1808  mosquitoes  have  become  of 
vital  importance  to  the  human  race,  following 
the  discovery  that  they  are  secondary-  agents  in 
the  carriage  of  several  diseases  of  human  beings, 
notably  malaria  and  j-ellow  fever.  See  Insects, 
Propag.\tiox  of  Disease  by. 

Riddance  of  JIosquitoes.  The  naost  effective 
way  of  relieving  a  neighborhood  of  mosquitoes 
consists  in  abolishing  the  breeding  places.  All 
accunmlations  of  stagnant  water — and  these  are 
of  the  most  varied  and  frequently  inaccessible 
character — must  be  removed  wherever  it  is  pos- 
sible. Swampy  lands  should  be  drained:  hollows 
in  old  trees  and  stumps  should  be  filled  up ;  old 
cans  and  bottles  should  be  removed;  cesspools 
should  be  hermetically  sealed;  rain-water  bar- 
rels should  be  covered  with  fine  wire  gauze;  the 
roof-troughs  of  houses  should  be  frequently 
cleaned  out.  No  possible  supply  of  standing 
water  should  be  overlooked,  and  these  will  in 
many  eases  require  a  most  careful  and  ingenious 
search.  Where  mosquitoes  are  breeding  in 
troughs  or  large  cement  Ijasins  which  are  used 
for  watering  stock,  fish,  such  as  sunfish,  gold- 
fish, or  top  minnows  (qq.v.),  should  be  intro- 
duced. Where  other  ponds  exist  which  it  is  not 
possible  to  drain,  the  water  margins  should  be 
kept  clean  and  .sharp,  and  superabundant  vegeta- 
tion should  be  removed.  Sloreover,  if  the  fish 
supply  of  such  ponds  cannot  be  made  satisfactory, 
a  certain  amount  of  kerosene  placed  upon  the 
surface  of  the  water  will  quickly  destroy  mos- 
quito larv.ne.  This  kerosening  of  swamp  lands, 
where  drainage  is  impossible  or  very  expensive, 
is  often  a  temporaiy  remedy  of  great  value.  In 
malarial  regions  persons  may  be  protected  from 
the  bite  of  the  dangerous  and  annoying  mosqui- 
toes by  the  careful  screening  of  houses  and  by 
wearing  mosquito  veils  and  gloves  at  night  when 
obliged  to  be  out  of  doors.  Anopheles,  as  a  rule, 
bites  only  at  night.  By  this  method  the  Italian 
Government  has  gi-eatly  reduced  malaria  in  the 
black  belt  of  Italy.  By  protecting  healthy  per- 
sons and  malarial  patients  as  well,  and  by  the 
free  use  of  quinine  witli  tlie  patients,  the  general 
health  of  tlie  population  of  that  region  has 
greatly  improved.  The  Germans  in  East  Africa 
believe  that  they  can  wipe  out  malaria  by  sim- 
ply destroying  the  disease  with  medicine.  Ma- 
laria once  abolished  in  human  beings,  there  will 
be  none  for  the  mosquitoes  to  carry.  In  the 
United  States  extensive  work  has  been  done  in 
the  destruction  of  breeding  places  and  thus  re- 
ducing tlie  numbers  of  mosquitoes.  I'nder  such 
conditions  malaria  will  die  out.  In  Cuba,  aside 
from  protecting  the  early  yellow-fever  patients 
and  the  constant  use  of  mosquito  bars  in  hos- 
pitals,  yellow   fever   has   been  exterminated  by 


MOSQUITO. 


56 


MOSS. 


house-to-liouse  work  against  the  breeding  places 
of  tstegomyia,  this  work  being  carried  on  first 
by  the  medical  officers  of  the  United  States 
Army,  and  later  by  tlie  health  authorities  of  the 
Cuban  tiovernnient.  Jlosquitues,  as  a  rule,  may 
be  stupefied  by  burning  pyrethruni  powder  (Per- 
sian insect  powder).  Thej"  may  also  be  deterred 
from  biting  by  anointing  the  skin  with  oil  of 
eitronella. 

Consult:  Howard,  ilosquitoes  (New  York, 
1901)  ;  Ross,  Mosquito  Briyadvs  (London,  l'J02)  ; 
Theobald,  A  Monograph  of  the  CulicickE  of  the 
llorW  (ib.,  1901);  Celli,  Miliaria  (ib..  1900); 
Giles,  (jiiats  or  Mosquitoes  (2d  ed.,  ib..  1902)  ; 
North  Shore  Improvement  Association,  Report  on 
Mosquitoes  (New  York,  1902)  ;  Berkeley,  Labo- 
ratory Work  icith  Mosquitoes   (ib.,  1902). 

MOSQUITO,  mu.s-ke't6  (corruption  of  the 
native  naini'  Misslcito).  A  considerable  people 
apparently  made  up  of  several  tribes,  which 
occupies  that  portion  of  the  eastern  coast  of 
Nicaragua  known  from  them  as  ilosquitia  or  the 
Mosquito  Coast  (q.v.).  They  are  an  intelligent 
people,  short  in  stature,  and  usually  very  dark  in 
color.  This  latter  trait  is  said  to  be  due  in  jiart  to 
admixture  with  negro  blood  from  slavers  wrecked 
upon  their  coast.  They  number  about  GOOO  souls. 
Consult  Squier,  The  Stales  of  Central  America 
(2d  ed.,  New  Y"ork,  1858)  ;  and  (aiioiiymous) 
Waikna. 

MOSQUITO  BEE.  Any  one  of  several  of  the 
very  small,  stingless  trojjical  honey-bees  of  the 
genus  Melipona,  which  form  communities,  con- 
sisting at  times  of  countless  numbers.  They  are 
among  the  smallest  of  the  bees,  and  althougli  they 
do  not  sting,  all  the  essential  elements  of  the 
sting  are  present,  the  |)ointed  or  penetrating  part 
of  the  apparatus  being  stunted.  One  species 
(Trigifua  or  Melipona  mosqtiito)  sends  off 
swarms  after  the  manner  of  the  common  hive 
bee.  The  nests  abound  in  honey,  and  have  many 
enemies,  since  the  bees  cainiot  defend  themselves 
by  stinging.  The  nests,  however,  are  rich  in  de- 
vices for  protection  and  for  the  exclusion  of 
intruders.  Some  species  of  them  buiiil  their 
nests  in  completely  with  clay.     See  Bee. 

MOSQUITO  BLIGHT.  A  disease  of  the  tea 
plant  in  India  and  Ceylon,  caused  by  the  punc- 
tures of  several  of  the  species  of  the  genus 
Helopeltis  of  the  plant-bug  family  Capsidip.  The 
young  bugs  as  well  as  the  adults  feed  upon  the 
leaves  and  young  twigs  of  the  plant,  causing 
them  tci  wilt. 

MOSQUITO  COAST,  or  MosQirri.v.  The 
strip  of  territory  inhabited  by  the  Mosquito  In- 
dians on  the  eastern  coast  of  Central  America, 
stretching  along  the  Caril)bean  Sea  from  about 
latitude  10°  30'  N.  to  latitude  13'  and  extending 
about  40  miles  inland  (.Map:  Central  .\merica, 
F  4).  It  is  notable  diielly  for  the  fact  that  it 
was  for  a  time  the  subject  of  di|)Ioniatic  contro- 
versy between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain.  From  about  1005  to  1850  it  constituted 
a  protectorate  under  the  nominal  control  of  Great 
Britain,  during  which  time  various  attempts  were 
made  to  plant  colonies  (here,  but  only  with 
partial  success.  Buth  the  Central  .\merican  re- 
publics and  the  I'nited  States  ilenied  the  claim 
of  Great  Britain  to  a  protectorate  over  the  Mos- 
quito Coast,  the  latter  particularly  on  account  of 
the  contiguity  of  the  territory  to  the  proposed  in- 


ter-oceanic canal  which  the  United  States  wished 
to  construct  or  cause  to  be  constructed.  The 
seizure  in  1848  of  Greytown  (San  .Juan  del 
Norte),  au  important  commercial  port  at  the 
mouth  of  the  San  .Juan  Kiver,  in  Nicaragua, 
by  the  Jlosquito  Indians  with  the  aid  of 
England,  cau.sed  great  excitement  in  the  United 
States,  and  for  a  time  war  seemed  possible.  To 
avert  this  danger,  however,  and  to  obtain  a  basis 
for  a  uniform  jjolicy  of  abstention  frum  interfer- 
ence in  the  region  by  both  England  and  tlie 
United  States  with  a  view  to  securing  the  neu- 
trality of  the  i)roposed  canal,  the  Clayton-lhilwer 
Treaty  of  1850  was  concluded  between  the  two 
countries,  by  which  it  was  agreeil  that  neither 
party  would  occupy,  fortify,  colonize,  or  exercise 
dominion  over  the  Mosquito  Coast,  or  any  part 
of  Central  America.  By  a  treaty  of  November 
28,  1859.  with  Honduras,  tireat  Britain  ceded  to 
tluit  repul>lie  its  claim  to  the  protectorate  hither- 
to exercised  over  the  Jlosquito  Indians  and 
agreed  to  recognize  as  belonging  to  and  under  the 
sovereignly  of  Honduras  all  territory  occupied 
by  the  .said  Indians.  This  arrangement  was  very 
unsatisfactory  to  the  Indians  and  led  to  a  revolt 
among  tliem.  The  difficulty  was  finally  adjusted 
by  the  Treaty  of  JIanagua  between  Great  Britain 
and  Nicaragua  of  .lanuary  28,  ISIjO,  by  whicli  it 
was  .stipulated  tluit  Great  Britain  would  recog- 
nize the  sovereignty  of  Niearagiui  over  the  Mos- 
quito territory  lying  within  its  bounds;  that  a 
certain  district  should  be  assigned  to  the  In- 
dians; and  tliat  the  British  protectorate  should 
cease  within  three  months  after  the  exchange  of 
ratification.  A  dispute  having  arisen  between 
Nicaragua  and  the  Mosquito  nation  in  regard 
to  tlie  interpretation  of  tlie  treaty,  the  Emperor 
of  .\us(ria  was  re<|uested  to  decide  upon  the  true 
meaning  of  the  clauses  in  dispute,  which  he  did 
in  1880.  holding  that  the  sovereignty  of  Nica- 
ragua over  the  Indians  was  limited  liv  the  right 
of  self-government  conceded  to  them  by  the 
treaty.  From  that  time  onward  the  natives  en- 
joyed almost  complete  self-government.  By  an 
agreement  entered  into  between  Nicaragua  and 
the  Mosquito  Indians  in  1804  they  were  formally 
and  volimtarily  incorporated  into  the  Republic 
of  Nicaragua,  their  country  becoming  the  Depart- 
ment of  Velaya.  The  ))o])iilation  of  tlie  territory 
in  that  year  was  about  15.000.  Consult  Travis, 
CUniton'-Huhrrr  Trralij   (Ann  Arlior,  1893). 

MOSQUITO-HAWK.  The  name  of  several 
animals  which  dart  about  after  small  flying  in- 
sects, as   (1)    a  nightjar  or  'nighthawk';    (2)    a 

dragon-fly   (q.v.). 

MOSQUITO  LAGOON.  A  salt  water  lagoon 
on  the  eastern  coa.st  of  Florida,  United  States 
(Map:  Florida,  H  3).  It  is  a  continuation  of 
Halifax  Kiver.  and  extends  .30  miles  south  of 
Mosquito  Inlet  to  Haulover  Canal,  which  con- 
nects it  with  Indian  River.  It  has  an  average 
width  of  one  mile;  it  is  shallow,  and  navigation 
even  by  small  boats  is  impeded  by  coral  beds, 
sandbanks,  and  mangrove  swamps.  Ov-^fers  and 
fish  abound  in  its  waters.  \  strip  of  land  from 
a  half  mile  to  five  miles  wide  separates  the 
lagoon  from  the  ocean. 

MOSS.  mos.  .\  town  of  Southeastern  Norway, 
situated  on  the  east  shore  of  the  Christiania 
Fjord.  33  miles  south  of  Christiania.  on  the  rail- 
road between  the  capital  and  Frederikstad.     It 


MOSS.  57 

has  a  good  harbor  visited  by  steamers,  and  trades 
in  wood  and  preserves.  Population,  iu  I'JOO, 
8!)41.  In  1814  the  treaty  was  signed  at  Moss  by 
which  Norway  consented  to  a  union  with  Sweden. 

MOSS  (.MDutth,  Dutch,  OIIG.  mus,  Ger.  Moos, 
moss;  eonneeted  with  Lat.  inuscus,  OChurch 
Slav.  iiiUfliCi,  Lith.  miisai,  Welsh  mwswg,  moss). 
A  plant  belonging  to  the  group  Musci  (q.v. )  of 
the  bryopbytes   (q.v.). 

MOSS  AGATE.     See  Mocha  Stone. 

MOSSAMEDES,  mos-sil'mfi-dSs.  The  chief 
town  of  the  District  of  Mossamedes,  Portuguese 
West  Africa,  situated  on  the  Atlantic  coast  150 
miles  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Kunene  (Map: 
Africa,  F  li).  It  is  a  well-built  and  regularly 
laid  out  town,  with  a  fine  Government  building, 
church,  hospital,  and  a  fort.  The  harbor  is  excel- 
lent, and  equipped  with  an  iron  pier,  and  the 
trade  is  considerable.  The  chief  exports  are  rub- 
ber, cattle,  and  dried  fish.     Population,  4500. 

MOSS-ANIMALS.      See  Polyzoa. 

MOSSBUNKER  (from  Dutch  marshanker, 
probably  from  mars,  peddler's  pack,  or  possibly 
from  mas,  crowd  -\-  bank,  bank;  so  called  in 
allusion  to  the  appearance  of  the  fish  in  shoals ) . 
A  name  (heard  about  New  York  and  New  Jersey) 
for  the  menhaden  (q.v.).  It  is  said  by  Goode 
(Fishery  Industries,  Hec.  /.,  Washington.  1884) 
that  the  word  is  a  relic  of  the  early  Dutch,  who 
took  it  from  their  name  for  the  horse  mackerel 
of  Europe,  which  was  "marshbanker.'  It  has 
survived  in  some  localities  in  New  Jersey  in  its 
original  form,  but  is  more  usually  cut  down  and 
changed  to  'bunker'  about  New  York  and  Long 
Island  Sound. 

MOSSES  FROM  AN  OLD  MANSE.  A  col- 
lection of  tales  by  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  (1846). 
Many  of  his  famous  sketches  are  contained  in  it. 

MOSSLEY>  mos'Ii.  A  municipal  borough  in 
Lancashire,  England,  on  the  Tame,  three  miles 
southeast  of  Oldham  (Map:  England,  D  .3) .  Its 
importance  dates  from  1840,  when  there  were 
established  cotton  and  woolen  factories,  mill 
works,  and  foundries.  The  town  hall  is  a  hand- 
some structure.  The  municipality  owns  its  mar- 
kets and  its  gas  works,  and  maintains  recreation 
grounds.    Population,  in  1901,  1.3,450. 

MOSSO,  m6s's6,  Angelo  (1846—).  An  Ital- 
ian physiologist.  He  was  born  at  Turin,  studied 
medicine  there,  at  Florence,  Leipzig,  and  Paris, 
and  in  1870  w'as  appointed  professor  of  physi- 
ology at  Tvirin.  He  invented  various  instruments 
to  measure  the  pulse,  and  experimented  and 
wrote  upon  the  variation  in  the  volume  of  the 
piilsp  during  sleep,  mental  activitv.  or  emotion. 
In  1900-01  he  visited  the  United  States  and  em- 
bodied the  results  of  his  observations  in  Demn- 
cra^ia  nella  religione  e  neUn  srien::a  (1901). 
Among  his  other  works  are:  Die  Diagnosfik  des 
Pulses  (1879):  l^uVa  pnura  (1884.  trans,  into 
German  and  French)  ;  Die  Temperatur  des  Ge- 
liirns  (1894)  ;  and  Der  !\[enseh  anf  den  Hoeh- 
alprn   (1898). 

MOSS  PINK.    A  flowering  plant.    See  Pjii.ox. 

MOSS  SIDE.  A  manufacturing  town  in  Lan- 
cashire. England.  I'G  miles  southwest  of  Man- 
chester (Map:  England,  D  3).  It  is  provided 
with  !ias.  electric  lightiiig.  and  water  by  the 
Manchester  corporation.  The  town  owns  its 
tramways    and    slaughter-houses,    maintains     a 


MOSTELLARIA. 


free  library,  and  provides  for  technical  educa- 
tion. Population,  in  1891,  23,800;  in  1901,26,700. 
MOST,  JoiiANN  Joseph  ( 1840—  ) .  A  German- 
American  anarchist,  born  at  Augsburg  in  Ba 
varia.  lie  learned  the  trade  of  bookbinding,  and 
in  1863-68  traveled  as  an  apprentice  through 
Germany,  Austria,  Italy,  and  Switzcrbind.  On 
his  return  to  Germany  he  was  first  a  socialist 
writer  at  Mainz  and  afterwards  editor  of  tlie 
Frcie  Presse  in  Berlin.  He  was  several  times 
arrested  and  imprisoned  because  of  the  violence 
of  his  writings.  From  1874  to  1878  he  was 
a  representative  of  Chemnitz  in  the  Imperial 
Reichstag,  but  in  the  latter  year,  having  been 
expelled  from  the  socialist  organization,  he  went 
to  London,  where  in  1879  he  founded  the  anarch- 
ist organ  Die  Frcilieit.  In  1881  he  was  there 
arrested  for  printing  editorials  approving  the 
assassination  of  Czar  Alexander  II.  and  sentenced 
to  eighteen  months'  imprisonment.  Upon  his  re- 
lease he  emigrated  to  New  York,  where  he  re- 
sumed the  publication  of  his  paper.  In  1886, 
and  again  in  1887,  he  was  imprisoned  for  incit- 
ing to  violence.  During  the  following  years  he 
continued  to  publish  his  paper,  lectured,  and 
wrote  frequently  in  the  interests  of  anarchy. 
.\fter  President  McKinley's  assassination,  in 
1001,  he  was  arrested  for  publishing  a  .seditious 
editorial  in  Die  Freilieit,  and  was  sentenced  to 
one  year's  imprisonment.  He  was  sent  to  the 
New  York  penitentiary  in  June,  1902.  Among 
Most's  publications  are:  Der  Kleinbiirger  und  die 
Socinldemokratie ( 1876)  ;  Die  Liisiing  der  soeialen 
Fra(ie  (1876);  Mosts  Proletarier-JAcderhuch 
(1875)  ;  Why  I  Am  a  Communist  (1890)  ;  and 
Down  with  the  An^archi-sts!  (1901),  a  pamphlet 
published  in  order  to  prove  that  the  aims  of 
anarchy  are  pacific. 

MOSTAGANEM,  mos'ta-ga-nem'.  A  fortified 
seaport  of  Western  Algeria,  in  the  Department  of 
Oran,  situated  on  a  steep  cliff  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast  45  miles  east  of  Oran  (Map:  Africa, 
El).  It  has  flour  mills  and  tanneries,  and  an 
active  trade  in  wool,  skins,  and  horses.  It  is  con- 
nected by  a  branch  road  with  the  railroad  from 
Oran  to  Algiers.  Population,  in  1901.  17.485; 
of  commune.  18,090.  Mostaganem  was  a  large 
and  important  trade  centre  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, but  later  fell  into  decay.  It  has  again 
jirospered  since  its  capture  by  the  French  in 
1833. 

MOSTAR,  mos'tiir.  The  largest  town  and 
former  capital  of  Herzegovina  (q.v.),  situated 
on  the  Narenta  about  50  miles  southwest  of 
Serajevo,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail 
(Map:  Austria-Hungary,  E  5).  It  has  a  number 
of  modern  buildings,  but  is  essentially  Oriental 
in  appearance,  with  its  numerous  mosques, 
bazaars,  and  Turkish  shops.  There  are  a  fine 
Greek  cathedral,  a  higher  gymnasium,  and  a 
number  of  trade  schools.  Tobacco  and  arms  are 
the  chief  products.  Mostar  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  and  a  Greek  bishop,  as  well  as  of  a 
mufti,  and  has  a  strong  garrison.  Population, 
in  1895,  17,020,  including  over  7000  Mohamme- 
dans. 

MOS'TELLA'RIA  (Lat..  ghost).  An  enter- 
taining comedy  of  a  haunted  house,  by  Plautus, 
which  appears  to  have  been  adapted  from  the 
Phnsmn  of  Philemon.  The  plot  is  ingenious  and 
the  characters  are  well  drawn. 


MOSUL. 


38 


MOTHER  CAREY'S  CHICKEN. 


MOSUL,  m.Vsool'.  Tlie  capital  of  tlie  Vilayet 
of  -Mcisul,  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  Tigris,  opposite 
the  ruius  of  ancient  Nineveh  (q.v.),  and  220 
miles  by  river  northwest  of  Bagdad  (Map:  Tur- 
kej'  in  Asia,  K  4).  It  is  surrounded  liy  walls 
now  almost  in  ruins.  Of  the  ancient  buildings 
only  the  Great  Jlosque  remains.  Mosul  is  the 
seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  mission,  Dominican 
schools,  and  French  and  Russian  consuls.  Its 
trade,  formerly  much  fireater,  is  now  confined  to 
cotton,  hides,  wax,  nuts,  gum,  and  wool,  all  car- 
ried chii'Uy  b\  caravans.  The  principal  causes 
of  its  diminished  importance  were  the  rise  of 
Abushehr  (q.v.)  as  an  emporium  of  trade,  and 
the  diveision  of  tratlic  by  tlie  Suez  Canal.  Popu- 
lation, about  55,000,  chiefly  Arabs,  but  compris- 
ing also  Kurds.  Turks.  Armenians,  Christians, 
and  .Jews.  Mo.sul  was  an  old  Arabic  town,  taken 
by  the  Moslems  in  G3G.  It  was  besieged  by 
Saladin  in  1182.  and  was  successively  under  Mon- 
gol. IVrsian.  and  Turkish  sway.  In  the  twelfth 
century  it  was  very  important,  and  for  a  time 
supplied  Europe  with  its  manufactures,  especially 
muslins,  which  probably  got  their  name  from 
this  town. 

MOSZKOWSKI,  mosh-ki">f'skc-,  :MoniTZ  (1854 
— ).  A  Polish  composer  and  pianist,  born  at 
Breslau.  lie  studied  at  the  Dresden  Conserva- 
torv  and  in  Berlin.  At  nineteen  years  of  age  he 
made  his  debut  as  a  piano  virtuoso,  and  after  suc- 
cessful tours  throughout  the  principal  European 
countries  settled  in  Berlin,  in  which  city  he  sub- 
sequently made  his  headquarters,  although  after 
18!>7  he  Ijecame  almost  entirely  identilied  with 
the  musical  life  of  Paris.  The  best  known  of  his 
works  is  Spanish  Dmtccs,  which  nowhere  met 
with  greater  success  than  in  America,  and  which 
may  be  said  to  have  introduced  him  to  the  world 
at  large;  he  also  wrote  many  pieces  for  piano- 
forte, chamber  music. concert  studies. and  waltzes. 
Among  the  larger  works  are:  lioahrlil  drr 
Mauri  ttknnip  (1802)  :  incidental  music  to 
Grabbc"s  Don  Juan  und  I'liiist  (1890);  a  sym- 
phonic poem,  Jeanne  d'Arc;  overtures,  and  con- 
cert suites. 

MOTAZILITES,  mA-til'zilits.  Pee  Mittazt- 
LiTKs :    Mou.\MMrn.\s   Sects. 

MOTET'  (from  It.  motetto,  diminutive  of 
motio,  word,  from  AFL.  inultum,  word,  grunt, 
from  Lat.  tnutlirc,  miitirr,  to  mutter).  .\  sacred 
vocal  composition  without  instrumental  accom- 
paniment, in  polyphonic  style.  As  a  rule  the 
text  of  motets  is  Latin;  but  there  are  also  motets 
with  tJerman.  Italian,  and  Enudisli  words.  .M- 
though  the  a  capclla  style  is  the  ride,  it  was  not 
always  followed.  Es|)ecially  during  the  first 
half  of  the  seventeenth  centun,'.  which  witnessed 
the  beginnings  of  instnimental  music,  it  was  not 
unusual  to  add  a  basso  rontinuo.  or  even  a 
number  of  violin  parts.  Tn  some  instances  we 
find  even  motets  for  a  solo  voice  with  instrn- 
mentnl  accninpaniment.  Tlie  motet  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  nnthrm  (q.v.),  in  which  lat- 
ter form  homophoiiii  (q.v,)  is  always  employed. 
The  form  of  the  motet  is  very  old  and  has  under- 
gone many  changes  with  the  various  styles  of 
music.  The  oldest  motets  were  constructed  on  a 
cantus  firmus  (q,v,).  From  the  Ars  rantti.i  mrn- 
tarabilis  of  Franko  of  Cologne  we  learn  that  a 
motet  had  tiro  diffrrrni  texts  in  the  alto  and 
tenor  parts,     .T.  S,   Bach,  in  his  motets,  substi- 


tutes   the    Protestant    chorale    for    the    cantus 
/irnius. 

MOTH  (AS.  mo],e  Ger.  Motte,  moth;  per- 
haps connected  with  Goth,  mapa,  OHG.  mado, 
Ger.  Made,  AS.  mappu,  maTpu,  Eiig.  mud,  made, 
maggot,  grub).  An  insect  of  an  indefinable  sec- 
tion of  the  Lepidoptera  (q.v.),  separated  from 
butterllies  by  superficial  features  and  habits.  Xo 
scientilic  distinction  exists  between  these  two, 
and  tlie  terms  Rhopalocera  for  the  former  and 
Heteroccra  for  the  moths  have  been  abandoned 
in  taxonomy.  Moths  as  a  rule  are  nocturnal, 
while  butterllies,  a.s  a  rule,  lly  by  day.  Jlotlis 
rest  in  most  cases  with  the  wing  horizontally 
disposed,  while  butterllies  hold  them  erect,  dis- 
playing the  under  surface.  The  autenmc  of 
moths  aie  likely  to  be  feathery  in  shajK?,  while 
those  of  butterflies  are  thread-like,  swollen  to- 
ward the  end  into  a  'club-head,'  The  nearest  to 
a  structural  division  is  made  by  the  fact  that  all 
so-called  moths  have  a  jugum,  or  'hook  and  eye,' 
upon  the  fore  wing  by  which  these  wings  arc  held 
together  in  (light,  while  sucli  a  structure  is  ab- 
sent from  the  buttertlies.  (See  Butterfi.ies  .\nd 
•  Moths.)  All  but  four  families  of  Lepidoptera. 
and  by  far  the  greater  number  of  species  and  in- 
dividu;ils,  are  moths.  They  are,  however,  less 
conspicuous  than  their  relatives,  on  account  of 
their  generally  smaller  size  and  inconspicuous 
hues,  but  mainly  because  of  their  nocturnal 
habits.  They  are  of  more  importance,  too.  in 
their  relations  with  mankind  than  the  orna- 
mental butterllies,  which  do  comparatively  little 
either  of  harm  or  good  beyond  tlie  delight  their 
beauty  atTords.  The  moths,  on  the  contrary,  sup- 
ply the  useful  proiluct  silk,  cm  the  one  hand,  and 
on  the  other  furnish  a  great  variety  of  species, 
which,  especially  in  the  larval  stage,  do  enor- 
mous damage  to  growing  crops  and  fruit,  as  well 
as  to  stored  grain  and  food-stufTs,  and  to  a  long 
list  of  materials,  in  both  their  raw  and  manufac- 
tured states.  The  accompanying  colored  plate 
represents  moths  of  various  families,  and  e.K- 
hibits  the  form  and  style  of  coloration  assumed. 
The  species  figured  are  described  elsewhere.     See 

BrTTKKFLIIr:S   AND   MoTHS. 

MOTH,  BROwx-TArLED.  A  name  given  in  Eng- 
land and  New  England  to  the  European  moth. 
liuproctis  chrysorrliwa.  The  moth  is  white  in 
color  with  a  brown  tip  to  the  abdomen.  Its 
larva  feeds  on  a  great  variety  of  trees,  and  is 
gradually  spreading  in  New  England,  The  best 
remedy  i>  to  burn  thelarvivcasesduringthe  winter, 

MOTHER  ANN.  .\  name  given  to  Ann  Lee 
(q.v.).  the  fuundcr  of  the  Shakers. 

MOTHER  BUNCH.  A  nickname  given  by 
Tuccft  to  Mistress  Miniver,  the  ale-wife,  in 
Dckker's  f<nt!roniastix  (1002).  The  name  was 
applie<l  later  to  makers  of  jokes,  as  in  Pasquil's 
Jests.  Mixed  irith  Mother  Hunch's  Merriments 
(lOnt);  and  in  Mather  Hunch's  Closet  yetcly 
liriiUe  (),»n    (1700). 

MOTHER  CAREY'S  CHICKEN  (possibly 
corrupted  from  L.nt.  nuiler  cnra.  dear  motlu'r,  in 
allusion  to  the  Virgin  Mary).  \  name  familiar- 
ly given  by  sailors  to  the  stormy  petrel  and  other 
small  black  and  white  species  of  petrel.  The 
name  'Mother  Carey's  goose.'  or  hen.  is  in  like 
manner  given  to  the  great  black  petrel  or  'bone- 
brejiker'  iOssifrnfin  riifjnntea)  of  the  Pacific 
Ctcean,  which  is  a  ravenous  feeder  on  dead  whales 


MOTHS-AMERICAN 


CO'*i'RIGKT.  1902,01  00  00,  MEAD  I 

1  SALT-  MARSH    CATERPILLAR     MOTH     ~    LE  U  CARCTI  A  ACR;E  A 

2  HUMMING-BIRO     MOTH     -     HEMARIS    THYSBE 

3  ARGE     MOTH     -      ARCTIA    ARGE 

■^     PEARL    WOOD-NYMPH     -      EUDRYAS    UNlO 

9     TOBACCO-  BUD      MOTH 


5  PANDORUS     SPHINX-     PHILAMPELUS     PANDORUS 

6  TIGER    MOTH    -  ARCTIA   NAlS 

7  MELON    CATERPILLAR    MOTH     -    M  AR  GARO  N  I A  HVALI  N  ATA 
a     STRIPED     FOOTMAN     -     HYPOPREPIA    M  I  N 1  ATA 

-    H  ELI  OTHIS     RHEXI^ 


ALL    NATURAL   SIZE 


MOTHER  CAREY'S  CHICKEN. 


59 


MOTILON. 


ami  other  animal  garbage,  and  also  preys  upon 
other  seabinls.     See  Petkel. 

MOTHER  GOOSE.  The  supposed  author  of 
the  laiiiiliar  luiisury  rliymcs  known  as  Mother 
Goose's  Melodies.  A  baseless  claim  that  the 
name  originated  in  Boston  was  made  on  behalf 
of  Elizal)eth  Goose,  whose  rliymes  were  printed 
by  her  sonin-law,  Thomas  Fleet,  as  l^ont/s  for  the 
Niirseri/;  or,  Mother  f/oosc's  Melodies  (iJoston, 
1719).  The  title  appears  to  have  come  from 
France,  where  ()ueen  (ioosefoot,  or  Bertlia  an 
Grand  Pied,  the  mother  of  Charlemagne,  was  re- 
garded as  the  s])ecial  patron  of  ehildren,  and  her 
festival,  January  2d,  is  celebrated.  The  most 
definite  source  is  Charles  Perrault's  Contcs  de 
ma  mere  I'Oi/e  (KiOT),  containing  ten  stories, 
seven  of  which  are  from  the  I'entumerone.  It 
was  translated  by  Robert  Samher  in  172fl. 
Mother  Goose's  Melodies  were  printed  in  Lonchm 
by  .Jolin  Xewbcry  in  1760.  Tliough  the  title  is 
probably  of  French  origin,  the  songs  are  Englisli, 
some  belonging  to  the  time  of  Shakespeare  and 
earlier. 

MOTHER  GOOSE  TALES.  See  NrRSERY 
Lobe. 

MOTHER  HUBBARD'S  TALE,  or  Prosopo- 
POIA.  A  metrical  composition  by  Edmund 
Spenser  (1591),  written  in  his  youth.  It  is 
a  satire  on  Court  follies,  under  the  guise  of  a 
story  of  a  fox  and  an  ape  masquerading  as  a 
soldier  and  his  servant.  It  purports  to  have  been 
told  to  the  poet  by  Mother  Hubbard. 

MOTHER-OF-PEARL.  The  shells  of  the 
large  marine  bivalve  mollusks  Avicula  [Melea- 
grinu)  inargariiifera,  Aiieula  macropteru,  and 
Avicula  fuenia,  which  ahso  produce  the  precious 
pearls.  (See  Pearl.)  These  shells  are  collected 
in  the  tropical  seas,  chiefly  on  the  coast  of 
Ceylon,  Manila,  Cuba,  Panama,  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia, and  the  South  Sea  Islands.  In  1865 
extensive  fisliing  grounds  were  found  on  the  north- 
west coast  of  Australia.  The  shells  from  Panama 
are  small  and  thick  and  are  known  in  commerce 
as  bullock  shells.  Those  from  Manila  and 
Au,stralia  are  finest  in  quality ;  they  are  disk- 
shaped  and  (jften  as  much  as  a  foot  in  diameter. 
There  are  two  varieties,  the  white,  or  silver- 
lipped,  and  the  black-lipped.  The  mother-of-pearl 
or  nacre  of  commerce  is  really  the  inner  portion 
or  lining  of  the  shell,  which  the  oyster  secretes 
in  successive  layers  of  filmy  thinness  and  mar- 
velous smoothness  of  surface.  Some  fine  mother- 
of-pearl  is  also  produced  in  inland  waters, 
chiefly'  in  the  rivers  of  China,  Germiiny,  and 
Russia.  Recently  the  shells  of  a  kindred  Missis- 
sippi River  mollusk  have  been  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  pearl  buttons.  See  Button;  Pearl 
Oyster. 

MOTHER  OF  PRESIDENTS.  A  name  fre- 
quently given  to  the  State  of  Virginia,  which 
has  furnished  more  Presidents  to  the  Union  than 
any  other  State.  The  following  seven  were  born 
there:  George  Washington.  Thomas  .Jefferson. 
Tames  Madison.  .Tames  Monroe.  William  H.  Har- 
ri-son,  Zaohary  Taylor,  and  .John  Tyler.  See 
St.vtes,  Popular  Names  of. 

MOTHER  OF  STATES.  A  name  given  to 
Virginia  as  the  oldest  of  the  thirteen  .\nierlcan 
oolonies.  and  because  its  original  territory  was 
formed  into  a  number  of  States — West  Virginia, 
Kentucky,  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  Indiana. 
Vol.  xn.— 5. 


MOTHER  SHIPTON'S  PROPHECIES.     A 

series  of  foretellings  of  events  purporting  to  iiave 
originally  been  told  by  a  woman  named  Agatha 
or  Ursula  Shipton,  of  Yorkshire,  between  1486 
and  1561.  They  appeared  in  chap-books  or 
pamphlets,  the  earliest  known  of  which  was 
printed  in  1641,  and  were  continued  until  recent 
times.  Charles  Hindley  wrote  some  propheciea 
purporting  to  have  dated  from  1448.  It  has 
been  suttgested  that  Mother  Shipton  was  Master 
William  Lilly,  an  astrologer,   1602-1G81. 

MOTHERWELL,  muTii'er-wel.  A  police 
burgh  and  manut'acturing  town  in  Lanarkshire, 
Scotland,  12  miles  southeast  of  Glasgow  (Map: 
Scotland,  E  4).  Its  growth  and  importance  are 
due  to  its  iron  and  steel  works  and  its  neighbor- 
ing collieries.  It  has  fine  municipal  buildings, 
owns  its  water-works,  and  maintains  a  public 
park,  etc.  Population,  in  1841.  726;  in  1901, 
.30,423. 

MOTHERWELL,  William  (1797-18,35).  A 
Scotch  poet,  born  and  educated  in  Glasgow.  Hia 
first  appearance  in  print  was  as  editor  of  a 
volume  of  local  poems  (1819).  His  Minstrelsy 
Ancient  and  Modern  (1827)  won  him  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Scott.  With  Hogg.  too.  Mother- 
well was  on  friendlj'  terms,  and  in  1835  the  two 
prepared  an  edition  of  Burns's  poems.  Mother- 
well died  of  apoplexy  in  the  same  year,  overcome 
by  the  strain  of  testifying  before  a  Parliamentary 
committee  on  Orangeism.  In  his  Poems,  \nrra- 
tive  and  Li/rical  (1832),  he  utilizes  Scotch  and 
Norse  mythology  and  occasionally  shows  some 
lyric  power,  as  in  the  well-known  ".leanie  Morri- 
son." which  tradition  says  was  planned  when  he 
was  only  fourteen. 

MOTH-FLY.  Any  one  of  the  true  flies  of  the 
family  Psychodidoe — ver.y  small,  weak  flies  which 
look  like  little  moths  and  are  frequently  found 
upon  windows  and  upon  the  under  surfaces  of 
leaves.  They  have  broad  wings,  rather  thick 
antenuEE,  and  are  densely  clothed  with  hairs, 
even  the  surface  of  the  wings  being  hairy.  Tliese 
are  the  only  true  flies,  except  true  mosquitoes, 
which  have  hairs  or  scales  on  the  wings.  In 
the  arrangement  of  the  wing-veins  these  flies 
differ  from  all  other  Diptera.  and  probably  repre- 
sent the  most  generalized  type  in  this  order  of 
insects.  They  differ  greatly  in  larval  habits: 
some  live  in  rapidly  running  water,  others  on 
fallen  leaves  in  small  pools,  others  are  found  in 
rotten  potatoes,  while  some  live  in  dry  cowdung. 
The  larvae  have  both  tracheal  gills  and  open 
spiracles,  so  that  theoretically  they  can  breathe 
both  air  and  the  oxygen  of  the  water.  The  fam- 
ily has  a  wide  distribution,  but  only  about  20 
species  are  known  in  the  United  States. 

MOTH-HUNTER.  A  bird,  the  nightjar 
(q.v.). 

M0TIL6n,  mo't*-lon'  (Sp.,  Cut-haired).  A 
fierce  tribe  of  Cariban  stock  (q.v.).  inhabiting 
the  mountains  known  as  the  Painted  Andes, 
about  Ocana,  in  Northeastern  Colombia.  They 
were  conquered  in  the  early  Spanish  period  and 
colonized  in  the  lowlands  under  supervision  of 
missionaries,  but  on  the  outbreak  of  a  smallpox 
epidemic  they  were  compelled  to  cut  their  hair 
to  cool  the  fever,  ami  were  otherwise  subjected  to 
such  sanitary  regimen  that  they  rebelled  and 
fled  to  the  mountains.  They  were  fvigitives  for 
half  a  vear.  but  returned  on  the  subsidence  of  the 


MOTILON. 


60 


MOTLEY. 


epidemic.  On  a  itcurreuce  of  the  epidemic  some 
years  later  tlie  Indians  again  tied  to  the  moun- 
tains, where  they  have  since  remained.  For 
nearly  two  centuries  they  have  been  distinguished 
for  their  aggressive  and  untamable  hostility  to 
the  whites,  so  that  very  little  is  definitely  known 
of  them.     See  Yameo. 

MOTION.     See  Mechanics. 

MOTION  (Lat.  motio,  from  moiere,  to  move, 
Skt.  wir,  to  push).  In  law,  an  application  to  a 
court  to  obtain  a  direction,  or  order,  as  it  is 
termed,  in  relation  to  some  question  or  matter 
incidental  or  collateral  to  the  main  issues  of  the 
■action.  Generally,  motions  rai.se  questions  of 
both  law  and  fact,  and  it  often  becomes  a  serious 
question  as  to  whether  a  matter  can  be  decided 
by  the  court  on  motion  or  wliether  there  is 
such  a  controversy  as  will  entitle  the  party 
against  whom  the  relief  is  sought  to  a  trial. 
A  motion  difi'ers  from  a  trial,  which  is  the 
method  of  determining  the  substantive  rights 
of  the  parties  to  an  action  on  the  main  issues 
raised  by  the  pleadings,  wliereas  a  motion  is  usu- 
ally made  to  expedite  the  progress  of  the  cause, 
or  for  summary  relief  preliminary  to  the  trial  of 
an  action,  and  cannot  bring  up  the  entire  merits 
of  the  action,  and  is  based  upon  affidavits  and 
other  documents. 

Where  tlicre  is  a  question  to  be  deci<led  by  the 
court  on  wliich  the  parties  may  reasonably  diller, 
the  motion  can  only  be  made  after  due  notice 
to  the  opposite  party.  Generally  any  |)erson 
interested  in  the  subject-matter  of  an  action  is 
entitled  to  make  a  motion  to  protect  his  inter- 
ests therein,  whether  he  is  a  party  to  it  or  not. 
See  articles  Affidavit;  Decree;  Judgment; 
Trial. 

MOTION  (in  Music).  The  progression  of  the 
variiius  v(]iees  or  parts  in  a  composition.  Two 
voices  proceed  in  contrary  motion  when  one  as- 
cends, the  other  descends:  in  parallel  mulion 
when  both  ascend  or  descend;  in  ohlirjiie  motion 
when  one  remains  on  the  same  tone  while  the 
other  proceeds  either  ascending  or  descending. 
In  compositions  for  tliree  or  more  voices  all 
three  kinds  of  motion  may  appear  simultaneous- 
ly. Progression  of  voices  in  fiurallel  motion  re- 
quires the  greatest  care  because  it  is  here  that 
faulty  progressions  ( fifths,  octaves)  appear.  For 
this  reason  the  beginner  would  do  well  to  lead  the 
soprano  and  bass  in  contrarti  motion  whenever 
possible.  For  examples  of  the  ditTercnt  kinds  of 
motion,  .see  Ex.  l.'{.  under  Harmony. 

In  respect  to  the  tones  of  a  single  part  a  dis- 
tinction is  made  between  conjunct  and  disjunct 
motion.  In  the  former  case  the  notes  proceed 
either  by  steps  or  semisteps:  in  the"  latter  by 
intervals  greater  than  a  whole  step.  The  fol- 
lowing two  examples  from  Beethoven  illustrate 
this: 


MOTIONS.  A  name  given  to  a  kind  of 
pu[i|iet  shows,  especially  ilhistrating  Scriptural 
stories.  Motion.s  throve  in  Kngland  in  the  fif- 
teenth century. 


MOTIVE  (ML.  molicus,  moving,  from  mo- 
n  ii\  to  move) .  In  psychology,  a  general  term  for 
the  conscious  conditions  of  action  (q.v.).  As 
these  conditions  include  always  processes  of  two 
kinds,  sensory  and  atl'ective,  the  motive  falls  into 
two  parts:  the  indueemeiil.  the  sensory  or  'intel- 
lectual' process,  the  "reason"  for  action ;  and 
the  incentive,  the  ailective  process  which  prompts 
to  it.  Thus  a  thief  is  induced  to  steal  by  tiie 
sight  of  the  unguarded  loaf:  the  incentive  to  his 
theft  is  the  unplea.sant  feeling  of  hunger.  The 
typical  motive  to  action  is  the  impulse  (q.v.). 
See  .\cTiox. 

MOTIVE.  In  music,  the  original  germ  from 
Avhich  all  musical  form  is  evolved.  A  motive 
generally  fills  one  measure,  and  two  motives  con- 
stitute the  section.  (See  Form.)  The  simplest 
form  of  motive  is  the  rhiithmic  motive  considered 
apart  from  the  melodic  and  harmonic  progres- 
sions, in  conjunction  with  which  it  generally  oc- 
curs. Thus  the  rhythmic  motives  underlying  the 
principal  subject  of  Beethoven's  Symphony  in  A 
major  is : 


and  the  romplctr    (rhj'thmic,  melodic,  harmonic 
combined)   motive  is: 


However,  there  are  also  purely  rhythmical 
motives  which  are  set  against  other  complete 
motives.  A  famous  exami)le  is  furnished  in  Bee- 
thoven's C  minor  Symphony,  where  the  rhythmic 
motive  of  the  principal  subject  is  sounded  on 
the  basses  against  the  secondary  subject  of  the 
violins.  In  a  wider  sense  the  term  motire  is 
used  almo.st  .synonymously  with  theme.  In  the 
use  of  this  term  musical  terminology'  is  very  care- 
less, for  motive  more  frequently  is  applied  when 
theme  or  subject  sliould  be  used.  Hence,  in 
theoretical  works  the  word  tncasure-molirc  is 
adopted  to  denote  the  simplest  form  as  explained 
above.  The  leading  motires  in  Wagner's  works 
should   properly  be  called   leading   themes.     See 

I.EIT.MOTIV. 

M0T1,EY,  .TonN  Lothrop  (1814-77).  An 
eminent  American  historian,  horn  in  Dorchester, 
Mass..  April  1.').  ISl  t.  He  entered  Harvard  Col- 
lege at  the  age  of  thirteen,  and  was  graduated  in 
the  class  of  I8;H.  The  two  years  following  he 
spent  in  Germany  at  the  universities  of  OJittingen 
and  Berlin,  and  here  he  formed  an  intimate  per- 
sonal friendship  with  Bismarck,  which  continued 
till  his  death.  On  his  return  he  studied  law.  He 
was  married,  in  lS37.toMiss  Mary  Benjamin,  of 
Boston,  ^(otlcy's  first  venture  in  literature  was 
a  story  entitled  Morton's  Hope  (1S30).  a  very 
unsuccessful  historical-romantic  novel.  In  1841 
he  was  made  secrclary  of  the  American  I.eg.ntion 
at  Saint  Petersburg,  but.  owing  to  the  severity 
of  the  climate  and  his  regret  at  being  separated 
from  his  family,  he  .soon  resigned.  His  first 
work  revealing  his  real  power  was  a  review  of  a 
memoir  of  Peter  the  Great,  which  he  wrote  for 
the  \orth  Amrriean  llerieir  in  184.5.  Two  years 
later  he  published  in  the  sami-  periodical  a 
scholarly  article  on  Balzac,  and  in  1849.  for  the 
same  organ,  a   review  of  Talvi's   Clesehiehir  der 


MOTLEY.  61 

Colonisation  von  yen  England,  a  paper  show- 
ing accurate  knowledge  of  the  historj-  of  New 
England  and  of  tlie  Puritan  movement,  and  dis- 
playing philosophical  insight.  The  same  year 
saw  the  appearance  of  his  ilerry-ilount,  an  his- 
torical novel  dealing  with  an  episode  in  the  early 
life  of  the  Massachusetts  Colony. 

With  this  novel,  and  with  an  unsuccessful  term 
in  the  Massachusetts  Legislature,  ended  what 
may  be  called  Motley's  experimental  period.  He 
saw  the  true  path  for  his  genius  to  follow,  and 
he  was  seized  with  the  desire  to  write,  to  cite  his 
own  words,  "one  particular  history,'  that  of  the 
Dutch.  Having  obtained  the  approbation  of  the 
historian  W.  H.  Preseott,  on  whose  territory  he 
feared  he  might  be  trespassing,  he  began  to  gather 
material  in  America,  and  in  1851  he  set  sail  for 
Holland  to  continue  his  researches.  In  1856  ap- 
peared the  History  of  the  A'ise  of  the  Dutch  He- 
public,  a  work  in  three  volumes,  published  at  his 
own  expense.  The  same  year  ilotley  returned  to 
Boston,  where  he  remained  about  a  year:  then  he 
went  to  England  in  1S5S.  Here  he  received  the 
degree  of  D.C'.L.  from  Oxford,  and  in  1860  he 
published  the  first  two  volumes  of  his  Bistory  of 
the  I'nited  yetherlands.  In  England  he  did  his 
country  good  service  by  sending  (1861)  to  the 
London  Times  two  letters  on  the  causes  of  the 
American  Civil  War.  which  helped  to  dissipate 
the  British  misunderstanding  of  American  affairs. 
In  1861  he  was  appointed  Minister  to  Austria, 
and  in  Vienna  he  served  the  United  States  faith- 
fully and  with  tact,  until  misimderstanding  and 
calumny  caused  him  to  resign  in  1867.  In  1868 
appeared  the  last  two  volumes  of  the  Bistory  of 
the  United  Xetherlands.  a  book  which  sustained 
the  high  reputation  of  his  earlier  work  and  its 
own  earlier  volumes. 

President  Grant,  on  his  election,  appointed 
Alotley  Minister  to  England,  but  he  recalled  him 
in  November  of  the  following  year  (1870).  for 
what  appear  to  have  been  unsatisfactory  reasons. 
Motley  then  retired  to  private  life,  and  began  work 
on  the  last  of  his  histories.  This  was  The  Life 
and  Death  of  John  of  Barneicld.  Advocate  of 
Holland;  with  a  View  of  the  Primary  Causes  and 
Movements  of  the  Thirty  years'  War  (1874), 
which,  in  two  volumes,  virtually  completed  his 
plan  of  the  history  of  Holland  and  the  Dutch. 
It  was  his  last  work.  He  had  suffered  an  in- 
capacitating paralii-tic  stroke  in  1873.  and  the 
death  of  his  wife  in  1874  was  a  heavy  blow.  He 
himself  lingered  three  years  longer,  and  died  in 
Dorchester.  England.  May  29,  1877. 

Motley  takes  rank  with  the  most  distinguished 
of  American  historians.  His  work  presents  a  fin- 
ished and  often  brilliantly  colored  picture  of  the 
times  and  the  country  with  which  it  deals.  It 
was  written  only  after  a  thorough  examination 
and  analysis  of  all  available  documents,  and  is 
philosophical  as  well  as  pictorial  in  its  treat- 
ment. It  is  full  of  an  inspiring  love  of  freedom, 
has  the  advantage  of  dealing  with  an  heroic 
movement,  displays  marked  skill  at  characteriza- 
tion, and  often  flashes  with  wit.  His  Correspond- 
ence is  scarcely  less  brilliant,  and  affords  many 
glimpses  of  interesting  personages,  both  Amer- 
ican and  European. 

The  histories  are  published  in  good  English 
and  American  editions.  There  is  a  memoir  by 
his  intimate  friend,  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  (  Bos- 
ton, 1878)  ;  The  Correspondence  of  John  Lothrop 


MOTOR  ORGAN. 

Motley  was  edited   (New  York,  1889)  by  G.  W. 
Curtis. 

MOTMOT  (onomatopoetic,  in  imitation  of  the 
bird's  note).  A  bird  of  the  family  Momotidse, 
related  to  the  coraciiform  bee-eaters,  todies, 
and  kingfishers.  The  niotmots  are  peculiar  to 
tropical  America,  and  only  one  of  the  15  species 
occurs  as  far  north  as  the  United  States.  They 
are  birds  of  very  brilliant  plumage  and  about 
the  size  of  a  blue  jay,  but  more  slender  in  form; 
are  solitary  in  habits,  and  live  on  insects,  reptiles, 
and  fruits.  Their  most  peculiar  feature  is  the 
long  tail,  in  which  the  middle  pair  of  feathers 
are  longer  than  the  rest,  and  have  a  peculiar  shape 
which  has  caused  them  to  be  called  'racket- 
feathers.'  The  cause  of  the  peculiarity  has  been 
greatly  discussed,  but  there  is  much  evidence  to 


TAILS  OF  MOTMOTS. 

a.  Lesson's  motmot.  t-entral  reotrices  perfect:  b,  the 
eame,  reotrioes  denuded  :  c,  Mexican  motmot.  central  r«c- 
trices  affected  while  yet  growing ;  d,  blue-headed  motmot 
showing  •  rackets '  resulting  from  complete  denudation  of 
a  part  of  the  feather. 

show  that  it  is  brought  about  by  the  birds  them- 
selves biting  away  the  vanes  from  the  denuded 
part.  One  species  (Momotus  cwruliceps)  reaches 
the  Mexican  botmdary  of  the  United  States.  Con- 
sult: Belt,  Saturalist  in  Sicaragua  (London, 
1888)  :  Murie.  Ibis  (London,  1892).    See  Plate  of 

KiKGFISHEBS,   ilOTMOTS.   ETC. 

MOTOORI  NORINAYA,  m6't6-o'rI  no'ri- 
nfi'ya  (17301S0II.  A  .Japanese  scholar,  the 
greatest  authority,  until  the  era  of  modern  re- 
search, tipon  the  customs,  liistory.  poetry,  and 
religion  of  ancient  .Japan.  He  wrote  many  books, 
his  most  important  being  a  commentary  on  the 
Kojiki  I  Records  of  Ancient  Matters,  tiie  oldest 
extant  Japanese  book).  The  commentary  is  in 
forty-four  volumes.  It  was  begun  in  1764  and 
finished  in  1796.  Upon  the  publication  of  the 
first  part  students  came  to  Motoori  from  all 
parts  of  .Japan.  In  1801  he  lectured  in  Kioto 
to  crowds,  princes  and  nobles  being  among  his 
auditors.  His  influence  increased  after  his  death, 
and  his  writings  are  thought  to  have  aided  in 
bringing  on  the  recent  changes  in  the  Empire. 
He  is  reganleii  as  a  nia^ter  of  literary  style. 

MOTOR  CARRIAGES  AND  VEHICLES. 
See  AiTOMoniLE. 

MOTOR-GENERATOR.  See  Dyxamo  Elec- 
tric  M.\CIIINF.RY. 

MOTOR  ORGAN  (Lat.  motor,  one  who 
moves,  from  more-re,  to  move).  A  structure 
which  when  stimulated  moves  the  parts  at- 
tached. Motor  organs  are  found  at  the  base  of 
leaves  and  leaflets  in  various  plants,  particularly 
members  of  the  bean  family  (  Leguminoste) .  They 
are  formed  bv  the  modification  of  the  structure 


MOTOR  ORGAN. 


of  the  main  leafstalk  anil  of  the  stalks  of  the 
leatlets  (Fig.  1).  When  the  latter  are  short  the 
motor  organ  may  constitute  the  whole  stalk.  The 
motor  organ  is  a  cushion  (pulvinus)  of  thin- 
walled  tissue  (parenchyma)  whose  centre  is  oc- 
cupied by  a  strand  of  libro-vaseular  and  mechan- 
ical tissue  (Fig.  2).  This  is  in  sharp  contrast  with 
the  structure  of  the  stalk  elsewhere.  There  the  out- 
er parenchyma  forms  the  usual  cortex,  the  vascu- 
lar and  mechanical  strands  are  distinct  and  often 
numerous,  and  the  centre  is  occupied  by  a  pith 
(parenchyma)  of  considerable  volume.  The 
central    position    of    the    strands    in   the   motor 


62  MOTT. 

other  plants  variations  in  the  intensity  of  light 
cause  similar  but  slow  curvatures  in  the  motor 
organs.  Exactly  how  the  exudation  of  water 
from   the  cells  of  the  motor  organ  is  brought 


FlO.   1.    MOTOB  OI10AN8  OF   LEAF   OF   IIKAN. 

The  primary  organ  at  the  tuwe  of  main  petiole;  Becond- 
ary  ones  at  the  baae  of  ett<'h  leaflet ;  the  lower  flfirures  show 
the  curvature  of  these  orwanaafter  HtiinulatioD  (l>ladMs  cut 
away  to  show  more  clearly). 

organ  obviously  permits  freer  bending.  The  cells 
of  the  parenchyma  are  normally  turgid,  and  by 
mutual  pressure  the  organ  is  kept  rigid,  support- 
ing the  leaf  or  the  leaflet.  The  action  of  an 
appropriate  stimulus  on  the  plant  results  in  the 
exuilation  of  water  from  the  cells  on  one  side  of 
the  i)ulvinu3.  This  water  passes  into  the  inter- 
cellular spaces  of  the  organ  and  the  cells  of 
course  lose  their  turgor.  Owing  to  the  now  un- 
opposed pressure  of  the  still  turgid  colls  on  one 
side  of  the  organ,  it  bends  more  or  less,  the  flaccid 
side  becoming  concave,  and  the  leaf-blade  is  car- 
ried through  a  considerable  arc.  In  the  sensi- 
tive plants  (Mimosa)  of  the  tropics,  contact  is 
the  usual  stimulus.  The  whole  reaction  takes 
place  very  rapidly,  the  time  from  shock  to  re- 
spon.se  being  only  a    fraction  of  a   second.     In 


FlS.  2.   LONGITrOISAL   SECTION  THROrOH   MOTOR  ORGAX  OF 

SENSITIVE  PLANT  {Mimusa  pudicai. 

about  is  not  known.  It  is  probable  that  the 
stimulus  in  some  way  alters  the  physical  struc- 
ture of  the  protoplasm  within  the  affected  cells 
so  that  the  contained  solution  is  allowed  to  filter 
out.     See  MovEiiEXT. 

MOTRIL,  niu-trel'.  A  city  and  port  of  entiy 
in  Siiutliern  Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Granada, 
situated  on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  32  miles 
south  by  east  of  Granada  (Map:  Spain.  D  4). 
There  are  ruins  of  old  Moorish  fortifications,  but 
thcgreater  part  is  well  built  with  modern  houses. 
Motril  is  chiefly  an  industrial  town,  has  iron 
foundries,  and  manufactures  sugar,  spirits,  choco- 
late, tlour,  soap,  paper,  cotton  textiles,  and  pot- 
tery. The  harbor  is  an  exposed  roadstead.  Popu- 
lation, in  1000,  18,508. 

MOTT,  ,T.\MEs  (1788-18G8).  An  American 
abolitionist,  born  at  Cowneck.  Long  Island.  Soon 
after  completing  his  education  he  became  a  teach- 
er in  a  Friends'  boarding-school  in  Dutchess 
Coimty.  N.  Y.,  where  he  met  Lucretia  Coffin 
(see  MoTT,  Lucbeti.\),  whom  he  afterwards  mar- 
ried. In  1810  he  removed  to  Philadelphia  and 
became  a  merchant.  He  early  manifested  his 
svmpathy  with  the  anti-slavery  movement  and 
was  one  of  the  first  supporters  of  William 
Lloyd  (iarrison.  He  was  one  of  the  organizers 
of  the  Philadelphia  National  .\nliSlavery  So- 
ciety in  18.'i3.  and  in  1840  he  was  a  delegate  to 
the  World's  Anti-Slavery  Convention  in  London. 
There  lie  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  agitation 
to  admit  women  delegates,  and  eight  years  later 
presided  over  the  first  national  convention  held 
in  support  of  the  woman's  rights  movement.  In 
1848  he  joined  in  calling  the  Anti-Sabbath  Con- 
vention, and  after  the  war  was  actively  interested 
in  the  establishment  of  Swarthmore  College  by 
the  Philadelphia  Yearly  Meeting,  of  which  he 
was  a  member. 

MOTT,  I.tcFiETiA  (Corny)  (170.1-1880).  An 
American  abolitionist  and  woman's  rights  advo- 
cate, boni  on  Nantucket  Island.  She  was  edu- 
cated in  the  Friends'  School  at  Xine  Partners, 
near  Poughke<'psie,  N.  Y.,  where  she  met  .Tames 
Mott  Iq.v.K  whom  in  1818  she  married.  She 
became  ]irominent  as  a  preacher  in  the  Society  of 
Friends  and  was  chosen  a  minister.  .\s  a  result 
of  a  vi«it  to  Virginia  in  181S  she  became  an  ar- 
ilent  advocate  of  emancipation.  .\t  the  'Separa- 
tion' of  1827  which  divided  the  Society  of  Friends 


MOTT. 

into  two  hostile  factions,  she  and  her  liushand 
adhered  to  tlie  liberal  or  Hicksite  party.  In 
Iti'SJ  she  attended  as  an  iuvKed  guest  the  first 
convention  of  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society, 
of  which  her  husband  was  a  member.  Soon  after- 
wards she  helped  to  organize  the  Female  Auti- 
Slaveiy  Society,  of  which  she  continued  one  of 
the  leaders  until  1839,  when  it  was  merged  in 
the  men's  organization.  As  the  feeling  against 
abolitionists  grew  in  intensity,  many  of  the 
more  timid  Quakers  began  to  deprecate  any  dis- 
cussion of  slavery  by  one  of  their  ministers,  and 
even  in  her  own  meeting  she  was  regarded  with 
suspicion  and  dislike.  In  1840.  at  the  World's 
Anti-Slavery  Convention  in  London,  to  which 
both  James  and  Lueretia  Mott  had  been  chosen 
delegates,  the  question  of  the  equal  participation 
of  women  in  the  proceedings  of  the  convention 
came  up,  and  after  some  discussion  all  women 
were  excluded.  It  was  then  that  Lueretia  Mott 
and  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton  first  discussed  the 
woman's  rights  movement,  which  they  launched 
eight  years  later  at  a  convention  in  Seneca  Falls, 
N.  Y.  But  these  two  movements,  abolition  and 
woman's  rights,  while  they  received  the  greater 
share  of  her  attention,  were  not  the  only  ones  in 
which  Mrs.  Mott  was  interested,  for  all  that 
promised  to  uplift  humanity  or  to  break  the 
fetters  of  ignorance  and  tradition  received  her 
warmest  support.  Almost  to  the  end  of  her  life 
she  made  frequent  journeys  to  visit  distant  meet- 
ings or  to  attend  conventions  called  to  consider 
the  elevation  of  woman,  the  promotion  of  tem- 
perance, and  the  establishment  of  universal 
peace.  Consult  Hallowell,  The  Life  and  Letters 
of  James  and  Lueretia  Mott  (Boston,  1884). 

MOTT,  Valextixe  (1785-1865).  An  American 
Burgeon,  born  at  Glen  Cove,  N.  Y.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Columbia  College,  and  graduated  in 
1806,  taking  post-graduate  courses  in  London 
and  Edinburgh.  In  1809  he  was  appointed  to  fill 
the  chair  of  surgery  at  Columbia  College,  in 
which  position  he  was  continued  after  the  medi- 
cal department  of  that  institution  was  united 
with  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  in 
181.3.  In  1826  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Rutgers  Medical  College,  which  was  disbanded 
four  years  later.  He  then  returned  to  the 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  and  in  18.30 
became  professor  of  surgeiy  at  the  Xew  York 
University  Medical  College.  Mott  was  celebrated 
as  a  skillful  operator  in  all  branches  of  surgery, 
and  was  the  inventor  of  several  valuable  surgical 
instruments.  He  introduced  an  operation  for 
immobility  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  in  1821  per- 
formed the  first  operation  for  osteosarcoma  of 
that  member.  He  performed  the  operation  of 
lithotomy  165  times  and  amputated  more  than 
1000  limbs.  He  visited  Europe  in  1835  and  trav- 
eled in  the  East,  publishing  an  account  of  his 
journey  in  1842.  He  published  also  a  translation 
of  Velpeau's  Operutirc  finrpcr!/  and  a  volume  of 
clinical  lectures  (1860).  Many  foreign  distinc- 
tions were  conferred  on  him,  and  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  manv  learned  societies.  He  died  in  New 
York. 

MOTTARONE.  m6t'ta-ro'na.  Mount.  A 
mountain  in  Italy  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake 
Maggiore  (q.v.).  It  is  4892  feet  high  and  is 
often  called  the  Tligi  of  North  Italy.'  The  view 
is  magnificently  extended.  At  one's  feet  lie 
Maggiore  and  six  other  lakes;  across  Maggiore, 


63 


MOUCHERON. 


60    miles    to    the    .southeast,    may   be    seen   the 
Cathedral  of  Milan;  to  the  north  rise  the  Alps. 

MOTTETJX,  niA'te',  Petek  A.ntho.ny  (1660- 
1718).  A  French- Knglish  playwright  and  trans- 
lator, born  at  Kouen,  in  Normandy.  He  went  to 
London  on  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
in  1085,  and  afterwards  opened  a  warehouse  in 
Leadenhall  Street,  where  he  sold  'tea,  china,  and 
Indian  wares'  (described  in  the  Spectator  No. 
552).  In  1693  appeared  Boileau's  Ode  sur  la 
prise  de  XaiiiKr,  avec  nne  parodie  de  la  meme 
ode  par  le  Sieur  P.  Motteux.  Motteux  mastered 
English  in  eight  years;  and  in  1694  appeared 
one  of  the  two  works  which  made  him  famous. 
With  Sir  Thomas  Urquhart  and  others  he  pub- 
lished in  three  vohmies  a  translation  of  Rabelais 
(books  i.-iii.),  the  remainder  of  which  followed 
in  1768  (books  iv.-v. ).  For  the  stage  he  wrote 
comedies,  masques,  and  operas.  But  his  fame 
rests  wholly  on  his  Rabelais  and  on  his  admirable 
version  of  Don  Quixote.  Motteux  died  on  Feb- 
ruary 18,  1718,  his  birthday  anniversary,  in  a 
brothel  near  Saint  Clement's  Church.  Though 
several  persons  were  held  for  his  murder,  it  is 
more  likely  that  he  died  of  disease. 

MOTT  HAVEN.  Formerly  a  village  in  West- 
chester County.  N.  Y.,  lying  north  of  the  Harlem 
River,  and  now  included  in  New  York  City. 

MOTTL,  mot'l,  Felix  (1856 — ).  An  Aus- 
trian composer  and  musical  conductor,  born  in 
Vienna.  He  studied  at  the  Conservatory  there 
under  the  best  teachers,  and  won  a  number 
of  prizes.  In  1881  he  became  Court  chapel- 
master  at  Karlsruhe,  and  conducted  the  phil- 
harmonic concerts  till  1892.  In  1880  he  con- 
ducted at  Bayreuth  and  in  1893  he  was  ap- 
pointed general  nuisical  director  at  Karlsruhe. 
His  most  notewortliy  undertaking  was  the  initial 
production  at  Karlsruhe  of  Berlioz's  great  two- 
part  opera.  Les  Troyens.  His  own  operas.  Agnes 
Bernauer  (1880)  and  Fiirst  und  Sanger  (1893), 
were  also  successfully  presented.  His  songs  and 
minor  compositions  are  relatively  unimportant. 

MOTTO  ( It.,  a  saying) .  In  heraldry,  a  word 
or  short  sentence  which  forms  an  accompaniment 
to  a  coatof-arms,  crest,  or  household  badge. 
Mottoes  were  originally  the  battle-cries  of  the 
knights  wlio  used  them.  Tliey  were  attadied  to 
the  badge  when  the  family  had  one.  or  to  the 
crest  wliere  there  was  no  badge.  See  the  article 
Her.\li)RY. 

MOTUCA  (m6-too'ka)  TLY.  A  gad-fly 
(q.v.  I  which  abounds  in  parts  of  Brazil,  and 
makes  in  biting  a  large  and  deep  cut  which  may 
bleed  considerably.  As  this  fly  (Hadrus  lepido- 
tus)  sometimes  settles  in  numbers  on  human  be- 
ings, it   is  deservedly  feared. 

MOUBATA  BUG.     See  Mite. 

MOUCHERON",  moosh'roN'.  Frederik  de 
(1634-86).  A  Dutch  landscape  painter,  born  at 
Edam.  He  studied  under  Jan  Asselyn  at  Amster- 
dam, and  then  went  to  Paris.  Aftenvards  he 
lived  at  Antwerp,  and  in  1659  settled  at  Amster- 
dam. His  landscapes  are  mainly  views  in  Italy — 
w'hich  he  never  visited — with  figures  by  Lingel- 
bach.  Van  der  Velde.  and  Helmbreker.  His  son 
and  pupil.  Isa.\k  (1670-1744).  was  born  at  Am- 
sterdam. He  was  an  excellent  engraver.  The 
works  of  both  these  artists  are  to  be  found  in 
many  of  the  European  galleries. 


MOUCHEZ. 


64 


MOTJCHEZ,  iniTUsha'.  AiitatK  (1821-92). 
A  Kieiuli  iiilroiioiiK'r.  born  at  JIadiid.  He 
studied  in  the  Krcncli  Naval  Academy  and  servc.l 
in  the  navy  until  1878.  when  he  succeeded  l^vei- 
rier  as  head  of  Iht-  National  Observatory.  He 
had  already  shown  himself  an  able  and  indus- 
trious scientist  in  the  coast  surveys  of  Brazil 
and  Algeria,  and  as  organizer  of  the  expedition 
to  the  island  of  Saint  Paul  to  observe  the  transit 
of  \enus  in  1874.  In  his  new  post  he  greatly 
improved  the  equipment  of  the  observatory, 
lirought  out  a  score  of  volumes  of  the  Anmiles 
and  a  part  of  the  catalogues  listing  all  sUrs 
observed  since  1838,  and.  above  all.  planned  the 
international  photographic  cliarl  of  the  heavens. 
He  wrote:  Coles  dii  Hnsll  (  1809-76)  ;  Rio  de  la 
J'lata  (187.31  :  and  I.ii  pliulo(jraphie  astronomique 
el  III  curie  (III  rid  ( 1877). 

MOUFLON.  niHoflon  (Fr.).  A  wild  sheep 
(Oris  miifimoii).  now,  and  perhaps  always,  re- 
stricted to  the  islands  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia, 
where  it  is  contincd  to  the  highest  parts  of  the 
mountains.  The  rams  stand  about  27  inches 
high  at  the  shoulders,  carry  immense  horns,  and 
have  an  abundant  mane  about  the  neck,  shoulders, 
and  breast.  This  mane  is  ashy  gray,  hut  the  body 
is  rustv  red.  lighter  on  the  sides  and  stern,  and 
with  a  "dark  line  along  tlic  spine.  The  belly,  sides 
of  the  tail,  feet,  and  nose  are  white.  The  females 
are  more  dun-colored,  so  that  they  are  almost  in- 
visible among  the  rocks.  During  the  winter 
Hocks  of  several  hundred  formerly  gathered  and 
ranged  the  mountains  luitil  spring,  when  they 
separated  into  family  parties  of  three  or  four 
ewes  and  lambs,  led  by  an  old  ram  :  but  now  large 
Hocks  are  uncommon.  The  rutting  season  is  in 
midwinter;  the  lambs — one  or  two  at  a  hirlh — 
are  produced  in  April  or  May.  The  animals  liave 
now  become  very  wary,  and  olTer  most  excellent 
sport  to  hunters.  Consult  bix)ks  of  European 
natural  history  and  sport,  especially  Aflalo,  Sport 
in  Europe  (London.  1901). 

The  term  is  sometimes  extended  to  the  aoudad 
(q.v.),  and  more  especially  to  a  slightly  smaller 
sheep  (Oris  ophion).  with  lighter  horns,  which 
is  conftned  to  the  mountains  of  Cyprus,  and  called 
the  Cy)iri;in  iiioullon. 

MOTJKDEN,  mnnk-den'.  The  capital  of  Man- 
churia.     Si-e   -MlKDEX, 

MOULDING,     See  Molding, 

MOULIN  KOUGE,  moo'lnN'  roozh  (Fr..  Red 
:^lilh.  A  well  krmwn  ilance  hall  on  the  right 
hank  of  the  Seine  in  Paris,  which  since  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  .Tardin  Mabille  has  been  one  of 
till-  .liirf  jilaic-.  of  popular  nmusement. 

MOULINS,  mnn'InN'.  The  capital  of  the  De- 
partment of  AUier.  France.  .'50  miles  hy  rail 
northeast  of  Montliu.'on ;  on  the  .\llier.  here 
spanned  bv  a  bridge  one-fourth  of  a  mile  long, 
with  thirteen  arches  (Map:  France.  K  .")).  It  is 
u  well-btiilt  town,  with  pleasant,  beautifully 
shaded  promenades  and  many  places  of  interest. 
The  chief  among  these  last  are  the  IIot<'l  de  Villi". 
with  a  magnilicent  library  and  valuable  manu- 
script.s;  the  Cathedral  and  its  interesting  art 
treasures:  the  .\rch:eological  Museum,  the  Church 
of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and  the  Lyc'-e.  The  indus- 
tries comprise  the  manufacture  of  glassware,  cot- 
ton and  woolen  fabrics,  and  silk:  there  is  an  im- 
portant trade  in  coal.  wood,  grain,  and  wine. 
Z^Ioulins   was   for   n   time    the   capital   of   Rour- 


MOULTRIE. 

bonnais  and  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Bour- 
bon; of  the  ducal  castle,  a  fourteenth-century 
lower,  now  used  as  a  prison,  remains.  Popula- 
tion, in  UIOl.  22., MO. 

MOULMEIN,   moul-mln'.      A   city   in   Lower 
liurnia.      See   Mallm.\I.N. 

MOULTING.  Se<!  Molti.xg. 
MOULTON,  mol'ton,  Ellen  Louise  (Ciiand- 
LKK)  I  IS^-"' — ).  Ai\  .Vnu'rican  poet,  horn  in  Pom- 
fret,  Conn.,  April  10,  1835.  She  was  educated 
at  Trov.  X.  Y..  and  before  her  twentieth  year  had 
edited' 77ic  W'tiicrle;/  (liirliiiul.  a  Present  for  AH 
Seasons  (1853),  and  had  written  This,  Thai,  and 
the  Olher  (1854).  In  1855  she  married  William 
Moulton,  a  Boston  publisher  and  journalist.  Her 
published  work  is  voluminous.  The  following 
titles  mav  be  named:  Juno  Clifford,  A  Tale 
(185(i)  :  My  Third  Hook,  A  Colleclion  of  Tales 
(1859)  ;  Bedtime  Stories  (1873)  :  More  Bedtime 
.sVonV.s  ( 1874 )  ;  Poems  (1878):  ^ew  Bedlimv 
Stories  (1880);  Random  h'ambles  (1881);  Ohc- 
selres  and  Uur  Xeighhors  (1887);  Miss  Eyre 
from  Boston,  and  Others  (1889)  ;  In  the  Garden 
of  Dreeims:  Lyrics  aiid  Sonnets  (1889)  ;  Stories 
Told  1)1/  Tuilighl  (1890);  and  At  the  Wind's 
AVill  (1899).  She  was  the  literary  executrix  of 
the  English  poet  Philip  Bourke  Marston.  and 
collected  his  poems  in  1892.  In  1894  she  published 
a  vohime  of  selected  poems  of  Arthur  O'Shaugh- 
nessy.  -Mrs.  Moulton  ranks  well  as  a  sonneteer 
and  shows  skill. 

MOULTON.  UiniARi)  fiKF.EN  (1849—).  An 
Knglish  educator  and  literary  critic,  horn  at 
Preston,  England,  and  educated  at  Christ's  Col- 
lege, Candiridge.  He  was  university  extension 
lecturer  to  Cambridge  (1874-90),  to  the  Ameri- 
can Societv  for  the  Extension  of  University 
Teacliing  ("l890-91),  and  to  the  London  Society 
(1891-92).  and  in  1892  became  professor  of 
literature  in  English  at  the  I'niversity  of  Chi- 
cago. His  works  include:  Shakespeare  as  a 
Dramalic  Arlist  (1885):  The  Ancient  Classical 
Drama  (1890);  Four  Years  of  Xorel  Reading 
(  1H95)  ;  The  Lilerurti  Stud;/  of  the  Bible  (1890)  ; 
and  Introduction  to  the  literature  of  the  Bihie 
(1901):  the  last  two  supplementary  to  The. 
Modem  Readers  Bible  (1895-98),  published  un- 
der his  eilitorial  care, 

MOULTRIE,  mol'trl.  Fort,  Sec  Fort  Moi'l- 
•riiii:. 

MOULTRIE,  William  (1731  1805).  An 
.\nieriian  soldier,  prominent  in  the  Revolutionary 
War.  He  was  horn  in  Sotith  Carolina,  received  an 
ordinnrv  edncation.  and  in  the  Cherokee  troubles 
of  1701' was  a  military  captain.  Though  closely 
connected  with  many  of  the  Loyalists,  he  early 
took  sides  with  the 'Patriot  Party.  In  1775  he 
was  the  representative  of  Saint  Helena  Parish 
in  the  South  (^irolina  Provincial  Congress,  and 
later  in  the  same  year  was  chosen  colonel  of  a 
South  Carolina  regiment.  For  some  time  there- 
after he  was  busily  engaged  in  providing  for  the 
defense  of  Charleston,  and  to  this  end  |)laced  a 
hatlerv  at  Tladdreirs  Point  and  (March,  1770) 
began  the  erection  of  a  rude  fort  of  palmetto  logs 
on  Snlliv;m's  Island.  This  fort  commanded  the 
entrance  to  the  harlmr.  and  on  .Tune  2Sth  was 
fiercelv  but  imsuccessfiiUy  attacked  hy  .\dniiral 
Sir  Peter  Parker,  who  was  finally  forced  to 
withdraw.  Moultrie  had  undertaken  the  de- 
fense    against     the    advice     and     wish     of    his 


MOUND-BUILDERS 


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MOUND,    ADAMS    COUNTY,    liHIi 


CIRCULAR   EARTHWORK,  OHIO 


MOULTRIE. 

superior  oflicer.  General  Charles  Lee.  For  his 
success  ho  received  the  thanks  of  Congress,  and 
in  his  honor  the  fort  was  named  Fort  Moul- 
trie. In  September  of  the  same  year  he 
was  made  a  brigadier-general  and  was  put  in 
command  of  tlie  Department  of  Georgia  and 
South  Carolina.  He  defeated  the  British  under 
General  Gardner  at  Beaufort  in  February,  1779, 
and,  by  obstructing  the  advance  of  Prevost  in 
May,  enabled  Cliarleston  to  prepare  for  its  de- 
fense, finally  entering  the  city  and  holding  chief 
command  until  the  arrival  of  General  Lincoln. 
On  the  surrender  of  Charleston  in  May,  1780,  he 
became  a  prisoner,  but  in  February,  17S2,  he, 
with  several  others,  was  exchanged  for  Burgoyne. 
He  was  made  a  major-general  in  October  of  that 
year,  and  subsequently  was  twice  (in  17So  and 
in  1794)  elected  Governor  of  South  Carolina.  Ho 
retired  to  private  life  after  his  second  term  and 
died  at  Charleston.  September  27,  1805.  His 
Memoirs  of  I  he  I'evolut  ion  as  far  as  it  related  to 
the  States  of  Xorth  and  South  Ciirolina  (2  vols., 
1802)  was  written  in  part  while  he  was  a 
prisoner,  and  was  finished  in  later  years. 

MOUND-BIRD.  The  mound-birds  are  a 
group  of  gallinaceous  birds,  with  feet  like  those 
of  pigeons  in  not  having  the  hallu.\  raised  above 
the  other  toes,  and  related  to  the  American 
curassows  (q.v. ).  They  form  a  family,  the 
Megapodida",  which,  as  is  indicated  by  the  name, 
are  characterized  by  the  po.ssession  of  unusually 
large  feet.  Although  the  family  contains  two 
subfamilies,  the  mound-birds  proper  or,  as  they 
are  called  in  Australia,  'jungle-fowl.'  and  the 
brush  turkeys  (q.v. ),  yet  all  these  birds  agree 
in  the  remarkable  habit  which  ha.s  given  them 
tlieir  widely  known  popular  name.  This  habit  is 
the  building  of  a  huge  mound  for  a  nest,  within 
which  the  eggs  are  left  to  be  hatched  by  heat 
caused  by  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter  within 
the  heap.  Tliese  mounds  vary  greatly  in  size 
and  shape  as  well  as  in  manner  of  construction, 
and  in  the  number  and  arrangement  of  the  eggs 
which  they  contain.  The  simplest  are  where  the 
birds  excavate  a  hole  in  the  sand  in  which  the 
eggs  are  laid,  and  are  then  covered  with  a  mix- 
ture of  sand  ami  vegetable  matter.  Such  is  the 
habit  of  the  'lowan.'  or  'mallee-bird'  (Mef/aee- 
phalon  nifiJeo) .  of  Celebes.  In  most  cases,  how- 
ever, the  birds  scratch  up  grass,  leaves,  tvirf.  etc., 
and  with  tlieir  large  feet  throw  this  material  to- 
gether in  a  heap.  The  female  digs  down  into 
such  a  heap  from  the  top  and  lays  an  egg.  which 
is  so  placed  that  it  is  nearer  the  outside  tlian  the 
top  of  the  mo\ind.  Just  how  the  young  escape 
from  the  mound  when  the  egg  hatches  is  still 
uncertain,  but  it  is  probably  by  digging  through 
to  the  side.  The  young  are  well  developed, 
feathered,  and  able  to  fly  as  soon  as  they  leave 
the  mound.  The  number  of  eggs  laid  by  each 
female  is  still  a  matter  of  doubt;  from  four  to 
twenty  are  found  in  each  mound,  and  there  is 
no  doubt  that  several  females  often  lay  in  the 
same  heap.  The  eggs  are  white  when  first  laid,  but 
soon  become  stained  by  the  vegetable  matter  in 
which  they  lie.  They  are  remarkably  large  for 
the  size  of  the  bird  and  are  ellipsoidal  rather  than 
oval :  they  jneasure  from  3  to  4.3  inches  in 
length,  according  to  the  species.  The  birds  re- 
sort to  the  same  mound  season  after  season,  but 
add  fresh  material  at  every  egg-laying  time. 
Consequently  the  mounds  increase  with  age  and 


65  MOUNDSVILLE. 

may  be  in  use  for  many  years.  They  are  usually 
more  or  less  truncatedly  conical  or  crater-like 
in  form,  but  may  have  one  of  the  horizontal  diam- 
eters much  longer  than  the  others.  The  largest 
one  on  record  was  reported  to  be  about  50  feet  in 
diameter  and  some  14  feet  high. 

The  mouml-birds  themselves  are  plainly  colored 
and  vary  in  size  from  a  small  fowl  to  a  small 
turkey.  The}'  are  shy  and  retiring  and  are  not 
often  seen.  Tliey  frequent  scrub  and  jindergrowth 
along  the  seaeoast  or  on  the  banks  of  streanus 
emptying  into  the  sea.  The  mounds  are  built 
in  open  spaces  in  the  thick  scrub  or  on  unfre- 
quented parts  of  the  shore.  The  birds  tly  little 
and  heavily,  and  are  not  easily  Hushed,  but  some- 
times seek  shelter  in  trees.  They  are  said  to  be 
noisy  at  night  and  to  have  hoarse  call-notes 
which  the}'  use  during  the  day.  All  the  Mega- 
podidoe  are  inhabitants  of  the  Australasian  region 
and  are  not  found  north  of  Celebes ;  the  majority 
of  the  species  are  Australian.  The  one  best 
known  on  that  continent  is  the  'scrub-hen."  or 
'mound-turkey,'  of  Queensland  {Meriapodiiis  tum- 
ulus) .  Another  smaller  one  is  the  leipoa  {Leipoa 
urellata) .  The  'brush-turkeys'  of  New  Guinea 
and  neighboring  islands  belong  to  the  genus  Tal- 
legalus. 

Consult  Ciould  and  other  authorities  on  the 
ornithology  of  Australia  (.see  Bird).  See.  also, 
Campbell.  "Mound-Building  Birds"  (with  photo- 
grapliic  illustrations  of  'mounds'),  in  Bird  Lore, 
vol.  V.   (New  York,  l!tO:{). 

MOUND-BUILDERS.  Specifically,  a  hypo- 
thetical race  or  people  at  one  time  supposed  to 
have  antedated  the  Indian  tribes  as  inhabitants 
of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys ;  but  the 
"Mound-Builders'  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  are 
now  regarded  merely  as  the  ancestors  and  repre- 
sentatives of  the  tribes  fomid  in  the  same  region 
by  Spanish.  French,  and  English  pioneers.  The 
custom  of  erecting  mounds  has  been  widespread: 
most  primitive  peoples  are  known  to  have  erected 
mounds  either  habitually  or  in  some  stage  of 
their  development.  Most  of  the  mounds  of  the 
typical  regions  in  Central  North  America  are 
mortuary  or  sacrificial.  The  chief  contents  are 
skeletons,  with  ceremonial  and  other  objects 
buried  with  the  bodies,  while  the  structures  are 
wholly  of  earth :  in  a  few  eases  house-like  struc- 
tvires  form  the  nucleus  of  the  mound.  In  the 
Southwestern  United  States,  in  Central  America, 
and  elsewhere  in  the  Western  Hemisphere,  as  in 
the  Old  World,  the  mounds  are  .sometimes 
crumbled  ruins  of  structures  of  adobe,  or  sun- 
dried  brick. 

MOUND  CITY.  The  county-seat  of  Pulaski 
County.  111.,  eight  miles  north  of  Cairo:  on  the 
Ohio  River.  an<l  on  the  Cleveland.  Cincinnati. 
Chicago  and  Saint  Louis  Railroad  and  a  branch 
of  the  Illinois  Central  (Map:  Illinois,  C  6).  It 
has  a  trade  in  lumber,  ship-building  interests, 
and  manufactures  of  himber,  staves,  furniture, 
pumps,  etc.  In  the  national  cemetery  here  are 
5310  craves,  2732  of  unkno«ii  dead.  Population, 
in  1900.  270.'). 

MOUNDS'VILLE.  A  city,  named  in  honor 
of  its  most  striking  attraction,  and  the  county- 
seat  of  ilarshall  County.  W.  Va..  11  miles  south 
of  Wheeling:  on  the  Ohio  River,  and  on  the  Bal- 
timore and  Ohio  and  the  Ohio  River  railroads 
(Map:   West  Virginia.  D  2).     It  is  the  seat  of 


MOUNDSVILLE. 

the  State  penitentiary,  and  lias  a  line  court 
house,  and  a  lanious  relic  of  the  niound-builders, 
a  massive  structure  of  conical  form,  in  which 
two  burial  vaults  containing  skeletons  and  cop- 
per ornaments  were  discovereil  by  excavations  of 
1838.  The  city  is  in  an  agricultural  and  coal- 
mining region,  has  important  commercial  inter- 
ests as  a  result  of  its  shiiiping  facilities,  and 
extensively  manufactures  glass,  lumber  products, 
enameled  ware,  bricks,  cigars,  grain  cradles, 
flour  and  feed,  foundry  products,  leather,  etc. 
The  goveriniient  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected 
every  two  years,  and  a  unicameral  council.  Popu- 
lation, in  isilO,  2CS.S;  in  1900,  5362. 

MOUNET-SULLY,  moo'nA'sv'l^  (1841  —  ). 
A  French  tragedian,  whose  real  luimc  is 
Jean  .Sully  ilounet.  He  was  born  at  Ber- 
gerac,  February  27,  1841,  and  at  twenty-one 
entered  the  Conservatoire.  After  beginning  his 
career  at  the  Odeon.  he  served  in  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War,  and  in  1872  he  made  his  debut  at 
the  ThOatre  Frangais,  where  in  about  two  years 
he  became  a  member  of  the  company.  Admirably 
gifted  by  nature,  he  is  famous  for  the  power  and 
passion  of  some  of  his  impersonations.  His  suc- 
cesses incluilc  many  of  the  roles  in  the  classic 
lepertoire.  Among  tliem  are  his  Achille  in  l/jhifir- 
»iif  and  his  llippolyte  in  Phidrc,  and  also  charac- 
ters in  nu>re  modern  works  like  those  of  Victor 
Hugo.  Perhaps  his  most  notable  achievement,  how- 
ever, was  his  performance  of  (Kdipus  the  h'iuij  in 
the  fetes  at  the  old  Koman  Theatre  of  Orange,  a 
performance  repeated  in  Paris  at  the  Tlu'iitre 
Fran<;ais  (1888).  His  Hamlet  also  counts  among 
his  most  serious  efforts.  Consult  Matthews.  The 
Theatres  of  Paris  (New  York,  1880). 

MOUNIER,  miMl'nyft',  -Te.vn  .To.seph  (17.58- 
ISUlii.  A  FniK-li  politician  anil  author,  horn  in 
(frenoble  llsfre).  He  became  judge  at  (Jrenoblc 
in  178.3.  secretary  of  the  estates  of  Dauphint'  in 
1788.  and  in  1780  was  elected  Deputy  in  the 
States-Oeneral.  There  he  unsuccessfully  advo- 
cated the  system  of  two  legislative  chambers,  a 
subject  which  he  also  expounded  in  his  VoitxiiKra- 
lions  mir  lex  (lourcriiemenls  (1780).  He  was 
elected  president  of  the  National  Assembly  in 
1780,  hut  soon  afterwards  resigned  becau.sc  of  the 
decision  to  remove  the  Assend)ly  to  Paris.  He 
withdrew  to  Switzerland  and  thence  to  Weimar, 
p>d)lished  his  /<<■  I'iiifliiriice  altrihiire  aiix  iihiloxo- 
/i/ic.s',  iiii.r  fr<i lies- 1)111  riiiis  rt  mix  ilUimiiu'.i  sur  la 
firiihilion  ilr  la  f'riiiicr  (1801),  and  in  1801  re- 
turned to  France,  where  Bonaparte  appointed  him 
prefect  of  Hlc-et-Vilaine  (1802)  and  councilor  of 
State  (1805).  His  further  publications  include 
Urrhcrchex  xiir  Jes  causes  r/ui  out  empcche  les 
Frainais  ite  ilerenir  lihrcs  (1704).  Consult  De 
J^anzac  de  l,al«)rie,  Tbi  roi/alisle  liberal  en  1789 
(Paris.   1887). 

MOUNT  FOR  Guns..  See  Coast  Artillery; 
Or.Ns,  XwAi.:  Ord.vance. 

MOUNT.  WtLLiAM  Sidney  (1807-08).  An 
American  genre  and  portrait  painter.  He  was 
born  at  Setauket.  Long  Island.  November  2(1, 
1807,  and  studied  at  the  National  Academy.  New 
York,  of  which  he  was  made  a  member  in  1832. 
Jlis  first  works  tn  gain  ri-pnti-  were  the  "Daughter 
of  .fnirus."  exhibited  in  182S.  a  full  length  por- 
trait of  Bishop  Onderdonk.  and  a  number  of 
clever  ■hildren  pnrlrails.  It  was  not  until  the 
exhibition    nf    "Hu-king   Cdrn"   that    his   sppcinl 


66 


MOUNTAIN. 


talent  for  genre  painting  was  recognized.  Mount 
was  the  forenunier  of  a  whole  school  of  genre 
artists;  he  had  a  keen  eye  for  humor,  and 
was  one  of  the  first  Americans  to  portray-  the 
negro  character  successfully.  Among  his  best 
])aintings  are:  "Bargaining  for  a  Horse;"  "The 
Fortune-Tel ler,"  and  a  portrait  of  James  Kiv- 
ington,  in  the  New  York  Historical  Society; 
"KalUing  for  a  Goose"  ( 1837  ) ,  iletropolitan  Mu- 
seum. New  York;  "A  Long  Story"  (1837),  Cor- 
coran (oillery,  Washington;  "Turn  of  the  Leaf." 
Lenox  Library.  New  York.  Mount  died  at  his 
home  in  Loug  Island,  November  10,  18(iS. 

MOUNTAIN  (OF.  montaigne,  muntaigne,  Fr. 

moittaijiie.  from  ML.  montanea,  nwntana,  moun- 
tain, from  Lat.  moiitaiitts.  mountainous,  from 
iiions,  mount).  A  term  somewhat  loosely  used 
for  a  high  prominence  on  the  earth's  surface 
with  st<'ep  slopes.  The  distinction  between  moun- 
tain and  hill  is  merely  one  of  size.  A  plateau  is 
distinguished  from  a  mountain  by  its  broader 
top  and  sometimes  by  its  gentler  slopes.  Where 
a  mountain  forms  a  linear  elevation  it  is  called 
a  range,  ridge,  chain,  or  sierra.  Where  the  ridges 
are  grouped  in  parallel  lines,  or  en  echelon,  the 
groups  are  called  moimtain  chains,  systems,  or 
Cordilleras.  These  terms  are  sometimes  given 
more  precise  meanings.  Moiinlain  riihie  is  some- 
times confined  to  a  .series  of  parallel  ranges, 
all  of  which  were  formed  within  a  single 
geosyneline,  or  on  its  borders.  Mountain  system 
is  ajjplied  to  a  number  of  parallel  or  consecutive 
ranges  formed  in  separate  geosynclines  of  ap- 
proximately similar  dates  of  upheaval.  Mountain 
chain  is  applied  to  two  or  more  systems  of  the 
same  general  region  of  elevation,  Iiut  of  different 
dales  of  (U'igin.  Cordillera  is  ap])lied  to  several 
mountain  chains  in  the  same  ])art  of  the  conti- 
nent. .Most  of  the  nanu's  applied  to  parts  of 
mountains  explain  themselves.  Crest,  peak,  knob, 
|>inna(le.  needle,  valley  are  familiar  to  all.  A 
gorge  or  canon  or  clove  is  distitiguished  from  a 
valley  by  its  steep  slopes  and  narrow  bottom; 
a  park  is  a  broad  valley;  a  col  or  saddle  is  an 
exceptionally  low  point  in  a  crest;  a  cirque  is  a 
steeply  walled,  outward  facing  amphitheatre 
near  the  crest  of  the  range. 

Types  and  Okioix  op  Moi-ntains.  Mountains 
are  formed  (1)  by  iiplift,  (2|  by  circumdenuda- 
tion  or  land  scul])ture,  and  (3)  by  eruptive 
agencies;  and  mountains  formed  in  these  three 
ways  have  characteristic  and  distinguishing 
forms. 


PAN  STRtlCTURB.    ALPS. 

(I)  Ily  far  the  larger  number  of  mounlains 
due  fo  uplift  are  in  the  form  of  folds  or  wrinkles 
in  the  earth's  crust.  The.se  folds  take  on  a 
great  variety  of  fiirni  and  arrangement,  t'sually 
a  number  are  parallel,  but  not  coextensive  in 
their  lunger  directions,  lapping  by  one  another 
rn  cehrlim.  Thev  may  be  upright  or  overturned 
at    various    angles.      They    may    be    compressed 


MOUNTAIN.  67 

along  the  limbs  ami  spread  out  at  the  crest  in 
such  a  way  tliat  the  strata  un  both  sides  of  the 
axial  plane  of  the  fold  dip  toward  this  plane,  a 
tjpe  of  folding  called  the  fan  fold,  sometimes  tlie 
Alpine  ntnttluic,  because  of  its  excellent  develop- 
ment in  the  Alps.  On  the  major  folds  with  this 
variety  of  attitude  may  be  imposed  smaller  folds, 
just  as  smaller  waves  are  superimposed  on  the 
greater  waves  of  a  body  of  water.  Again,  the 
folds  are  themselves  folded  in  directions  trans- 
verse to  their  longer  directions.  Examples  of 
mountain  systems  representing  folds  of  the 
earth's  crust  are  the  Alps,  the  Jura,  the  Appa- 
lachian system,  the  Coast  Ranges,  and  most  of 
the  Rockv  .Moiuitains. 


MOUNTAIN. 


SYMMETRICAL   FOLD,   JURA  .MOUNTAI.Ve. 

Another  type  of  uplift  is  shown  in  the  Basin 
Ranges  of  Nevada,  Idaho,  Arizona,  and  New 
Mexico,  and  is  known  as  the  Basin  liutKje  struc- 
ture. Here  the  uplift  is  not  accompanied  by  any 
horizontal  compression.  The  rocks  apparently 
have  been  uplifted  vertically  in  great  blocks 
owing  their  outlines  to  joints  or  faults,  while 
others  remain  stationary  or  go  down.    Not  infre- 


FACLTED  STRUCTURE,    BASIN    RANGE. 

quently  a  series  of  such  blocks  is  tilted  in  a 
monoclinal  manner,  corresponding  edges  of  differ- 
ent blocks  going  up  and  the  opposite  edges  going 
down,  the  elevated  edges  tints  making  mountains, 
and  the  depressed  edges  valleys. 

Still  another  type  of  uplift  is  shown  in  the 
Uinta  Mountains  of  Utah,  where  a  great  mass  of 
rock  has  been  apparently  lifted  vertically  above 
the  adjacent  rocks  with  only  a  gentle  arching. 


BROAD  MONOCLINE,   UINTA   MOUNTAINS. 

Two  theories  have  been  proposed  to  explain 
mountains  of  the  fold  type,  the  so-called  gravita- 
tion theory,  and  the  contraction  theory.  It  has 
been  observed  that  mountains  formed  by  fold- 
ing or  faulting  are  for  the  most  part  composed  of 
great  thicknesses  of  sediments  which  were  de- 
posited in  the  same  general  geosyncline,  i.e.  in 
the  same  great  depression  of  the  earth,  or  per- 
haps which  were  deposited  in  areas  which  be- 
came geosynclines  due  to  subsidence  of  the  area 
under  the  weight  of  the  sediments.  It  is  supposed 
that  the  load  of  sediments  may  catise  the  isogeo- 
therins  to  rise,  that  is.  causing  the  rocks  at 
a  certain  level  to  have  a  higher  temperature  than 
they  otherwise  would  have.  This,  perhaps  com- 
bined with  the  injection  of  igneous  rocks,  which 
are  sometimes  observed  to  occur  In  such  areas, 
causes  the  rocks  to  expand,  resulting  in  folds  or 
mountains.  To  this  there  are  a  number  of  ob- 
jections.    The  expansion   possible  by  this  eau.se 


is  not  sullicient  to  explain  the  amount  of  folding 
observed,  and  furthermore  it  does  not  explain  the 
occurrence  of  the  folds  in  parallel  ridges.  The 
contraction  theory  is  brielly  this:  The  cooling 
of  the  earth  is  proceeding  more  rapidly  in  the 
interior  than  at  the  cool  exterior.  This  causes 
more  rapid  contraction  of  the  interior  than  of 
the  exterior,  and  the  crust,  in  its  tendency  to 
make  itself  smaller  in  order  to  fit  the  smaller 
nucleus,  becomes  wrinkled  and  corrugated.  The 
wrinkles  become  located  along  points  of  weak- 
ness. These  are  likely  to  be  under  the  geosyn- 
clines where  great  sedimentation  has  occurred, 
where,  as  above  seen,  the  temperature  is  sup- 
posed to  be  higher. 

(2)  \\'hen  an  area  is  elevated  above  the  sea 
the  natural  forces  of  erosion,  wind,  water, 
changes  of  temperatui-e,  etc.,  begin  their  attack 
upon  the  land,  and  slowly  cut  it  down,  the 
waters  collecting  in  rills,  brooks,  and  rivers,  cut- 
ting small  and  large  valleys  with  a  variety  ot 
forms  and  distribution  due  to  the  var.ying  hard- 
ness and  the  structure  of  the  materials  cut 
through.  If  carried  far  enough  this  process  will 
ultimately  bring  the  elevated  area  to  sea  level. 
At  certain  stages  in  the  process  certain  areas, 
because  of  their  hardness  or  strttcture,  may  stand 
high  above  the  surrounding  areas  which  have 
been  worn  away,  and  may  be  called  mountains. 
In  so  far  a.s  mountains  have  already  been  formed 
by  folding  and  elevation,  subsequent  erosion  only 
modifies  their  shapes,  but  where  uplift  has  not 
left  the  land  in  mountain  form  subsequent  de- 
nudation may  bring  it  to  this  point.  Mountains 
formed  or  modified  in  this  way  have  a  variety 
of  shapes.  When  the  strata  ai'e  horizontal  a  hard 
layer  at  the  top  may  resist  erosion  sufficiently 
long  to  make  the  mountain  a  flat  or  table  top 
mountain.  Hard  volcanic  material  about  a  vol- 
cano may  resist  erosion  more  than  the  surround- 
ing material,  and  the  area  thus  stand  as  a  lava- 
topped  mountain.  If  the  strata  are  much  folded 
erosion  cuts  down  along  lines  of  least  resist- 
ance, usually  following  the  softer  strata,  leaving 
the  edges  of  the  harder  ones  as  ridges.  This  state 
of  affairs  appears  in  the  Appalachian  system,  a 
system  owing  its  present  features  to  folding  and 
elevation  combined  with  diflerential  denudation 
along  softer  layers. 

(.3)  Mountains  formed  by  eruption  of  igneous 
rocks  are  of  common  occurrence,  ^'olcanic  moun- 
tains formed  by  lavas  occurring  either  singly  or 
grouped  in  lines  are  well  known.  Vesuvius, 
Rainier.  Hood.  Saint  Helen's,  and  Shasta  are  ex- 
amples of  these.  The  volcanic  materials  may 
be  so  grouped  as  to  form  an  upland  of  consider- 
able extent,  as  the  Cascade  range.  Eruptions  of 
igneous  rocks  which  ne\'er  reach  the  surfac,e 
also  form  mountains  by  bulging  up  the  strata 
above  them.  Going  ttpward  toward  the  surface 
they  find  it  easier  at  a  certain  point  to  spread 
out  in  a  globular  form  (called  laccoliie).  arch- 
ing the  strata  above  them,  than  to  break 
through  the  overlying  .strata  and  come  to  the 
surface.  The  mountain  thus  formed  is  a  dome 
with  a  nucleus  of  igneous  material.  The  Henry 
and  Huerfano  mountains  of  the  Western  United 
States  are  of  this  type. 

MOFNTAINS  AND  Ci-IMATE.  ^Mountains  fulfill 
important  usci^  in  the  economy  of  nature,  espe- 
ciall.v  in  connection  with  the  water  system  of 
the  world.     They  are  at  once  the  great  collectors 


MOUNTAIN. 


68 


MOUNTAIN  ASH. 


and  distributors  ol  water.  In  the  passage  of 
moisture-charged  winds  across  them,  the  mois- 
ture is  precipitated  as  rain  or  snow.  When 
mountain  ranges  intersect  the  course  of  constant 
winds  and  abstract  the  moisture,  they  produce 
a  moist  country  on  the  windward  side,  and  a 
comparatively  dry  and  arid  one  on  the  U'cward. 
This  is  exemplified  in  the  Andes,  the  precipitous 
western  surface  of  which  has  a  different  aspect 
from  the  sloping  eastern  jjlaiii;  and  so  also  the 
greater  supply  of  moisture  on  the  southern  sides 
of  the  Himalayas  brings  the  snow-line  3000  feet 
lower  than  on  the  northern  side.  Above  a  certain 
height  the  moisture  falls  as  snow,  and  a  range 
of  snow-clad  summits  would  form  a  more  effec- 
tual separatiim  between  the  plains  on  either  side 
than  would  the  widest  ocean,  were  it  not  that 
transverse  valleys  are  of  fre<pient  occurrence, 
which  open  uj)  a  i)ass,  or  way  of  transit,  at  a 
level  below  tlie  snow-line.  Hut  even  these  would 
not  prevent  the  range  being  an  impassable  bar- 
rier if  the  temperate  regions  contained  as  lofty 
mountains  as  the  tropics.  Mountains  also  show 
considerable  vertical  variati(m  in  their  life  and 
climate  zones.  It  is  well  known  that,  other  things 
being  equal,  the  air  is  one  degree  cooler  for  every 
300  feet  of  ascent,  and  also  that  the  rate  of  pre- 
cipitation increases  upward.  At  a  certain  eleva- 
tion rain  gives  way  to  snow.  Corresponding  to 
these  varying  conditions  of  temperature  and 
moisture  is  the  clistribution  of  the  vegetation, 
which  is  commonly  in  well-defined  zones,  each 
zone  distinguished  by  its  species  from  the  zones 
above  and  below.  Near  the  top  of  many  moun- 
tains the  vegetation  ends  altogether,  and  the  top 
of  the  mountain  is  barren. 

Ar.E  OF  MoiNTAiNS.  The  age  of  most  folded 
mountain  systems  has  been  determined  by  the 
structure  of  the  sediments  of  known  age  wliich 
compose  them,  and  their  relation  to  other  se<li- 
ments  of  known  age.  For  instance,  the  .Ap- 
palachian system  of  the  Eastern  X'nited  States, 
composed  mainly  of  Paleozoic  rocks,  is  much  con- 
torted, while  rocks  of  Mesozoic  age  rest  against 
this  mountain  system  in  relatively  umlisturlied 
layers.  Tt  is  clear  that  the  main  uplift  of  the 
mountain  system  followed  the  depositicm  of  the 
Paleozoic  rocks,  and  preceded  that  of  the  Meso. 
zoic  rocks.  The  age  of  volcanic  mountains  is  de- 
termined by  the  relations  of  the  volcanic  materi- 
als of  surrounding  sedimentary  rocks  of  known 
age.  The  mountain  systems  of  the  worlil  were 
formed  at  various  times.  Some  of  them  have  rep- 
resented areas  of  weakness  where  several  moun- 
tain-making movements  have  occurred,  as  in  the 
Pyrenees.  .Alps.  .Tnra.  and  Himalayas.  Others 
have  been  cut  down  by  denudation  to  their  very 
roots,  and  do  not  now  appear  as  moimtains.  The 
greatest  and  loftiest  mountains  of  elevation  have 
for  the  most  part  received  their  greatest  uplift 
in  comparatively  recent  geological  times. 

Consult:  Elie  de  Beaumont,  \ntirr  sur  Irx  ni/K- 
trnies  (Ir  mnntnqnrs  (Paris.  lS.=i2)  :  Oeikie, 
Mounldin  Arrhitrrtiirr  (London.  IS77):  Reclus, 
Thr  Hislorii  of  a  Mountniii  ( Xew  York.  IS.'^l)  : 
Suess.  fhi.i  Anililz  tirr  fCrdr  (Leipzig,  ISS.")SS)  : 
Reade,  Thr  Oriqin  nf  Mounlniii  lianfirs  (London. 
ISRT)  :  ficikie.  F.nrtb  Srtilpliirr  (New  York. 
ISnS)  :  Davis,  I'InisirnI  Dcographii  (Boston. 
I8!)S)  :  Von  Lendenfeld.  /)iV  Hochprbirfie  der 
Erdr  (Freiburc  ISO!)):  Lapparent.  I.ri^ons  de 
fj/offraphie  p/ii/.iiV/i/c  (2d  ed..  Paris,  1808). 


MOUNTAIN,  The.  The  name  of  a  political 
faction   in   tlie    French   Revolution.      See  JIo.ma- 

G.N.MtDS. 

MOUNTAIN  ABTILLERY.  Cannon  for 
use  in  countries  where  the  usual  wheeled  vehicles 
cannot  go.  Sometimes  a  jointed  gun  of  consider- 
able weight,  as  in  the  case  of  the  English,  sonie- 
linies  a  single  piece  gun — designed  to  be  capal)le 
of  being  taken  wherever  troops  may  be  ordered 
without  retarding  their  movements.  Fixed  ani- 
nuinition  with  metallic  cartridge  cases  is  used 
entirely. 

In  the  United  States  the  mountain  guns  are  of 
two  forms:  The  Ilotchkiss  2-pounder,  1.65  in. 
calibre,  and  the  Holchkiss  12-pounder,  3  in. 
calibre.  The  carriage  is  of  steel.  The  cartridge 
consists  of  three  main  portions:  the  cartridge 
case,  the  charge,  and  the  projectile.  Two  types 
of  projectile  are  used,  canister  and  shell.  The 
canister  for  the  2-pounder  consists  of  a  cylin- 
drical tin  case  holding  30  hardened-lead  one-ounce 
bullets  with  the  interstices  filled  with  a  matrix 
of  sulphur.  The  shell  is  of  cast  iron,  with  point 
percussion  fuze.  (See  Fl"ZE. )  The  2-poimder 
gun  weighs  121  pounds  and  is  capable  of  penetrat- 
ing 1.3  inches  of  steel  at  the  muzzle.  The  12- 
pounder  gun  weighs  218  pounds  and  is  capable  of 
penetrating  1.4  inches  of  steel  at  tlie  muzzle.  The 
English  numntain  gun.  which  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  Indian  and  colonial  service,  is  a 
jointed  weapon  of  three  pieces,  each  section  weigh- 
ing 900  pounds,  the  entire  gun  and  carriage 
weighing  ."JKiO  pounds. 

MOUNTAIN  ASH,  Rowan  Tree,  or  QriCK- 
K.N  Tkkk  tl'iini.s  Aiiriiparid  :  Sorbiis  Auctipariii  oi 
many  botanists).  A  very  ornamental  Euroi)ean 
tree  of  the  natural  order  Rosacea".  It  does  not 
attain  a  great  size:  has  in  general  a  very  straight 
erect  stem:  and  is  distinguished  from  the  other 
species  of  Pynis  by  pinnated  glabrous  leaves  of 


MOUNTAIN  AKH. 

serrated  leaflets,  terminated  by  a  single  leaflet; 
coi-jnibs  of  snniU  flowers;  and  small  globose 
fruit.  The  wood  is  valued  for  its  compactness. 
The  inner  bark  and  sapwood  have  a  very  peculiar 
smell.  In  the  superstitions  of  European  peas- 
ants a  twig  of  rowan  tree  was  supposed  to  have 
great  elFicacy  in  searing  away  evil  spirits.     The 


p 

liJO 


1^ 


<  UJ 

1-Q 

zz 

oo 

•  UJ 


C  UJ 


So 


zl- 


LU  O 


MOUNTAIN  ASH.  69 


MOUNTAIN  CLIMBING. 


generally  red,  sometimes  yellow,  fruit  (rowan 
berries),  which  is  aeid  and  somewliat  bitter,  is 
sometimes  used  for  preserves.  The  very  nearly 
allied  American  species  {Pyrus  Americana), 
which  has  bright  red  fruit,  is  a  shrub  or  small 
tree  distributed  from  Newfoundland  to  Manitoba 
and  southward  in  elevated  regions,  and  often 
planted  as  an  ornamental.  The  wood  is  soft, 
liglit,  and  little  used.  Somewhat  similar  to  it 
is  the  elder-leaved  mountain  ash  (I'yrus  sam- 
hucifolia) ,  a  hardy  species  ranging  north  to 
Greenland  and  Alaska,  but  seldom  found  south 
of  the  Great  Lake  region.  It  differs  from  Pyrus 
Antcricdiin  in  its  leaves,  larger  flowers,  and 
fruits. 

MOUNTAIN  ASH.  A  coalmining  town  in 
Glnnu)r<;anshirc,  Wales,  five  miles  south  of 
Werthyr-Tydlil  (ilap:  Wales,  C  5).  It  has 
large  collieries,  foundries,  and  iron  manufac- 
tures, owns  its  water  and  gas  works,  and  main- 
tains slaughter-houses.  Population,  in  1891, 
17,820;  in  1001.  31,100. 

MOUNTAIN  BEAVER.    The  sewellel  (q.v.). 

MOUNTAIN  CAT.  (1)  In  California,  the 
cacomistle.  (2)  Any  of  several  wild  cats  re- 
garded as  peculiar  to  local  mountain  regions; 
a  catamount. 

MOUNTAIN   CHAIN.      See   Mountain. 

MOUNTAIN  CLIMBING.  The  awakening 
of  man's  interest  in  mountains  is  chiefly  due  to 
Rousseau,  though  earlier  writers,  while  approach- 
ing them  as  scientists,  were  also  susceptible  to 
their  charm.  This  two-fold  interest  led  Saus- 
sure  to  incite  J.  Balmat  to  find  a  way  to  the 
summit  of  ilont  Blanc  in  1780  and  to  accompany 
him  tliitlier  in  1787.  From  that  ascent  alpinism 
is  generally  dated.  In  London  in  1857  was 
formed  the  first  Alpine  Club  to  foster  '"the  com- 
munity of  feeling  amongst  those  who  in  the  life 


of  the  High  Alps  have  shared  the  same  enjoy- 
ments, the  same  labours,  and  the  same  dangers." 
This  idea,  in  a  modilied  form,  was  taken  up 
lluoughout  Continental  Europe  and  advocated 
with  such  enthusiasm  that  more  than  100,000 
persons  of  both  sexes  are  now  enrolled  in  the 
various  alpine  societies.  The  largest  of  these  are 
the  tJerman  and  Austrian  (founded  in  1862), 
about  ,55,000  members;  Swiss  (1803),  7000;  Ital- 
ian (1803),  54.000;  and  French  (1874),  0000.  In 
America  three  strong  societies  came  into  being: 
the  Appalachian  Mountain  Club  (q.v.)  in  Boston 
(1870).  1300  members;  the  Sierra  Club  (1892) 
in  San  Francisco,  800;  and  the  'Mazamas'  (1894) 
in  Portland,  Ore.  In  these  derivative  societies 
eligibility  is  based  upon  a  love  of  nature  and  of 
the  mountain  in  particular  rather  than  on  alpin- 
ism proper,  though  most  of  them  contain  a  con- 
tingent of  expert  climbers.  The  American  Alpine 
Club  (  1902) ,  with  its  home  in  Philadelphia,  aims 
to  revert  to  the  original  type,  but  adds  to  its 
field  polar  exploration  and  the  study  of  glaciers. 

Thus  cultivated,  Alpine  climbing  has  attained 
almost  to  a  science.  Its  principles  are  set  forth 
in  extended  manuals,  such  as  Dent's  Mountaineer- 
ing. Badminton  Library  (London,  1892).  It  has 
called  into  existence  the  class  of  professional 
guides — Swiss.  Tyrolese.  and  Italian — whose  skill 
far  exceeds  that  of  the  best  amateurs.  Their 
aid,  always  expedient  in  tours  above  snow  line,  is 
indispensable  in  attacks  upon  giant  peaks  in  dis- 
tant lands,  such  as  have  frequently  been  made 
within  recent  times. 

The  most  dangerous  accidents  in  mountain 
climbing,  those  which  consist  in  falls  from  a 
great  height,  rarely  occur  when  guides  are  taken 
and  the  party  is  properly  roped  together  in  a 
chain  of  mutual  support.  Occasionally  some 
foothold  seemingly  secure  gives  way  beneath 
the   climber's   weight;    but  more   frequently  the 


NAME 

Localit.T 

Height 

Tear 

Party 

7.000 
9,64T 
10,627 
15,781 
l;i.672 
14,026 
16,217 
13,385 
14,803 
14.318 
14.780 
12,457 
12.800 
16.546 
18,470 
15,700 
17,000 
24,015 
22.600 
21,010 
13.349 
20.498 
22,860 
21,030 
6,293 
14,147 
11,934 
14,526 
18.024 
10,645 
10,652 
11,100 
11,637 
11.150 
11,860 

1492 
15— 
1739 
1786 
1811 
1812 
1855 
1861 
1861 
1862 
1865 
1799 
1804 
1868 
1868 
1888 
1888 
1883 
1892 
1898 
1895 
1879 
1897 
1898 
1642 
1820 
18.M 
1870 
1897 
1888 
1890 
1899 
1894 
1897 
1901 
1902 

Dompjniian  de  Beauprg 
De  Candale 
Anon.vnions 

Pic  du  Midi 

Titlis* 

Mont  Blanc  t 

P.vrenees 

Swiss  Alps 

«         (< 

J.  R.  and  H.  Meyer 

,(         tt 

•  t        «, 

Smyth,  et  al. 
Leslie  Stephen 
J  Tvndall 

Srlireckhorn 

«•         «t 

<•         •< 

•<         tt 

E.  S^  Kennedy.  C.  Wigram 
E.  Whyraper.  et  al. 

•1         •, 

Ortlpr  t 

Josele  (a  hunter) 

Klbruz  t 

l-,shha 

Pikhtnw 

tt 

.\.  F.  Mummery 

Kahni  § 

W.  M.  Conway 

« 

M.  Zurbriggen  (guide) 
E.  Whymper 
S.  Vines.  Zurbriggen 
W.  M. Conway 
Darby  Field 

(Miiinborazo 

Andes 

Aconcagua   

IlHmant 

,. 

Hodii      

.Stevens  and  Van  Trump 

Rainier 

Saint  Elias  § 

<< 

Selkirks 

W.  S.  Green,  H.  Swanzy 

Sir  Donald 

t< 

Temple 

Canadian  Rockies 

S    E    Allen    W    D    Wilcox    pt  iit 

J   W   Collie  et  al 

«            •• 

t«            « 

•  The  first  snow  peak.  +  The  highest  in  range.  t  The  highest  summit. 

(In  most  instances  the  guides  are  not  mentioned  in  this  list.) 


§  The  highest  thus  tar  climbed. 


MOUNTAIN  CLIMBING. 


70 


MOUNTAIN  PLANTS. 


fall  takes  place  because  tlie  climber  is  overtired, 
or  has  started  too  (luickly,  without  the  neces- 
sary training  and  hardening,  in  consequence  of 
which  at  a  critical  moment  some  nuisclc  fails 
to  answer.  Overexertion  (;f  either  body  or  mind 
is  always  to  be  avoided:  for  alertness  of  both 
is  essential.  The  rope  is  the  sheet  anchor  of 
mountaineering,  whether  it  be  on  the  snow  or  on 
the  equally  dangerous  grassj'  slopes.  On  really 
ditTieuH  mountains  no  more  than  three  jwrsons 
should  be  on  the  same  rope.  With  the  rope 
the  ice-axe  is  used,  and  indeed  is  a  very  neces- 
sary adjunct  to  the  climber.  It  consists  of  a 
steel  axe  with  a  cutting  edge  crosswise  to  the 
handle,  like  an  adze  and  a  pick.  The  handle 
is  of  such  length  that  it  makes  a  convenient 
stair,  and  is  shod  with  a  steel  point.  The  cut- 
ting edge  of  the  axe  is  enijjloyed  for  making 
steps  in  an  ice  wall,  the  pick  for  holding  and 
aiding  the  climber  in  pulling  liimsclf  up,  while 
the  a.\e  when  used  as  a  staff  or  alpenstock 
enables  the  climber  to  hold  securely,  or  it  can 
l>e  employed  as  a  brake  when  descending.  Acci- 
dents which  come  from  the  fall  of  large  masses 
of  rock,  snow,  or  earth  may  be  largely  obviated 
by  a  careful  observation  of  the  position  of  the 
svm  with  regard  to  snowfields  below  upon  which 
the  path  is  to  be  taken.  If  the  snow  begins 
to  slide,  carrying  the  climber  with  it,  the  utmost 
nimbleness  of  resource,  wit.  and  strength  applied 
to  the  alpenstock  as  a  brake  is  the  only  rcme<Iy 
that  can  he  formulated  beforehand.  In  ascencj- 
ing  an  ordinary  couUiir  tlie  axe  must  be  con- 
stantly used   for  culling   footholds  step  by  step. 

The  list  on  the  preceding  page  presents  some 
of  the  principal  first  ascents  since  the  earliest 
authentic   reconls. 

Consult:  J.  Forbes.  TrareJn  Through  the  Alps 
(Edinburgh.  1843)  ;  A.  W.  lloore.  The  Alps 
in  ISd'i.  from  MS.  copy  (Edinburgh,  1902); 
J,  Ball  and  E.  R.  Kennedy.  Peaks,  Pnssrs, 
and  Glacierx  (London.  18.50-()2)  :  G.  Studer. 
I'eber  Eis  und  fichncr  (Hern,  1809-71):  .T.  Tyn- 
dall,  Mountiiineering  in  ISli]  (London,  1862)  ; 
id..  Hours  of  Exercise  in  the  Alps  (ib.,  1871)  ; 
L.  Stephen,  The  Plaijground  of  Europe  (ib., 
1871):  E.  Whym])er,  Srrmnhks  Among  the 
Alps  (ib.,  1871):  id..  Travels  in  the  Great 
Andes  of  the  Equator  (lb.,  1892);  C.  T. 
Dent.  Ahore  the  Snou-linc  (ib..  1885)  ;  Clarence 
King.  Moinilninrcring  in  the  Sierra  Xerada 
(Hoston,  1880)  ;  \\'.  M.  Conway,  flimbing  in  the 
KiirnlornmJJimalinias  (London,  1894):  id..  The 
Alps  from  End  to  End  (ib..  189o)  ;  id..  The  Bo- 
lirian  Andes  (New  York.  1901)  :  A.  F.  Munuuery, 
.If.i/  C'limhs  in  the  Alps  and  Caneai^us  (ib..  189;))  ; 
E.  A.  Fitzgerald.  Climhs  in  the  AVir  Zealand 
Alps  (ib.,  1890):  id..  The  Hiqhest  Andes  (ib., 
1899)  :  F.  M.  H.  Workman.  /»  the  Tee  ^\■orld  of 
the  lllmiilai/a  (New  York.  1898)  ;  C.  E.  irathews. 
The  Annals  of  Mont  filanr  and  the  Matlerhorn 
(Tx)ndon.  1898)  :  F.  He  Filippi.  The  Ascent  of 
Honnl  .S'HiH/  Elias  (London.  1900)  :  W.  D.  Wil- 
cox. Camping  in  the  Canadian  Rockies  (New 
York.  1900)  ;  .T.  N.  Collie.  Cllnihing  in  the  llima- 
lagas  and  Other  ^tf,llntllins  (Edinburgh,  1902), 
For  recent  .\merlran  mountaineering,  consult 
Appalnehia.  vols,  i.-jx.  (Roston,  18701902).  and 
fiicrra  Club  litillclin.  vols,  i.-iii.   (San  Francisco, 

is9ri  lon.TK 

MOUNTAIN  GAZELLE.     See  Cazei-I.E. 
MOUNTAIN  GOAT.     See  Rocky  Mointain 

^V)IITE  (JOAT. 


MOUNTAIN  HERRING.  The  Rocky  Moun- 
tain wliilclish  {Cor<  ijijniis  Williunisoni) ,  found 
in  clear  streams  from  tlic  northern  Rocky 
^lountain  ranges  to  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  good 
food,  and  is  esteemed  by  ;inglers,  as  it  readily 
takes  a  fly.  Sec  Wiiiteflsh;  and  Plate  of 
WiHTEFi.sn.  Smelts,  etc. 

MOUNTAIN  LIMESTONE.  The  basal 
strata  uf  llic  ('arbimiferous  series  in  the  south 
of  England  and  Wales.  It  is  highly  fossiliferous 
and  carries  a  few  ores.  Its  chief  use  is  for 
building  stone.  The  term  was  applied  to  the  cal- 
careous rocks  of  the  American  Subcarboniferous, 
but   soon   fell   into  disuse. 

MOUNTAIN  LION.  Tlie  name  in  the  west- 
ern ])art  of  the  United  States  for  the  panther, 
cougar,  or  puma  {Felis  concolor).  Early  writers 
upon  America  reported  that  the  lion  was  a  resi- 
dent of  North  America  from  the  skins  they  saw 
among  tlie  Indians,  which  they  supposed  to  be 
those  of   lionesses.      See   PiMA, 

MOUNTAIN  MEADOWS  MASSACRE. 
In  .\mcrican  history,  the  massacre,  near  Jloun- 
tain  Meadows  in  Utah,  in  September,  1857,  of  a 
jiarty  of  emigrants  from  Arkansas  and  Jlissouri 
])assing  through  Utah  on  their  way  to  Southern 
California.  They  nuiiiliered  all  told  about  140 
men,  women,  and  children.  On  their  way  they 
were  everywhere  refused  food  until  they  reached 
the  neighborhood  of  .Mountain  Meadows,  a  valley 
in  Iron  County,  about  .'JoO  miles  south  of  .Salt 
Lake  City,  Here  they  stopped  to  rest  their  horses, 
and  on  September  7,  1857,  were  fired  u|ion  by 
Indians,  and,  it  is  alleged,  by  ^lormons  disguised. 
They  withstood  siege  until  Sejitember  Ilth,  when, 
on  promise  of  protection  by  .lolin  D,  Lee  (q.v.), 
Mormon  bi.shop  and  Indian  agent,  they  left  the 
shelter  qf  their  wagons.  All  adults  and  children 
over  seven  years  of  age  were  killed,  and  seventeen 
younger  children  were  distributed  among  Mormon 
families,  but  were  afterwards  restored  to  rela- 
tives by  the  United  .States  Government.  Lee 
was  executed  for  this  crime  in  1877.  and  though 
the  effort  to  inculpate  other  high  ollicers  of  the 
Church  failed,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
project  was  known  and  a))])roved  by  them,  espe- 
cially since  lirighani  Young  (q.v.)  had  a  .short 
time  before  announced  that  "no  person  shall  be 
allowed  to  ]iass  or  repass  into  or  through  or  from 
this  territory  witlioul  a  permit  from  the  jiroper 
ofiicer."  II.  II.  IJancroft  in  his  History  of  Utah 
(San  Francisco.  188.'{|  places  blame  on  l.ee  en- 
tirely. Consult:  lAnn,  Story  of  the  Mormons  (New 
York.  19021:  and  Confessions  of  John  D.  Lee 
(Saint  Louis.  1891). 

MOUNTAIN  MOCKING-BIRD.     See  MocK- 

IXG-1'.lHll. 

MOUNTAIN  PLANTS.  The  chief  features 
of  mountain  |)]anls  liave  been  discussed  under 
the  hca<l  of  AllM.xK  I'l.A.XT.  At  the  bases  of 
most  movmtains  the  vegetation  closely  resembles 
lliat  of  the  surrounding  lowlands,  but  with 
I'levation  changes  a)quar  whieh  correspond  to  the 
changes  observed  as  the  globe  is  traversed  toward 
high  latitudes.  For  example,  in  the  mountains 
of  Mexico  the  typical  vegetation  of  the  lowlands 
gives  place  with  ascent  to  various  zones  of  trees, 
including  forms  which  are  deciduous  like  those 
of  the  United  States,  then  conifers  like  those 
of  the  Northern  United  States  and  Canada,  and 
finally  into  mosses  and  liclwns  characteristic  of 
the  alpine  regions.     Mountains  contain  a  large 


MOUNTAIN    PLANTS 


COPYBiCHT.  rSOZ.  ( 


i     ERODtUM    PETR>t-UM 

2  CAMPANULA     PULLA 

3  DIANTHUS    Kl  RTU  S 


4  GENTIANA    ACAULIS. 

5  PEDICULARIS     ELONGATA 

6  LEUCOJUM    VERNUM 


7  DAPHNE     CNEORUM. 

8  BULBOCODIUM  RUTH  ENICUM 

9  SAXIFRAGA    O  PPOSITI  FO  U  A. 


MOUNTAIN  PLANTS. 


MOUNT  DESERT. 


proportion  of  ciiileiiiic  plants.  This  is  doubtless 
due  to  tlieii-  relative  isolation.  il(juntaiii  en- 
demisin  is  partieularly  cliaraeteristic  of  tlie  al- 
pine forms.  prolial)ly  because  the  eonditions  for 
their  niif;nilii>n  are  less  favorable  than  for  those 
farther  down.  Some  plants  eliaraeteristic  of 
mountain  habitats  are  shown  in  the  aeoompany- 
ing  plate.     Si'e  Knukmism. 

MOUNTAIN  PLOVER.  A  ring-plover 
(.■Effialitis  iiKjnhiiiij ) .  very  common  throughout 
the  Koeky  .Mountain  region  and  neighboring 
plains,  where  its  sandy  gray  plumage  renders 
it  almost  invisible  when  it  alights.  It  remains 
in  the  open  lands,  ami  rarely  ascends  above  the 
level  (8000  to  9000  feet)  of  the  interior  'parks.' 
It  breeds  tlirnugh<p\it   its  summer  habitat. 

MOUNTAIN  QUAIL.  A  local  name  of  two 
Californian  'partridges':  (1)  the  'plumed'  par- 
tridge (Oreortyx  pictus)  ;  and  ('2)  fJambel's  par- 
tridge  (Lophorty.v  Gambeli).     See  Quail. 

MOUNTAIN  SHEEP.  ■  The  Rocky  Mountain 

Shee)!.     See   liiciiOKN. 

MOUNTAIN  SPINACH.     See  Okache. 

MOUNTAIN  SYSTEM.  A  term  rather 
loosely  used,  but  Hbiili  ])roperly  refers  to  a  num- 
ber of  parallel  or  consecutive  mountain  ranges 
formed  during  the  same  geological  period,  but  in 
separate  areas  of  crusted  folding.  Thus  the  Appa- 
lachian system  comprises  the  Appalachian,  Aca- 
dian, and  Ozark  ranges,  each  of  which  follows  a 
common  direction  although  lying  within  a  differ- 
ent geosynclinal  fold. 

MOUNTAIN  TEA.     See  Oailtiieria. 

MOUNT  AUBURN.  A  well-known  cemetery 
in  Cambridge.  Mass..  containing  the  graves  of 
many  celebrated  men,  in<luding  Longfellow', 
Lowell,  Charles  Sunmer.  and  Phillips  Brooks. 
The  beautiful  grounds  cover  125  acres. 

MOUNT  AYR.  A  town  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Itinggold  County,  la..  75  miles  south  by 
west  of  Dcs  Moines ;  on  the  Chicago.  Burlington, 
and  Quincy  Railroad  (ilaj):  Iowa.  C  4).  It  has 
a  fine  court-house  and  public  school  buildings, 
and  is  important  chiefly  as  a  trade  centre  for  a 
fertile  agricultural  and  stock-raising  section. 
Population,  in  1SH0,  12ti.-);  in  1000.  17'29. 

MOUNT  CAR'MEL.  A  mountain  range  of 
Palestine.     See  Cah.mel. 

MOUNT  CARMEL.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Waliash  County.  111..  25  miles  southwest 
of  Vincennes.  Ind.;  on  the  Wabash  River,  and 
on  the  Southern  and  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati. 
Chicago  and  Saint  Louis  railroads  (Map:  Illi- 
nois, E  5 ) .  It  has  a  fine  court-house  and  city 
hall.  Water  power  is  obtained  from  the  river; 
and  besides  railroad  shops  of  the  Big  Four,  there 
are  nuinnfactories  of  machinei-y  supplies,  pulleys, 
shafting,  paper,  strawboard.  lumber,  spokes, 
staves,  woodenware.  furniture.  ;ind  flour.  Set- 
tled in  1818.  Mount  Carmel  was  chartered  as  a 
city  in  1865.  Population,  in  1890,  3376;  in  1900, 
43il. 

MOUNT  CARMEL.  A  borough  in  North- 
uuibcrland  County.  Pa..  2.8  miles  east-southeast 
of  Sunbui'v:  on  the  Lehigh  Valley,  the  Northern 
Central,  and  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  rail- 
roads (Map:  Pennsvlvania.  E  3).  There  are  sev- 
eral anthracite  mines  here  and  in  the  vicinity, 
and  an  important  coal  trade  is  carried  on.  The 
borough  has  also  manufactures  of  lumber,  hats 


and  ca|js,  miners'  lamps,  shirts,  eigare,  etc.    Pop- 
ulation, in  1890,  8254;   in  1900,  13,179. 

MOUNT  CAR'ROLL.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  I'arriill  (Uunly,  III.,  ten  miles  cast  of  the 
jSIississippi  River;  on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  Saint  Paul  Railroad  (Map:  Illinois,  B  1). 
It  has  a  public  high  school  library  and  the 
Frances  Shimer  Academy.  There  are  valuable 
mineral  deposits,  especially  iron  ore.  in  the 
vicinity,  which  is  interested  mainly  in  agricul- 
ture and  stock-raising.  Population,  in  1890, 
1830;  in  1900.  1905. 

MOUNT  CLEM'ENS.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Maconil)  County,  Mich.,  20  miles  nortii- 
east  of  Detroit;  on  the  Clinton  River,  at  the 
head  of  navigation,  and  on  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railroad  (Map:  Jlichigau,  L  6).  It  is  a  popular 
summer  and  health  resort,  beautifully  situated, 
and  noted  for  its  mineral  springs,  which  possess 
curative  properties  for  many  diseases.  The  city 
has  an  active  Chamber  of  Commerce,  a  public 
library,  and  well-equipped  hotels  and  bath-houses. 
Its  industrial  interests  are  represented  by  a 
large  beet-sugar  factory,  cooperage  works,  a 
casket  manufactoi-j',  and  an  establishment  pro- 
ducing carriages,  wagons,  sleighs,  and  agricul- 
tural implements.  Settled  in  1802,  Mount  Clem- 
ens was  incorporated  first  in  1878.  The  gov- 
ernment is  administered,  under  the  conventional 
charter  of  Michigan  cities  of  the  fourth  class, 
by  a  mayor,  annuall.v  elected,  and  a  unicam- 
eral council.  The  city  owns  ;ind  o|ierates  the 
water-works.  Population,  in  1890,  4748:  in  1900, 
()576. 

MOUNT  DESERT,  de-zert'  or  dez'ert.  The 
largest  of  the  numerous  islands  on  the  coast  of 
ilaine.  It  belongs  to  Hancock  County,  and  is  sep- 
arated from  the  mainland  on  tlie  nortliwest  by  a 
channel  from  one-half  to  two  miles  wide,  and 
on  the  northeast  by  Frenchman's  Bay  (Map: 
Maine,  G  7  ) .  It  is  15  miles  long  and  8  miles  broad, 
with  an. area  of  about  100  square  miles.  Its 
outline  is  very  irregular,  a  long,  narrow  bay 
or  fiord  almost  separating  the  island  into  two 
halves.  The  surface  is  rugged  and  mountainous, 
rising  to  a  height  of  over  1500  feet,  and  present- 
ing a  line  of  bold  cliffs  along  the  northeast 
coast.  The  island  is  surroiuuled  by  a  number 
of  rocky  islets,  and  there  are  several  beautiful 
lakes  in  the  interior,  giving  a  varied  character 
to  the  scenery,  which  has  made  Moimt  Desert 
a  favorite  summer  resort.  The  island  has  three 
convenient  harbors.  Bar  Harbor,  Northeast,  and 
Southwest,  and  numerous  villages,  varying  in 
popularity  as  summer  resorts,  the  most  noted 
being  Bar  Harbor.  First  discovered  by  Cham- 
plain,  who  gave  the  island  its  name.  Mount 
Desert  was  settled  in  1608  by  French  Jesuits, 
their  colony  of  Saint  Saiiveur  on  Somes  Sound, 
however,  being  destroyed  eight  years  later  by 
an  expedition  from  V'irginia.  A  permanent  set- 
tlement here  (Somesville.  which  is  thus  the  old- 
est on  the  island)  was  effected  by  the  English  in 
1701.  The  towii  of  Mount  Desert  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1789.  Since  that  dati-  the  towns  of 
Eden,  Cranberry  Isles  (three  miles  from  South- 
west Harbor),  and  Treniont  have  been  formed 
from  the  original  district  and  incorporated,  re- 
spectively, in  1796,  1830.  and  184S.  Population, 
Cranberry  Isles,  in  1900.  374:  Eden,  in  1890. 
1046;  in  1900.  4379:  Mount  Desert,  in  1900, 
1600;  Tremont,  in  1900.  2010. 


MOUNTED  GKENADIERS. 

MOUNTED  GKENADIERS.     See  MotXTED 
Infamky. 

MOUNTED  INFANTRY.  A  general  term 
applied  to  toot  .-oltlicrs  mounted  on  horses, 
mules,  camels,  or  on  wagons  tor  transportation 
only.  Such  were  the  ancient  infantry  carried 
swiftly  to  the  battlefield  in  war  '  chariots. 
In  the  sixteenth  century  Louis  of  Nassau  made 
500  of  his  cavalrymen  take  up  bcliind  their 
saddles  an  equal  number  of  infantry,  and 
Ale.xander  of  I'arma.  wishing  to  surprise  the 
Duke  of  Alen(;()n,  mounted  several  companies 
of  infantry  on  jjack  horses.  This  was  followed  by 
mounting  several  divisions  of  the  infantry  of 
that  time,  to  which  was  given  the  name  of 
'dragoons.'  probably  from  the  matchUxk  carried, 
which  was  ornamented  at  the  muzzle  witli  tlie 
head  of  a  dragon.  Eventually  this  name  'dra- 
goon' was  given  to  certain  cavalry  wliicb  fought 
either  mounted  or  dismounted.  Louis  XIV.  es- 
tablished a  corps  of  'Mounted  Grenadiers.' 
James  II.  created  a  similar  corps  in  the  liritish 
Army,  called  "Horse  Grenadiers,'*  who  were 
armed  with  muskets  and  grenades:  in  action  they 
dismounted,  linked  horses,  fired,  and  then  threw 
their  grenades  liy  ranks.  In  1780.  dtiring  the 
American  Revolution. a  body  of  1.500  mounted  rifle 
men  from  Kentucky  and  North  Carolina,  eaeli  man 
armed  with  his  own  rille  and  mounted  on  his  own 
horse,  attacked  the  British  at  King's  Mountain, 
and  after  a  spirited  dismounted  contest  defeated 
the  enemy,  who  lost  Major  Ferguson  killed,  :iOO 
others  killed  and  wounded,  and  800  men  and  a 
quantity  of  arms  and  ammiuiition  cai)tured. 
Napoleon  in  Egypt  mounted  a  body  of  selected 
infantry  on  camels,  as  did  forty  years  later  the 
British  in  India,  in  which  their  camel-infantrv' 
covered  forty  miles  daily  for  six  days.  Agaiii. 
in  the  Sudan  campaign  camels  were  used  with 
success.  In  Tongking  and  Algeria  the  French 
often  mount  their  infantry,  sometimes  allotting 
one  mule  to  two  soldiers,  by  which  plan  they 
have  accomplished  140  miles  in  three  days.  'Die 
best  authorities  agree  that  mounted  infantry 
should   be   used    for  the  sole   purpose   of  moving 

?viickly  to  the  place  where  they  are  requireil 
or  duty  as  infantrj'men,  not  hesitating,  if 
necessary,  to  sacrifice  the  means  of  transporta- 
tion. 

During  the  war  in  South  Africa  (ISfl!)-1902) 
the  Boer  army  was  almost  entirely  composed  of 
mounted  infantry  or  ritlemen.  These  were  men 
accustomed  to  the  saddle  and  the  use  of  fire- 
arms from  boyhood,  versed  in  the  arts  of  the 
hunter,  in  the  science  of  woodcraft,  and  familiar 
with  the  topography  of  the  field  of  operations. 
Having,  by  cautious  and  noiseless  approach, 
reached  unperceived  a  spot  near  the  enemy,  the 
Boer  dismounted,  hoppled  his  horse,  leaving  him 
a  short  distance  in  rear,  crept  forwanl.  and 
from  a  secure  position  opened  fire  upon  the  un- 
Rtispecting  foe.  If  forced  to  retire,  he  did  so 
quietly  and  quickly  to  take  up  a  new  position. 
I'rom  impregnable  natural  fortifications  small 
bodies  of  these  mobile  troops  often  repulsed 
vastly  superior  British  forces  siipported  by  ar- 
tillery. In  operating  against  the  British  lavalry 
the  Boers  a<!vanccd  toward  it  on  horseback  up 
to  within  .500  meters,  then  dismounteil  and 
opened  fire.  In  battle  the  Boers  left  the  reins 
thrown  over  their  horses'  necks  and  dragging 
on  the  grotmd :  the  horses  did  not  move  until 
their  riders  returned;   the.se  animals  were  of  a 


72 


MOUNT  GILEAD. 


great  variety  of  size  and  breed,  from  the  stolid 
Basuto  pony  to  the  blooded  stallion. 

Tlie  British  under  Lord  Roberts  had  a  force 
of  about  .3000  mounted  infantry,  originally  or- 
ganized into  two  brigades  of  five  regiments  each; 
of  which  2000  men  were  regulars  and  the  re- 
mainder colonials.  Owing  to  the  want  of  in- 
struction in  mounted  field  duties,  this  force  (with 
the  exception  of  the  colonial  contingent)  was  not 
very  useful. 

During  the  American  military  operations  in 
the  Philippines  snuill  detachments  of  regular  in- 
fantry mounted  on  active  native  ponies  were 
found  useful  in  expeditions  where  rapid  marches 
were  necessary  during  the  rainy  season  or  as  a 
temporary  substitute  for  cavalry. 

In  thixse  European  countries  where  large 
cavalry  establishments  are  maintained  and  tradi- 
tional methods  are  deeply  root<'(l.  there  will  be 
provision  for  three  classes  of  mounted  troops; 
one  on  large,  heavy  horses  trained  in  'shock 
tactics'  and  for  ceremonial  purposes;  another 
on  lighter  horses  for  scouting  and  pursuit  of  an 
enemy;  a  third,  of  infantrymen  armed  with  long- 
range  rilles  on  small,  active  horses  for  escort, 
convoy,  and  picket  duty.  In  the  United  States 
all  of  these  duties  arc  performed  by  a  single 
class.  To  give  greater  mobility  to  infantry 
without  impairing  its  fire  action,  it  may  be 
mounted  temporarily  on  anything  that  will  trans- 
port it  rapidly  to  the  place  where  it  is  needed 
in  advance  of  its  comrades  on  foot :  this  kind  of 
mounted  infantry  must  be  employed  in  masses, 
never  individually. 

Biiii.incRAi'iiY."  Reports  on  MilUary  Opera- 
lions  in  South  Africa  and  China  (War  Depart- 
ment. Washington.  .July.  1001);  Molyneux, 
"Training  and  E(|uipmcnt  of  Cavalry,  Mounted 
Infantry,  etc.,"  in  the  Journal  of  theUnited  Ser- 
rice  /nxtitution  of  India  (1902).  See  the  articles 
AKMIKS;  AR.MY  OKUA.NIZATION  ;  CAVALRY;  IN- 
FANTRY; Tactics,  Military;  and  Soitii  Afri- 
can War. 

MOUNTED  POLICE.     See  JIiutary  Police 

for    d(scripti(m    of   various    militai-y   and    semi- 
military  organizations  of  this  nature. 

MOUNT  FOREST.  A  town  of  Wellington 
County.  Ontario,  Canada,  on  a  branch  of  the 
Saugeen  River.  73  miles  northeast  of  London 
(Map:  Ontario.  C  4).  It  has  manufacturing  in- 
dustries, and  is  at  the  junction  of  the  Grand 
Trunk  and  Canadian  Pacific  railways.  Popula- 
tion, in  1801.  2214:  in  1001.  '2019. 

MOUNT'FORT,  William  (lC60?-92).  An 
English  :i(  tor  and  playwright.  As  early  as  1678 
he  was  playing  in  London.  After  1082  he  was 
a  member  of  the  company  at  the  Theatre  Royal, 
and  was  the  creator  of  many  parts  in  the  drama 
of  the  time,  besides  writing  and  adapting  sev- 
eral plays,  such  as  The  Injur'd  Lovers,  or  the 
Ambitious  Father  (ptibl.  IfiSS)  ;  Sluecessful 
Strnniicrs  (IfiOO);  Kino  Eduxird  the  Third 
(IfiOl);  and  tlrrrnirieh  Park  (1601).  Accord- 
ing to  the  common  account  of  his  death,  he  was 
assassinated.  December  0.  1692.  by  C;ipt.  Richard 
Hill,  a  jealous  admirer  of  .Mrs.  Bracegirdle.  Con- 
sult :  Cook.  Hours  With  the  Players  ( London, 
1881);  Gait,  Lives  of  the  Players  (London, 
18.31);  Gibber,  Apologt/.  ed.  Lowe  (London, 
1880). 

MOUNT  GIL'EAD.  A  village  and  the  coun- 
ty-scat of  Morrow   County,  Ohio,  47  miles  north 


MOUNT  GILEAD.  73 

by  east  of  Columbus:  on  tlie  Whetstone  River, 
and  on  the  Toledo  and  Ohio  Central,  and  the 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis 
railroads  (Map:  llhio,  E  4).  It  has  a  public 
school  library.  There  are  some  manufactures 
and  a  trade  with  the  surrounding  agricultural 
country.  ]\>pulation,  in  1890,  1329;  in  1900, 
1528. 

MOUNT  HOL'LY.  A  town  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Burlington  County,  X.  J.,  19  miles  east 
by  north  of  Philadelphia ;  on  Rancocas  Creek 
and  on  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  (Map:  New 
Jersey,  C  4 ) .  It  has  the  Burlington  County 
Hospital.  Children's  Home,  and  the  Burlington 
County  Lyceum  of  History  and  Natural  Science, 
founded  in  1876,  which  possesses  a  library  of 
6500  volumes.  The  industries  are  represented 
by  several  extensive  shoe  factories,  and  by  foun- 
dries, canneries,  a  hammock  factory,  etc.  Pop- 
ulation, in  1890,  .5376;   in   1900,  5168. 

MOUNT  HOLYOKE  COLLEGE.  An  un- 
denominational woman's  college  in  South  Hadley, 
^lass..  founded  by  Jlaiy  Lyon  as  a  seminary 
in  1837  and  chartered  as  a  college  in  1888.  In 
addition  to  the  regular  undergraduate  courses, 
provision  i.s  made  for  graduate  work,  and  special 
courses  are  open  to  teachers.  The  four  years' 
course  consists  of  two  years  of  prescribed  work 
and  two  years  elective,  and  leads  to  the  degree 
of  B.A.  The  college  offers  a  large  number  of 
scholarships  and  two  graduate  fellowships.  Dur- 
ing the  collegiate  year  1902-03  the  college  had 
S3  instructors  and  officers,  and  an  enrollment 
of  671.  The  campus  includes  150  acres,  at- 
tractively laid  out,  and  contains  seven  dormi- 
tories: ilary  Lyon  Hall  occupying  the  site  of 
the  original  building  destroyed  by  fire  in  1896, 
and  including  the  chapel  and  offices  of  adminis- 
tration ;  a  well-equipped  g;\'mnasium ;  an  obser- 
vatory; Lydia  Shattuck  Hall  for  chemistry  and 
physics;  Lyman  Williston  Hall  for  natural  sci- 
ences; Dwight  Jlcmorial  Art  Building,  opened 
in  1902;  and  the  library,  with  ,a  permanent  fund 
of  .$10,000,  containing  23,000  volumes  and  3800 
pamphlets.  Its  productive  funds  amounted  to 
$613'.000.  and  its  gross  income  to  $168,000.  The 
buildings  and  grounds  were  valued  at  .$862,000, 
and  the  whole  college  property  at  $1,450,000. 

MOUNT  MOR'GAN.  A  municipality  of  Rag- 
lan C'ounty.  Queensland,  Australia,  23  miles 
southwest  of  Rockhampton,  and  404  miles  north 
of  Brisbane  by  rail  (Map:  Queensland,  G  7).  It 
is  noted  for  the  abundance  and  richness  of  the 
gold  deposits  found  on  the  mountain-summit 
and  inclosed  in  a  rock  mass  largely  composed 
of  iron  ore  and  siliceous  sinter.  The  yield  of 
gold  in  1900  was  187.352  ounces,  valued  at 
$3,758,550.     Population,  in  1901,  6280. 

MOUNT  OF  OLI'V^ES.     See  OtrvES,  Mount 

OF. 

MOUNT  OF  OLIVES.  An  oratorio  by  Bee- 
thoven, originally  Chrixtiis  am  Oelberg  (1803J, 
produced  in  1814.  In  deference  to  the  sentiment 
against  representing  Christ  as  a  character  in  a 
performance.  David  was  substituted  in  his  place, 
and  the  name  of  the  oratorio  was  changed  in 
1842  to  Eiiriedi. 

MOUNT  PLEASANT.  A  city  and  the  coun- 
tj-seat  of  Henry  County,  Iowa,  28  miles  we.st  by 
north  of  Burlington;  on  the  Chicago,  Burlington, 


MOUNT-STEPHEN. 


and  Quincy  Kailroail  (Majj:  Iowa,  F  4).  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  the 
Iowa  Wesleyan  University  (Methodist  Epis- 
copal), opened  in  1844,  and  the  German  College 
(Methodist  Episcopal),  opened  in  1873.  It  has 
also  several  secondary  institutions,  a  conserva- 
torj'  of  music,  and  a  public  libr:iry.  Mount 
Pleasant  is  the  centre  of  a  protluctive  farming 
country,  and  is  an  important  shipping  point  for 
live  stock,  especially  horses.  There  are  grain 
elevators  and  manufactories  of  flour,  lumber, 
carriages,  and  wagons,  agricultural  implements, 
brick  and  tile,  etc.  Limestone  is  extensively 
quarried  in  the  vicinity.  The  water-works  and 
electric  light  plant  are  owned  bj'  the  mu- 
nicipality. Population,  in  1890,  3997;  in  1900, 
4109. 

MOUNT  PLEASANT.  A  city  and  the  coun- 
ty-seat of  Isabella  County.  Mich..  53  miles  west 
by  north  of  Saginaw;  on  the  Chippewa  River, 
and  on  the  Ann  Arbor  and  the  Pere  Marquette 
railroads  (Map:  Michigan,  .T  5).  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  Central  State  Normal  School  and  of  a 
L'nited  States  Government  Indian  school,  and  has 
a  handsome  court-house.  A  fertile  agricultural 
region  surrounds  the  city,  and  there  are  manu- 
factures of  lumber  and  various  lundjer  products, 
Hour,  woolen  goods,  plows,  foundry  products, 
gasoline  engines,  brick  and  tile,  wagons,  etc.  The 
water- works  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  nni- 
nieipality.  Population,  in  1890,  2701;  in  1900. 
3662. 

MOUNT  PLEASANT.  A  borough  in  West- 
moreland County.  Pa..  11  miles  south  of  Greens- 
burg,  the  county-seat ;  on  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  and  the  Pennsylvania  railroads  (Map: 
Pennsylvania,  B  3 ) .  It  is  the  seat  of  the  West- 
ern Pennsylvania  Classical  and  Scientific  Insti- 
tute (Baptist).  The  borough  is  the  centre  of  an 
extensive  coke-making  industry,  and  manufac- 
tures also  flour,  lumber,  iron,  foundry  products, 
glass,  etc.  Population,  in  1890,  3652;  in  1900, 
474.5. 

MOUNT   SAINT   MARY'S   COLLEGE.      A 

Roman  Catholic  college  at  Eniniitsburg,  Md., 
founded  in  1S08.  Its  material  interests  are 
under  the  control  of  a  board  of  directors,  of 
whom  the  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  is  president. 
In  addition  to  the  regular  college  work,  it  has  a 
preparatory  and  a  scientific  and  business  course, 
with  a  total  registration  in  1902  of  220  students 
and  15  instructors.  It  confers  the  degree  of 
B.A.  The  library  contains  27,000  volumes.  The 
buildings  and  grounds  are  valued  at  about  $200,- 
000.     Tlie  income  was  about  $50,000. 

MOUNT-STE'PHEN,  Georoe  Stephen,  Bar- 
on (1829—).  A  Canadian  capitalist,  born  at 
Dufftown,  Banffshire,  Scotland.  He  came  to 
Canada  in  1850  and  entered  the  dry  goods  busi- 
ness in  Montreal.  He  succeeded  there  as  a  cloth 
manufacturer,  and  became  wealthy,  but  was  con- 
spicuous chiefly  for  his  share  in  carrying  through 
to  completion  the  long-delayed  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  of  which  he  became  president  in  1881. 
For  his  services  in  this  connection  he  was 
knighted  by  Queen  Victoria  (1886).  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  and  Sir  Donald  Smith  gave  $500,- 
000  each  for  the  building  of  the  Victoria  Hos- 
pital in  conuncmoration  of  her  Majesty's  jubilee. 
In  1888  he  went  to  reside  in  England,  and  in 
1891   he  was  created  first  Baron  Mount-Stephen, 


MOUNT-STEPHEN.  74 

a  title  taken  from  a  peak  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains named  lor  him  jiiriug  the  eonstruction  of 
the  Canadian  I'acilu'  Kailroad. 

MOUNT  STEROilNG.  A  town  and  the  coun- 
ty-seat of  Brown  t'ounty.  111.,  38  miles  east  of 
Quincy:  on  the  Wabash  Railroad  (Map:  Illinois. 
B  4).  It  has  manufactures  of  flour,  wagons, 
brick,  drain  tile,  etc.,  and  in  the  vicinity,  which 
is  interested  chiefly  in  agriculture,  are  coal  and 
clay  deposits.  The  water-works  are  owned  by 
the  municipality.  Population,  in  1890.  1055:  in 
liWO.  lllCiO. 

MOUNT  STERLING.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  ^Montgomery  County.  K.v..  33  miles  east 
of  Lexington:  on  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Rail- 
road (Map:  Kentucky.  H  2).  It  has  a  public 
library  and  several  private  educational  institu- 
tions. The  city  controls  important  conunercial 
interests,  and  among  its  industrial  establish- 
ments are  planing  mills,  flouring  mills,  machine 
shops,  and  a  distillerv.  PopuIati(m.  in  1890. 
3l!20:   in    1900.  :!.-,i!l. 

MOUNT  VERNON.  The  home  and  burial- 
place  of  (ieorge  Washington,  in  Fairfax  County. 
Virginia;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Potomac.  15 
miles  south  of  Washington.  D.  C.  Tlie  Washing- 
ton mansion,  beautifully  situated  on  an  emi- 
nence, commanding  a  view  of  the  river,  is  of 
wood,  two  stories  high,  ninety-six  feet  long, 
and  thirty  feet  deep.  It  was  built  in  1743 
by  Washington's  elder  brother.  Lawrence,  who 
called  it  Mount  Vernon,  after  Admiral  Ver- 
non, under  whom  he  had  served  in  the  British 
Navy.  A  high  piazza  runs  along  the  front  of 
the  house,  which  has  six  rooms  of  moderate  size 
on  the  ground  floor,  containing  many  objects  of 
historical  interest.  The  tomb  to  which  Wash- 
ington's renuiins  were  removed  from  the  old 
family  vault  in  1831  stands  a  few  hundred  yards 
from  the  house,  near  a  wooded  ravine.  Mount 
Venion.  which  had  been  much  enlarged  by  Wash- 
ington, was  by  him  bequeathed  to  Bushroil  Wash- 
ington, upon  whose  death  it  came  into  the  hands 
of  .lohn  A.  Washington,  his  nephew,  who  sold  it 
in  1858  to  the  Ladies'  Mount  Vernon  .\ssocia- 
tion.  which  holds  it  in  trust  as  a  place  of  nation- 
al interest.  Consult:  Tossing.  The  Home  of 
Wnnhinfitnii  niitl  Us  Ansocintions.  fll.itoriral, 
Bioftraphiivil.  ninl  Pictorial  (new  ed..  Xew  York. 
1805)  :  and  Winelicrger.  Home  of  ^\'ashinplon  at 
Mount  Vrrnnii  am}  [In  Associations  (Washing- 
ton. 1806). 

MOUNT  VERNON.  A  city  and  the  county- 
.siat  iif  bill  r-ciii  (  iiiinty.  111..  70  miles  east  by 
sotith  of  .Siint  Louis.  Mo.;  on  the  Chicago  and 
Eastern  Illinois,  the  Southern,  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville,  and  the  Wabash.  Chester  and  West- 
ern railroads  (Map:  Illinois.  D  5).  It  has  an 
attractive  Supreme  Coiirt  building,  and  is  en- 
gaged principally  in  agriculture,  coal  mining, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  cars,  machine-shop 
prodticts,  axe  handles,  lumber,  flour,  eti'.  There 
are  also  a  large  grain  elevator,  marble  works, 
and  a  tiepre.-^erving  establishment.  Mount  Ver- 
non was  laid  out  in  1819  and  was  incorporated 
flrst  in  1872.  Thr  government  is  administered 
under  the  original  charter  of  incorporation, 
which  provide-  for  a  mayor,  elected  every  two 
years,  and  a  unicameral  council.  Population,  in 
1890.  3233:  in  1900,  5210. 

MOUNT  VERNON.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seal  of   Po:H-y   Couuty,   Ind..    18  miles   west  by 


MOURNING  BRIDE. 


south  of  Evausville;  on  the  Ohio  River,  and  on 
the  Louisville  and  Xashville  and  the  Evansville 
and  Terre  Haute  railroads  (Map:  Indiana.  B  5). 
It  has  a  fine  court-house  and  the  Alexandrian 
I'ublic  Library.  There  are  manufactories  of 
flour,  hominy,  lumber,  foundry,  and  machine- 
shop  products,  engines,  carriages,  etc.  Mount 
Vernon  is  a  conunercial  centre  of  considerable 
importance  for  a  fertile  region  in  which  coal  is 
abundant.  Population,  in  1890,  4705;  iu  1900, 
5132. 

MOUNT  VERNON".  A  town  in  Linn  County, 
Iowa,  10  miles  east  by  south  of  Cedar  Rapids:  on 
the  Chicago  and  Xorthwestern  Railroad  (.Map: 
Iowa,  F  3).  Cornell  College  {Methodist  Epis- 
copal),  opened  in  1857,  is  situated  here.  The 
town  is  surrounded  by  a  rich  farming  region,  and 
has  considerable  trade.  Population,  in  1890, 
1259:   in  1900.   1629. 

MOUNT  VERNON.  A  city  in  W^estchester 
Count>.  X.  v..  iin  Eastchester  Creek,  an  arm  of 
Long  Island  Sound,  and  the  Bronx  River,  and  on 
the  Xew  York  Central  and  Hudson  River  and 
the  Xew  \"ork.  X'ew  Haven  and  Hartford  rail- 
roads (Map:  Xew  Y'ork,  C4  5).  It  is  chiefly  a 
residential  suburb  of  Xew  York  City,  which  it 
adjoins  on  the  north.  It  has  some  handsome 
streets  paved  with  macadam  and  asphalt,  and 
in  the  more  elevated  .sections  of  the  city,  which 
command  fine  views  of  the  Sound,  there  are  costly 
mansions.  Mount  Vernon  maintains  a  public 
library,  founded  in  18!)6,  for  which  a  $50,000 
building,  the  gift  of  Andrew  Carnegie,  was  l>e- 
gun  in  1903.  .\mong  the  prominent  edifices  are 
the  Lucas  Building,  which  contains  the  citv 
offices,  the  Mount  Vernon  Hospital,  the  new 
poslollice,  and  many  churches  and  school 
buildings.  Mount  Vernon  was  founded  in  1852 
and  incorporated  as  a  village  in  the  following 
year,  and  in  1892  was  chartered  as  a  city.  The 
government,  under  the  original  charter,  is  vested 
in  a  mayor,  elected  every  two  years,  and  a  mu- 
nicipal council.  Most  of  the  a<lministrative  offi- 
cials are  appointed  bv  the  mayor  and  confinned 
by  the  council.  The  coniptrnller.  receiver  of 
taxes,  as.sessors,  and  board  of  education,  how- 
ever, are  chosen  bv  popvilar  vote.  Population, 
in  1890.  10.8,30;  in'lOOO,  21,228. 

MOUNT  VERNON.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seal  of  Knox  County.  Ohio.  25  miles  north  by 
west  of  Newark;  on  the  Kokosing  River,  and 
on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  and  the  Cleveland, 
Akron  and  Columbus  railroads  (Map:  Ohio, 
F  5).  It  has  a  fine  court-hou.se.  a  public  library 
and  Hiawatha  Park  with  a  picturesque  lake. 
There  are  locomotive  works,  bridgi-  works.  Cor- 
liss engine  works,  a  large  foinidrv.  flour  and  saw 
mills,  bent-wood  works,  and  manufactories  of 
furniture,  hoops,  staves,  sashes,  and  doors.  The 
citv  is  the  centre  of  a  fertile  agricultural  region 
with  which  it  carries  on  a  considerable  trade, 
and  near  by  is  found  natural  gas  in  al)undance. 
The  water-works  are  owne<l  bv  the  municipality. 
Population,  in  ISliO.  6017:  in  'lOOO.  0633. 

MOUNT    WASHINGTON.      See    Wa.shinb- 

TKN,     MolM. 

MOURNING  BRIDE,  The.  A  play  by  Wil- 
li:ini  Congrcve  (1097).  Alphonso.  Prince  of 
Valentia.  and  Almeria.  daughter  of  the  King  of 
Grantida.  arc  shipwrecked  when  about  to  be  mar- 
ried, anil  each  believes  that  Uie  other  has  been 
drowned.      Alphonso.    taken    prisoner,    under   an 


MOURNING  BRIDE. 


75 


MOUSE. 


assumed  name,  finds  Almeria  at  tlie  Court  of 
Granada,  and  the  wedding  is  eventually  accom- 
plished. The  play  is  the  source  of  the  famous 
lines  beginning,  "Jlusic  hath  charms  to  soothe 
the  savage  liieast." 

MOURNING-CLOAK.  A  handsome  butter- 
fly (Euvaticssa.  or  ^'anl^ss(l,  aniiopa),  known  in 
England  as  Ihe  Camberwell  beauty.     It  appears 


THK   MOUKNING-CLOAK. 

in  the  United  States  very  early  in  the  spring, 
and  may  not  infrequently  be  seen  flying  about 
on  warm  days  in  winter.  It  hibernates  in  the 
adult  stage  even  in  cold  climates.  According  to 
Scudder,  it  ranges  from  the  Arctic  Circle  to  the 
thirtieth  parallel  of  latitude.  It  is  purplish 
brown,  with  vings  bordered  by  j'ellow,  brown, 
and  blue.  The  larv*  are  covered  with  black 
spines,  and  feed  gregariously  on  willow,  elm, 
poplar,  and  hackberry,  often  stripping  the  larger 
branches  of  leaves.  The  species  is  two-brooded 
and  the  second  generation  of  moths  appears  in 
midsummer. 

MOURNING  DOVE.  The  Carolina  dove. 
See  Dove. 

MOURZOUK,  moor-zook'.  A  town  of  Africa. 
See  ilrRzriv. 

MOUSCRON,  moos'kron.  A  town  of  Belgium 
in  the  Province  of  West  Flanders,  situated  near 
the  French  frontier.  32  miles  southwest  of  Ghent. 
It  is  a  customs  station,  and  manufactures  furni- 
ture and  cotton  and  woolen  goods.  Population, 
in  1890,   l.'J.TtU;   in   1000,  10,.366. 

MOUSE  (AS.,  OHG.  muK,  Gcr.  Maus,  Lat. 
m«.s,  Gk.  /iOs,  miis,  OChurch  Slav,  mysh'i,  Skt. 
mum,  mouse,  from  mus,  to  steal).  The  word 
mouse'  was  originally  applied  to  a  small  rodent 
mammal,  ilus  miisculus,  now  called  the  house 
mouse,  which  \\'as  formerly  confined  to  the  Old 
World,  but  is  now  cosmopolitan  in  its  distribu- 
tion. Gradually  the  use  of  tlie  word  has  ex- 
tended to  other  small  rodents,  and  especially  in 
compounds  to  mammals  not  rodents,  and  even  to 
birds.  This  troublesome  little  rodent  is  a  small 
gray  creature,  with  a  liody  about  three  inches 
long  and  a  tail  half  that  length,  the  ears  rather 
large  and  very  delicate,  and  small  feet.  The 
color  shows  considerable  variation,  in  some  eases 
having  a  strong  brown  cast,  while  in  others  it 
becomes  very  pale  and  even  fades  to  white.  In 
its  habits  the  mouse  is  largely  nocturnal,  though 
often  seen  during  the  day.  It  makes  its  home 
in  sheltered  nooks  and  crannies,  where  a  nest  of 
rags,  paper,  feathers,  etc..  is  nicely  made.  Mice 
are  very  prolific,  six  to  ten  young  being  born 
at  a  time,  and  there  are  many  broods  during 
the  year.  JIuch  has  been  written  about  the  sing- 
ing powers  of  the  mouse,  and  the  fact  that  it 
does  sing  is  sujiported  by  the  evidence  of  per- 

V»L.    XIV.— 0. 


fectly  trustworthy  witnesses.  Mice  are  unques- 
tionably fond  of  music,  but  it  is  not  fully  deter- 
mined wliether  their  ability  to  make  it  is  normal 
or  is  an  individual  peculiarity.  Some  writers 
have  gone  so  far  as  to  assert  that  it  is  due  only 
to  a  disea.scd  throat. 

The  name  mouse  is  applied  to  any  representa- 
tive of  the  genus  Mus  not  big  enough  to  call  a 
rat.  This  genus  is  one  iif  the  largest  of  mam- 
malian genera,  including  upward  of  130  species, 
whifli  vary  consideral)ly  in  size,  somewhat  in 
color,  and  not  a  little  in  the  softness  of  the 
pelage.  The  upper  molar  teeth  are  always  wide, 
with  three  series  of  tubercles,  and  therefore 
called  trituberculate:  in  this  resjiect  Mus  difter.i 
from  all  of  the  native  .\merican  'rats'  and  'mice.' 
Anollier  characteristic  of  the  geiuis  is  the  long, 
slender,  rounded  tail,  with  wbnrls  of  scales,  and 
few  hairs;  in  some  mice  this  is  almost  prehensile. 
IJesides  the  common  mouse,  the  following  may 
be  menlioned  as  well-known  European  species  of 
Mus:  The  wood  mouse  (Mus  sylvaticus) ,  which 
is  a  triQe  larger  than  its  cosmopolitan  cousin, 
and  on  account  of  its  longer  tail  is  sometimes 
called  the  'long-tailed  field-mouse;'  it  is  abundant 
in  Cireat  Britain,  and  is  noted  for  the  large 
stores  of  grain  which  it  hoards.  The  harvest 
mouse  {Mils  iniiiiitiix)  is  the  smallest  of  British 
quadrupeds,  the  length  exclusive  of  tail  being 
only  about  ■2%  inches;  it  occurs  chiefly  in  the 
southern  parts  of  England,  and  is  notable  for  its 
curious  globular  nests,  composed  of  grass  leaves 
and  panicles  woven  together  and  suspended  be- 
tween stalks  of  grain  or  tall  grass;  a  somewhat 
smaller  species  {Mus  iiuniiliis)  occurs  in  the 
south  of  Europe.  Asia  and  Africa  have  many 
species,  as  the  curious  blaek-striped  Barbary 
mouse,  which  looks  like  a  miniature  American 
ground-squirrel. 

In  .\merica  the  name  mouse  is  applied  to  a 
large  ninnber  of  small  mammals,  especially  in 
such  compounds  as  wood-mouse,  field-mouse,  etc. 
Some  of  these  are  very  ditferent  from  the  true 
mice,  but  nearly  all  belong  to  the  family  Muridae, 
though  not  to  the  Murina>  with  the  Old  World 
mice.  Many  of  them  are  voles,  of  the  sub- 
family ArvicolinsB,  while  others  are  vesper-mice 
or  'white-footed'  mice  of  the  subfamily  Cricetinfe, 
to  which  the  hamsters  also  belong.  A  typical 
American  example  of  this  latter  group  is  the 
well-known  and  widely  distributed  white-foot<'d 
mouse  or  'deer-mouse'  {Peromi/scus  leucopus), 
which  is  found,  in  some  one  of  many  local  races, 
nearly  throughout  North  America.  It  is  about 
seven  inches  long,  of  which  nearly  one-half  is  the 
tail.  The  upper  surface  is  fawn-color  of  some 
shade,  while  the  imder  parts  and  the  feet  are 
snowy  white.  The  ears  are  rather  large,  and 
the  general  form  and  a])pearance  delicate  and 
graceful.  It  is  found  in  all  sorts  of  situations 
and  even  lives  in  houses  sometimes,  like  the 
common  mouse.  In  the  Central  and  Southern 
States,  another  species  even  handsomer  than  this 
occurs,  known  as  the  golden  mouse  {Peronitfsrus 
aureolus).  It  is  golden  cinnamon  above  and  yel- 
lowish-white beneath.  The  largest  and  in  some 
respects  the  most  remarkable  of  this  group  is  the 
rice-field  mouse  lOri/zoiiiifs  pulusfris) .  which  is 
ten  or  eleven  inches  long,  dark  grizzly  rat-color, 
and  has  very  harsh  pelage.  It  is  said  to  be 
more  like  the  true  mice  than  any  other  American 
species.  The  curious  little  harvest-mouse 
(Ochetodon  humilis)    of  the  Southern  States  is 


MOUSE. 

one  of  the  smallest  of  American  quadrupeds, 
being  only  four  inches  long,  and  lialf  ul  that  is 
tail.  More  detailed  information  will  be  found 
under  the  names  of  the.se  and  other  mice,  as 
Meadow-Mol'SE,  JuMPiXG  Mor.sE,  etc.  See  also 
accomi)anyin{.'  Plate  of  Mice  and  .Iekboas. 
Consult  authorities  cited  under  Mammalia. 

MOUSE-BIRD.  Any  bird  of  the  African  ge- 
nus Colius  and  family  Coliidie;  a  coly.  These 
birds  have  soft  ftray  and  white  plumage,  conical 
brightly  colored  bills,  and  long  and  narrow 
central  tail  feathers,  and  take  tli(^ir  nauu>  not 
finly  from  their  ashy-  plumage.  )>ut  from  their 
mouse-like  activity  in  scrambling  about  the 
branches  of  trees,  wliere  they  hang  head  down- 
ward (even  sleeping  that  way),  and  swing  and 
twist  like  acrobats.  They  are  enabled  to  do  tliis 
by  the  striking  peculiarity  of  structure  in  the 
feet,  which  have  all  fo\ir"  toes  turned  forward. 
They  are  fruit-eaters,  go  aboiit  in  small  bands, 
l>ut  lly  poorly,  and  build  their  nests  in  dense 
shrubs.     See    Plate   of    Kingfishers,   Motmots, 

ETC. 

MOUSE-DEER.     Sec  Cuevhotain. 

MOUSE-EAR  CHICKWEED  (Cerastium). 
A  genus  of  numerous  s|)ecies  of  plants  of  the  nat- 
ural order  C'aryoi)liyllacea'.  natives  of  temperate 
and  cold  countries  throughout  the  world.  Some 
of  them  are  among  connnon  weeds;  others,  hav- 
ing larger  (lowers,  are  occasionally  planted  in 
flower  borders  and  on  rock-work.  The  form  and 
hairiness  of  the  leaves  of  some  species  have  given 
rise  to  till'  popular  name. 

MOUSE-FISH.  One  of  the  tropical  frogfishes 
(I'toophri/ne  liistrio),  common  in  the  (!ulf  of 
Mexico,  the  colors  of  which  are  highly  variable. 
It  is  related  to  the  anglers  (q.v.).  and  its  'bait' 
is  its  first  dorsal  spine,  which  is  l)ifureate.  The 
fact  that  it  is  frequently  found  in  the  fields  of 
sargasso-weed  of  the  Atlantic  gives  it  a  second 
name,  'sargassnin-lish.' 

MOUSE-LEMUR.  A  very  small  woolly  lemur 
■  if  -Madagascar,  nocturnal  and  moiiselike  in  its 
appearance  and  habits.  It  is  a  member  of  the 
genus  Chi rogale  (q.v.).     See  Lemi  u:  Chihooale; 

Plate   of    1.i:mi  US. 

MOUSE  TOWER.  .\  tower  built  on  a  rock 
in  the  middle  of  the  Rhine  near  Hingen.  Accord- 
ing to  popular  tradition,  it  was  hastily  erected 
by  Archbishop  Hatto  I.  of  Mainz  (q.v.)  as  a  refuge 
from  the  swarms  of  mice  sent  to  devour  him  in 
punishment  for  his  cruelty  to  the  poor,  whom  he 
b\iriied  in  a  granary  during  a  famine.  The 
fierman  name  Miiuseturm  is  probably  a  popular 
corruption  of  Mautturm.  toll-tower,  for  wbicli  the 
structure  appears  to  have  been  originally  in- 
tended, and  the  legen<I  was  built  about  the  name. 
According  to  some  authorities,  the  building  was 
a  watch  tower,  and  the  name  is  referred  to  Old 
Oerman  mii/im,  to  spy.  It  is  now  used  as  a 
signaling  stiition   for  steamers. 

MOUSTERIAN  (moo-ste'ri-«n)  EPOCH. 
The  name  a|)plied  to  a  supposed  epoch  in  Kuro- 
pean  prehistoric  arehfpologA'.  so  called  from  TyC 
Moustier.  in  the  inmmune  of  Peyznc  (Dordogne), 
France.  The  epoch  is  assigned  to  the  l«'ginning 
of  the  seconil  Clacinl  age.  and  is  characterized 
by  distinctly  refined  stone  working,  by  a  cold 
climate,  and  by  the  occurrence  of  the  cave 
bear,  the  musk-ox.  and  the  Ithiniiri'rnx  tirhnrhl- 
nils   in    Pninee.     Tt    is   well    represented   also   in 


76 


MOUTH. 


Belgium,  Soutliern  Germany,  Bohemia,  and 
Southern  England,  not  only  by  relics,  but  by 
human  remains.  Consult  Mortillet,  Le  prihis- 
toritjiic  (Paris,  1900), 

MOUTH  (A.*^.  jHiif,  Goth.  nii/j/K  OllG.  mund, 
Gcr.  Miiinl,  mouth;  connected  witli  Lai.  »ieH(«»i, 
chin,  and  ultimately  with  Skt.  mukha,  face).  In 
an  animal,  the  opening  through  which  food  en- 
ters the  body.  Not  all  animals  have  mouths,  for 
certain  parasitic  forms,  notably  the  tapeworm, 
lack  a  .system  lor  digesting  food,  and  conse- 
q\U'ntly  no  opening  for  its  entrance  is  necessary; 
in  such  cases  the  food  is  absorbed  through  the 
surfaie  of  the  animal.  The  simiilcst  form  of 
mouth  is  that  which  occurs  in  the  Protozoa, 
where  the  focnl  is  taken  into  the  body  through 
a  special  opening,  which  is  fairly  constant  in 
position  and  may  be  surrounded  with  cilia,  some- 
times long.  Many  Protozoa,  as  well  as  sponges, 
have  no  mouth  in  any  true  .sense,  as  the  f(>o<l 
may  be  taken  in  at  any  p;irt  of  the  body-surface, 
and  therefore  the  opening  has  no  fixed  position 
and  no  regular  size  or  form.  The  mouth 
of  corals,  jellyfish,  sea-anemones,  and  other 
c«?Ienterates  is  simply  an  opening,  almost  al- 
ways central  in  position,  on  the  lower  surface  in 
free-swimming  forms,  on  the  upper  surface  in 
fixed  forms.  It  is  usually  circular,  but  may 
be  fiattcned.  and  in  one  group  of  jelly-fish  it  is 
divided  up  into  four  or  more,  sometimes  in- 
numerable, small  openings,  by  the  growing  to- 
gether of  the  lobes  on  its  margin.  In  the  flat- 
worms  the  nuiuth  is  usuiilly  circular  and  is 
often  in  the  centre  of  a  sucker,  but  its  position 
is  variable,  though  it  is  always  on  the  ventral 
side.  It  may  be  near  the  anterior  end  of  the 
animal,  but  it  is  more  often  at  the  centre  and 
is  .sometimes  posterior.  .Among  the  various 
classes  of  worms  the  mouth  is  always  anterior, 
and  often  terminal,  though  more  often  on  the 
lower  side  of  one  of  the  first  segments,  or,  in 
unscgmcnted  forms,  in  a  similar  position.  In 
blood-suekers  it  lies  in  the  centre  of  ;i  ])owerful 
sucker,  and  is  provided  with  three  ehitinous 
jaws;  in  vegi't able-eating  and  some  carnivorous 
forms  (nemi-rtincs)  it  is  a  simple  opening  with- 
out jaws,  while  in  such  active  carnivorous  worms, 
as  Nereis,  it  is  provided  with  ])owerful  jaws. 
These  jaws,  however,  arc  clearly  modified  seg- 
mental appendages,  and  are  practically  feet 
which  have  become  modified  to  assist  in  seizing 
food  or  forcing  it  into  the  mouth.  In  the  crus- 
taceans, insects,  sjiiders.  and  the  like  (arthro- 
pods) the  mo\ilh  is  more  or  less  terminal,  and 
is  provided  with  lateral  jaws:  sometimes  as 
many  as  eight  i)airs  of  appendages  are  mcxlified  . 
to  serve  for  this  purpose.  The  structure  and 
arrangement  of  the  mouth  parts  in  insects  are 
very  complicated,  and  are  of  great  importance  in 
classification,  lioughly  they  nuiy  be  grouped  as 
hilhifi.  when  there  are  freidy  movable  lateral  jaws 
which  seize  and  cut  or  tear  the  food;  pirrrinfl, 
when  the  various  parts  are  more  or  less  united 
to  form  a  sharp,  piercing  instr\unent.  which 
penetrates  animal  or  jdanl  membranes  in  search 
of  the  fluid  food,  which  is  then  sucked;  surlcinq. 
when  (he  parts  are  united  to  form  a  suctorial 
tube,  with  no  adaptation  for  piercing. 

.\mong  echinoderms  the  nmuth  shows  consider- 
able variety  of  form.  Tn  mollusks  the  mouth 
is  gencrallv  anterior  and  often  ventral,  but  it 
is  fre(|uenlly  lerminal.  In  the  devil  fish,  squids, 
and  the  like,  it   is  in  the  centre  of  the  foot.     In 


MICE    AND    JERBOAS 


1.  AMERICAN  JUMPING  MOUSE  iZapus   Hudsonlus). 

2.  EGYPTIAN  JERBOA  IDIpuB  /tgypticusl. 

3.  YARKAND  JERBOA  (Euchoreules  naso). 

4.  KIRGHIZ  JERBOA  (Alactaga   decumana). 


5.  BARBARY  STRIPED   MOUSE  IMus   Barbarus). 

6.  HOUSE-MOUSE   IMus   musculusl. 

7.  HARVEST-MOUSE  IMu3   minutusl. 

8.  MEADOW-MOUSE  (Microtus   Pennsylvanlcus). 


MOUTH. 

the  clams   and   other   lamellibranchs   there   are 

special  organs  of  sense,  known  as  labial  palps, 
on  each  side  of  the  nunitli.  Iiut  tlieic  is  no  tongue, 
while  in  all  other  niollusks  a  tongue  covered 
with  teeth  and  known  as  the  laduhi  is  present. 
The  cephalopods  (squids  anil  the  like)  have 
powerful  jaws,  arranged  like  the  beak  of  a  par- 
rot, but  in  all  other  niollusks  the  jaws  are 
small  and  ratliej  weak,  sometimes  three  in  num- 
ber, or  they  may  be  wholly  wanting,  as  in  the 
hinielliliranchs. 

In  the  vertebrates  we  find  the  formation  of 
the  niDUtli  is  used  by  some  writers  to  divide 
them  into  two  eontrasted  groups,  the  ci/clns'tvmcs 
or  round-mouths,  and  the  r/iiatlioslomcs  or  jaw- 
mouths.  The  roiuid-mouths  include  only  three 
or  four  genera,  and  are  characterized  by  the 
absence  of  jaws,  the  mouth  serving  as  a  sucking 
organ.  The  surface  of  this  mouth-sucker  bears 
characteristic  hnrny  teeth.  All  the  other  ver- 
tebrates are  gnathostomes,  provided  with  verti- 
cally moving  upper  and  lower  jaws,  one  or  both 
of  wliich,  excejit  in  liirds.  turtles,  and  some 
whales,  bear  teeth.  There  are  also  a  tongue  and 
various  glands,  notably  the  salivary  glands.  True 
lips,  provided  with  muscles,  are  characteristic 
of  mammals,  but  are  also  found  in  dipnoid  fishes. 
In  many  mammals  the  sides  of  the  buccal  cavity 
— that  is,  the  space  outside  the  jaws — are  en- 
larged to  form  cheek-pouches,  of  tise  as  food 
reservoirs.  The  origin  of  the  vertebrate  mouth 
has  been  a  matter  of  much  discussion,  and  is 
closely  associated  with  the  still  more  funda- 
mental question  of  the  origin  of  the  skull.  Ap- 
parently, however,  the  jaws  arise  as  modifica- 
tions of  the  first  branchial  arch,  which  becomes 
divided  into  two  parts,  the  pro.ximal  giving  rise 
to  the  quadrate  bone,  which  gives  rise  to  an 
anterior  process,  forming  a  sort  of  primary 
upper  jaw;  the  distal  part  is  the  cartilage  of 
Jleckel,  the  basis  of  the  lower  jaw. 

See  Teeth  ;  Tongue  ;  Gland  ;  Skull. 

MOUTH,  Di.sEA.SES  OF  THE.  From  its  situ- 
ation at  the  portal  of  the  digestive  tract,  the 
mucous  membrane  lining  this  cavity  is  peculiarly 
exposed  to  many  forms  of  irritation  and  infec- 
tion. The  following  are  the  principal  forms  of 
inflammation  of  the  mouth,  or  slntnatitis  (Gr. 
stoma,  the  mouth),  as  it  is  termed  by  iiosol- 
ogists : 

(1)  Acute  catrirrhal  stomatitis,  which  may  ex- 
tend over  the  mouth,  including  the  tongue,  or 
may  occur  in  limited  areas,  is  seen  in  children, 
associated  with  dentition  or  gastro-intestinal  dis- 
turbances, .and  in  adults  following  excessive 
smoking  or  the  taking  of  hot  or  too  highly 
seasoned  food.  It  is  a  frequent  concomitant  of 
indigestion  and  febrile  diseases,  but  is  more  com- 
monly a  comj)lieation  of  other  disea,ses  than  an 
original  afTection.  In  ordinary  eases  a  simple 
mouthwash  composed  of  a  solution  of  borax  and 
honey,  and  gentle  catharsis,  will  eflfect  a  rapid 
cure. 

(2)  Parasitic  stomatitis,  a  diffuse  infiamma- 
(ion  with  the  formation  of  patches  of  false  mem- 
brane, is  caused  by  a  fungus — the  siicctuiromiircs 
albicans.  It  occurs  most  commonly  in  young 
children,  and  is  described  under  its  popular  name. 
Thrush. 

(.T)  .\phtJwiis  stomatitis,  also  known  as  fol- 
licular or  vesicular  stomatitis,  is  an  inflamma- 
tion of  the  f(dli(les  of  the  mucous  membrane,  and 
is  described  in  the  article  Aphth.'B. 


77 


MOVABLES. 


(4)  Ulcerative  stomatitis,  sometimes  called 
fetid  stomatitis  or  putrid  sore  mouth,  generally 
occurs  in  cliildren  after  the  first  dentition,  and  is 
associated  with  defective  hygienic  and  sanitary 
conditions.  The  ulcerative  process  begins  usually 
at  the  margin  of  the  gums  and  extends  along 
the  gum  lines  of  the  jaws.  The  bases  of  the 
ulcers  are  covered  with  a  grayish-white  adherent 
membrane.  The  swelling  of  the  adjacent  parts 
is  often  so  considerable  as  to  be  apparent  ex- 
ternally. There  is  a  copious  (low  of  saliva,  and 
the  breath  is  very  ofi'ensive.  The  ulceration  may 
continue  for  weeks,  or  even  months,  hut  always 
yields  to  treatment.  The  felirile  symptoms  and 
the  constipation  which  are  usually  present  mast 
be  combated  in  the  ordinary  way.  Perhaps  the 
best  general  method  of  treating  the  disease  is 
by  the  administration  of  small  doses  of  chlorate 
of  potash,  and  by  frequently  washing  the  mouth 
with  a  weak  tepid  solution  of  chlorinated  soda. 

(5)  tlangrcnous  stomatitis,  or  cancrum  oris, 
is  tlie  most  severe  form  of  stomatitis,  and  occurs 
as  a  rule  in  feeble  children  lietween  (wo  and  five 
years  old  during  convalescence  from  the  acute 
fevers.  It  is  characterized  by  a  rapidly  pro- 
gressing gangrene,  beginning  on  the  cheeks  or 
gums,  resulting  in  extensive  destruction  of  the 
soft  tissues,  at  times  even  invading  the  jaw- 
bones. The  constitutional  disturbance  is  great 
and  the  prostration  extreme,  and  the  case  u.stially 
terminates  in  death.  Treatment  is  tinsatisfac- 
tory.  Early  destruction  of  the  ulcer  by  the 
cautery,  careful  nourishment,  and  free  stimula- 
tion may  arrest  the  disease. 

(6)  Mercurial  stomatitis  and  other  diseases  of 
the  mouth  are  noticed  in  the  articles  Salivation; 
Scurvy;  Tongue. 

MOUTON",  m<3o-ton',  Alexander  (1804-8.5). 
.\u  Aiiurican  politician,  born  in  what  is  now 
Lafaj'ette  Parish,  La,  He  graduated  at  George- 
town College  (D.  C. ),  studied  law.  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1825.  In  1820  he  was 
elected  to  the  Lower  House  of  the  Legislature, 
and  was  Speaker  in  18.31-.'i2,  He  was  a  Presi- 
dential Elector  in  1S28,  IS.Si,  and  18.Sfi.  and  in 
18.37  was  elected  to  the  I'nited  States  Senate. 
He  resigned  in  1842  to  accept  the  nomination 
for  Governor  of  Louisiana,  was  elected,  and 
served  from  1843  till  the  adoption  of  the  new 
Constitution  in  1846.  He  was  president  of  the 
Southwestern  Railway  Convention  in  1853  and  a 
delegate  to  (he  National  nemocratic  conventions 
in  1850  and  1800.  In  1801  he  presided  over  the 
convention  called  to  consider  the  question  of 
seceding  from  the  Union.  He  then  retired  to  his 
plantation,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
life. 

MOVABLES  (OF.  morahle.  mnitrahle.  Fr. 
moiirahlr.  from  Lat,  movere,  to  move).  Such 
subjects  of  ]iroperty  as  can  be  transported  from 
one  place  to  another  without  injury,  and  which 
cannot  be  classed  as  real  property.  The  term 
is  used  as  contradistinguished  from  things  im- 
movable, or  real  property,  but  is  employed  in  a 
nairnwer  sense  than  the  term  personal  jiroperty, 
which  includes  many  subjects  of  property  rights 
which  are  not  real  estate,  and  yet  which  cannot 
be  said  to  he  capable  of  being  moved  or  trans- 
ported in  (he  strict  sense,  as  choses  or  rights 
of  action  and  growing  crops  in  some  cases. 

In  Scotch  law.  the  word  movables  is  used  as 
contradistinguished  from  heritable  property,  and 


MOVABLES. 

is  practically  synonyiiious  with  personal  prop- 
erty ill  American  and  Knglish  law.  See  Chat- 
tel;  Personal  Pkopebty;   Real  Peopertv. 

MOVEMENT.  Several  modes  of  movement 
arc  manifested  in  plants  and  plant  organs. 
Some  of  the  lower  forms  (bacteria,  alga",  and 
fungi)  exhibit  movements  of  locomotion  in  cer- 
tain stages,  swimming  freely  in  the  water  in 
which  they  are  found.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
zoiispores  and  conjugating  se.xual  cells  (gametes) 
of  many  plants  whidi  themselves  are  not  motile. 
Also,  the  Plasmodia  of  slime  molds  show  a 
peculiar  flowing  of  the  protoplasm  which  results 
in  motion  from  one  place  on  the  substratum  to 
another.  This  is  called  amoeboid  movement.  An- 
other kind  of  movement  often  met  witli  in  plants 
is  the  so-called  hygroscopic  movement.  This  is 
sliowii  by  the  awns  of  certain  grasses  and  other 
fruits  ('seeds')  (Fig.  1.),  by  the  valves  of  many 
seed-pods  (Fig.  2.),  by  the  teeth  of  the  peristome 
of  moss  capsules,  and  by  the  elaters  of  liverworts, 
horsetails  (Equisetum),  etc.  It  is  a  phenome- 
non having  no  connection  whatever  with  the 
vitality  of  the  parts,  being  due  merely  to  un- 
equal swelling  or  shrinkage  (i.e.  warping)  of 
the  different  tissues  by  reason  of  their  unequal 
absorption  or  loss  of  water; 
and  this  depends  on  the  un- 
like composition  of  the  ma- 
terial of  the  cell  walls. 

From  a  physiological  point 
of  view  perliaps  tlie  most 
important  form  of  plant 
movement   is  that  exhibited 


78 


MOVEMENT. 


and  forward,  while  the  whole  leaf  sinks  (Fig.  3). 
If  a  shock  be  given  to  one  pinnule,  the  disturb- 
ance there  set  up.  if  severe  enough,  is  propagated 
to  other  parts  of  the  same  leaf  and  even  to  other 


Fit;.  2.    HYGROSCOPIC  MOVEMENTS   OF   THK   VALVES  OF    SEED 
PODS. 

1,  Campaniihi  nipiiDruIoitles ;  a,  when  dry  ;  h,  when  wet; 
2,  Linaria  Mnredonica :  a,  dry;  />,  wet. 

leaves.  Almost  any  portion  of  the  plant  can 
receive  a  stimulus  in  this  way  and  pass  it  on  to 
other  regions.  The  organs  which  execute  the 
visible  response  are  motor  organs  (q.v. ).  cushions 


Flo.    1.    FRriT  OF   EROUIUM   (JltUlNUM. 

H,  When  wi't ;  h.  wIhmi  iJry  ;  tbi-  HtriLlKlitcuiiiK  ot  /,  when 
ttp  ts  caught  in  Krnt«H  and  thp  nwii  aliHorhs  moisture  tioD's 
the  seed  enntatulnK  lower  part  into  tlie  soil,  and  so 
'plants'  it. 

by  tlie  leaves  of  the  so-called  sensitive  plants. 
The  l)est  example  of  this  is  found  in  the 
Mimosa  of  greenhouses.  When  this  plant  is 
jarred,  struck,  locally  l>urned.  or  injured  other- 
wise, its  leaves  suddenly  collapse,  even  those 
at  a  distance  from  the  shock.  Its  leaves  an? 
doubly  compound,  and  in  closing  the  pinnules 
rise  so  that  the  upper  faces  of  opposite  ones 
are  brought  together,  the  pinnie  drop  downward 


Km;.   3.    LEAF  OF  THE  SENSITIVE   PLANT    {Mimosa). 

II,  U\  light  when  undisturbed  ;  b,  utter  shulilng. 

of  tissue  (pulvini)  situated  one  at  the  base  of 
the  leaf,  of  each  pinna,  and  of  eacli  |)innule. 
Indigenous  plants  which  show  this  reaction, 
though  not  so  strikingly,  are  the  common  oxalis 
and  dilTcrcnl  species  of  Cassia. 

The  so-called  "sleep  movements'  of  leaves  of  the 
pea  family.  Oxalis,  etc.,  are  executed  by  the  same 
motor  organs,  which,  however,  arc  often  less  per- 
fectly developed.  These  movements  consist  of 
changes  in  the  position  of  the  leaf  following 
variations  in  the  intensity  of  illumination,  so 
that  these  leaves  have  a  ncxturnal  and  a  diurnal 


MOVEMENT. 


79 


MOVEMENT. 


position.  Hence  tlie  misleading  expression  'sleep 
movements.' 

For  ii  discussion  of  the  variety  of  movements 
of  plants  in  response  to  stimulation,  which  are 
brought  ahout  by  unequal  growth  on  opposite 
sides  of  an  organ,  see  Chemotropism  ;  Klectbot- 

KOPISM  ;  GeOTROPISM  IN    PLANTS;    HeLIOTROPISM  ; 

RnEOTROPisM ;  Thermotropism.  See,  also,  Myxo- 
mycetes;  locomotion;  rotation;  sl.eep  of 
Plants. 

MOVEMENT.  A  musical  term  denoting  a 
division  of  a  cyclical  composition.  As  early  as 
the  sixteenth  century  a  number  of  dances  were 
loosely  joine<l  together,  the  only  rule  followed 
being  that  all  should  be  in  the  same  key,  and 
that  the  temiro  (fast,  slow)  should  alternate. 
This  gave  rise  to  the  suite  (q.v.);  but  the 
modern  symphony  or  sonata  was  developed  from 
the  old  overture,  which  consisted  of  three  parts, 
a.  fast  one  followed  b\-  a  slow  one  with  the 
first  part  repeated.  Gradually  the  three  parts 
were  separated  and  became  distinct  movements. 
In  the  sonata  the  first  movement  is  always 
written  in  a  particular  form  called  sonata-form. 
The  different  movements  are  in  dift'erent  (but 
related)  keys.  The  first  and  last  are  always 
in  the  same  key,  which  is  therefore  spoken  of 
as  the  key  of  the  cyclical  composition.  When 
the  first  movement  is  in  the  minor,  the  last  is 
generally  in  the  relative  major.  Each  movement 
has  its  own  themes.  Occasionally,  however,  a 
composer  introduces  in  a  later  movement  (gen- 
erally the  finale)  a  theme  from  a  former  move- 
ment. The  numlier  of  movements  depends  upon 
tlie  character  of  the  composition.  In  works  writ- 
ten in  sonata-form  the  usual  number  is  three 
for  sonatas  and  four  for  symphonies.  In  suites 
tlie  luimber  varies  from  four  to  eight.  See 
Form  :  Overture  ;  Sonata  ;  Suite  ;  Symphony. 

MOVEMENT,  Perception  of.  Psychologic- 
ally a  movement  is  a  consciousness  of  a  con- 
tinuous cliange  of  position.  It  is  an  idea  which 
is  intimately  lionnd  up  with  notions  of  space  and 
time,  or,  to  sjjeak  more  strictly,  it  is  an  idea 
which,  from  the  point  of  view  of  system,  must 
be  treated  l)Oth  as  an  extensive  and  as  a  temporal 
idea,  since  every  movement  must  possess  a  certain 
extension   (q.v.)   and  a  certain  rate  or  duration 

(q.v.).  Our  idea  of  movement  is  stiuetiirally  com- 
plex. It  consists  partly  of  ideas  of  an  object  in 
rlifferent  positions,  partly  of  certain  sensations  set 
up  in  the  body.  These  .sensations,  both  because 
tliey  are  easily  aroused  by  movements,  and  be- 
cause they  serve  as  the  most  efTective  basis  for 
the  estimation  of  jnovements,  have  by  many 
writers  been  grouped  together  under  the  terms 
'movement  sensations,'  'kinsFSthetic  .sensations,' 
or.  more  simply,  as  the  'muscle  sense'  (q.v.). 
But  a  classification  of  sensations  in  terms  of 
the  stimuli  which  evoke  them,  or  in  terms  of 
tlic  obje<'tive  processes  for  which  they  come  to 
stand,  ik  both  inadequate  :rnd  uns.alisfactory :  to 
speak  of  sensations  of  'movement'  is  as  unwar- 
rantable as  to  speak  of  sensations  of  'time, 
'weight,'  'resistance,'  'space,'  etc.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  too.  wc  are  now  able  to  isolate  the 
components  of  the  idea  of  movement  psychologic- 
ally and  to  assign  their  dependency  upon  definite 
bodily  processes.  Tliere  are  three  qualitatively 
distinct    sensations    within    the    'muscle   sense': 

(1)  the  muscle  sensation  proper,  (2)  the  strain 
or  tendinous  sensation,  (3)  the  joint  or  articular 


sensation.  The  latter  alone  is  concerned  in  our 
knowledge  or  estimate  of  position,  and  change 
of  position,  or  movenu'Ut,  of  any  mend)er  of 
the  bod}'.  Tlie  actual  liiiiinal  excursion  has  been 
found  to  be  least  in  the  case  of  the  larger 
joints  (0.22°  to  0.flO°  for  shoulder,  hip,  and 
elbow),  greatest  for  the  smaller  joints  (O..50°  to 
1.30°  for  knee,  finger,  and  ankle). 

But  our  ideas  of  the  extent  of  movement  are 
not  limited  to  those  which  refer  to  members  of 
our  body;  we  can  also  estimate  the  extent  of  the 
movement  of  an  object  felt  (skin)  or  of  an 
object  seen  (eye).  A  stimulus  moving  over  the 
skin  excites  end-organs  of  pressure  which  pos- 
sess dilTercnt  'local  signs,'  If  the  first  local 
sign  has  not  lapsed  from  consciousness  when 
the  last  is  reached,  we  are  able  to  estimate  the 
extent  of  the  movement  in  i)urely  cutaneous 
terms;  otherwise  we  may  make  judgments  in 
visual  terms.  The  least  noticeable  extent  of 
cutaneous  movement  depends  upon  the  place  stim- 
ulated, the  intensity  of  the  pressure,  and  the 
rate  and  direction  of  the  motion.  On  the  fore- 
head it  may  amount  to  10  mm.  A  very  slow 
movement  may  pass  unnoticed.  Jlovements 
lengthwise  of  a  limb  are  less  readily  noted 
than  movements  crosswise,  on  account  of  the 
distribution  of  the  nerve  endings  in  the  skin. 
-Movement  is  often  noted  before  direction  of 
movement,  either  because  the  starting  jioint  is 
forgotten  or  because  the  judgment  'movement' 
is  more  easily  aroused  than  the  judgment  'move- 
ment in  this  direction.'  The  visual  idea  of  ex- 
tent of  movement  may  be  variously  formed.  ( 1 ) 
If  the  eyes  remain  fixed  while  tlie  object  moves 
across  the  visual  field,  the  estimation  results 
from  the  stimulation  of  different  local  signs  in 
a  manner  analogous  to  that  of  the  purely  cu- 
taneous estimation.  The  least  noticeable  amount 
of  movement  is  probably  about  equal  to  the 
'minimum  visible.'  ( See  Extension. )  (2)  If  the 
fixation  point  of  the  eyes  follows  the  moving 
object,  the  estimation  of  the  extent  of  movement 
of  the  object  is  made  in  terms  of  the  strain, 
pressure,  and  articular  sensations  evoked  by 
the  movements  of  the  eyes  in  their  sockets,  of  the 
head  upon  the  shoulders,  or  of  the  body  as  a 
whole.  Without  the  aid  of  some  fi.ved  point  of 
reference,  such  as  is  actually  used  in  'eye  meas- 
urement' (see  ExTENSio.v)  and  convergence,  es- 
timations of  this  second  type  are  e.xtremely 
uncertain,  on  account  of  the  occurrence  of  un- 
noticed movements  of  the  eyes  themselves. 

Turning  to  the  temporal  aspect  of  the  per- 
ception of  movement,  we  can  say  in  general  that 
quick  movements  are  more  readily  noted  than 
slow,  whether  they  appeal  to  joint,  skin,  or  eye. 
On  the  skin  a  uniform  rate  in  the  stimulus 
is  not  perceived  as  a  uniform  rate  in  sensation, 
for  a  given  movement  appears  more  rapid  where 
localization  is  more  accurate.  The  slowest  per- 
ceptible visual  movement  is  at  the  rate  of  0.002S 
mm.  per  second.  In  discriminating  between  two 
different  rates,  the  optimal  speed  is  rather  slow, 
because  rates  of  movement  which  are  at  all  quick 
are  confused  by  the  persistence  of  the  excitation 
in  the  form  of  after-images. 

Finally,  rate  of  movement  or,  more  strictly,  a 
change  in  the  rate  of  movement  of  the  body  as 
a  whole,  is  perceptible,  although  no  estimation 
of  the  extent  of  such  a  movement  is  possible. 
Upon  vehicles,  like  elevators,  boats,  etc.,  where 
there  is  little  jar,  it  is  easy  to  observe  that,  once 


MOVEMENT. 


80 


MOWBRAY. 


the  speed  is  unitoiiii,  il  i*  iin]K)ssil)lc  Id  perceive 
aiiv  motion  wliatscK'ver:  iUicleiMlidn  or  iliminu- 
tio'n  of  tliis  rale,  however,  .-^els  up  certain  sensa- 
tions due  to  the  inertia  of  the  body,  and  j)erliaps, 
too,  other  sensations  mediated  by  tlie  semicir- 
cuhir  canals.     See  Static  Sk.nse. 

Bihliograpiiy.  Delabarre,  Ueber  Beuegungs- 
eiiip/indungeit  (Freiburg,  1891);  Fullerton  and 
(,'altel,  Uii  the  I'criviition  iif  Xiiiall  DilJcrences 
(Phihidelphia,  ISOii)  ;  Goldseheider,  Gesammelte 
Militi}i(llu)iyc».  vol.  ii.  (Leipzig,  1808)  ;  Ktilpc, 
Uiilliiws  of  I'sychohxj!)  (London.  ISII.i)  ;  Titch- 
ener.  An  Outline  of  I'sycholoyy  (New  York, 
lS!)!t)  :  id..  Exiicriniciilal  I'xyrlioloyy  ( ib.,  1801)  ; 
W'undt,  (Iruiiiiziiyc  der  physioloyinchcn  Psycho- 
loyie  I  Leipzig.  189.'i):  W.  James,  Principles  of 
I'Kyi'huliiyy    I  New    York.    1800). 

MOVEMENT  CURE.  A  hygienic  and  thera- 
peutic .system  for  the  preservation  as  well  as  the 
recovery  of  health,  introduced  by  Pehr  Henry 
Ling  (born  in  ITliii).  a  native  of  Smaland.  Swe- 
den. It  is  a  moditied  form  of  gymnastics,  being 
.systematized  and  specially  adapted  to  the  treat- 
ment of  invalids  in  a  reduced  condition,  and 
possesses,  in  many  respects,  advantages  over  ordi- 
nary gAinnastics.  The  system  consists  essen- 
tially in  carefully  prescribed  movements  of  the 
whole  body  or  of  individual  groups  of  muscles, 
either  with  or  without  resistance.  Ling's  metliods 
obtained  wide  recognition  both  in  Europe  and 
America.  In  Sweden  a  Royal  ordinance  was  • 
issued  for  the  estal)Iishnu'nt  of  an  institution  de- 
voted to  the  method  of  exercise.     See  Lino,  P.  H. 

Various  modifications  of  this  system  were 
made  from  time  to  time,  and  massage  and 
Uiovcment  were  gradually  eoml)ined  in  the  more 
modern  seheuies  of  mechanotherapy,  which  are 
designed  merely  to  correct  morbid  conditions  of 
the  body  by  means  of  active  or  passive  move- 
ments. "These  movements  are  active  when  they 
are  executed  by  the  |>atient's  own  volition,  and 
passive  when  performed  upon  liis  Ixidy  or  with 
it  or  upon  parts  of  it  by  the  will  of  another." 

Mechano-therapy  has  ]iroliably  reached  its 
highest  ilevclopment  in  the  ingenious  inventions 
of  Dr.  fiustaf  Zander,  of  Stockholm.  About  the 
niid<l'e  of  the  la~t  century  Zander  introduced 
the  first  of  these  ingenious  contrivances  for  ad- 
ministering the  well  known  'Swedisli  movements.' 
From  crude  beginnings  he  developed  his  'system' 
until  he  had  perfected  over  seventy  varieties  of 
a|iparalus.  some  of  them  weighing  nearly  a  ton, 
by  whiih  the  most  didicate  child  ami  the  most 
unwieldy  adult  can  be  treate<l  with  ei|ual  ease 
and  advantage.  These  machines  range  from  a 
simple  ajjparatus  for  moving  a  single  joint  or 
group  of  muscles  to  complicated  mechanisms 
whieii  closely  imitate  the  motions  of  the  body 
performed  in  horseback  or  even  camel  riding — 
the  latter  (echnically  known  as  'trunk  circum- 
duction.' Zander  institutes  have  been  established 
in  all  the  important  cities  and  health  resorts  in 
Europe,  and  there  is  oni'  in  N'ew  York  City. 

Mechanotherapy  is  not  disigncd.  nor  should 
it  be  resorted  to.  as  a  substitute  for  the  natural, 
unconscious  exercise  in  the  ojjcn  air.  such  as  is 
obtained  in  the  various  o\itdoor  recreations,  hut 
is  applicable  to  those  sulTering  from  general 
weakness,  or  from  alTections  of  particular  por- 
tions of  the  body,  such  as  local  paralysis  or  joint 
afTections.  which  would  render  general  movement 
painful,  harmful,  or  impossible.  Another  large 
class  of  persons  who  are  likely  to  find  benefit  are 


those  who  are  altlieted  with  deformities,  due 
cither  to  lial)it  or  disea.se.  In  such  cases  tlie 
oi'thopedist  often  finds  a  valuable  ally  in  the 
movement  cure.  The  subject  is  intimately  relat- 
ed to  massage  (q.v.).  For  fuller  information, 
consult:  Grafstrom,  Mechnno-Tkcrupy  (Philadel- 
phia, 1890),  and  Xissen,  .1  B  C  of  'the  .S'lccrf/.s/i 
Si/stem  of  Educdlionul  ilymnaslics  (Philadel- 
pliia  and  L(mdon,  1801). 

MOVERS,  mo'vers,  Franz  Karl  (1806-56). 
.\  (;cnii;iii  Orientalist.  He  was  born  at  Koes- 
feld.  Prussia,  and  was  educated  at  Miinster  and 
Bonn.  After  being  settled  for  six  years  over  a 
church  in  Berkum.  he  was  in  18.'?!)  appointed 
professor  of  theology  in  the  L'niversity  of  Bres- 
lau.  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  His  ex- 
haustive and  scholarly  treatise  on  the  Phoenicians, 
Die  Ph(ini:in-  (vol.  i!,  1841;  vol.  ii.,  1840-5G),  is 
his  best-known  work.  He  also  wrote  Kriti-ielie 
Untersiiehiouien  iiber  die  hiblisehe  Chronik 
(1834). 

MO'VILLE.  A  seaport,  market-town,  and 
summer  bathing  resort,  in  County  Donegal,  Ire- 
land, (m  Lough  Foyle,  17  miles  north-northeast 
of  Londonderry  (Map:  Ireland,  D  1).  It  is 
noted  as  a  cailing  station  of  the  transatlantic 
mail  steamers  from  Xew  York  to  Glasgow.  Popu- 
lation.  l.")00. 

MOVING  PLANT  {.nesmodiinn  yyrans) .  An 
East  Indian  plant  of  the  natural  order  Legumi- 
nosic.  remarkable,  as  are  also  some  other  species 
of  the  same  genus,  for  the  spontaneous  motion 
of  the  li'aves,  which  are  ternate.  the  lateral  leaf- 
lets nuicli  smaller  than  the  terminal  one.  These 
lateral  Icallcts  are  in  c(mstant  motion,  being  ele- 
vated by  a  succession  of  little  jerks  till  they  meet 
above  the  terminal  leadet,  and  then  moving 
downward  by  similar  rapid  jerks.  The  terminal 
leaflet  docs  not  remain  absolutely  at  rest,  al- 
though its  movements  are  not  like  those  of  the 
lateral  ones.     See  Movemknt. 

MOWAT,  mo'dt.  Sir  Oliver  (18-20-1003).  A 
('aiiadian  statesnuin.  born  in  Kingston.  Ontario, 
of  Scottish  parentage.  In  that  city  and  in 
Toronto  he  was  educated.  He  became  a  barrister 
(1841),  practiced  his  profession  in  Toronto,  was 
made  (Jueen's  Counsel  in  1856.  and  the  same 
year  was  a  eonunissioner  for  consolidating  the 
statutes  of  Canada,  of  I'pper  Canada,  and  after- 
wards of  Ontario.  He  was  a  Liberal  member  of 
Parliament  for  South  Ontario  in  1857-04,  a  Cab- 
inet minister  in  1858.  Postnuister-General  in 
I8(i3-fi4.  ;ind  Viee-Cliancellor  of  (Ontario  from 
1864  until  I87'2.  when  he  l)ecame  Prime  .Minister 
of  that  province  and  its  .\ttorney Ceticral.  as 
well  as  a  member  of  Parliament  for  North  Ox- 
ford. These  positions  he  held  until  1896.  when 
he  was  made  .Minister  of  .Justice  in  the  Dominion 
Cabinet  and  leader  of  the  Senate.  In  1.807  he 
was  appointed  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Ontario. 

MOWBRAY,  mr.'brA,  IIexrv  Sinnox.s  (1S5S 
—  I .  An  .\merican  figure  jiaintcr.  born  of  Eng- 
lish parentage  in  .Mexandria,  Egypt.  He  came-, 
to  the  I'niled  States  at  an  early  age.  In  1878  he 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  remained  several  years, 
and  became  a  pupil  of  Bonnaf.  He  is  well  known 
as  an  illustrator.  His  technique  is  clever  and  his 
color  well  hanilled  and  brilliant.  The  most  im- 
portant of  his  works  are  ".Maddin."  "Rose  Har- 
vest," ".\readie,"  "Schclierezadc."  and  "Evening 
Breeze." 


MOWBRAY. 


81 


MOZAMBIQUE. 


MOWBRAY,  RouKRT  de,  Earl  of  Nortliumbor- 
laiiil.     See  Northumberland. 

MOWER.    See  Reapers,  Reaping. 

MOWER,  mo'er,  Joseph  Anthony  (1827-70). 
An  -Viiierican  soldier,  born  at  Woodstock,  Vt.  He 
fouglit  in  the  ranks  during  the  .Mexican  War, 
hilt  rose,  in  18(il,  to  1)e  a  captain  in  the  Regular 
Army.  Dining  the  first  year  of  the  Civil  War 
he  took  part  in  the  military  operations  in  Ken- 
tucky and  Tennessee,  rendering  conspicuous  ser- 
vice. In  Novendier,  1802.  he  was  promoted  to 
hrigadier-gencral,  and  was  placed  in  command 
of  a  brigade  before  Vicksl)urg  (1803).  In  1804 
lie  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general  of 
volunteers  and  commanded  a  division  in  Louisi- 
ana. Later  he  accompanied  Sherman  in  the  At- 
lanta cani])aign.  Upon  the  reorganization  of  the 
army  at  the  close  of  the  war.  he  was  commis- 
sioned colonel  of  the  Thirty-nintli  Infantry  and 
received  command  of  the  Military  Department 
of  Louisiana. 

MOWRY,  mO'ri,  William  Augustu-S  (1829 
— ).  An  American  educator  and  historical 
writer,  born  at  I'.xbridge,  Jlass.  He  studied  at 
Phillips  Academy  and  at  Brown  LTniversity,  and 
for  many  j^ears  was  engaged  in  educational  work 
in  Rhode  Island  and  Massachusetts.  In  1884-8.5 
lie  was  editor  of  the  Jouniul  of  Education,  and 
from  1880  until  1891  of  Education.  Among  his 
historical  publications  are:  A  History  of  the 
Unilad  States  ( 1870)  ;  First  Steps  in  the  Hislory 
of  Our  CoiDiIri/  ( 1S98)  ;  American  Inventions  and 
Inventors  (1900);  and  Marctis  Whitman  and 
Earhi  Orcr/on.  (1901),  a  work  which  aroused 
considerable  conlrover.sy. 

MOXA.  Tlir  downy  hairs  of  Artemisia  Moxa, 
a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Composita- ;  also  the 
plant  itself.  The  Chinese  and  .Japanese  use  this 
sulistance  as  a  cautery  and  a  counter-irritant. 

MOX'OM,  Philip  Stafford  (1848—).  An 
American  (dergyman,  born  at  Markham,  Canada. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  at  an  early  age. 
and  a  year  after  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
joined  the  Federal  Army.  In  1875  he  entered  the 
Rochester  Theological  Seminary,  where  he  re- 
mained three  years,  tlien  entered  the  University  of 
Rochester,  where  he  graduated  in  1879.  He  was 
pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church  in  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  from  187!)  until  188.'),  and  of  the  First 
Baptist  Church  in  Boston  from  188.5  until  1894, 
when  he  took  charge  of  the  Soutli  Congregational 
Church  in  Springfield,  Mass.  His  publications 
include:  The  Aim  of  Life  (1894)  ;  From  Jcrn- 
salcm.  to  Nicea:  The  Church  in  the  First  Three 
Centuries  (189.5):  and  The  Beliqion  of  Hope 
(1896). 

MOXOS,  mr/nos,  IMoJcs,  !Moiio,s.  or  Musu, 
moTT'suo.  A  noted  group  of  tribes  occupying  the 
Province  of  Moxos.  on  the  upper  region  of  the 
Mamore  and  Beni  rivers,  in  Northeastern  Bolivia, 
and  speaking  a  language  of  the  widespread  Ara- 
wakan  stock  (q.v.).  By  submitting  themselves 
to  the  Inea  Yupanqui  thev  became  incorporated 
with  the  Peruvian  Empire  (see  QitichuaJ.  and 
an  Inca  colony  was  established  in  the  province. 
In  1.504  they  repelled  a  Spanish  invasion  of  their 
country,  but  in  1074  readily  accepted  the  teach- 
ing of  the  Jesuit  missionary  Baraza,  who  worked 
among  them  for  nearly  thirty  years,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  collecting  them  into  fifteen  mission  vil- 
lages, at  the  same  time  teaching  them  agricul- 


ture, weaving,  and  carpentry.  Moxos  missions 
grew  and  llnurishcd,  other  neighboring  tribes 
being  also  gathered  into  them,  until  in  1720  their 
fifteen  villages  numbered  30,000  Christian  In- 
dians, representing  nearly  thirty  tribes  and  at 
least  nine  distinct  languages,  the  Moxos  proper 
]iredominating.  With  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesu- 
its in  1707  the  mission  period  came  to  an  end, 
but  tlie  former  converts  maintained  themselves  as 
a  civilized  population  and  exiftt  to-day  in  prac- 
tically undiminished  numbers.  Physically  they 
are  of  rather  light  complexion,  with  intelligent 
and  hanilsomc  features.  They  are  grave  and 
thouglitful,  honest,  and  devoutly  religious,  peace- 
aide  and  civil,  but  carrying  always  an  air  of 
independence.  They  are  successful  farmers,  ex- 
pert boatmen,  and  skillful  with  the  lariat. 

MOYABAMBA,  mo'ya-biim'ba.  A  town  of 
Peru.     See  !Moyoi!ami!a. 

MOYA  Y  CONTRERAS,  mo'ya  e  kon-tra'- 
ras.  Pedro  de  (c.1520-91).  A  Spanish  prelate 
and  administrator,  born  in  the  Diocese  of  Cor- 
dova. Already  known  as  an  Inquisitor  in  JMur- 
eia,  he  was  sent  to  Mexico,  became  Archbishop 
of  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  established  the  In- 
quisition there  in  1574.  For  one  year,  1584-85, 
he  was  also  Viceroy.  After  his  return  to  Spain 
in  1591  he  was  appointed  president  of  the 
Council  of  the  Indies. 

MOYOBAMBA,  nu.'yo-bam'ba.  or  MOYA- 
BAMBA. The  capital  of  the  Department  of 
Loreto,  Peru.  It  is  situated  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  department,  on  the  River  Mayo,  and 
on  a  plateau  of  loose,  sandy  material,  which  the 
floods  wash  out,  forming  large  ravines  penetrating 
the  town  (Map:  Peru,  B  5).  The  town  con- 
sists mainly  of  isolated  houses  thatched  with 
palm  leaves  and  scattered  over  a  large  area.  The 
principal  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  Panama 
hats.  Moyobamba  has  some  trade  with  Brazil  by 
way  of  the  Amazon,  with  which  the  Mayo  com- 
municates through  the  Huallaga,  but  otherwise 
it  is  practically  cut  ofi'  from  communication  with 
the  rest  of  Peiu.     Population,  in  1895,   10,000. 

MOYSE,  mw-tz,  Htacinthe  (1769-1801).  A 
Haitian  revolutionist,  nephew  of  Toussaint 
L'Ouverture.  His  success  at  La  Croix  des  Bou- 
quets, whence  he  drove  the  whites  to  Port-au- 
Prince,  brought  on  a  general  revolt  in  the  south 
and  west.  In  1794  he  put  him.self  under  the 
command  of  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  and  with  him 
drove  out  the  English.  In  1801  he  became  com- 
mander of  the  Army  of  the  North  in  the  attack 
on  Spanish  Santo  Domingo.  At  the  close  of  the 
same  year  he  was  accused  of  instigating  a  revolt 
in  the  north;  was  arrested  and  court-martialed; 
and  with  twenty-three  of  his  men  was  blown  from 
tlie  cannon  mouth. 

MOZAMBIQUE,  nio'zam-bek'.  The  former 
name  of  Portuguese  East  Africa  (q.v.),  now  re- 
stricted to  the  northeastern  coast  of  that  colony. 

MOZAMBIQUE.  The  capital  of  the  Portu- 
guese Province  of  Mozambique,  situated  on  a 
small  coral  island  separated  by  a  strait  a  mile 
wide  from  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  at  the  nar- 
rowest part  of  the  Mozambique  Channel  (Map; 
Africa,  J  0).  Its  principal  buildings  are  the 
Governor-General's  palace,  the  custom-house,  the 
hosiiital.  and  the  cathedral.  Mozambique  wa3 
formerly  a  centre  for  the  slave  trade  and  has 
declined  in  importance  since  that  era.     There  is 


MOZAMBIQUE. 


82 


eome  tralEc  in  rict-,  yum,  guld-dust,  and  timber; 
the  shipping  auiouuls  to  150,000  tons  annually. 
The  population,  in  1900,  was  5500,  of  whom  285 
were  Europeans,  220  Asiatics,  and  tlie  rest 
natives. 

MOZAMBIQUE  CHANNEL.  The  body  of 
waU'i-  between  the  east  eoasi  of  Africa  and  the 
island  of  Madagascar  (Map:  Africa,  JO).  It 
is  about  1000  nii,les  long,  and  its  width  ranges 
from  260  miles  at  the  middle  to  nearly  000  miles 
at  either  end.  The  principal  river  tlnwing  into 
it  is  the  Zambezi.  The  Comoro  Islands  lie  in 
the  north  entrance  to  the  channel,  and  on  the 
west  shore  are  the  ports  of  Heira  and  Mozam- 
bique. 

MOZAKABIC  LITURGY  (Sp.  Moziirabc, 
from  Ar.  Mimlaib,  from  (a  'arrab,  to  become  an 
.\rab,  from  'tirub,  Arab),  or  Gothic  Litukoy. 
The  ancient  liturgy  of  the  Church  of  Spain,  'llie 
former  title  is  derived  from  the  name  applied 
to  the  Christian  inhabitants  after  they  were  sub- 
jected to  the  Arab  domination;  the  latter  is 
applied  to  it  Iwcause  it  was  most. widely  used 
during  the  (iothic  period.  Its  main  stru<ture 
indicates  an  Eastern  origin ;  a  plausible  theory 
regards  it  as  having  lieeii  brougiit  by  tlie  (Jotlis 
from  Constantinople  or  .Asia  Minor  in  the  fifth 
century,  and  then  revised  by  Saint  Isidore  of 
tjevillc.  In  the  second  half  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury the  Roman  liturgy  l)egan  to  supersede  it; 
but'  this  change  was  stubbornly  resisted.  In  the 
end  six  churches  in  Tole<lo  were  assigned  to  the 
local  rite.  Cardinal  Ximenes  made  special  elTorts 
at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cent\ny  to  pre- 
vent the  liturgy  from  falling  into  oblivion,  and 
founded  a  chapel  expressly  for  its  use.  He  also 
caused  a  number  of  U'arned  priests  to  collate  the 
existing  manuscripts,  and  pidilisbed  a  revised  edi- 
tion, unfortunately  incomplete,  in  150002.  The 
atlinities  of  this  liturgy  with  the  (Jalliean  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  Creek  on  the  other  make  its 
study  important  to  liturgical  scholars.  Besides  the 
edition  referred  to.  it  was  reprinted  by  Lesley 
(Rome,  1755),  and  by  Lorenzana  (ib.,  1804);  it 
is  in  Migne,  Patrolnfiitt  hnihm.  Ixxxv..  and  a  new 
edition  appeared  at  Toledo  in  1875.  Consult 
Neale.  E.indi/n  in  lAhirniolofit/  and  Chiircli  His- 
ton/  (London.  ISfi."?)  :  and  see  Liturgy. 

MCZABT,  Orr.  pron.  mo'tsart.  Leopold 
(1710-87).  .\  Oerman  musician,  father  of  Wolf- 
gang Amadeus  .Mozart,  born  at  .\ugsburg.  He 
was  sent  to  sttidy  law  at  Salzburg,  but  became 
a  chorister  and  afterwards  a  music  teacher,  as  he 
played  the  violin  well,  and  in  1743  was  made 
a  member  of  the  Prinee- Bishop's  orchestra.  In 
17(V2  he  was  appointed  Court  com])oser.  He  pro- 
duced about  twelve  oratorios,  eigliteen  sympho- 
nies, six  trio-sonatas,  as  well  as  serenades  and 
concertos.  Twelve  of  his  pianoforte  pieces  were 
published  under  the  title  Prr  Mortirii  iind  dcr 
Miiiid.  His  famous  violin  method,  almost  the 
first  of  its  kind,  IVr.siic/i  cinrr  firihidlichcn  Violin- 
srhiile  (1750),  was  often  reprinted  anil  tran.s- 
lated.  but  his  chief  service  to  the  world  was  the 
careful  and  sympathetic  training  of  his  son,  the 
great  Mozart"  whose  genius  he  judiciously  fos- 
f<-red. 

MOZART,  Woi.FOANO  Amadevs  (17.50-91). 
A  famous  Cerman  composer.  He  was  born  at 
Salzburg.  .Austria.  .Tanuar>'  27.  17.'5fi.  Mozart's 
love  for  music  first  manifested  itself  when  his 
eldest  sister,  'Xannerl.'  liegan  to  receive  musical 


MOZART. 

instructions  from  her  father.  When  he  was  only 
live  years  old  he  composed  little  minuets  and  was 
discovered  at  work  on  a  concerto.  At  six  he  bad 
become  so  proficient  as  a  performer  on  the 
piano,  and  his  sister's  progress  also  had  l)ecn  so 
great,  that  their  father  took  them  on  a  tour  of  the 
leading  capitals  of  Kurope,  everywhere  meeting  • 
w  illi  notable  receptions. 

In  1708  the  elder  Mozart  again  took  his  son  to 
\ieinia.  There  this  boy  of  twelve  conducted  a 
solemn  mass  of  his  own  composition,  and  his 
operetta  Biisliiii  und  Uasliciinc  was  given  at 
a  private  performance.  After  a  brief  sojourn  in 
Salzl)urg,  where  Wolfgang  was  appointed  coneert- 
meister  to  the  .\rchbishop,  his  father  took  hira 
to  Italy.  In  Rome  he  heard  the  famous  Miserere 
of  Allegri,  which  was  so  jealously  guarded  by  the 
authorities  tliat  musicians  were  forbidden  to 
copy  it  under  pain  of  excommunication.  After 
twice  hearing  it  young  Muzart  wrote  it  out  by 
ear.  His  compositions  and  his  jierformances  made 
such  a  profound  impression  that  the  Rope  created  • 
him  a  Knight  of  the  (Jolden  Spur,  and  at  Bologna 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Philharmonic  So- 
ciety. At  Milan  he  received  a  commission  to 
compose  an  opera,  the  result  being  Milridutr  re 
dl  I'oitto,  which  was  brought  out  in  Decenil)er, 
1770.  and  had  twenty  consecutive  performances. 
His  knowledge  of  the' Italian  style  of  singing  was 
greatly  broadened  through  this  Italian  trij),  and 
especially  through  his  acquaintance  with  the  male 
soprano  Farinelli,  the  greatest  singer  of  his  time. 
After  another  brief  sojourn  in  Salzburg  he 
returned  in  August,  1771,  to  Milan,  where  he 
brought  out  bis  serenata  Asciinio  in  Albd.  in 
honor  of  the  nuptials  of  Archduke  Ferdinand,  :t 
son  of  Maria  Theresa.  The  death  of  Archliisliop 
Sigismund  at  Salzburg  was  a  severe  blow  to  the 
Mozarts;  for  his  successor,  llieronymus,  for 
whose  installation  Mozart  composed  //  suyno  di 
f^cipione  (The  Dream  of  Seipio),  showed  little 
appreciation  of  his  genius.  Two  other  Italian 
stage  works  Liicio  Silhi  and  La  finta  giardi- 
niera  were  produced  in  Alilan,  and  the  latter 
also  in  Munich;  and  on  i\\v  occasion  of  Arch- 
duke Maximilian  Francis's  visit  to  Salzburg,  in 
1775.  lie  brought  out  II  re  piistore. 

Disgusted  with  the  obstacles  which  Hieronynius 
constantly  threw  in  his  way,  Mozart,  accompanied 
by  bis  ni'ollier,  again  started  out  on  his  travels 
ill  September.  1777.  In  Mannheim  be  met  the 
Weber  family,  which  was  destined  to  play  an 
important  part  in  his  life.  The  head  of  this 
familv,  Fridolin  von  Weber,  was  prompter  and 
copyist  at  the  theatre.  The  eldest  daughter, 
.Tosepha,  afterwards  Frau  llofer.  was  the  prima 
donna  for  whom  in  later  years  Mozart  wrote 
the  "Queen  of  the  Night"  music  in  77ic  Mapic 
I'hite.  \  younger  daughter.  .Moysia,  afterwards 
Frau  Lange,  was  for  a  time  Mozart's  pupil,  and 
he  promptly  fell  in  love  with  her.  .\nother 
daughter,  t'onstanza,  later  became  his  wife. 
A  trip  to  Paris  ended  tragically  in  his  mother's 
death.  He  returned  to  Salzburg,  stopping  on 
his  way  in  Munich,  where  .Moysia  had  secured  a 
position,  and  where  he  learned  that  she  no  longer 
eared  for  him.  In  after  years,  however,  this 
youthful  sweetheart  did  more  than  any  other 
singer  to  make  his  nnisie  famous.  While  in  Paris 
he  made  a  friend  of  the  encyclopa>dist  Crimm. 

At  Siil/biirg  be  composed  the  music  to_  the 
tragedv  Kinq  Thamos.  and  began  the  composition 
of  an  operetta,  Zaide,  which  was  interrupted  by 


WOLFGANG  AMADEUS   MOZART 


HOZABT. 


83 


IfOZABT. 


an  invitation  to  composf  an  opera  for  ilunich. 
Zaidc  was  never  linislied,  Imt  the  result  of  the 
iJunieh  invitation  was  the  ojiera  Idiiininco, 
which  opened  a  new  epcxh  in  his  life,  being  his 
first  masterpiece  in  the  grand  style.  During  a 
visit  to  Vienna  in  1781,  ilozart  terminated  once 
for  all  his  relations  with  the  boorish  llieronymus, 
who  had  grossly  insulted  him.  He  took  up  his 
residence  with  the  W'ebers,  who  were  now  in 
Vienna.  His  father  stronf,'ly  objected  to  this,  and 
he  moved  his  lodgings,  liul  he  had  fallen  in  love 
with  Constanza,  and  in  August,  1782,  they  were 
married.  Notwitlistanding  the  grinding  )ioverty 
of  their  lot,  tlieir  marriage  was  a  happy  one,  for 
their  mutual  love  atoned  for  the  hardships  which 
constantly  confronted  them.  His  marriage  took 
place  shortly  after  the  production  in  Vienna  of 
his  opera  Bclmonte  und  Vonstanza,  oder  Die 
Entfuhrunn  aus  dem  i^erail.  The  Italian  musi- 
cians of  Vienna,  headed  by  Salieri,  used  all 
means  in  their  power  to  have  the  production 
fail,  but  it  was  triumphantly  successful.  Gluck 
attended  one  of  the  performances  and  was  en- 
thusiastic in  his  approval  of  it.  Nevertheless, 
from  this  time  on  ilozart  was  constantly  met  by 
the  hostile  machinations  of  the  Salieri  party, 
which  greatly  imbittered  his  career. 

The  success  of  the  opera  led  the  Emperor  to 
order  a  new  opera  bufTa  of  Mozart,  who,  in 
connection  with  its  composition,  was  brought 
together  with  Lorenzo  da  Ponte.  The  result  wis 
Le  nozze  di  Figaro.  Beaumarchais's  work  on 
which  the  libretto  is  based  had  been  forbidden 
in  Vienna  on  the  ground  of  its  immorality,  ilo- 
zart,  however,  went  to  work  on  the  score,  and 
when  part  of  it  had  been  composed,  Da  Ponte 
found  opportunity  to  have  the  Emperor  hear  it, 
with  the  result  that  he  ordered  its  completion 
and  performance.  Besides  this  he  gave  the 
composer  an  order  for  a  musical  comedy,  Der 
Schaiispicldirector,  for  a  garden  fete  at  Schon- 
brunn.  Throughout  the  preparations  for  the 
production  of  Figaro  Salieri  and  his  adherents 
were  active  in  opposition,  and  the  first  perform- 
ance, in  Jlay,  1780,  came  near  being  a  failure. 
In  .January.  1787.  however,  it  was  received  with 
immense  enthusiasm  at  Prague,  where  Mozart  be- 
came a  popular  idol.  The  concerts  which  he  gave 
there  were  immensely  successful,  and  he  was 
engaged  to  write  another  opera.  Da  Ponte  sug- 
gested DoH  Giovanni  to  him.  and  in  April  placed 
the  libretto  of  the  work  in  his  hands.  By  Sep- 
tember ]\lozart  and  his  wife  and  Da  Ponte  were 
in  Prague,  rehearsals  were  taken  in  hand,  and 
late  in  October  Don  Giovanni  was  produced,  and 
was  even  more  successful  than  Figaro  had  been. 

During  a  tour  undertaken  in  1789  w'ith  Prince 
Carl  Lichnowski,  the  destination  being  Berlin, 
Mozart  stopped  en  route  at  Leipzig,  where  he 
played  in  the  Thomaskirche  and  was  deeply  im- 
pressed with  Bach's  iiintets.  In  Berlin  his  suc- 
cess was  such  that  Freileriek  William  II.  ofTered 
him  a  position  as  kapellmeister  with  a  salary 
of  .3000  thalers.  But  a  few  words  of  reassurance 
from  the  Austrian  Emperor,  accompanied  with 
an  order  for  a  new  opera,  coupled  with  his  own 
strong  feeling  of  loyalty,  unfortunately  induced 
liim  to  decline  the  King's  offer,  the  best  he  had 
had.  The  opera  was  Cosl  fan  tufte,  which  was 
produced  in  Vienna  in  .Tanuary.  1790.  After  a 
visit  to  Frankfort  to  attend  the  coronation  of  the 
new  Emperor,  I..eopold  II..  he  returned  to  Vienna. 
Meanwhile    his    old    acquaintance    Schikaneder 


was  managing  a  theatre  in  Vienna.  The 
alfairs  of  the  hou^•e  being  precarious,  he  thought 
to  better  liiem  by  producing  an  opera  by  Mozart, 
and  so  applied  to  him  in  the  spring  of  1791  to 
write  a  'fairy'  opera — "a  piece  that  would  at- 
tract.' Schikaneder  himself  furnished  for  Mozart 
the  libretto  to  the  Zaubcr/lote  [The  Magic 
Flule).  The  work  was  interrupted  by  an  order 
to  compose  an  opera  for  the  coronation  of  Leo- 
pold as  King  of  Bohemia  at  Prague,  in  1791.  It 
was  La  clcnicnza  di  Tito,  written  in  a  few  weeks 
by  a  man  already  much  overworked.  It  did  not 
make  much  impression.  The  Magic  Flule  was 
brought  out  in  September,  1791,  under  the  com- 
poser's own  direction,  and  with  distinguished 
success. 

But  Mozart's  constant  struggle  with  intrigue 
and  pecuniary  necessities,  and  the  strain  to  which 
he  had  subjected  himself  in  order  to  meet  these 
by  constant  work,  had  begun  to  tell  upon  him, 
and  when,  even  before  he  had  finished  TIte  Magic 
Flute,  he  received  a  mysterious  commission  to 
compose  a  requiem,  he  felt  that  he  was  writing 
his  own  swan  song.  It  is  now  known  that  the 
commission  came  from  a  Count  Walsegg,  whose 
intention  was  to  have  the  work  performed  as 
his  own,  and  who  therefore  kept  his  identity  from 
Mozart.  So  fixed  became  Mozart's  idea  that  he 
must  complete  his  Requiem  before  death  overtook 
him  that  even  when  his  wife  drove  out  with  him, 
so  that  he  might  be  in  the  open  air,  he  insisted 
on  taking  his  portfolio  of  music  paper  along. 
It  was  on  one  of  these  drives  that  his  melancholy 
led  him  to  express  the  belief  that  he  had  been 
poisoned  at  the  instigation  of  his  Italian  rivals, 
a  suspicion  which  does  not,  however,  seem  to 
have  been  borne  out.  Feeling  that  he  would  not 
live  long  enough  to  finish  the  Requiem  himself, 
he  sketched  (mt  the  principal  features  of  the  un- 
completed part,  leaving  them  for  his  pupil  Siiss- 
mayer  to  fill  out.  The  night  before  his  death  he 
gathered  some  of  his  favorite  singers  about  him, 
had  the  score  of  the  Requiem  brought  to  his  bed. 
and  the  w-ork  was  sung  until  the  "Laerimosa" 
was  reached,  when  Mozart  burst  into  tears  and 
closed  the  score.  His  death  came  at  one  o'clock 
in  the  morning  of  December  5th,  and  an  eye- 
witness says  that  his  last  motion  was  an  en- 
deavor to  imitate  the  kettledrums  in  the  Requiem. 

Although  much  of  Mozart's  music  has  been 
forgotten,  he  remains  to  the  public  one  of  the 
most  fascinating  figures  in  musical  history.  His 
buoyant  nature,  which  seemed  to  override  mis- 
fortune and  intrigue  and  lo  laugh  at  poverty, 
has  made  him  a  type  of  the  musical  bohcmian. 
Mozart  is  of  gieatest  importance  as  an  operatic 
composer,  and  as  such  he  still  ranks  among  the 
masters  of  music.  His  admirable  handling  of 
the  human  voice  and  his  keen  appreciation  of 
dramatic  effect  have  kejit  Figaro,  Don  Giovanni. 
and  The  Magic  Flute  in  the  repertory  from  the 
day  they  were  produced.  His  vocal  numbers  not 
only  ai-e  fine  as  music,  but,  being  written  with 
a  knowledge  of  the  voice,  can  be  sung  with  tell- 
ing effect  by  accomplished  singers.  With  (lluck, 
Mozart  lies  at  the  foundation  of  German  opera. 
He  also  was  a  prodigious  worker  in  other  de- 
partments of  music.  He  produced  no  less  than 
forty-one  symphonies,  the  best  known  of  which 
are  those  in  F  flat  Major  (the  first  symphony 
to  employ  clarinets),  the  .lupiter  and  the  (7 
Minor,  ehurch  music,  many  works  of  chamber 
nnisie,  pianoforte  compositions,  and  songs. 


MOZABT.  84 

BlBLlOGBAPHY.  Jalin,  Life  of  Mozart,  trans- 
lated by  Townsend,  with  a  preface  by  Grove 
(London,  1882),  the  standard  work;  Xohl,  Life 
of  Mozart,  translated  by  Lalor  (Chica<»o,  1893), 
an  excellent  short  biograpliy;  The  (Irrat  (Icr- 
iiiiin  Composers  ( Xew  York,  1878);  Kiichel's 
Chronologisclithewntisehcs  Verzeichnis  sdmllicher 
Tonicerke  If.  .1.  Mozart's  (Leipzig,  lS<i2;  sujjpl. 
1889)  :  Letters,  translated  from  the  ooUcetion  of 
Ludwig  Nohl  by  Lady  Wallace  (Boston,  18G4). 

MOZDOK,  nioz-dftk'.  A  town  in  the  Cauca- 
sian Tirriliiry  of  Terek,  Russia,  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Terek,  58  miles  north  of  Vladi- 
kavkaz (Map:  Russia.  F  G).  It  has  a  number 
of  Armenian  and  Greek  churches,  of  whicli  that 
of  the  Assumption  attracts  many  pilgrims.  The 
educational  institutions  include  four  ^lohamme- 
dan  schools.  Gardening  and  tlie  manufacturing 
of  wine  and  spirits  are  the  chief  occupations. 
The  town  was  founded  in  1762.  Population,  in 
1897,  14,583,  consisting  chiefly  of  Kabardins. 
(ieorgians.  and  other  Caucasian  tribes,  Armeni- 
ans, and  about  4000  Russians. 

MOZIER.  mo'zher.  Joseph  (1812-70).  An 
-Vmerican  sculptor.  He  was  born  at  Burlington, 
Vt.,  .Vugust  22,  1812,  and  in  1831  settled  in'Xew 
York,  where  he  established  himself  as  a  merchant. 
In  1845  he  retired  from  business  to  devote  him- 
self to  art.  and  shortly  after  went  to  Italy.  He 
studied  sculpture  for  several  years  at  Florence, 
and  then  went  to  Rome,  where  he  spent  the  great- 
er part  of  his  professional  career.  Among  his 
best  works  arc:  "Esther;"  the  "Wept  of  \Vish- 
ton-\Vish:"  "Taeite"  and  "Truth."  in  the  Mer- 
cantile I.ibrarv.  Xew  York;  the  "White  Ladv  of 
Avenel"  (18(Jli)  ;  "The  Peri;"  "Pocahontas:"  the 
"Prodigal  Son."  Philadelphia  .\cadcmy;  and 
"Rizpah,"  one  of  his  latest  works.  He  died  at 
Faids.  Switzerland.  October.  1870. 

MOZLEY,  moz'll.  .I.\mes  Bowling  (1813-78). 
An  Knglish  elergj-man.  He  was  born  at  Gainsbor- 
ough, Lincolnshire,  and  was  sent  in  early  youth 
to  school  at  Grantham.  In  1830  he  was  admitted 
to  Oriel  College,  where  he  came  into  intimate 
association  with  the  leaders  of  the  Oxford  Move- 
ment— Xewman.  Pusey.  Keble.  and  llurrell 
Frinule.  With  this  movement  he  became  formal- 
ly allied,  though  he  was  never  among  tlu'  more 
(iogmatic  of  its  i)romulgators.  In  1834  he  took 
his  degree,  and  shortly  thereafter  won  the  Chan- 
cellor's prize  for  an  English  essay  on  The  Influ- 
ence of  Anrient  Orneles  on  Piihlie  nnil  Private 
Life.  He  remained  at  Oxford,  studying  theoIog^' 
under  the  dire<'tioii  r)f  Pusoy  and  X'ewman. 
as  fellow  of  .Magdalen,  until  1S()5.  during  which 
period  he  contributed,  first  to  the  lirilish  Critic 
and  later  to  the  Christian  lirmemhraneer.  articles 
-uggested  by  the  Cburih  movement  of  the  time. 
He  was  in  full  accord  with  Anglican  teachings 
until  the  Gorhani  controversy  of  IS.'iO  on  the 
subject  of  baptism  led  him  to  attempt  a  recon- 
ciliation of  the  Christian  tradition  about  baptism 
with  the  teachings  of  Calvinistie  theology'.  His 
contributions  to  this  subject  were:  .1  Treati.ie  on 
the  Aiifiustinian  Doctrine  of  Predestination 
(18.55);  The  Primitive  Doctrine  of  Hnptismal 
Rer/eneration  (1850)  ;  and  .1  Rerieir  of  the  Pap- 
lismal  Cnntrorersi/  (iafi2).  He  removed  from 
Oxford  on  his  marriage  in  185(1.  and  became 
rector  of  Old  Shorehani.  Rus.aex.  In  ISfin  Glad- 
stone appointed  him  Canon  of  Worcester,  and 
two  years  later  nominated   him   regius   professor 


MPONGWE. 

of  divinity  at  O.xford.  which  post  he  held  until 
his  death.  In  addition  to  the  works  already 
mentioned,  he  published  his  Bampton  Lectures 
on  Miracles  (18G5)  and  Rulinij  Ideas  in  Early 
Ages  (1877).  His  letters,  with  biographical 
introduction,  were  edited  bv  his  sister  (London, 
1884). 

MOZLEY,  T110.M.4.S  (180G-93).  An  English 
clergT. man  and  journalist.  He  was  born  at  Gains- 
borough, and  attended  Charterhouse  School.  In 
1825  he  entered  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  He  be- 
came fellow  of  Oriel,  and  enjoyed  the  intimate 
friendship  of  the  Ittulers  of  the  Oxford  Movement, 
the  personal  side  of  which  he  has  given  in  his 
I'eminiscenccs,  Chiefly  of  Oriel  Colleqe  and  the 
Oxford  Movemoit  (1882).  In  laSl'he  entered 
the  active  ministry,  but  returned  to  Oriel  in 
1835  to  assume  the  ollice  of  junior  treasurer. 
In  1836  he  resigned  his  fellowship,  and  became 
rector  of  Cholderton.  Wiltshire,  where  he  re- 
mained eleven  years,  varying  his  pastoral  duties 
by  writing  for  the  British  Critic.  In  1841  he 
succeeded  Xewman  as  editor  of  that  journal. 
In  1844  he  began  writing  for  the  Times  (Lon- 
don), and  in  1847  he  resigned  his  living  and  re- 
moved to  London,  formally  entering  upon  a  long 
literary  career.  Once  again,  in  1808.  he  returned 
to  the  work  of  the  Cluirch.  b\it  the  following 
year  fouinl  him  in  Rome  as  corres])ondcnt  for  the 
Times.  From  1880  to  1803  he  resided  at  Chelten- 
ham, engaged  in  literary  pursuits. 

MOZOOM'DAR,  Prot.vp  Chixdeb  (c.l840 
— ).  A  Hindu  reformer  and  theist.  He  was  born 
at  Calcutta,  India;  studied  in  the  native  college 
there:  was  led  by  conviction  to  join  the  Brahmo- 
Soniaj  (q.v. ),  and  became  the  editor  of  the 
Theistic  Quarterly  Kevieir  and  the  Interpreter, 
published  in  Calcutta  in  the  interests  of  the 
association.  In  1874  he  visited  England,  and  in 
1883  the  United  States,  where  he  was  welcomed 
by  the  leading  men  of  several  Christian 
denominations.  During  his  stay  he  pub- 
lished a  book  entitled  The  Oriental  Christ,  and 
on  his  second  \isit  he  read  a  pajier  before  the 
World's  Parliament  of  Religions  on  the  Brahmo- 
l^omaj.  published  in  Chicago.  1893.  He  is  the 
author  of  the  Life  and  Teachings  of  Keshub 
Chunder  .SVh  (1887).  and  has  contributed  also  to 
British  and  American  periodicals. 

MOZYR,  m'l-zer'.  A  town  in  the  Government 
of  ^linsk,  Russia,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Pripct,  204  miles  southeast  of  Minsk  (Map: 
Russia,  C  4).  It  manufactures  leather,  beer. 
,nnd  hardware,  and  trades  in  grain,  animals,  and 
huulier.  l'ni>Mlation.  in  1897.  10.762,  including 
about  5000  .lews. 

MPONGWE,  m'pon'g^"'.  .A  Bantu-speaking 
people  living  about  the  (Jabnn  estuary,  in  French 
equatorial  .\frica.  Formerly  powerful,  they  have 
been  broken  up  by  the  movements  of  other  tribes, 
especially  by  the  Fans.  .Missionary  work  lia.s 
been  carried  on  among  the  ilpongwc  fiu'  a  long 
time,  and  their  language,  which  has  l>een  re- 
duced to  writing  through  these  efforts,  is  pe- 
culiarly rich,  so  that  it  has  been  adopted  by 
neighboring  tribes,  and  thus  forms  a  trade  lan- 
guage. The  Mpongwc  are  above  the  average 
height  and  well  developed:  their  hair  is  woolly, 
and  the  skin  of  light  chocolate  color.  In  ehar- 
neter  they  are  boastful  and  indolent.  .Agricul- 
ture and  trading  are  their  chief  pursuits.  As 
merchants  thev  are  untrustworthv.  being  known 


MPONGWE. 


85 


MUCKERS. 


as  clevpr  swindler-..  Tin-  political  unit  is  the 
clan,  ruled  over  l>y  the  head  men.  The  so-ealled 
king  is  chosen  I'runi  the  head  men  by  lot  in  a 
solenui  conclave,  and  is  reviled  and  mistreated 
before  being  proclaimed. 

In  arts  the  Mpongwe  are  at  a  low  level.  They 
are  said  to  cook  tlieir  food  by  boiling  it  in  earth- 
en vessels,  apparently  not  being  familiar  with 
the  method  of  roasting.  As  eanix'-makers  they 
are  skillful,  and  are  admirable  boatmen.  The 
canoes,  usually  CO  feet  long,  arc  hollowed  out  by 
fire  and  transported  often  several  niilo  to  water. 
Around  the  statinns  tlie  ilpotigwe  are  nominally 
Christians,  but  the  is(dated  natives  retain  their 
pagan  religion,  with  its  fetisli  idols,  charms,  and 
belief  in  witchcraft. 

MRICCHAKATIKA,  mrlch'aka'te-ka'  (Skt. 
mrcchakdtilai.  clay  cart ) .  The  title  of  a  Sanskrit 
play  of  the  sixth  century  attril)uted  to  a  king 
named  Sudraka.  but  l)robably  written  for  him 
by  the  poet  Daudin  (q.v.).  The  play,  whicli  is 
in  ten  acts,  is  one  of  the  most  exquisite  of  all 
the  Sanskrit  dramas.  The  scene  is  laid  at  Ujjain 
(q.v.  I,  ami  its  central  theme  is  the  noble  love 
of  the  rich  courtesan  Vasantasena  for  a  mer- 
chant named  Carudatta.  who  has  been  reduced 
to  poverty.  Pursued  by  Sansthanaka,  the  King's 
brother-in-law,  \'asanta.sena  seeks  refuge  in  Caru- 
datta's  house,  and  the  pair  fall  in  love.  Escorted 
to  her  home  by  the  merchant,  she  leaves  her 
jewels  with  him  on  the  pretext  that  she  dares 
not  keep  them  about  her.  The  gems  are  stolen 
by  a  Brahman  who  is  in  love  with  Vasantasena's 
maid,  the  soubrette  of  the  play.  When  Carudat- 
ta perceives  this  loss,  he  and  his  wife  sell  all 
that  remains  to  them  and  thus  make  good  the 
treasure ;  but  the  Brahman,  on  the  advice  of  his 
sweetheart,  surrenders  the  stolen  jewels  to  their 
owner,  and  Vasantasena  thus  discovers  the  depth 
of  Carudatta's  love  for  her.  In  the  merchant's 
home  she  .sees  his  little  son  weeping  because  he 
can  have  but  a  clay  cart,  while  a  neighbor's  child 
has  one  of  gold.  She  heaps  the  toy  full  of  jewels 
for  him,  and  this  incident,  one  of  true  pathos, 
gives  the  play  its  name.  Again  pursued  by  the 
brother-in-law  of  the  King,  she  repulses  him. 
Enraged,  he  chokes  her  into  insensibility,  and 
leaves  her  for  dead,  covering  her  with  leaves. 
She  is.  however,  discovered  and  revived  by  a 
Buddhist  monk  whom  she  had  saved  from  a 
gambling  quarrel.  Sansthanaka  accuses  Caru- 
datta of  Vasantasena's  murder.  He  is  con- 
demned and  led  forth  to  execution.  .Tust  as  the 
sword  is  raised,  Vasantasena  appears,  her  lover 
is  saved,  and,  as  polygamy  is  possible  in  the 
Hindu  drama,  the  lovers  are  united.  As  a  pic- 
ture of  Hindu  life  of  the  period,  luxurious  and 
corrupt,  but  with  noble  and  unselfish  motives, 
the  Clai/  Cart  is  of  great  value.  The  il ricchakatika, 
lias  been  edited  bv  Stenzlcr  (Bonn,  1847),  Goda- 
b(de  (Bombay,  iSOO),  Vidyasagara  (Calcutta 
ISnSi.  and  Parab  (Bombay.'  inont.  It  has  been 
translated  into  German  by  Biihtlingk  (Saint 
Petersburg.  18771.  Fritze'  (Chemnitz.  1870), 
and  Kellner  (Leipzig,  1894)  :  into  Dutch  by 
Vogel  (Amsterdam.  1807)  :  and  into  English  by 
Wilson  in  his  Select  Specimens  of  the  Tluntre 
of  the  Hindus  (.'id  ed.  London,  1S71).  Con- 
sult Levi,  Theatre  Indirn   (Paris,  18!M)). 

MUCH  ADO  ABOUT  NOTHING.  A  comedy 
by  Shakespeare,  produced  in  I;ifl7-n8  and  printed 
in  1(500.  It  was  probably  a  re<'ast  of  Lni'e's 
Lahonr's  Won    (1590).  and  was  known  as  Bene- 


dick and  licatrice  (ItiLi).  The  story  of  Hero 
and  Clau<lio  is  taken  probably  from  the  tale  of 
".Vriodanle  and  Giuevra"  in  Ariosto's  Orlando 
fvrioso,  which  was  translated  by  Beverly,  and 
dramatized  as  Ariodunle  and  Geneiioru  (1582). 
It  is  found  also  in  Bandello's  novels,  and  in  a 
German  play  by  Jacob  .\yrer.  The  Beautiful 
I'ha'nioian  (159C).  This  contains  some  features 
not  in  the  novel  but  used  by  Shakespeare,  point- 
ing to  some  unknown  intermediate  source.  Other- 
wise the  oomedy  is  quite  original,  especially  the 
inimitable  Doglierry. 

MUCILAGE  (Lat.  mucilago,  moldy,  musty 
juice,  from  inucere,  to  be  moldy,  from  mucus, 
slime;  connected  with  Gk.  yai5|o,  myxa,  slime.  Lat. 
mungere,  to  blow  the  nose.  Skt.  muc,  to  release). 
A  name  applied  to  aqueous  solutions  or  jelly-like 
preparations  of  vegetable  gums  or  of  dextrin 
(qq.v. ).  An  excellent  mucilage  is  made  by  dis- 
solving gum  arable  in  hot  water,  filtering  the 
solution  and  ad<ling  some  antiseptic,  to  prevent 
fermentation  and  the  formation  of  mold.  The 
United  States  Pharmacopa'ia  contains  four  mu- 
cilages, including  Mucilago  acacice  and  Mucilago 
tragacnnthw. 

MUCIN.     See  ifrcous  Mkmbr.^xe. 

MUCIUS  SCaSVOLA,  nm'shi-us  sev'o-la. 
See  PoKSKXA. 

MUCKE,  muk'e,  Hei.nrich  ( 1806-91 ) .  A  Ger- 
man historical  painter,  born  at  Breslau,  pupil 
of  Schadow,  first  at  the  Berlin  Academy,  then 
at  Diisseldorf,  whither  he  had  followed  him.  In 
1829  he  painted  with  Lessing  in  Castle  Heltorf, 
near  Diisseldorf,  a  cycle  in  fresco  of  episodes 
in  the  life  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and  after  a 
visit  to  Italy  in  18:5.3  executed  a  series  of  reli- 
gious and  historical  paintings,  chief  among  which 
w-ere:  "Saint  Catharine  Borne  by  Angels  to 
Mount  Sinai"  (18:311).  a  composition  of  which 
he  subsequently  had  to  paint  five  rcplica.s.  "Saint 
Elizabeth  Distributing  Alms"  (1S41),  both  in 
the  National  (iallery,  Berlin;  "The  Virgin  and 
Child,  with  David,  Saint  John,  and  Saint  Aloy- 
sius,"  a  large  fresco  in  Saint  Andrew's  Church, 
Diisseldorf;  "Chriemhilde's  Dream;"  "Saint  Am- 
bi'ose  and  Emperor  Theodosius  at  Jlilan;"  "Intro- 
duction of  Christianity  into  the  Wupper  Valley," 
fresco  in  City  ?Iall.  F.Iberfild ;  and  a  cycle  de- 
picting the  "Life  of  Saint  Meinrad,  Count  of 
Zollern."  at   Sigmaringen. 

MUCK'ERS  (Ger.  Mucker,  sulky  person, 
hypocrite,  from  JIHG.  muckzen,  miichzen.  from 
OHG.  miickiiz^cn,  to  nuitter;  probably  connected 
w'ith  Olr.  fiir-niuigthc.  hidden).  The  popular 
but  opjirobrious  name,  meaning  that  they  were 
hypocrites,  of  an  extraordinary  sect  which  sprang 
up  at  Kimigsberg,  in  Germany,  in  18,30.  The 
movement  seems  to  have  originated  in  the  dual- 
istic  and  Gnostic  views  of  .John  Henry  Schiinherr 
(who  was  born  at  Jlemel.  in  1771.  and  died  at 
Konigsberg  in  1820)  concerning  the  origin  of 
the  universe  by  the  combination  of  two  spiritual 
and  sensiial  principles.  His  followers  carried 
out  his  system  much  more  completely  than  him- 
self. The  most  notable  of  them  were  two  clergy- 
men, .Tohann  Wilhclm  Ebel  and  Georg  Heinrich 
Diestel.  the  former  an  archdeacon,  who  founded 
a  society  to  which  women — some  of  noble  birth 
— attached  themselves.  Scandal  was  thereby 
caused,  and  Ebel's  easily  misunderstood  expres- 
sions as  to  the  proper  relations  of  the  sexes 
were  made  the  basis  of  charges  against  his  chas- 


MXrCKEKS.  86 

tity  and  moral  intluencc.  His  followers  were 
accused  of  the  grossest  immorality,  ami  a  garden 
in  Kiinigsberg  where  they  met  aciiuired  the  name 
of  tlie  Seraph's  Grove.  The  sulijcct  was  hrought 
before  the  courts  (1839-42),  ami  the  result  was 
that  Ehel  and  Diestel  were  degraded  from  their 
oHices,  and  the  latter  was  further  punished  by 
imprisonment.  T?ut  the  sentence  was  dictated 
by  strong  prejudice  against  the  accused,  on  ac- 
count of  their  religious  views  and  peculiar  ec- 
centricities, and  the  evidence  gives  no  support 
whatever  to  the  charge  of  licentiousness.  The 
matter  was  revamped  withoiit  jiroper  examina- 
tion by  \V.  Ilepworth  Dixon  in  his  Siiiritual 
^yices  (London,  1808),  and  thus  rendered  fa- 
miliar to  English  readers.  For  the  facts  con- 
sult J.  I.  Mombert,  Faith  VictorioKx,  a  life  of 
Ebel    (New  York.  1882). 

MUCORA'CEJE  (Neo-],at.,  noni.  pi.,  from 
Lat.  mttcor,  mold,  from  m  uccre,  to  be  moldy,  from 
mucus,  slime;  connected  with  Gk.  /xi!fa,  myxa, 
mucus,  Skt.  niwc,  to  release).  A  widely  distril)- 
uted  order  of  fungi  mostly  microscopic,  com- 
prising what  are  commonly  known  as  molds, 
whicii  are  found  on  decaying  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal matter.  Pliycomyccs  nitens  grows  on  greasy 
substances,  a  habitat  not  usual  with  most  fungi, 
ilucor  mucedo,  one  of  the  most  common,  appears 
as  a  glistening  mass  of  mycelium  on  fresh  horse 
manure  in  moist  places.  It  .seems  to  flourish 
in  decaying  nitrogenous  matter,  evolving  am- 
monia. From  the  mycelium  there  project  toward 
the  light  slight  white  threads  (conidiophores) , 
whose  tips  soon  became  black,  from  the  developed 
sifhres.  The  spore  stalks  of  the  common  l)read 
mold  appear  to  lie  inditlercnt  to  light.  If  the 
mycelium  be  kc])!  moist  it  develops  cross-parti- 
tions which  increase  in  number,  the  cells  so  pro- 
duced swelling  into  a  spherical  form  to  become 
thick-walled  resting  spores;  but  if  grown  in  a 
decoction  of  horse  manure  the  mycelium  bears 
only  conidia.  The  principal  genera  arc  Mucor, 
Thamnidium,  Pilobolus,  Phycomyces. 

MUCOUS  MEMBRANE  and  MUCUS.  The 
iiiucdii^  incnil'ranc  i->  i-nnt inuiui--  willi  llie  skin 
at  all  the  oriticcs  of  the  body,  and  liTics  the 
passages  by  which  the  internal  (jrgans  coinmuni- 
eate  with  the  outer  worhl.  For  convenience  of 
description  it  may  be  divided  into  three  great 
tracts — the  alimentary  mncnus  membrane,  the 
respiratory  mucous  mendirane.  and  the  genito- 
urinary  mucoiis  membrane. 

The  iilinii iilinii  miimns  mtinhriuic  commences 
at  the  lips,  and  not  only  forms  the  inner  lining 
of  the  intestinal  canal  from  the  mouth  to  the 
anus,  but  gives  oil'  prolongations  which  after 
lining  the  ducts  of  the  various  glands  (the 
salivary  glands,  the  liver,  and  the  pancreas) 
whose  products  are  discharged  into  this  canal, 
penetrate  into  the  iiuiermosl  recesses  of  these 
glands,  and  constitute  their  true  secreting  ele- 
ment. Besides  these  larger  ofTsets.  we  find  in 
the  stomach  and  small  intestine  an  infinite  series 
of  minute  tubular  [irolongations.  the  anatomical 
arrangement  ami  function  of  whicli  are  ilescribed 
in  the  article  nioESTiON,  Ukuans  of. 

The  rrs/iinilnri/  iinn-tniy  nicinhrtnir  begins  at 
the  nostrils,  and  under  the  name  of  Nclinviderian 
or  iiiliiitiirii  wimhrnnc  (sec  Nose)  lines  the 
nasal  cavities,  from  whence  it  sends  on  either 
side  an  upward  pndongation  tlirough  the  laeh- 
rymnl  duct  to  form  the  ronjunrtiin  of  the  eye; 
backward,  through  the  posterior  nares  (the  com- 


MUCOUS  MEMBRANE. 


munication  between  the  nose  and  the  throat), 
it  sends  a  prolongation  through  the  Eustachian 
tube  to  the  middle  ear  (the  cavity  of  the  tym- 
panum), and  is  continuous  with  tlic  pharyngeal 
mucous  membrane  (which  is  a  jiortion  of  the 
alimentary  tract);  it  then,  instead  of  passing 
down  the  oesophagus,  enters  and  forms  a  lining 
to  the  larynx,  trachea,  and  bronchial  tubes  to 
their  terminations.  From  the  continuity  of  these 
two  tracts  some  writers  describe  them  as  a  single 
one,  under  the  name  of  the  gastro-pulmonary 
tract. 

The  geuito-uri}wrt/  luucons  ntciuhrane  com- 
mences at  the  genitourinary  orifices,  lines  the 
excretory  ])assages  from  the  generative  ami  uri- 
nary organs,  and  is  the  essential  constituent  of 
the  glands  of  both.  In  the  female  it  becomes 
continuous  with  the  serous  membrancc  of  the  ab- 
domen at  the  fimbriie  of  the  Fallopian  tubes.  See 
Kidney. 

Mucous  membranes  line  all  those  passages  by 
which  internal  parts  communicate  with  the  sur- 
face, and  by  which  matt<>rs  are  either  admitted 
into  or  eliminated  from  the  body.  As  a  general 
rule  they  are  soft  and  velvety,  and  of  a  more  or 
less  red  color,  from  their  great  vascularity;  but 
they  present  certain  structural  peculiarities  ac- 
cording to  the  functions  which  they  arc  required 
to  discharge.  In  all  the  principal  parts  of  the 
mucous  tracts  we  find  the  mucous  membrane  to 
present  an  external  layer  of  epithelium  (q.v.) 
resting  on  a  thin,  transparent,  homogeneous 
membrane,  which  from  its  position  is  termed  the 
liasenient  membrane,  and  beneath  this  a  stratum 
of  vascular  tissue  of  variable  thickness,  which 
usually  presents  either  outgrowths  in  the  form  of 
papilhc  and  villi,  or  depressions  or  inversions  in 
the  form  of  follicles  or  glands,  or  both.  The 
follicles  are  almo.st  invariably  present,  but  the 
papilla'  and  villi  are  limited  to  the  alimentary 
or  gastrointestinal  mucous  membrane.  The  mu- 
cous membranes  constitute  the  medium  through 
which  nearly  all  the  material  changes  are  efTect- 
ed  that  take  place  between  the  living  organism 
and  the  external  world.  Thus  in  the  gastro- 
intestinal mucous  membrane  we  find  a  ])ri>vi^iiin 
for  reducing  the  food  by  means  of  a  solvent  lliiid 
poured  out  from  its  follicles:  while  the  villi, 
which  are  closely  set  upon  the  surface  of  the 
small  intestine,  are  specially  adapted  to  absorb 
the  nutrient  materials  thus  reduced  to  the  liquid 
state.  The  same  membrane,  at  its  lower  part, 
constitutes  an  outlet  through  which  are  cast  out 
not  merely  the  indigestible  residuum  of  the  food, 
but  also  the  excretions  from  numerous  minute 
glandiihc  in  the  intestinal  wall,  which  result 
from  the  decomposition  of  the  tissues,  and  whicli 
must  be  sei)arated  from  them  to  [uevent  fur- 
ther decay.  Again,  the  bronchio-pulmonarv  or  re- 
spiratory mucous  membrane  serves  for  the  intro- 
ductifin  of  oxygen  from  the  air.  and  for  the  ex- 
halation of  water  and  carbonic  acid.  .\nd.  lastly, 
the  mucous  menibranes  are  continuous  with  the 
cell-lined  vesicles  or  tubes  of  the  various  glands, 
whicli  are  the  instruments  whereiiy  their  rc-^pec- 
tive  products  are  eliminated  from  the  blood. 
.Mthough  the  various  kinds  of  e|iithelial  cells 
discharge  a  special  office  in  relation  to  the  pe- 
culiar function  of  the  mucous  membrane  ufion 
whicli  each  kind  occurs,  yet  they  all  serve  one 
general  purpose — namely,  that  of  protecting  the 
surfaces  on  which  they  are  placed.  This  protect- 
ing power  is  increased  by  the  presence  of  the  se- 


MUCOUS  MEMBRANE. 


87 


MUDGE. 


cretion  known  as  mucus,  which  ordinarily  forms 
an  extremely  thin  layer  on  these  membranes,  but 
when  they  are  irritated  or  inflamed  i.s  secreted 
in  very  considerable  quantity.  (See  Cataruii.) 
The  exact  mode  of  its  formation  is  still  a  dis- 
puted (luestion,  but  it  is  i;en<'rally  believed  to 
be  the  product  of  the  gradual  solution  of  the 
uppermost  epithelial  cells,  liesides  acting  both 
mechanically  and  chemically  as  a  shield  to  high- 
ly sensitive  membranes,  it  has  other  uses, 
among  which  two  may  be  especially  mentioned; 
(  1 )  It  communicates  to  the  salivary,  and  prob- 
ably to  other  glands,  properties  which  are  not 
possessed  either  by  itself  or  by  the  pure  glandular 
secretions:  and  (2)  it  serves  to  eliminate  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  nitrogen  from  the  system. 
This  nitrogen  is  contained  in  the  mucin,  which 
forms  from  2.4  to  9  per  cent,  of  nasal  and 
broncliial  mucus.  This  naicin  contains  12.04 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  and  is  the  substance  which 
gives  to  raueus  its  viscid  and  tenacious  charac- 
teT.  Normal  mucus  is  devoid  of  smell  and  taste, 
and  faintly  alkaline  in  reaction,  and  hence  its 
constant  presence  in  the  mouth  gives  rise  to  no 
disagreeable  sensation. 

MUCUNA.  A  genus  of  leguminous  plants. 
See  Cowa(;e  ;  LuMBituou). 

MU'DAB  ( Hind,  mndfir,  from  Skt.  mandara, 
coral-tree),  Calolropis.  A  genus  of  East  Indian 
shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Asclepiadaceae.  The 
bark  of  the  root  and  the  thick  milky  juice  of 
some  species  are  used  in  the  East,  where  they 
have  long  been  credited  with  alterative,  purga- 
tive, emetic,  and  sudorific  properties  which  have 
attracted  some  attention  from  European  iihysi- 
cians.  Mudar  is  a  very  common  and  often 
troublesome  weed  in  India.  The  commonest  spe- 
cies, Calotropis  gigantea,  a  large  shrub,  with 
steins  often  thicker  than  a  man's  leg.  and  broad, 
fleshy  leaves,  rapitjl.v  attains  a  large  size  on  very 
dry  sands,  where  almost  nothing  else  will  grow. 
The  short,  not  easily  spun,  silky  dow'n  of  the 
pods  is  used  for  making  floss  and  a  soft,  cotton- 
like  thread,  but  a  strong  fibre,  useful  for  cordage 
and  fishing-lines,  is  obtained  from  the  inner 
bark.  When  properly  prepared  it  is  especially 
well  adapted  to  mix  with  various  other  fibres, 
especially  silk.  The  thick,  milky  juice,  collected 
by  making  incisions  in  the  bark,  is  used  as  a 
substitiite  for  caoutchouc  and  gutta-percha.  It 
bcciinics   flexible  when  heated. 

MUD-CAT.     See  Catfi.sii. 

MUD-EEL.     A  siren.     See  Mud-PuppT. 

MUDFISH.  A  name  given  to  several  widely 
different  fishes  which  frequent  muddy  waters. 
(1)  In  the  United  States,  the  bowfin  (q'.v.).  (2) 
In  California,  a  small  marine  goby  {OiUichtln/s 
mirnhilin)  which  lives  in  shallow  places  that  are 
left  harp  at  low  tide,  and  harbors  in  excavations 
made  by  itself  in  the  7nud.  (^)  One  of  the  killi- 
fishes  (q.v. ),  the  mummichog,  or  'mud-dabbler.' 
(4)  Any  of  the  lungfish  or  dipnoans,  especially 
the  rare  Lepidonircn  paradoxa  of  Brazilian 
swamps.  (See  Dipnoi,  and  Plate  of  Dipnoi  and 
C'liiM.EBA.)  This  is  a  salamander-like  creature 
which  grows  to  a  length  of  four  feet  or  more, 
has  the  dorsal,  caudal,  and  anal  fins  luiited  into 
one  continuous  fin.  and  the  pectoral  and  ventral 
fins  produced  into  long  joinled  filaments.  The 
head  is  conical,  eye  small,  gill  openings  without 
covers,    mouth    small,    and    teeth    pointed    and 


cusped,  adapted  to  crushing  the  fresh-water 
snails  (chiefly  AinpuUaria)  upon  which  it  feeds. 
A  closely  related  West  African  fish  (I'rotoplerus 
(iimectaiin) ,  sometimes  si.v  feet  long,  is  very 
abundant  in  the  tiainbia  Kiver,  where  it  sus- 
tains a  torpid  existence  during  the  diy  season 
by  bur}'uig  itself  in  the  nuid,  forming  a  sort  of 
nest  or  'case'  of  hardened  mud  about  it.  Many 
sjjccimens  have  been  dug  out  and  sent,  each 
within  its  clod,  to  Europe,  and  kept  alive  in 
zoiilogieal  gardens.  They  grow  rapidly,  are  active 
and  voracious  the  year  round,  when  kept  in 
tanks  in  hothouses  feed  upon  flesh  and  all  sorts 
of  small  animals,  and  frequently  eat  each  other. 
In  the  wet  season  they  swim  and  crawl  about 
the  muddy  rivers  they  inhabit,  and  are  sought 
as  food  by  the  natives.  They  are  nocturnal  and 
frequently  rise  to  the  surface  to  breathe.  Their 
breeding  habits  are  little  known,  but  they  are 
believed  to  be  ovoviviparous.  The  young  have  ex- 
ternal gills.  Consult  Lydekker,  Royal  Natural 
History,  vol.  v.   (London,  1895). 

MUDTORD,  William  (1782-1848).  An  Eng- 
lish writer,  who  as  editor  of  the  London  Courier, 
for  a  time  the  rival  of  the  Times,  exerted  great  in- 
fluence on  public  opinion.  Leaving  the  Courier 
— which  declined  in  influence  after  his 
withdrawal,  and  presently  was  discontinued — 
he  became  editor  and  proprietor  of  the  Kentish 
Observer,  the  organ  of  tlie  Conservative  Party  in 
Kent.  In  1841  he  succeeded  Theodore  Hook  as 
editor  of  John  liitll.  To  Blackwood's  Magazine 
he  contributed  many  essays  and  tales,  after- 
wards collected  in  part.  Among  his  published  vol- 
umes ai'e  A  Critical  Enquiry  into  the  Writings  of 
Dr.  Samuel  .Johnson  (180.3)  ;  Xubilia  in  Search 
of  a  Husband  (1809)  ;  Tlte  Contemplatist,  essays 
(  1811)  ;  An  Historical  Account  of  the  Campaign 
in  the  Netherlands'  in  1815  (1817);  and  Tales 
and  Trifles  from  Blackwood's  (1849). 

MUIMJE,  Enoch  (1776-1850).  The  first 
Methodist  minister  raised  in  New  England.  He 
was  born  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  was  converted  under 
Jesse  Lee.  the  pioneer  of  Methodism  in  New  Eng- 
land, and  entered  the  ministry  in  1793.  He 
labored  as  an  itinerant  preacher  in  Maine  until 
his  health  gave  way,  and  in  consequence  he  re- 
tired to  Owington,  Maine,  in  1799.  He  was 
twice  chosen  State  representative  and  had  much 
to  do  with  the  passage  of  the  Religious  Freedom 
Bill.  In  1816  he  resumed  preaching.  From  1832 
to  1844  he  was  pastor  of  the  Seaman's  Chapel  at 
New  Bedford,  Mass. — His  son,  Thomas  Hicks 
Mi'DGE  (1815-62),  was  graduated  at  Wesleyan 
University  (1840)  and  Union  Theological  Semi- 
nary (1843)  ;  he  preached  in  New  England,  was 
profes.sor  of  sacred  literature  in  McKendree  Col- 
lege. Lebanon.  111.  (  1857-59),  and  held  pastorates 
in  Saint  Louis  and  Baldwin  City,  Kan. — Zecha- 
RiAii  Atwell  Mudge  (1813-88)  entered  the  min- 
istry in  1840  and  held  various  pastorates  in 
Massachusetts.  He  wrote  much  in  history  and 
biography,  including  hires  of  Abraham  Lincoln 
(1867)  and  Roger  Williams  ( 1871 ) .  and  histories 
of  Plymouth  (1869).  Salem  Witchcraft  (1890). 
and  Arctic  voyages  (2  vols.,  1875). — James 
Midge  (1844 — ).  nephew  of  Zcchariah.  was 
graduated  at  Wesleyan  University  in  1865,  en- 
tered the  ministry  in  1868.  served  as  missionary 
in  India,  and  has  held  pastorates  in  New  Eng- 
land. He  is  the  author  of  Growth  in  Holiness 
Toward  Perfection    (1895)  ;  The  Best  of  Brouyn- 


MUDGE.  88 

i»i<;    (1898);    Hoikij  from    Many  Hiies    (1890); 
and  other  works. 

MUD-HEN.  A  variant  of  'marsh-hen,'  some 
species  of  eool,  galliniile,  or  rail   (qq.v. ). 

MUD-MINNOW.  A  small,  minnow-like  fish 
of  tlie  fniiiily  I  tiibriihe.  closely  allied  structurally 
to  tlie  pikes.  They  inhabit  weedy  streams,  bogs, 
and  ditches  in  the  United  States,  and  also  in 
Austria,  wliere  tliey  bury  themselves  in  the  mud. 
They  are  carnivorous.  an<l  extremely  tenacious 
of  life.  Often  when  none  can  be  seen  in  a  pool, 
a  swarm  of  these  little  dark  green  fishes  may  bo 
aroused  by  rakinij  through  the  mud.  Two  Ameri- 
can species  are  known,  the  Eastern  mud-minnow 
(Umbra  pyijmwit)  and  the  Western  'dogfish' 
( Umbra  Ihiii) . 

MUD-PUPPY,  (ir  W  ATER-noG.  An  American 
salamander  of  tlie  family  Proteidir,  characterized 
by  having  four  toes  on  each  foot  and  persistent 
larval  gills.  This  genus  was  formerly  called 
Menobranehus.  Two  species  inhabit  the  central 
parts  of  the   United   States,  of  which   the  more 


MUEZZIN. 


A    .MUD-PUPPY. 

common  and  widespread  is  X);cturus  maciiJaliis. 
It  reaches  the  lengtli  of  one  foot,  is  smooth,  slimy, 
and  brown-blotehed,  with  the  tufted  gills  dark 
red.  These  creatures  remain  mostly  among  weeds 
or  rocks  at  the  bottom  of  the  water  during  the 
daytime,  but  at  night  Ihey  move  about,  often  with 
quick  eel-like  motions  (a  local  name  is  'mud- 
eel'),  in  search  of  crayfish,  worms,  insects,  frogs, 
etc.  They  spawn  in  April  or  May.  Other  sala- 
manders are  sometimes  given  the  same  name, 
especially  the  'axolotl'    (q.v.). 

MUD-SHAD.  A  useless  shad-like  fish  (Dor- 
soma  (■<  ijciliiiiiiiiii) .  called  also  'gizzard'  and 
'hickory'  shad,  which  is  abundant  all  along  the 
coast  from  Cape  Cod  to  Mexico,  and  also  through- 
out the  Mississippi  Valley.  It  grows  to  a  length 
of  about  1.5  inches,  and  is  bluish  silvery,  the 
young  having  :i  rormd  dark  spot  at  the  shoulder. 

MUDSKIPPER.  One  of  the  curious  little 
fishes  (three  to  four  inches  long)  of  the  goby 
family  and  genus  Perio|)hthalmus.  They  are 
sometimes  called  'jumping  fishes'  or  'leaping 
fishes,'  and  abound  im  the  coasts  of  West  Africa, 


/./.%. 


'^*^. 


A    MUnSKIPPKII. 


the  Red  Sea,  Indian  Ocean,  and  eastward  to 
Japan.  Their  remarkable  peculiarity  is  that 
they  will  leave  the  water  to  visit  every  place 
washed  by  the  surf.  By  the  aid  of  the  pectoral 
and  ventral  fins  and  the  gill  covers,  these  fishes 


skip  across  the  damp  sand,  ascend  the  roots  of 
mangroves,  and  run  up  wet  rocks  in  quest  of 
tlies.  They  are,  says  Day,  essentially  mud- 
dwelling  fishes,  dark  brown  in  color,  "and  if 
placed  in  a  vessel  of  deep  clear  water  will  drown. 
This  ampliibious  power  of  these  fishes  has  been 
acquired  without  any  essential  change  in  the 
character  of  the  gills;  but  the  lish  is  in  the  habit 
when  out  of  water  of  pulling  out  its  cheeks  with 
air,  which  is  held  for  a  short  time  and  then  re- 
newed. Consult:  \):\y.  Fishc.i  of  liiditi  (London, 
1878)  :    Scmpi-r.  Animal  Life   (New  York,  1881). 

MUD-SUNFISH.  A  small  bass  (Acanthar- 
chux  /jomotis)  of  little  value  as  food,  numerous 
in  sluggish  coastal  streams  from  Xew  York  to 
South  Carolina.  It  is  dark  green  in  color,  with 
five  indistinct  blackish  stripes  lengthwise,  and 
a  black  ojicriular  spot. 

MUD-TORTOISE,  or  Ml'd-Turtle.  A  dark- 
brown  turtle  [Cinoslcnium  I'ennsylvanicum) 
with  light  clots  on  the  head,  found  from  (\tnada 
to  Texas,     See  TERRAPIN. 

MUD-WASP,  or  Mud-Dauber.    Any  one  of  a 

group  of  wasps  belonging  to  the  old  genus  Pe- 
lopa^us.  now  Sceliphron.  They  build  nests  of 
mud  in  sheltered  places,  choosing  the  cracks  of 
a  barn  or  fence  or  some  sheltered  place  under  the 
eaves  of  any  wooden  building,  entering  also  dis- 
used rooms  in  houses,  and  sometimes  even  rooms 
that  are  in  daily  u.se.  The  nests  consist  of  a 
varying  numlier  of  mud  cells  placed  side  l)y 
side,  usually  in  a  single  row,  but  sometimes  in 
several  rows.  The  cells  Ix'forc  completion  are 
packed  witli  a  food  supply  for  the  future  young, 
and  tliis  consists  almost  invariably  of  spiders,  as 
numy  spiders  being  placed  in  one  cell  as  the 
cell  will  hold.  A  single  egg  is  laid  upon  the  last 
spider  which  has  been  placed  in  the  cell,  and  tlio 
larva  hatching  from  the  egg  eats  rapidly,  con- 
suming the  abdomens  of  the  spiders  first  and 
sul)sequently  the  remainder  of  their  bo<lies.  All 
of  the  spiders  which  have  been  placed  in  the  cell 
have  been  stung  ami  paralyzed  by  the  parent 
wasp,  but  many  of  them  are  not  really  dead  wlien 
the  larva  reaches  them,  .\fter  the  egg  is  laid  and 
the  nest  is  closed  up.  new  cells  are  constructed  by 
the  same  female.  The  mud  or  clay  with  which 
the  nests  are  constructed  is  brought  in  little 
balls  by  the  aid  of  the  wasp's  nuindibles,  and 
20  or  more  visit.s  are  required  to  complete  one 
cell:  so  that  for  the  construction  of  a  large  nest 
of  .56  cells  about  1000  visits  must  1)0  made  by 
the  insect.  The  larva  reaches  full  growth  in  a 
short  time,  usually  ten  days  or  two  weeks,  and 
forms  a  cocoon  within  the  mud  cell,  the  winter 
being  passed  in  the  cocoon,  although  there  may 
be  two  or  more  sununer  generations,  in  which  case 
the  summer  pupal  period  is  short.  The  group 
is  a  large  one,  and  nuidwasps  are  common  not 
only  in  America  and  in  Kurope.  but  in  ln<lia  and 
Australia.  Consult:  Vnhrp.  Insect  lAfr  (London, 
1!>0I  )  ;  Sharp.  Cnmbridqc  Snturnl  Hislory.  vol. 
vi.  (London.  11101)  ;  Howard.  The  Insect  lioolc 
(New  York.  1002).  See  also  the  article  \V.\si" 
and  its  bibliography. 

MUEZ'ZIN,  or  MUED'DIN  (.\r.  mn'ailh- 
illiin.  one  who  calls  to  prayer,  from  'arlhdhana.  to 
call  to  prayer,  from  'ailhinii.  to  hear).  The  .\rabie 
name  of  the  Mohammedan  official  attaclied  to  a 
mos(pie.  whose  duty  it  is  to  announce  the  difl'er- 
ent  times  of  prayer.    His  chant  i'lulhiin)  consists 


MUEZZIN. 


89 


MUHLBACH. 


of  tliese  words,  repeated  at  intervals:  "Allah  is 
great  [four  times].  1  testify  that  there  is  no 
God  but  Allah  [two  times].  I  testify  that  JIo- 
hammed  is  tlie  apostle  of  Allah  [two  times]. 
Come  to  prayers  [two  times].  Come  to  salvation 
[two  times].  There  is  no  {;od  but  Allah."  The 
Shiites  also  say  "t'ometo  frood  works."  and  "Pray- 
ers are  better  than  sleep"  is  added  before  the 
early  morning  prayer  (fajr).  Besides  these 
re<.'ular  calls,  two  more  are  chanted  during  the 
niglit  for  tliose  pious  persons  who  wish  to  per- 
form special  nightly  devotions.  In  small  mosques 
the  'adiilin  is  chanted  by  the  imam,  and,  when 
the  mosque  is  provided  with  a  minaret,  the  muez- 
zin ascends  it  for  his  chant;  in  smaller  mosques, 
the  chant  is  made  at  the  side.  The  office  of  muez- 
zin is  considered  a  meritorious  one,  and  insures 
the  holder's  admission  into  Paradise. 

MUFTI,  muf'te  (Ar.  mufti,  expounder  of  the 
law).  The  name  of  a  Mohammedan  official  who 
expounds  the  law  according  to  the  Koran  and 
traditions;  according  to  his  decision,  delivered 
in  a  memorandum  called  a  fetioa,  the  cadi,  or 
judge,  decides  the  case.  In  Turkey  the  Grand 
Mufti,  or  Xhi'ikh  ul-Lslain,  is  the  head  of  the 
Moslem  Church,  and  is  appointed  by  the  Sultan. 
He  is  the  supreme  chief  of  the  ulemas  or  body 
of  Mohammedan  theologians.  His  fetwa  is  ex- 
tremely powerful,  even  under  certain  circum- 
stances may  depose  the  Sultan.  The  title 
mufti  is  also  applie<l  to  juris-consults  attached 
to  local  government  councils  in  the  Turkish  Em- 
pire, but  the  power  of  the  muftis,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Grand  Mufti,  is  largely  nominal. 

MTJGGE,  mug'go  Tiieodob  (1806-61).  A 
German  novelist,  born  and  educated  in  Berlin. 
His  liberal  sentiments,  expressed  in  various  news- 
l)apers  and  in  such  pamphlets  as  Die  Gensurver- 
Imltnisse  in  Preu^sscn  (184.5),  led  in  several  in- 
stances to  his  arrest  and  prosecution.  During  the 
twenty  years  preceding  his  death  he  ^^Tote  numer- 
ous sketches,  tales,  novels,  and  romances,  which 
appeared  in  a  complete  edition  in  1862-67  (33 
vols.).  Several,  inchuling  Toussaint  (1840)  and 
Afraja  (1854).  have  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  E,  J.  Morris.  The  most  interesting  of 
his  writings  are  his  Norwegian  romances  and 
sketches  of  travel :  Lebrn  and  Liehen  in  Norwegcn 
(1858);  Sl,-i::zen  aiis  drm  Borden.  (1844);  and 
ynrdiKehes  Jiildcrhuch  (1858;  3d  ed.  1862). 

MUGGER.  This,  the  common  'marsh-croco- 
dile' of  India  and  the  Malay  Islands  (Crocodilus 
palustris) .  is  not  often  more  than  12  feet  in 
length.  Its  head  is  rough,  with  a  thick  and 
rather  broad  snout,  and  each  jaw  contains  19 
teeth  (m  each  side.  It  inhabits  rivers,  ponds, 
tanks,  and  marshes,  and  goes  ashore  only  when 
it  is  obliged  to  move  into  some  new  water  by  the 
drying  up  of  its  pond,  or  wishes  to  bury  its  eggs 
in  the  sand.  In  extreme  drought,  however,  it 
buries  itself  in  the  mud  and  remains  dormant 
until  the  coming  of  the  rains.  This  is  the  croco- 
dile which  is  venerated  by  the  Hindus  and  is 
kept  in  a  half-domesticated  condition  in  certain 
ponds,  attended  by  fakirs,  who  worship  in  a 
neighboring  temple  of  their  cult.  Consult :  the 
writings  of  Indian  naturalists,  especially  Adams, 
Wanderings  of  a  yaturalint  in  India  (Edinburgh, 
1867)  :  Tennent,  Xatural  History  of  Ceylon  (Lon- 
don, 1861)  ;  Hornadav,  Tao  Years  in  the  Jungle 
(New  York,  1885).     ' 


MUG'GLETO'NIANS.  A  sect  that  arose  in 
London  about  tlic  year  1651.  The  founders  were 
two  cousins,  John  Keeve  (1608-58)  and  Lodo- 
wicke  MuggleUm  (160!)-n8),  obscure  journeymen 
tailors,  but  claiming  to  have  the  spirit  of  proph- 
ecy. Muggleton  professed  to  be  the  'mouth'  of 
Keeve,  as  Aaron  was  of  Closes.  The.v  affirmed 
themselves  to  be  the  two  witnesses  of  Revelation 
.xi.  They  asserted  a  right  to  curse  all  who  op- 
posed them,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  declare  eter- 
nal damnation  against  their  adversaries.  A  few 
members  of  the  sect  still  exist.  They  deny  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity;  h(dd  anthropomorphist 
opinions;  and  to  all  this  add  many  strange  doc- 
trines of  their  own,  as  that  the  devil  became  in- 
carnate in  Eve,  etc.  Consult :  Gordon,  "The 
<  )rigin  of  the  Muggletonians,"  and  '"Ancient  and 
ilodern  JIuggletonians,"  in  the  Transactions  of 
the  Liverpool  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society 
for  1809-70. 

MUGWOKT.  A  popular  name  for  various 
species  of  artemisia   (q.v. ). 

MUGWUMP  (Algonquin  mugquomp,  chief, 
great  man).  In  American  politics,  a  term  orig- 
inally applied  to  a  voter  nominally  identified  with 
a  particular  party,  but  claiming  the  right  to  vote 
with  another  party.  It  early  passed  into  the  local 
phraseology  of  some  of  the  New  England  villages, 
being  applied  in  its  original  (Indian)  signification 
to  any  local  magnate.  Its  first  appearance  in  print 
seems  to  have  been  in  the  Indianapolis  Sentinel 
in  1872.  Its  popular  use  began  with  an  article 
in  the  New  York  Sun  for  March  23,  1884.  In 
September  of  the  same  year  it  was  first  given  to 
a  political  party,  the  Independent  Republicans, 
who  refused  to  ratify  the  nomination  of  .lames 
G.  Blaine  for  the  Presidency.  The  name  was 
applied  to  them  in  a  spirit  of  derision,  but  was 
accepted  by  them,  and  now  regularly  denotes  any 
body  of  voters  who  profess  to  be  independent  of 
strict  party  obligations.  The  name  Dudes  and 
Pharisees  was  also  applied  in  1884  to  those  Re- 
publicans who  opposed  the  election  of  James  G. 
lihiine, 

MUHAB'RAM  (Ar.  muharram,  sacred,  from 
haraina,  to  forbid).  The  first  month  of  the  Mo- 
liammedan  year.  Originally  the  Arabs  had  a 
.solar  year  by  means  of  intercalary  months.  The 
first  month  was  called  Safar  /.,  and  came  in  the 
autumn.  It  was  the  month  of  fairs,  pilgrimages, 
and  festivals,  and  hence  .acquired  the  epithet  al- 
Muharram,  the  sacred,  which  in  time  supplanted 
the  real  designation.  When  in  the  year  10  of  the 
Hejira  Mohammed  restored  the  lunar  year,  on 
the  ground  that  intercalary  months  were  an  im- 
pious interference  with  the  order  of  things  as 
established  by  God,  Muharram  and  all  the  months 
began  to  come  earlier  in  each  succeeding  year. 
Mohammed  is  said  to  have  observed  the  tenth 
day  of  Muharram  (the  'iishilra)  as  a  fast  day, 
]ierhaps  in  imitation  of  the  Jewish  Day  of  .atone- 
ment on  the  tenth  of  Tishri.  Later  he  appointed 
Ihe  month  of  Ramadan  (q.v.)  for  fasting.  The 
Sunnites  still  consider  the  tenth  of  Muharram 
as  sacred,  and  keep  it  as  a  fast.  The  Shiites  la- 
ment the  death  of  Hosein  on  the  first  ten  days 
of  the  month.  (See  Hasan  and  Hcsein.)  Con- 
sult Wellhausen,  Reste  arahischen  Heidenthums 
(Berlin.   1897). 

MiJHXBACH,  nu.il'baG,  Lui.sE,  The  assumed 
name   of   Klara    ilundt    (1814-73).     A   German 


MUHLBACH. 


autlior,  born  in  XeiibianJonbuif;.  Her  work,  con- 
iistin^  mostly  of  historical  novels,  is  sensational, 
inartistic,  distorted.  l)Ut  it  shows  a  talent  for 
lively  description  and  narration  that  f^ave  lier  a 
wide  but  shortlived  popularity.  I'rhdrich  der 
(j'rossc  xind  sehi  llof  and  many  others  of  her 
novels  have  been  translated  into  English. 

MUHLBERG,  mi.il'berK.  A  town  in  the  Prov- 
iinc  of  .Sa.\ony,  Prussia,  on  the  Kibe,  35  miles 
northwest  of  Dresden  (Map:  Prussia.  E  3).  It 
is  famous  as  the  scene  of  a  battle  in  l.i47,  which 
resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  Protestants  under 
.John  Krederick  I.,  Elector  of  Saxony,  by  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,  and  the  triumph  of  the 
Catholics  in  Germany.  Population,  in  1900, 
34(;:!. 

MTJHLEISEN-ARNOLD,  mi.il'iz.n  iir'nold, 
John  (1S17-81).  An  English  elergjmau.  mis- 
sionary, and  author,  born  at  Zell  (Wiirttemberg) . 
He  was  educated  in  Germany,  and  after  his  re- 
moval to  England  was  successively  missionary 
of  the  Churcli  Missionary  Society  in  India  and 
Abyssinia,  cliaiilain  to  the  Bisliop  of  (iibraltar, 
and  chaplain  to  Saint  Mary's  Hospital,  Padding- 
ton,  London  (1852-61).  In  1850  he  founded  the 
Moslem  Mission  Society  in  England.  lie  was 
chaplain  of  East  Ham,  Essex,  from  1801  to  1805, 
consular  cha])lain  at  Batavia.  .Java,  from  18155 
to  1871,  and  rector  of  Saint  Mary's  Church, 
Papendorf,  Cape  Town,  South  Africa,  from  187(5 
until  his  death.  His  publications  include: 
Ishmacl :  or,  .1  Katunil  History  of  Istrimism 
(185!))  :  Enylish  liihUcul  Criticism,  and  the  Au- 
thorship of  the  Pentateuch,  from  a  German  Point 
(if  \'iew  (2d  ed.  I8(!4|  :  and  (Jenofis  and  Science, 
or.  I'hr  First  I.earrs  of  the  Bible   (2d  ed.   1875). 

MUHLENBERG,  nu'i'len-berg.  Fredekick  At- 
ousTi's  CoNRAii  (17.50-1801).  An  American  cler- 
gyman and  politician,  son  of  Heinrich  Melchior 
Siuhlenberg.  He  was  bom  at  Xew  Providence 
(now  Trappe),  Montgomery  County.  Pa.,  studieil 
in  (iermany  at  the  Cniversity  of  Halle,  and  upon 
his  return  to  .\merica  entered  the  Lutheran  min- 
istry in  Pennsylvania.  In  1773  he  became  pastor 
of  the  Lutheran  ('lunch  in  Xew  York  City.  He 
was  an  ardent  patriot,  and  in  1770  he  quitted 
X'ew  York  and  returned  to  his  native  State,  at 
the  same  time  abandiming  the  work  of  the 
Church  for  political  activity.  He  was  repeatedly 
elected  to  Congress.  The  first  session  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  in  Washington's  admin- 
istration chose  him  as  Speaker.  He  was  also 
made  chairman  of  the  Committee  of  the  Whole 
in  171I5.  and  cast  the  deciding  vote  that  saved 
the  .lay  Treaty. 

MUHLENBERG,  Gotthii.I'  llEiMiUii  Ernst 
(17531815).  .\n  American  clergyman  and  bot- 
anist, son  of  H.  .\I.  .Muhlenberg,  born  at  Trappe, 
Pa.  He  was  educated  at  Halle  and  traveled  in 
Gcrnniny  and  in  England.  He  was  ordained 
a  Lutheran  minister  and  Ix'came  assistant  pastor 
of  a  Lutheran  church  in  Philailelphia.  In  1770 
he  retired  to  the  country,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  botany:  and  it  is  as  a  bot- 
anist that  he  is  best  known.  His  chief  works 
are:  Catatniiiis  Plantanim  .Anierieir  Srplenfrin- 
nalis  (1813)  ;  and  Drscriptio  Vhrrior  firaminnm 
et  Plantaruw  f*(ilaniarianim  AmiTica^  Sejitentri- 
onalis  fndinnariim  rl  fin  arum    (1817). 

MUHLENBERG,  HEixRini  Melchior  (1711- 
87).     The  founder  of  American  Lutheranism.     He 


90  MUHLENBERG. 

was  born  at  Eimbeck,  Prussia,  September  6, 
1711.  His  parents  were  Sa.xon.  but  having  suf- 
fered greatly  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  removed 
to  Eimbeck.  The  death  of  his  father  in  his 
twelfth  year  threw  the  family  into  poverty  and 
occasioned  an  interruption  of  his  studies,  and 
till  his  twenty-tirst  year  he  toiled  incessantly  to 
assist  in  the  support  of  the  family.  In  1735  he 
entered  the  L'niversity  of  Giittingen,  where  he  re- 
mained three  years,  (iraduating  at  Giittingen, 
he  went  to  Halle  in  1738.  where,  besides  studying, 
he  taught  in  the  orphan  hovise.  He  associated 
intimately  with  Erancke.  Cellarius,  and  Fabri- 
cius.  Soon  after  his  ordination  application  came 
to  Germany  from  Pennsylvania  for  some  one  to 
be  sent  to  labor  among  the  destitute  Lutherans 
of  that  colony.  The  faculty  innncdiately  selected 
.Muhlenberg,  who  was  then  in  his  thirty-first 
year.  He  accepted  the  appointment,  and  the 
better  to  qualify  himself  went  to  London,  where 
he  acquired  facility  in  the  use  of  English.  He 
reached  America  in  1742,  to  the  great  joy  of 
the  German  Christians.  His  arrival  m;uked  a 
new  era  in  the  history  of  the  Lutheran  Chuicli  in 
the  t'nited  States,  its  condition  gradually  im- 
I)roved,  and  frequent  ac<'essions  were  made  to 
the  ranks  of  the  ministry  of  men  educated  at 
Halle  an<l  thoroughly  devoted  to  their  work.  He 
took  the  pastoral  care  of  the  associated  churches 
of  Philadelphia,  Xew  Hanover,  and  Xew  Provi- 
dence (MOW  Trappe.  some  25  miles  northwest  of 
Philadelphia) .  which  had  united  in  calling  a  min- 
ist<'r,  and  these  three  congregations  were  the 
principal  scenes  of  his  ministerial  labors.  The 
first  three  years  of  his  ministry  he  resided  in 
Philadelphia,  the  next  sixteen  in  Xew  Providence. 
In  17(>1  he  removed  to  Philadeljihia.  but  in  1770 
went  back  to  X'ew  Providence.  During  the  War 
of  the  Revolution  his  .sympathy  with  the  colonists 
excited  great  opposition,  and  his  life  was  often 
in  i)eril.  Consult  his  autobiogra]ihy  to  1743  (in 
(ierman)  edited  bv  Germ.uin  I.Mtoona,  1881), 
and  his  Life  bv  .Mann  (Philadelphia.  1887),  and 
Frick  (Philadelphia,  19021:  also  Osehsenford, 
Miihlenherfi  C<iUeiic.  a  Quarter-Centennial  .Me- 
morial \'olume   (AUentown,  1892). 

MUHLENBERG,  .Toiin  Peteu  Caeiriei,  (1746- 
1807).  .A  Lutlicran  preacher  and  leader  in  the 
Hcviilutionary  War.  son  of  Heinrich  Melchior 
Mulilinberg  (q.v.).  He  was  born  at  Trappe, 
Pa..  October  1.  1740,  and  sent  to  the  University 
of  Halle  to  l)e  educated,  but  ran  away,  and  pa.ssed 
a  year  as  a  private  in  the  dragoons.  Returning 
to  .Xnierica,  1700,  he  studied  for  the  Lutheran 
ministry:  was  called  to  Virginia.  1771  :  to  have 
a  legal  standing  as  a  clergyman  there,  went  to 
England.  1772,  and  was  onlained  by  the  Bishop 
of  London:  in  same  year  was  settled  at  Wood- 
stock. Va.  Soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary War,  he  told  his  congregation  that 
there  wa-^  a  time  to  preach  and  a  time  to  fight, 
and  at  the  close  of  the  services  he  threw  off  his 
gown,  showing  himself  in  full  uniform,  and  read 
from  the  pulpit  his  commission  as  ccdonel.  He 
had  the  drunnners  strike  up  for  volunteers,  and 
many  of  his  congregation  volunteered  and  joined 
his  regiment,  the  Eighth  Virginia,  popularly 
known  as  the  German  regiment,  afterwards  noted 
for  its  coiirage  and  good  discipline.  In  1774 
he  was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Burgesses,  and 
served  on  the  committee  of  safety,  and  two  years 
later  he  sat  in  the  State  convention.     He  partici- 


MTJHLENBERG. 


91 


MUIR. 


pated  in  the  ligliling  :it  Cliaikslon  in  1776,  anil 
was  made  briyadiur-genoial  the  following  year, 
and  placed  iu  coniniand  of  thi'  \'irginia  line.  He 
took  part  in  llie  l)attles  ut'  tin-  ISraiidywiiU",  Ger- 
inantown.  and  Monniuvith.  and  in  tlio  capture  of 
.Stony  I'oint.  He  defended  X'irginia  against  the 
expeditions  of  Leslie  and  Arnold,  and  was  com- 
mander-in-chief there  till  the  arrival  of  Steuben. 
Upon  the  invasion  of  \'irginia  by  Cornwallis,  he 
■was  next  in  command  to  Lafayette,  and  at  the 
siege  of  Yorktown  he  was  in  command  of  the 
first  brigade  of  liglil  infantry.  He  retired  at  the 
close  of  the  war  with  the  rank  of  major-general. 
Soon  after,  he  settled  in  Pennsylvania.  He  served 
in  Congress  in  1789-91,  1793-95,  and  1799-1801. 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  chosen  United  States 
Senator,  but  resigned  when  Congress  met  to  be- 
come Supervisor  of  Revenue  for  the  District  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  in  180.3  he  was  appointed 
Collector  of  the  Port  of  Philadelphia,  in  which 
position  he  died  near  Philadelphia,  October  1, 
1807.  Consult  his  lAfr  bv  his  great-nephew, 
Henry  A.  JIuhlenberg   (Philadelphia,  1849). 

MUHLENBERG,  \Villi.\m  Augustus  (1796- 
1877).  An  American  Episcopal  clergyman  and 
philanthropist,  grandson  of  H.  M.  Muhlenberg. 
He  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  and  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1814.  Three 
years  later  he  was  ordained  deacon,  and  .served  as 
assistant  to  Bishop  White  at  Christ  Church,  Phil- 
adelphia. Ordained  priest  in  1820,  he  was  rector 
from  1821  to  1828  of  Saint  James's  Church,  Lan- 
caster, Pa.,  where  he  helped  to  establish  the  first 
public  school  in  tlie  State  outside  of  Philadelphia. 
He  founded  in  1828  at  Flushing,  L.  L,  a  school 
afterwards  known  as  Saint  Paul's,  of  which  he 
was  principal  until  1S4(>.  Then  he  was  rector  of 
the  Church  of  the  Holy  Communion  in  New  York 
until  1858,  in  the  latter  year  becoming  superin- 
tendent and  pastor  of  Saint  Luke's  Hospital, 
which  he  had  foiuided.  In  the  later  years  of  his 
life  he  was  instrumental  in  establishing  an  in- 
dustrial Cliristian  settlement  at  Saint  Johnland, 
L.  I.  He  died  in  Saint  Luke's  Hospital,  April  8, 
1877.  To  trace  his  efl'ect  upon  his  time  would  be 
to  record  the  origin  of  several  of  the  most  im- 
portant movements  within  the  Episcopal  Church. 
Thus  he  maile  his  Xew  York  parish  the  first  free- 
seat  church  of  his  communion  in  America ;  he 
organized  the  first  sisterhood  within  the  same 
limits  in  1845.  known  as  the  Sisterhood  of  the 
Holy  Communion ;  and  the  important  later  de- 
velopments  in  the   direction   of   Cliristian   unity 

(see  Episcopal  Ciiiroii)  and  of  liturgical  en- 
richment and  tlexibility  both  really  grew  out 
of  his  memorial  to  tin-  House  of  Bishops  in 
1853.  Church  music  and  hymnody  also  owe  much 
to  him;  he  imblished  three  Imoks  in  this  depart- 
ment :  but  his  most  important  literary  work  is 
contained  in  Eninrieliral  Calholic  I'n/irr.s  (1875- 
77).     For  his  life,  consult  biographies  bv  Ayres 

(Xew  York.  1880)  and  Xewton  (ib.,  1890)  ;  also 
Coleman,   Tlir  Chiirrli   in  .\iiirrir,,    (ib.,  1806). 

MUHLENBERG  COLLEGE.  A  collegiate 
institution  at  Allcntown.  Pa.,  under  the  control 
of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church,  incorporated 
in  1867.  It  consists  of  a  preparatory  and  a  col- 
legiate department,  the  latter  with  classical  and 
scientific  courses  leading  to  the  degrees  of  B.A. 
and  B.S.  The  t.otal  attendance  in  1902  was  137. 
The  faculty  num1)ereil  13.  The  college  library 
contained  12,000  volumes.  The  campus  of  five 
Vol.  XIV.— 7. 


acres  and  tlie  college  buildings  were  valued  at 
.$100,000.  In  1902  a  new  site  of  52  acres  was 
pureliased,  on  which  new  l)uildings  were  begun, 
at  an  estimated  co.st  of  .$200,000,  Tlat  income  for 
the  year  was  .$10,764.  and  the  endowment  was 
$16:?",'.i77. 

MUHLHAUSEN,  nu.d'hou-zcn.  A  town  in 
the  Province  of  Sa.\ony.  Prussia,  on  the  Unstrut, 
30  miles  northwest  of  Krfurt  (Map:  Prussia, 
D  3).  It  is  an  old  town  with  a  number  of 
churches,  of  which  that  of  Saint  Blasius  dales 
from  the  twelfth  ccntviry.  and  a  mediaeval  Rat- 
haus.  It  is  surroun<lcd  with  modern  sul)urt)s  and 
has  a  gymnasium,  a  seniiiuiry  for  teacliers,  and 
a  theatre.  There  are  numufactures  of  woolen 
and  linen  goods,  carpets,  leather,  and  cigars. 
The  city  has  considerable  trade  in  cattle,  grain, 
and  fruit.  Population,  in  1890.  27,400;  in  1900, 
33,433.  Jliihlhausen  appears  in  history  as  early 
as  925,  when  it  was  a  fortified  post.  It  rose  to 
importance  as  a  free  city  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, and  in  the  Peasants'  \Var  w'as  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Analjaptist  leader,  Thomas  Miin- 
zer,  who  was  executed  near  Jliihlhausen  in  1525, 
The  town  was  finally  incorporated  with  Prussia 
in  1815, 

MiJHLHEIM,.  mul'him.     See  Muliieim. 

MUIR,  mfir,  John  (1810-82).  An  English 
Sanskrit  scholar.  He  was  born  in  Cilasgow,  and 
educated  in  the  University  of  Glasgow  and  the 
East  India  School  at  Haileybury,  He  engaged 
in  the  civil  service  in  British  India,  in  1829  53. 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  lan- 
guages, history,  and  antiquities  of  India.  In 
1853  he  retired  from  the  service  and  devoted  him- 
self to  the  advancement  of  Oriental  literature, 
especially  in  its  bearing  upon  Christianity.  In 
1846  he  offered  to  the  University  of  Cambridge  a 
prize  of  £500  for  the  best  treatise  on  the  errors 
of  the  Hindu  systems  of  philosophy,  and  on  ex- 
pounding the  principles  of  Christianity  to  learned 
natives  of  India;  and  he  gave,  in  1862,  £5000  to 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  for  the  endowment 
of  a  professorship  of  Sanskrit  and  comparative 
philolog)'.  Muir  did  much  to  help  the  spread  of 
Christianity  among  tlie  Hindus.  His  most  im- 
portant work  was  Oriqinal  Sanskrit  Texts  on  the 
Oriijin  and  History  of  the  People  of  India,  Their 
Religion  and  Institutions    (1858-70). 

MUIR,  John  (1838—).  An  American  explor- 
er and  naturalist,  born  at  Dunbar.  Scotland.  He 
studied  at  the  Dunliar  (irammar  Scliool  and  then 
emigrated  to  the  United  States,  and  entered  the 
University  of  Wisconsin.  After  his  graduation 
he  began  to  explore  tlie  less  known  portions  of 
the  North  American  continent,  devoting  his  at- 
tention particularly  to  the  western  coast  and  to 
Alaska,  where  the  Muir  (i lacier  is  named  in  his 
honor.  He  published:  The  Mountains  of  Cali- 
fornia; Onr  National  I'arks :  and  a  number  of 
magazine  articles  on  natural  history;  and  edited 
I'ictiirisijiie  California. 

MUIR,  JI.\TTIIEW  MONCRIEFF  Pattison  (1848 
—  ) .  An  English  chemist.  He  was  born  and  edu- 
cated in  Glasgow,  studied  at  the  University  of 
Tiibingen.  and  became  fellow  and  prelector  in 
chemistry  at  Gonville  and  Caius  College.  Cam- 
bridge. Muir  did  much  to  popularize  modern 
chemistry.  He  published:  Qitalilatire  Anali/sis 
( 1874)  :' Elements  of  Thermal  Chemistry  (1885)  ; 
Practical  Chemistry   (with  Carnegie,  1887)  ;  The 


MTJIB. 


92 


MTTIiBERRY. 


Alchemical  Essence  and  the  Chemical  Element 
(1894)  ;  The  Story  of  the  Wanderings  of  Atoms 
(1898);  and  The  tilory  of  Alchemy   (1902). 

MUIR,  Sir  William  (1819—).  An  English 
Oririitalijt.  lie  was  born  at  Glasgow,  studied 
at  the  universities  of  Glasgow  anil  E<linl)urgli, 
and  in  1837  entered  the  Bengal  civil  service,  in 
which  he  rose  to  high  distinction.  He  became 
eminent  as  an  Orientalist,  was  from  ISTli  to  188.5 
a  member  of  the  Council  of  India,  and  from  1885 
to  1900  was  principal  of  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. His  publications  incliulc:  Life  of  Ma- 
homet (1858-61)  ;  The  Cm-an  (1878)  ;  The  Cali- 
phate (2d  ed.  1893);  and  The  Mohammedan 
Conli'orrrsif    (  1S97  ) . 

MTJIR-MACKENZIE,  m«-ken'zi,  :MoxTAr.tE 
(1847 — ).  An  English  barrister  and  law  writer. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Charterliouse  School  and 
Brasenose,  Oxford,  and  was  a  fellow  of  Hertford 
College.  O.xford  ( 1874-88 ) .  In  1873  he  was  called 
to  tile  bar.  and  he  was  secretary  to  Lord  Chief 
Justice  Coleridge  for  the  four  following  years. 
Later  he  became  recorder  of  Deal  (1892).  and  a 
bencher  of  the  .Middle  Temple  (1894).  His  pulili- 
cations  are  upon  technical  sul>jccts.  such  as  Hills 
of  Ladinfi,  Judicature  Acts,  Laws  of  Registration, 
and  Bankruptcy  Acts. 

MITKADDASI,    moo'kii-da'sf.      See     Mokad- 

DA.SI. 

MUKDEN",  mook-den'.  or  MOUKDEN.  The 
capital  of  -Manchuria  and  of  the  Province  of 
Shing-king.  situated  in-  a  fertile  region  near  the 
Hiin-ho,  110  miles  northeast  of  Niu-chwang.  its 
port  (Map:  China,  F  3).  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
Ijrick  wall  and  is  divided  into  nine  jiarts.  of 
which  the  central  contains  the  Imperial  palace, 
the  examination  hall,  and  other  administration 
buildings.  The  city  is  regularly  and  s(didly  built, 
but  is  of  little  architectural  interest.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  considerable  industry,  and  will  proli- 
ably  greatly  increase  in  commercial  importance 
with  the  completion  of  the  I'ort  Arthur  Harbin 
branch  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  on  which 
it  will  be  a  station.  Mukden  trades  chielly  in 
agricultural  products  and  fur,  and  is  the  scat 
of  the  administration  of  Manchuria.  In  the 
vicinit}'  of  the  city  are  the  tombs  of  the  ances- 
tors of  the  present  reigning  family  of  China. 
The  population  is  estimated  at  2,50.000.  The  city 
sulTcred  greatly  during  the  Bo.xer  uprising  of 
1900. 

MUKHTAR  PASHA,  mnrik'far  pashii'.  Aii- 
MKI)  (1H32— ).  A  Turkish  gi'iicral  and  admin- 
istrator, born  at  Brusa.  in  Asia  Minor.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Constantinople  military  school, 
was  rai>i(lly  jiromoted,  and  became  successively 
professor  and  governor  of  the  school.  He  served 
in  the  Crimean  War,  as  a  stalF  ofTieer  in  the 
Montenegrin  campaign  of  18()2,  and  in  1870-71 
in  campaigns  against  the  Arabs  of  Yemen,  in 
which  be  gained  the  titles  of  pasha  and  nuirshal. 
He  was  made  connnander  of  the  Sccoml  .\rmy 
Corps  (1873),  and  in  1873,  at  the  breaking  out  of 
the  troubles  in  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  assumed 
cnmmanil  of  the  Turkish  forces  there.  After 
his  defeat  at  the  Duja  Pass  in  the  Montenegrin 
campaign  of  187ti.  .Mukhtar  was  sent  to  Krzerum, 
to  take  charge  of  the  operations  against  Hussia 
on  the  outbreak  of  war  with  that  coimtry  in 
1877.  On  April  29th  lie  was  defeated  and  driven 
into  Ivars;  but,  in  a  number  of  .severely  contested 


battles  during  the  following  months,  his  troops 
displayed  great  courage,  and  regained  the  posi- 
tion, defeating  the  Russians  severely  near  Erze- 
runi  on  .June  25th,  and  com])elling  them  in  .Tuly 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Kars.  On  October  14-15tli  at 
Aladja  Dagh,  the  Russians  gained  an  important 
victory  over  Mukhtar,  driving  him  back  to 
Kars,  and  soon  afterwards  to  Erzerum.  In  No- 
vember Kars  was  stormed  by  the  Russians,  and 
before  the  end  of  the  year  >Iukhtar  was  recalled. 
He  put  down  the  Cretan  insurrection  in  1878  and 
was  put  in  command  on  the  Greek  frontier  in 
1879.  In  1885  he  was  appointed  Turkish  High 
Commissioner  in  Egj-pt. 

MtTLA,  inoo'la.  A  town  of  Southeastern 
Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Murcia,  situated  on  a 
branch  of  the  Segura,  18  miles  west  of  the  city 
of  JIureia  (ilap:  Sjiain,  E  3).  The  place  is  im- 
important,  but  has  some  reputation  on  account  of 
the  warm  sulphurous  baths  known  as  Bafios  de 
!Mula.  some  three  miles  east.  Population,  in 
1900,   12.733. 

MULAT'TO.     See  ilixED  Races. 

MULBERRY  (OHG.  mOrbcri,  mtlrheri,  Ger. 
MauUiccrc,  mulberry,  from  T.at.  morum.  Ok.  ^ui- 
poe,  moron,  /iSpov,  moron,  mulberry  +  berry.  AS. 
bcri,  bcriye,  OHG.  beri,  Ger.  Beere,  Goth,  biisi, 
berry),  Morus.  A  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  UrticaeeiP,  natives  of  temperate  and 
warm  climates,  with  deciduous  leaves,  unisexual 
llowers  in  short,  thick  spikes,  a  four-parted 
perianth,  containing  either  four  stamens  or  one 
pistil  with  two  styles,  the  perianth  of  the  female 
ilowers  becoming  succulent  and  closing  over  the 
small  pericarp  to  form  with  otlicr  flowers  of  the 
spike  an  aggregate  fruit.  Tlicrc  liave  been  about 
100  species  described,  btit  much  confusion  exists 
among  them,  and  some  authors  have  red\iccd 
them  to  ten  or  even  less.  The  common  muUierry, 
or  black  mulberry  (Morus  nir/ra),  a  long-lived 
native  of  the  middle  parts  of  Asia  introduced 
into  cultivation  in  Europe  more  than  a  thousand 
years  ago.  and  now  almost  naturalized  there,  is 
a  low,  much  branched  tree,  with  thick,  rough 
bark  and  broad,  unequally  serrated  and  very 
rough  heart-shaped  leaves.  It  is  not  lianly  in 
the  United  States  as  far  north  as  New  York,  and 
is  seldom  seen  except  in  the  South  and  in  Cali- 
fornia, where  some  of  the  improved  varieties  are 
grown.  The  fruit,  which  is  purplish-black,  with 
dark-red  juice,  fine  aromatic  llavor.  and  subacid 
sweet  taste,  is  often  procured  in  prodigious  quan- 
tities and  is  much  esteemed  for  dessert,  for  pre- 
serving, and  for  wine-making.  The  wood  is  em- 
ployed in  cabinet-work,  but  is  not  of  mucli  value. 
The  leaves  are  sometimes  used  for  feeding  silk- 
worms. It  is  propagated  by  seed,  suckers,  layers, 
or  cuttings,  and  succeeds  best  in  a  rich  light  soil. 
The  white  mulberry  (Morus  alba)  has  been 
planted  in  Southern  Europe  since  1540,  in  liuiiiv 
and  China,  where  it  is  native,  from  time  im- 
memorial for  its  leaves,  which  are  the  best 
food  for  silk-worms.  In  North  America  it  has 
been  extensively  planted  and  in  places  exists  in 
a  half  wild  state  as  trees  a  foot  or  nuue  in 
diameter.  (See  KiiMiicK.  William.)  The  fruit 
is  almost  white,  and  much  less  palatable  than 
that  of  the  former,  although  there  is  great  dif- 
ference among  the  many  varieties.  The  best 
variety  for  feeding  silk- worms,  on -account  of  its 
rapid  growth  and  abundant  leaves,  is  that  called 
the    Philippine    mulberry.      A   variety,   tatarica. 


MULBERRY.  93 

called  the  Russian  mulberry,  is  a  hardy,  rapid 
grower,  well  adapted  to  hedges,  windbreaks, 
siiKiU  timber,  and  ornamental  planlinys.  for 
which  purpose  it  has  been  extensively  planted  in 
the  Western  United  States.  Moras  muUicauli-i, 
by  some  considered  a  variety  of  Alorus  alba,  once 
grown  extensively  in  the  United  States  to  feed 
silk-worms,  is  seldom  seen  now.  In  India  the 
white  nuilbcrry  is  treated  as  a  bush,  and  cut 
down  twice  a  year,  the  strip])ed  shoots  being 
thrown  away.  Its  bark  has  lonf,'  been  used  in 
China  and  Japan  for  making  jiaper.  It  grows 
readily  from  cuttings.  The  root  has  a  consider- 
able reputation  as  a  vermifuge.  The  red  mulberry 
(Mortis  rubra),  a  native  of  North  America, 
abounding  from  New  York  to  Nebraska  and 
south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  the  largest  tree 
of  the  genus,  attaining  in  the  South  a  height  of 
70  feet  and  3  feet  in  diameter.  It  endures  severe 
frosts  much  better  than  the  preceding,  and  is 
therefore  preferred  for  cultivation  in  some  parts 
of  Europe.  Its  fruit  is  deep  red,  and  almost  as 
pleasant  as  the  black  mulberry.  The  wood  is 
much  more  valuable,  being  fine-grained,  strong, 
and  adapted  even  for  shipbuilding.  Of  each  of 
these  three  species  there  are  numerous  named 
varieties  wdiich  are  cultivated  for  their  fruits, 
but  tlie.v  have  not  re<'eived  the  attention  in  the 
United  States  that  they  deserve.  The  Indian 
mulberry    (Morus  indica)    has  black  fruit  of  a 


MULCH. 


BED  MCLBEKRY  (Moms  rvbro). 

delicate  flavor,  and  the  leaves  arc  extensively 
used  for  feeding  silk-worms  in  China,  Coehin- 
China,  and  Hengal.  Morus  alba,  Morus  ci'ltidi- 
foUa,  and  Morus  corylifolia,  Peruvian  species; 
ilorus  Uvriijala,  the  species  most  eonnnon  in  the 
north  of  India;  and  Morus  C(i.s7!)?(cri«na, probably 
a  form  of  .l/on(,s-  indica,  a  native  of  Cashmere,  pro- 
duce pleasant  fruit;  Morus  dulcis.  a  native  of 
the  north  of  India,  is  said  to  be  superior  in  flavor 
to  all  others. 

The  paper  mulberry  (BrottS.sonc<i'a  papyrifera) , 
a  native  of  India.  .Tapnn,  and  islands  in  the 
Pacific,  frequently  planlcd  for  ornament  in  Amer- 
ica and  Europe,  differs  from  the  true  mulberry  in 


having  the  female  flowers  collected  in  a  globular 
mass.  The  fruit  is  oblong,  dark-scarlet  color, 
sweetish,  but  insipid.  The  tree  is  of  moderate 
size,  or,  in  cultivation,  a  bush  0  to  12  feet 
high  with  leaves  either  simple  or  lobed.  The 
islanders  of  the  Pacific  cultivate  this  species  with 
great  care  and  make  a  kind  of  clothing  from  the 
bark.  For  this  purpo.se  small  branches  about 
an  inch  in  diameter  are  macerated  in  water.  The 
epidermis  is  then  removed  by  scraping.  The 
yomig  shoots,  treated  somewhat  like  rag  pulj)  in 
Europe,  furnish  much  of  the  i);i])er  used  in  ,I:ipan 
and  the  East.  When  the  shoots  are  cut,  new  ones 
spring  up  very  rapidly.  Silk-worms  eat  the 
leaves.  See  Plate  of  JIulberrv  and  Liquidam- 
BAR,  accompanying  latter  title. 

MULBERRY  FAMILY.   See  Morace/E. 

MUL'CASTER,  Kiciiard  (  I530?-1G11)  .  An 
English  schoolmaster,  whose  birthplace  nuiy  have 
been  the  old  border  tower  of  Brackenhill  Castle 
on  the  river  Line,  or  perhaps  Carlisle.  From 
Eton  he  passed  to  King's  College,  Cambridge, 
and  thence  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he 
graduated  JI.A.  in  1556.  When  the  Merchant 
Taylors'  School  was  founded  in  London  (1561), 
Mulcaster  was  appointed  its  first  headmaster,  a 
post  which  he  held  till  1586.  Here  he  probably 
had  the  poet  Spenser  as  a  pupil.  Ten  years  later 
he  was  elected  high-master  of  Saint  Paul's  School. 
This  office  he  retained  to  the  great  age  of  seventy- 
eight.  He  died  April  15,  1611.  In  his  own  time 
Mulcaster  gained  wide  repute  as  an  efficient 
teacher,  and  in  recent  times  much  attention  has 
been  given  to  two  books:  Positions,  wherein  those 
primitive  circumstances  be  examined,  ivhich  are 
necessarie  for  the  training  up  of  children,  either 
for  skill  in  their  book  or  health  in  their  bodie 
(1581);  and  the  Elementarie,  ichich  enireateth 
chefelie  of  the  right  writing  of  our  English  tung 
(1582).  Mulcaster  strenuously  advocated  phys- 
ical training  as  a  part  of  the  education  of  boys, 
and  implied  that  there  should  be  grammar  schools 
for  girls.  He  taught  his  boys  music  and  sing- 
ing, and  permitted  them  to  perform  in  masques 
and  interludes  before  the  Queen.  Consult  the  re- 
print of  the  Positions,  edited  by  Quick  (London, 
1888). 

MULCH  (more  correctly  mulsh,  probably  from 
AS.  molde,  earth  mold;  ultimately  connected  with 
Goth,  malan,  Ir.  melim,  Lith.  malti,  Lat.  molere, 
to  grind,  Eng.  meal).  A  covering  of  loose  mate- 
rial such  as  brush,  leaves,  manui-e,  straw',  or 
earth,  maintained  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  main- 
ly for  the  purpose  of  preventing  evaporation, 
"which  it  accomplishes  by  breaking  the  conlinuity 
of  the  capillarity  in  the  soil  and  thus  retarding 
the  rise  of  water  to  the  surface.  Stirring  the 
surface  soil,  and  thus  maintaining  what  is  termed 
a  "soil  mulch,'  brings  about  the  same  result. 
The  use  of  the  mulch  of  vegetable  matter  is  prob- 
ably not  so  conunon  as  formerly,  but  the  soil 
mulch  is  increasing  in  favor,  and  in  arid  regions 
where  agriculture  is  dependent  up<ui  irrigation 
and  conservation  of  moisture  is  a  matter  of  great 
importance.  In  addition  to  checking  evajioration, 
mulches  of  vegetable  matter  are  useful  in  pro- 
tecting the  surface  soil  from  puddling  and  wash- 
ing, keeping  (he  soil  cool,  preventing  freezing, 
and  retarding  growth  in  the  spring.  JIulching  is 
a  valuable  means  of  reclaiming  washed  or  'galled' 
lands,   and    for  securing  a  growth  on  dry,   bare 


MULCH. 


94 


MULE  DEER. 


spots  in  lawns  and  meadows.  A  mulcli  of  barn- 
vaiJ  manure  not  only  conserves  moisture,  but 
furnishes  aeocptablc  plant  food. 

iliilcliing  berry  bushes,  oreliurd  trees,  etc.,  on 
a  large  scale  with  coarse  manure  and  refuse 
material  is  not  to  be  recommended,  because  it 
interferes  with  cultivation,  harbors  insects,  and 
causes  the  plant  roots  to  remain  near  the  sur- 
face, thus  incrcasin;;  the  danger  of  injury  by 
drought.  Such  mulches,  except  on  a  small  scale 
and  for  sptH.'ial  purposes,  such  a.s  protecting  small 
fruits  from  injury  by  late  frosts  by  retarding 
growth  in  spring,  should  be  rcplaceil  by  thorough 
stirring  of  the  soil  to  maintain  a  soil  mulch. 
The  dei)tli  and  character  of  this  soil  mulch  nuist 
be  determined  by  a  variety  of  conditions,  among 
which  are  the  kind  and  root  habits  of  the  plant 
and  the  cliaracter  of  the  soil  and  climate.  It  is 
evident  that  any  crop,  such  as  corn,  with  an 
extensive  surface  root  system,  would  be  injured 
by  the  destruction  of  its  roots  if  stirring  were 
freipient  and  deep.  Again,  in  arid  regions  the 
mulch  must  be  deeper  and  more  perfect  than  in 
regions  of  frequent  rainfall,  in  order  to  be  effec- 
tive and  useful. 

MULDEB,  nir^nrdcr.  Gerardi'S  .Joiianxes 
(IS(I2S0|.  A  Dutch  chemist,  born  at  Utrecht. 
After  olitaining  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine 
at  the  university  of  his  native  town  in  1S25,  he 
eoninienced  the  practice  of  his  profession  at 
Amsterdam,  but  was  soon  invited  to  teach  botany 
and  subsequently  chemistry  at  the  medical  school 
at  Rotterdam.  In  1840  he  was  elected  professor 
of  chemistrj'  at  the  University  of  Utrecht,  and 
kept  this  post  until  1868,  when  he  retired  from 
active  service.  Mulder  is  best  known  for  his  re- 
searches on  the  prot^ids.  Concerning  the  chemi- 
cal nature  of  these  sid>stances.  he  advanced  a 
theory  according  to  which  the  proteids  contain  in 
conunon  a  characteristic  ingredient  which  he 
named  jirottin.  The  thcorj'  led  him  into  a  con- 
troversy with  Liebig  and  was  not  accepted.  He 
is  the  author  of  numerous  excellent  works  on 
physiological  and  agricultural  chemistry,  on  the 
chemistry  of  wine  and  beer,  on  diet  and  nutri- 
tion, etc.  His  Chrmistrii  of  yrfietnhle  ami  Ani- 
miil  I'hysiology  has  been  translated  into  English 
by  Froinberg,  and  his  Chrminlri/  of  Wine  by 
Bence  .Iciiies.  He  also  wrote  an  autobiography 
irnder  the  title  Lvreiissrhelii  (published  posthu- 
mously in  1S81:  2d  ed,  1883). 

MULDER,  T.oDEwi.iK  (1822—),  A  Dutch 
writer.  biuM  in  llw  Hague.  He  was  an  instruc- 
tiir  in  the  lliiyal  Military  .\cadcmy  at  Hreila  in 
IS.'il •.">!»;  was  then  for  a  time  employed  in  the 
.Ministry  of  War  as  an  editor  of  original  ilocu- 
ments  in  early  Dutch  history:  and  from  ISliS  to 
1872  was  an  inspector  of  schools  in  Utrecht 
Province.  He  prepared  manuals  of  the  history 
of  the  Netherlands  (IS-W,  12th  ed.  1881),  and  of 
general  history  (1802.  8th  eil.  1880).  and  wrote 
several  fibiys  and  works  of  ficdon.  the  last  in- 
rluiling  his  liesi  known  work.  Jan  ['acssrn  (2 
vols.,  18"iiil.  a  tale,  of  the  conspiracy  against 
I'rinee  Maurice  of  Orange. 

MULE  (OF,,  Fr,  mule,  from  Lat,  »hi//i/.'!, 
mule).  A  hybrid  animal,  the  ofrs|)ring  of  the 
male  ass  and  the  niari',  highly  valued  as  a  beast 
of  burili'n.  The  ears  are  long;  (he  head,  crop, 
and  tail  resemble  those  of  the  ass  rather  than 
those  of  the  horse:  but  in  bulk  and  stal\ire  the 
mule  approaches  more  nearly  to  the  horse.     The 


mule  seems  to  excel  both  tlie  ass  and  the  horse 
in  intelligence:  its  powers  of  muscular  endurance 
are  remarkable;  and  its  .sure-footedness  particu- 
larly adapts  it  to  mountainous  countries.  It  is 
easily  kept,  endures  hunger  and  thirst  better 
than  the  hor.se,  lives  to  a  great  age,  and  is  com- 
paratively free  from  disease.  Great  care  is  be- 
stowed on  the  breeding  of  mules  in  Kentucky, 
^Missouri,  and  some  other  Central  States,  in 
Mexico,  and  in  Spain  and  Italy,  and  nmles  of 
])articular  districts  are  highly  esteemed.  In 
America,  mules  are  of  greatest  importance  in 
the  Southern  States.  Texas,  Missouri,  Tennessee, 
Mississippi,  and  Georgia  each  luive  over  2()(),0()0, 
The  cotton  and  sugar-cane  plantations  utilize 
large  numbers  because  they  are  easily  and  cheap- 
ly kept,  .-Vs  in  other  hybrid  animals  generally, 
males  are  more  numerous  among  mules  than  fe- 
males in  the  i)roportion,  it  is  said,  of  two  or  three 
to  one.  There  is  no  instance  on  record  of  ofT- 
spring  [)roduced  by  two  mules ;  hut  instances 
occur,  although  rarely,  of  the  female  mule  pro- 
ducing oll'spring  with  the  horse  and  with  the  ass. 
The  mule  is  very  superior  in  size,  strength,  and 
beauty  to  the  hinn.y,  the  oti'spring  of  the  male 
horse  and  the  female  ass.  Several  breeds  of 
Jacks  have  been  used  for  producing  mules.  The 
chief  breeds  are  Anilalusian,  Maltese,  Catalonian, 
Italian,  and  Majorcan.  The  Catalonian  is  the 
best  of  imported  breeds,  but  in  the  United  States 
the  native  jack,  a  mixture  of  all  breeds,  is  most 
used.  Black  is  the  preferred  color,  and  the  jack 
should  Ik-  of  good  size.  The  mare  should  also 
be  well-bred  and  of  good  form  and  color.  In  the 
Southern  States  nuiles  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  smaller  ones  'cotton  mules,'  and  the 
larger  'sugar  nuiles.' 

MULE  (in  Spiiming).     See  Spinning. 

MULE  DEER  (so  called  on  account  of  the 
large  ears  I,  or  Hlacktail,  One  of  the  principal 
species  of  Xortli  American  deer  {Cerviis  macro- 
tis.  or  Odocoilru.i  hcmionus) ,  originally  ranging 
throughrnit  the  open  regions  of  the  western  half 
of  the  United  States,  but  by  the  end  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  restricted  to  the  upper  valleys 
of  the  Missouri  and  Saskatchewan  rivers,  and 
to  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  and  the  country 
west  and  south  of  it  from  Xorthern  Mexico  to 
Southern  British  Columbia.  The  Southwestern 
specimens  are  considered  a  distinct  variety.  This 
deer  appears  never  to  have  ranged  east  of  the 
plains,  and  was  always  most  ninuerous  in  the 
broken  country  of  the  West  aiul  Northwest,  Its 
favorite  haunts  are  the  brushy  high-lying  val- 
leys. Its  favorite  place  in  stunmcr  is  the  sum- 
mits of  the  'nu>sas.'  and  the  pastures  on  the  cliap- 
arralcovered  hills  or  near  the  limber-line,  where 
it  goes  to  rest  along  the  edge  of  precipices 
that  give  a  wide  outlook.  In  winter  it  comes 
lower  down,  and  gathers  into  large  herils  in 
the  foot-hills,  after  the  manner  of  the  wapiti 
(q.v.). 

It  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  Eastern  or  Vir- 
ginian deer  (see  Dkkk).  and  stands  .about  H  feet  4 
inches  high  at  the  shoulder.  Its  body  is  rather 
heavy,  and  its  coat  is  dull  yellowish  in  sum- 
mer, rather  than  reiblish,  and  in  winter  bluish- 
gray.  The  ears  are  very  large  (suggesting  the 
name),  and  heavily  furred;  and  its  antlers  have 
a  short  basal  snag,  above  which  the  beam  pro- 
jects outward  and  then  upward,  forking  equally 
and  the  prongs  again  dividing,  so  that  there  are 


MULE  DEER. 


95 


MULHAUSEN. 


normally  10  points.  Tlie  stern  bears  a  yellowish- 
white  disk,  ami  the  tail  is  of  minlerate  length, 
round,  and  black  at  the  end.  The  hide  of  this 
species  made  the  best  buckskin  known  to  the 
Indians,  and  was  most  used  by  them  for  clothing. 
Its  value  was  soon  learned  by  the  pioneers  in  the 
West:  and  from  about  ISliO  to  1870  this  deer  was 
pursued  so  ruthlessly  by  hide-hunters  that  about 
250,000  skins  were  sent  annually  to  England 
alone,  for  several  years.  The  venison  also  is  of 
superior  quality,  and  the  liaunt.s  and  habits  of  the 
animal,  his  craft  and  speed,  make  him  tlie  most 
interesting  to  the  sportsmen  of  all  tlie  American 
deer.  Tlie  fawns  are  often  domesticated,  and  the 
adults  thrive  well  in  jiarks.  and  are  to  be  seen  in 
every  zoological  garden  in  the  world.  Consult: 
Caton,  Antelope  and  Deer  of  America  (Xew  York, 
1877);  JIayer  (ed. ),  Sport  icith  Viin  and  Hod 
(New  York',  1892)  ;  Ledekker,  Deer  of  AH  Lands 
(London,  1808):  Van  Dyke,  in  Roosevelt's  The 
Deer  Family  (New  Y'ork,  1002)  ;  and  the  writ- 
ings of  travelers  and  sportsmen  in  the  Western 
United  States.  See  Plate  of  Deer  of  North 
America. 

MULE-KILLER.  A  local  name  in  the  South- 
ern States  tor  several  species  of  insects  and  land 
arthropods,  sucli  as  the  mantis,  pirate  bug,  and 
whip-tailed  scorpion    (qq.v.). 

MULEY-HASSAN,  moo'la  hiis'san,  Sidi 
( 1831-94  ) .  Sultan  of  ilorocco.  He  succeeded  his 
father.  Sidi  iluley-Jlohanimed.  in  1873.  He  was 
energetic  and  warlike,  and  s|)ent  the  greater  part 
of  his  reign  in  the  field,  enforcing  his  authority 
.over  the  unruly  Berber  tribes,  or  extending' the 
boundaries  of  tlio  Empire  in  the  direction  of  the 
Sahara.  In  1880  reports  of  shocking  cruelties 
committed  on  the  .Jews  in  his  dominion  led  to 
the  calling  of  an  international  conference  at 
Madrid,  which  drew  up  a  protoecd  decreeing  lib- 
erty of  conscience  in  ^Morocco,  a  decision  to  which 
the  Sultan  acceded,  but  which  he  altogether 
ignored. 

MUL'FORD,  Elisii.\  (1833-85).  An  Ameri- 
can Protestant  Episcopal  clerg^'man  and  philo- 
sophical writer,  boni  in  Jlontrose.  Pa.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  in  1855,  and  studied  for  the  ministry 
in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  at  .\ndover, 
and  later  at  Halle  and  Heidelberg  in  Germany. 
A  part  of  his  career  was  spent  in  ministerial 
work  in  various  charges,  but  from  1864  to  1877 
he  lived  in  his  native  town  without  parochial 
charge  and  engaged  in  study.  Among  his  publi- 
cations are:  The  Xation,  the  Foundations:  of 
Civil  Order  and  Political  Life  in  the  Ignited 
States  (1870)  :  and  The  Republic  of  God:  An  In- 
stitute of  Thcoloiiy  (1881).  In  1881  he  settled  in 
Cambridge.  !Mass..  and  lectured  in  the  Episcopal 
Theological  School  there  until  his  death. 

MUL'GRAVE,  Coxst.\xtixe  .Toiin  Phipps, 
second  l'.aron  11744-02).  A  British  .\rctic  ex- 
plorer. Entering  the  navy  at  an  early  age,  he 
served  in  the  reduction  of  JIartinique  and  of 
Havana,  and  in  1705  was  made  post-captain. 
In  1708  he  entered  the  Commons  for  Lincoln,  and 
became  known  as  one  of  the  "King's  friends'  and 
an  opposer  of  the  jiopular  cause.  Five  years 
later  he  was  commanding  the  Racehorse,  which 
with  the  Crirenss  attemjited  the  discovery  of  a 
northern  route  to  India,  but  was  blocked  by  ice 
af  Spitzbergen.     On  his  return  he  again  entered 


active  service  and  in  the  naval  operations  against 
the  Frencii  oil'  Ushaiit  (1778)  remlcrcd  conspi(ai- 
ous  service.  He  published  an  account  of  his 
Arctic  vovage   in  A    ^'vyage  Toward  the  North 

I'ole  (1774). 

MUL'HALL,  Michael  George  (1836-1900). 
\  distinguirtlied  statistician,  born  in  Dulilin,  Ire- 
land, September  29,  18.'J6.  He  was  reared  at  the 
Irish  College  in  Konie.  In  1858  he  emigrated  to 
Buenos  Ayres,  where  he  established,  three  years 
later,  the  Utandard,  said  to  be  the  first  daily 
newspaper  printed  in  English  in  South  America. 
Tliis  daring  and  successful  enterprise  Mulhall 
kept  going  till  1894.  Returning  to  England  in 
1878,  he  gave  his  attention  to  statistics.  In 
1884  he  was  elected  to  the  British  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science.  Besides  numer- 
ous contributions  to  the  Contemporary  Review, 
his  works  include:  a  Handbook  of  the  River  Plata 
(1869),  the  first  English  book  published  in 
Argentina;  Rio  Grande  do  fiul  and  Its  German 
Colonies  (1873)  ;  The  English  in  Houth  America 
( 1878) .  In  1880  Mulhall,  who  had  for  some  time 
been  gathering  materials  on  his  favorite  subjects 
nf  statistics,  brought  out  his  Progress  of  the 
World  in  Arts,  Agriculture,  Commerce.  Manufac- 
ture, Insitruction,  Railways,  and  Public  Wealth, 
since  the  beginning  of  the  ninctcentli  century. 
This  was  followed  by  other  highly  valued  works 
on  statistics:  History  of  Prices  (1885)  ;  Indus- 
tries and  Wealth  of  Xations  (1806)  :  and  a  Dic- 
tionary of  fitatistics  (1892;  4th  ed.  1890).  Mul- 
hall died  December  13,  1900,  in  Dublin. — His 
wife,  Mrs.  JIarion  Mulhall,  is  the  author  of 
Between  the  Amazon  and  the  Andes  (1883),  and 
several  essays,  including  the  Celtic  fiourees  of 
Dante's  Divine  Comedy.  For  this  last  monograph 
she  was  honored  by  a  chair  in  the  Arcadia  of 
Rome. 

MULHAUSEN.  mul'hou-zcn.  Tlie  second 
largest  city  of  Alsace-Lorraine.  Germany,  situ- 
ated on  the  111  and  the  Rhine-Rhone  Canal.  67 
miles  by  rail  south-southwest  of  Strassburg 
(Map:  Germany,  B  5).  It  is  divided  into 
the  old  town,  built  on  an  island  of  the  111. 
the  new  town,  between  the  old  towTi  and 
the  canal,  and  the  workingmen's  colony  (cit6 
ouvriere)  in  the  northwest.  The  old  town  is  ir- 
regularly built,  and  with  the  exception  of  the 
Rathatis,  dating  from  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
a  few  modern  churches,  has  few  noteworthy  build- 
ings. The  new  town  was  laid  out  in  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century  and  has  a  fine  post- 
olfice,  and  a  museum  established  by  the  Indus- 
trial Society.  The  society  is  housed  in  a  fine 
Iniildiiig  with  natural  histiu'v  collections  and  a 
library.  The  workingmen's  colony,  established 
in  1853  by  JI;iyor  Dollfus.  is  provided  with  model 
dwellings  and  with  reading  rooms,  schools,  res- 
taurants, baths,  and  other  institutions  belonging 
to  a  modern  town.  The  educational  institutions 
of  Miilhausen  include  a  gymnasium  and  a  num- 
ber of  technical  schools.  It  is  the  most  im- 
portant industrial  city  of  Alsace-Lorraine  and 
one  of  the  largest  textile  centres  of  the  Empire. 
This  industry  of  Miilhausen  dates  from  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  the  cotton 
mills  are  situated  partly  in  tlip  city  and  partly 
in  tlie  vicinity  and  especially  in  the  adjacent  set- 
tlement of  Dornach.  Over  80.000  persons  are  said 
to  be  engaged  in  the  textile  mills  and  in  other 


MULHAUSEN.  9 

eetablishments  connected  with  tlie  textile  indus- 
try of  the  manufacturing  district  around  -MUl- 
liauseu.  Besides  cotton  and  woolen 'goods  and 
kindred  products,  there  are  also  manufactured 
maohiiiery  and  chemicals,  and  the  trade  is  exten- 
sive in  local  manufactures  and  the  agricultural 
products  of  the  vicinity.  Populatiou,  in  1890, 
70,892;  in  1900,  89,012,  largely  Roman  Catholics. 
Miilhausen,  after  belonging  for  a  short  time  to  the 
bishops  of  Strassburg.  became  a  free  city  of  the 
Empire  in  1273.  In  order  to  maintain  its  inde- 
pendence, it  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the 
Swiss  cantons  of  Hern  and  .Solothuru  in  140G.  and 
in  151.T  became  a  member  of  the  Swiss  Confedera- 
tion, and  was  recognized  as  such  at  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia.  It  joined  the  French  Republic  in 
1798.  and  passed  to  tiennany  with  Alsace-Lor- 
raine in  1871.  Consult:  Metzger.  La  rcpublirjue 
de  Mulhuiisv  (Lyons,  1883)  ;  Schneider,  (Icuchkh- 
le  der  Stadt  'Miilhausen  (Miilhausen,  1888): 
Hevdenreich,  Atis  dcr  Gcuchichle  der  Heichsstadt 
MiUhaufini  (Halle.  1900)  ;  Jordan,  Der  Ueber- 
gang  der  freini  Ileirh.inladt  Miilliausen  an  Prcus- 
.s,,r(  Miilhausen.  1902). 

MULHEIM-ON-THE-RHINE,  mi.il'liim.  or 
MUHLHEIM.  The  capital  of  a  circle  in  the 
liliiue  I'luvinic,  Prussia,  on  the  Rhine,  liere 
crossed  by  a  bridge,  nearly  opposite  Cologne 
(Map:  Prussia,  B  3).  It  has  a  handsome  mod- 
ern Gothic  church,  a  realgymnasium.  a  textile 
school,  and  a  conuucrcial  .school.  Manufactured 
products  are  wire  rojies  and  cables,  velvet,  silk. 
ma<-binery,  wagons,  chemicals.  The  town  has  a 
safe  harbor,  and  trades  in  wine.  Population,  in 
1890,  30,990;  in  1900,  45,085.  Miilheim  is  of 
ancient  origin,  and  became  a  town  in  1322. 

MULHEIM-ON-THE-RUHR,  or  MUHL- 
HEIM. Thf  capital  uf  a  circle  in  the  Rliinc 
I'riivincc.  Prussia,  on  the  Ruhr.  Ifl  miles  north  of 
Uiisseldorf  (Map:  Prussia,  B  3).  It  has  a 
church  from  the  twelfth  century,  a  gj-mnasiuni, 
and  a  realschule.  Coal  and  iron  are  mined  in 
the  district,  and  there  are  extensive  iron  works, 
manufactures  of  machinery,  woolen  and  cotton 
goods,  leather,  and  glass.  Population,  in  1890, 
27,903;  in  1900.  38.292. 

MTILIER,  PlKTKR.  the  younger,  called  Teni- 
l>c^ta  (  Iii37  or  1043-1701).  A  Dutch  landscape 
anil  marine  painter,  born  at  Haarlem,  son  and 
probably  pupil  of  Pieter  Mulier.  the  elder  (died 
at  Haarlem,  1070) — not,  as  was  for  a  long 
lime  erroneously  suppf>sed,  son  of  Pieter  de 
Molyn  (q.v. ).  After  having  traveled  through 
Flanders  and  Holland  to  study  the  l)cst  Flemish 
and  Dutch  masters,  he  went  to  Rome  and  sdon 
acipiircd  great  re]>utation  by  his  remarkable  pic- 
tures of  storms  at  sea,  whence  his  surname,  given 
liim  by  the  Italians.  In  (lenoa.  whither  he  went 
from  Home,  he  was  imprisoned  under  suspicion 
of  having  caused  his  wife  to  be  murderetl.  and 
after  a  confinement  of  sixteen  years  made  his 
e.sca|)e  to  Piacenza  during  the  bombardment  of 
fJenon  in  1084.  and  passed  the  remainder  of  his 
ilays  in  Milan.  I'"ive  of  his  most  characteristic 
works  (three  tlniniler  storms  and  two  landscapes 
with  figures)  may  be  seen  in  the  Dresden  Gal- 
lery; others  in  Hamburg.  Brunswick.  Cnsscl, 
KarNrulie.  Vienna  (Museum.  Academy.  T.ii'chten- 
slein  Gallery),  Saint  Petersburg,  in  the  Brera 
Gallery,  Milan,  and  several  other  Italian  coUec- 


6  MULLEIN. 

tions.     A  portrait  of  himself  is  in  the  Uffizi  at 
Florence. 

MULITA,  ninn-le'ta  (Sp..  little  she-mule) .  A 
small  armadillo  [Tatunia  hijhrida),  allied  to  the 
peha,  but  confined  to  Southern  South  America; 
so  called  from  the  resemblance  of  its  face  and 
ears  to  those  of  a  mule. 

MULL.  The  second  largest  island  of  the  Inner 
Hcliriiles,  belonging  to  Argj'llshire,  Scotland.  It 
is  situated  north  of  the  S^ith  of  Lome,  and  is 
separated  from  tlie  west  coast  of  Scotland  liy  the 
Sound  of  Mull,  from  one  to  three  miles  wide(  iMap: 
Scotland,  C  3).  It  has  an  area  of  347  square 
miles,  is  very  irregular  in  shape,  deeply  indented 
with  bays  and  sea-locks,  and  consists  mainly  of 
volcanic  rock  with  some  outcro]>pings  of  granite. 
The  island  as  a  whole  is  mountainous,  rising  in 
Ben  Jlore  to  a  height  of  3185  feet.  The  scenery 
along  the  coast  is  very  picturesque,  and  there 
are  beautiful  lakes  and  woods  in  the  interior; 
but  the  scenery  in  the  interior  is  not  striking, 
the  mountains  being  rounded  in  outline,  and  large 
tracts  consisting  of  moorlands.  The  soil  is  fer- 
tile, but  the  stormy  and  humid  climate  is  un- 
favorable for  agriculture,  and  the  land  is  chiefly 
used  for  grazing — cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  be-  \ 
ing  exported.  The  population  in  1891  was  4091;  \ 
in  1900,  4711.  The  chief  town  is  Toljermory.  . 
on  the  north  coast,  with  a  population  (1901)  of 
1019. 

MULLAIfY,  .J.VMES  Robert  Madison  (1818- 
87 ) .  An  American  naval  ofBcer,  born  in  Xew 
York  City.  He  entered  the  navy  as  a  midsliip- 
nian  in  1832.  and  in  1844  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant.  During  the  war  with  Mexico 
he  participated  in  tlie  capture  of  Tabasco.  He 
was  commissioned  commander  in  1801  and  cap- 
tain in  1800.  and  during  the  Civil  War  wa.s  as- 
signed to  duty  with  the  Idockading  squadron.  At 
his  own  request  he  was  transferred  from  the 
liirniille  to  the  Oiuidn,  that  he  might  take  part 
in  the  battle  of  Moldle  Bay.  August  5,  1804.  His 
ship,  one  of  the  last  in  the  line,  received  a  terrific 
pounding  from  Fort  .M(ugan,  and  was  attacked 
by  the  Confederate  ram  Tennessee,  which  would 
lirobably  have  sunk  it  had  not  the  monitor  ll'in- 
nehiigo  come  to  the  U'scui;.  As  it  was,  the  Oneida 
was  disaliled  by  the  (ire  from  the  fort,  many  of 
her  crew  were  killed,  and  Commander  ilullany 
lost  his  left  arm.  After  the  war  and  while  com- 
manding the  Xorth  Atlantic  squadron  (1874- 
70)  he  gave  material  aiil  to  Generals  William  H. 
Emory  and  Philip  H.  Slieridan  at  New  Orleans, 
and  during  a  revolution  in  Columbia  protected 
American  interests  on  the  Istlimus  of  Panama. 
He  became  a  commodore  in  1870,  a  rear-admiral 
in   1874,  and  retired  in  1879. 

MULLEIN  (AS.  molefin.  mullein).  A  name 
giviii  to  memliers  of  the  genus  Wrliascuin.  of  the 
natural  order  .Soropliii!ariacea>.of  which  there  are 
more  tlian  100  s]M'cies.  mostly  large  biennial  or 
lierennial  herbs  witli  rather  thick  tap-roots,  and 
natives  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  The  more  or 
less  woolly  |dants  produce  flowers  upon  spikes  or 
panicles.  The  leaves  and  flowers  were  formerly 
reputed  to  have  medicinal  qualities,  but  are  not 
so  recognized  in  the  United  States.  They  contain 
a  sort  of  mucilage  which  is  obtained  by  boiling 
the  leaves  in  water.  Three  European  species  are 
well-known  weeds  in  the  Fnited  States,  the  com- 
mon   mullein     ^^'erbase)lm    Tliaiisus),    the   moth 


MtJLLEIN. 

imilloin  (Verhasciiin  hhiilniid),  and  the  white 
imilli'in  (Verbascinit  li/chiiitis).  In  Kentucky, 
]'crb<isrum  phlomoides  is  reported  as  established 
and  spreading  as  a  weed. 


m 


COMMON  sitTLLEis  {Verbascuiu  Tbapsus). 

MULLENHOFF,  mnricn-hof,  Karl  Viktor 
(1S1S-S4).  A  (iernian  student  of  Teutonic  an- 
tiquities and  pliilolojjj-.  He  was  born  at  ilarne, 
Holstein,  and  after  studyinj;  at  Kiel.  Leipzi;;.  and 
Berlin,  was  professor  at  Kiel  (1840-.58)  and  at 
Berlin  (185S-,S4).  Miillenhofr's  greatest  works 
were:  Deutsche  Altcrliiinf^kiindc  ( 1870-99) .  which 
he -left  unfinished,  and  the  treatise  De  Anticjnis- 
siiiui  drnnaiwrum  I'ocsi  Chorica  (1847).  Con- 
sult Silicrer  and  Schroder,  Karl  MUlleiihoff  (Ber- 
lin, 1890) . 

MtJLLER,  rau'ler.  A  family  of  cele])ratcd 
quartet  ]ilayers.  They  were  the  sons  as  well  as 
pupils  of  the  jjrincipal  musician  to  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick,  and  were  all  of  them  born  in  the  city 
of  Brunswick.  C.\rl  Frikoricii  (1797-1873) 
was  first  violin  in  the  quartet  and  was  also  con- 
certnicister  to  the  Duke.  Theodor  Heinricii 
(1799-18.5.5)  was  the  viola  player.  August 
Theodor  (1802-75)  played  the  cello,  and  Franz 
Ferdixaxd  Georg  (1808-5.5)  was  the  second  vio- 
lin. They  were  especially  educated  by  their 
father  for  quartet  work,  and  were  concinled  to 
have  reduced  the  art  of  string  quartet  playinj; 
to  a  degree  of  perfection  previously  unknown. 
They  were  ambitious  for  greater  fame  than  could 
be  obtained  within  their  own  limited  environ- 
ment, and  were  particularly  handicapped  by  tlie 
Duke,  of  Brunswick,  in  whose  eini)loy  they  were, 
who  had  formulated  the  order  that  none  of  his 


»7  MULLER. 

musicians  should  participate  in  any  musical  per- 
formance outside  that  connected  with  his  own 
corps.  In  1830  they  resigned  their  employment, 
and  made  their  first  appearance  in  Haniljurg, 
where  they  met  with  such  success  that  they 
were  inviteil  to  Berlin,  in  which  city  they  were 
received  with  great  enthusiasm.  An  extended 
tour  throughout  Germany  f(dlowed,  and  in  1837 
they  performed  in  Paris.  Other  successful  tours 
made  tliem  known  throughout  the  world.  They 
confined  tlieir  programmes  almost  entirely  to  the 
works  of  Haydn.  Jlozart,  and  Beethoven,  and 
were  also  a  very  important  inlluenee  in  raising 
and  establishing  a  higher  standard  of  musical 
a]>preciation. 

MTJLLER,  Axpreas  (lSll-90).  A  Ger- 
man historical  painter,  born  at  Cassel.  He 
was  the  son  and  pupil  of  Franz  Hubert  Jliiller 
(director  of  the  Darmstadt  Gallery),  and  after- 
wards studied  in  Munich  under  Sehnorr  and 
Cornelius,  and  in  Diisseldorf  under  Sohn  and 
Schadow.  On  his  return  from  Haly,  where  he 
stayed  in  1837-42,  he  executed  some  famous 
frescoes  at  Remagen  and  Sigmaringen.  In  these 
works  he  was  assisted  by  his  son  Franz  (1843 — ). 
From  1S5G  till  1882  Andreas  was  professor  at  the 
Diisseldorf  Academy.  He  was  noted  for  his  skill 
in  restoring  old  or  damaged  pictures, 

MULLER,  Auou.ST  (1848-92).  A  German 
Orientalist,  born  at  Stettin,  and  educated  at  the 
universities  of  Halle  and  Leipzig.  In  1882  he 
accepted  the  post  of  professor  of  Oriental  phi- 
lology at  tile  University  of  Konigsberg.  His  nu- 
merous and  valuable  contributions  to  Oriental 
literature  include:  Die  firicchischen  PliHosophen 
inder orfibischen  Uehersetzinifi  (1873)  ;  Der  Islam 
im  Morricn-  nnd  A5endtand(  1885-87)  :  Hebraische 
Schiilfirnnunatik  (1878),  the  syntax  of  which 
was  translated  into  English  by  James  Robertson. 
He  also  reedited  (1876)  Caspari's  Arnbisrhe 
(h-anniKiiil;.  wliich  lie  considerably  enlarged,  and 
with  Xiildeke  published  a  Delectus  Vctcrum  Car- 
minuni  Arabicoruiii  (1890),  furnished  with  co- 
pious annotations,  and  thus  rendered  useful  to 
tliose  who  desire  to  become  acquainted  with  Ara- 
bic poetry.  Especially  creditable  is  his  edition 
(1884)  of  the  History  of  rhysicians  by  Ibn 
I  .seibia,  with  Arabic  text  and  a  critical  com- 
mentary. Sevcial  of  his  essays  are  contained  in 
the  Zeitschrift  der  deutschen  inorijenUifidischen 
Gespllseliaft  and  Beitriige  ~ur  Kuiide  der  indo- 
(jernjeniiselirii  ^praehen.  In  1887  he  was  ap- 
pointed editor  of  the  Orientalische  Bibliographie. 

MtfLLER,  muTfir'.  Charles  Louis  (1815- 
92).  A  French  historical  painter.  He  was  born 
in  Paris.  December  22,  1815,  and  was  a  pupil  of 
Baron  (iros  and  Leon  Cogniet.  He  r-cccived  a 
first-class  medal  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of 
184G.  Miiller  is  best  known  by  his  masterpiece, 
the  "Roll-Call  of  tlie  Last  Victims  of  the  Reign 
of  Terror,"  formerly  in  the  Luxembourg  ilusenm 
(replica  in  possession  of  .T.  .1.  Astor.  Xew  York). 
Other  works  arc:  "Ladv  jMacbeth"(  1849) ,  Amiens 
Museum:  "Charlotte  Corday  in  Prison"  (1875), 
Corcoran  Gallerv.  Washington:  "Primavcra" 
(1840)  and  "llaydec"  (1848).  Lille  Museum:  he 
also  decorated  tlie  Salle  d'Etat  in  the  Louvre. 
His  pictures  are  skillfully  composed,  but  the  col- 
oring and  drawing  are  mediocre, 

MiJLLER,  mu'ler,  David  Heinricii  (1840—). 
An    Austrian    Orientalist,   born   at    Buczacz,   in 


MULLER.  98 

Galicia.  He  was  ciluiiiUil  in  Vienna.  Loipzijr. 
Strassburg,  and  Berlin:  became  professor  of 
Scniitie  pliilolojrj-  at  Vienna  in  1881,  ami  was 
an  editor  of  the  Wiener  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  Kunde 
dis  Moti/cnluiidcs.  His  ver.v  valuable  works  in- 
clude: Himjaritischc  Insehriften(lS'o)  ;  Siidfira- 
bische  Studicn  (1877)  ;  Die  Burgen  iind  Hchlijs- 
ser  KiUhinihiiiix  (1870-81)  ;  Sabiiische  Dcitkmiiler 
(with  Mordtniann,  18S;i):  l^piriiaphisclu  Dink- 
mtilcr  aus  Aruhien  (1889):  Die  ultsemitischen 
Inschriftcn  ton  HendKchirli  (1803);  Epiyraphi- 
sclie  Uenkmiiler  aus  Abessinien  (1894)  :  Ezechiel- 
studien  (1895)  ;  Die  I'rophetcn  in  ihrer  iirspriiny- 
lichen  Form  (189G);  Siidarabisehe  Allerlhiiiner 
( 1899)  :  Die  Mnlni-  iind  flokalri-fiprache  ( 1901 )  ; 
and  editions  of  liilab  al  Farq  (1S7G)  :  of  Hflm- 
dilni.  Geoiiraphii  of  the  Arabian  Peninsula  ( 1884- 
91)  :  and  of  part  of  Tabart,  Annales   (1888). 

MULLER,  Ediard  (1828-95).  A  German 
seiil|itiir.  licirn  at  Hildburghausen.  His  first 
occupation  was  tliat  of  a  cook  in  the  ducal 
kitchen  at  Coburfr,  and  he  practiced  his  trade 
subsequently  in  Municli  and  Paris,  and  thence 
went  to  Antwerp,  where,  on  the  advice  of  the 
sculptor  (Jeefs.  lie  proceeded  to  study  at  the 
Academy  in  1850.  Two  years  afterwards  lie  con- 
tinued his  studies  in  Brussels,  and  in  1857  set- 
tled permanently  in  Rome.  Masterly  composi- 
tion, great  truthfulness  to  life,  and  a  liigli  degree 
of  technical  perfection  are  the  chief  characteris- 
tics of  his  ideal  figures  and  mythological  groups, 
the  best  known  of  wliich  include:  "Xynipli  Kiss- 
ing Cupid"  (ISti-J):  ■'Kaitli,  Love,  an<l  lloiu-"' 
(1809).  Schriider  Mausoleum.  Hamburg;  "Satvr 
witli  the  Mask"'  (1870):  "The  Faun's  Secret" 
(1874);  and  "Eve  with  Her  Children"  (1880). 
His  masterpiece  is  the  group  in  heroic  size, 
"Prometheus  Bound  and  the  Oceanids"  (1874- 
79),  National  (Jallery.  Berlin,  chiseled  oiit  of  a 
single  block  of  marble. 

MtTLLER,  Fermna.nd  vox  (1S2.5-96).  A  Ger- 
man naturalist,  lie  was  born  in  Rostock,  studied 
at  Kiel,  and  in  1848  went  to  Australia,  where  he 
was  for  several  years  engaged  in  botanic  explora- 
tions, and  was  director  of  the  Melbourne  Public 
Garden  (t857-7."i).  His  researches  on  tlic  sub- 
ject of  the  acclimatiziition  of  jilants  yielded  high- 
ly valuable  results.  Miiller  wrote:  Fraymt nta 
i'luilotiraphitr  Australirr  (18li2-Sl);  Plants  of 
Virforia  (1800-05);  Flora  Auslraliana  (7  vols,, 
180.3-70)  ;  and  Seleel  Exiratropiral  Plantsi.\m\). 

MULLER,  FitiKiniiiii  (called  Maler  Miiller) 
(1749-1S25).  A  (Jerman  poet,  painter,  ami  en- 
graver, horn  at  Kreuznach.  He  showed  in  his 
youth  a  talent  for  art,  and  began  to  study  paint- 
ing at  Zweihriicken,  where  his  fascinating  per- 
sonality and  varied  endowments  won  him  the 
favor  of  the  Court  circles.  In  1774  he  went  to 
Mannheim,  ami  soon  aeipiired  a  reputation  as  a 
poet.  Jlis  iilyls  were  inspired,  first  by  Gessner, 
afterwards  by  Voss,  some  of  them  being  realistic 
descriptions  of  the  life  of  tl)e  common  people  in 
the  Palatinate.  He  is  be.st  known  as  a  dramatist, 
and  as  such  a  (rue  representative  of  the  •Storm 
nnd  Stress'  period,  whose  unlmlnneed  enthusiasm 
IR  most  apparent  in  flnln  und  CIrnorera.  To  the 
theme  attempted  in  Fausis  l.ebrn  dramnlixirt 
his  powers  wiTe  hardly  adequate.  In  1777  he 
bad  become  electoral  Court  painter,  and  in  1778 
means  were  provided  to  satisfy  the  artist's  long- 
ing for  Rome.  Although  he  continued  there  his 
literary  efforts   for  a   time,   he  more  especially 


MULLER. 


cultivated  painting,  setting  up  ^lichelangelo  as 
his  idol.  l)ut  falling  into  exaggerations  and  never 
attaining  any  real  success.  Gradually  estranged 
from  his  art  through  failures  and  distress,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  art-historical  studies,  became  a 
sort  of  ambulant  antiquary,  and  was  much 
sought  as  a  cicerone.  Through  the  patronage  of 
the  Crown  Prince  of  Bavaria  (afterwiirds  King 
I.ouis  I,)  he  was  enabled  to  pass  his  declining 
>ears  in  comparative  ease.  Consult  Seuffert,  Dcr 
Maler  Miiller   (Berlin,  1877). 

MULLER,  Friedricii  (1782-1810).  A  Ger- 
man engraver,  born  at  Stuttgart.  He  first  studied 
under  his  father.  Joluinn  Gottliard  Miiller.  an  en- 
graver of  note,  and  subsequently  in  Paris.  In 
ISOS  his  engraving  of  '•.Saint  -lolui  Al>out  to  Write 
His  Revelation,"  after  Domenichino,  won  him  a 
high  reputation,  which  was  maintained  by  his 
■'Adam  and  Eve  Under  the  Tree  of  Life," "after 
Raphael.  In  1814  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
engraving  in  the  Dresden  Academy,  and  the  rest 
of  his  life  was  devoted  to  the  execution  of  the 
plate  of  his  gi-eatest  work,  the  "ifadonna  di  San 
Sisto,''  after  Raphael.  His  health  broke  down 
inider  the  labor  imposed  by  this  undertaking,  and 
he  did  not  live  to  see  a  finished  i)rint  of  his  work. 
His  engravings  are  only  eighteen  in  numlier, 
mostly  portraits,  including  Schiller,  Jerome 
Bonaparte,  .Jacobi,  and  a  medallion  of  Xapo- 
leon   I. 

MULLER,  Friedrich  (1834-98).  An  Aus- 
trian philologist.  He  was  born  at  .Jemnik,  Bo- 
hemia :  studied  in  Vienna  and  (iiittingen,  and 
from  1800  until  his  death  was  professor  of  com- 
I)arative  philology  aiid  .Sanskrit  at  the  Uni- 
veisity  of  Vienna,  He  was  a  member  of  tlie 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  was  one  of  the  highest 
authorities  on  comparative  philology  and  etli- 
no]og\-  and  the  relations  of  the  two  sciences.  Be- 
sides contributing  largely  on  these  subjects  to 
the  Mitteilunyeii  der  anthropoloyisehen  Gescll- 
■teliaft  and  tlie  irioier  Zeitsriirift  fiir  die  Kunde 
des  Moryenlandes.  and  editing  these  periodicals 
for  a  ti;ne,  he  wrote  the  linguistic  and  the 
ethnological  parts  of  the  Reise  der  ij.'iterreichi- 
srhen  Freriatte  Sovara  (1807-73);  Allgemeinc 
Elhnor/riiiihie  (1873);  and  a  Grundriss  der 
SjinK  Inris.'iinschaft    (1876-87). 

MULLER,  Friedricii  von  (1770-1849).  A 
(iennan  statesman.  He  was  born  at  Kunreuth, 
Bavaria;  studied  law  at  Erlangen  and  (Jiittin- 
gen,  and  in  1801  entered  the  administrative  em- 
ploy of  Weimar.  His  greatest  political  achieve- 
ment was  his  inducing  Napoleon  to  keep  Weimar 
independent  (1800-07).  For  this  he  was  reward- 
ed by  being  ennobled  anil  raised  to  the  jjost  of 
Privy  Councilor.  He  wrote  Erinnennirjin  aus 
den  Krieiis^eilen  lo/i  ISOd-l.i  (1851).  :Miiller  be- 
came Chancellor  in  1815.  and  from  1835  to  1848 
was  Deputy.  On  his  fri<'ndsliip  with  Goethe,  con- 
sult Burkhardt,  Goethes  Unlcrhallunyen  mil  dent. 
Fancier  Friedrieh  eon  Miiller  (Stuttgart,  1870). 

MULLER,  Friedricii  Max  (commonlv  called 
Max  I  (  1823  1900) .  One  of  the  best  known  of  re- 
cent Orientalists  and  philologists.  He  was  born 
at  Dessau,  in  the  Duchy  of  .\nhalt-Dessau,  De- 
cember 0.  1823.  where  liis  father,  the  poet  Wil- 
lielm  .Miiller  (q.v.).  was  librarian  of  the  ducal 
library.  Max  Miiller  receiveil  tlie  elements  of 
his  education  at  Dessau,  and  tlien  went  to  Leip- 
zig, where,  under  Hermann  Brockhaus,  he  began 
the  study  of  Sanskrit.    This  he  soon  chose  as  his 


MTJLLER. 


99 


MTJLLER. 


speeial  pursuit,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty  he  was 
reail.v  lor  tlie  degree  of  doetor  of  philosophy.  The 
first"  fruits  of  his  labors  apjieared  in  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Hituitadiita  (1X44).  In  1844  he  went 
to  Berlin  to  study  under  liop)i  and  Sehelling,  and 
■  to  consult  the  Sanskrit  nianuseri|)ts  there.  In 
Paris,  whither  lie  went  in  184.5.  he  began,  at  the 
suggestion  of  linrnouf.  to  prepare  an  edition  of 
the  Rig-Veda,  with  the  coiiMncntary  of  Sayana 
(q.v. ).  With  this  view  he  went  to  England.  June, 
1840.  to  examine  the  manuscripts  in  the  East  In- 
dia House,  London,  and  the  Bodleian  Library  at 
Oxford,  and.  on  the  reconnnendation  of  the  dis- 
tinguished Sanskritist  H.  H.  Wilson,  the  East 
India  Company  commissioned  him  (1847)  to 
edit  the  Rig-Veda  at  their  expense.  The  first 
volume  of  this  great  undertaking  appeared  In 
18411.  and  the  sixth  and  eoneluding  volume  was 
p\d)lislied  in  1874.  A  second  edition  was  issued 
in  ]S80-!12.  In  1850  Jlax  Miiller  was  appointed 
deputy  Taylorian  professor  of  modern  languages 
at  Oxford;  in  1854  he  succeeded  to  the  professor- 
ship, and  in  1858  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  All 
Souls'  College.  While  pursuing  his  labors  con- 
nected with  the  Rig- Veda  he  published  treatises 
on  a  variety  of  philological  topics  which  did 
more  to  awaken  in  England  a  taste  for  the  sci- 
ence of  language  in  its  modern  sense  than  the 
labors  of  any  other  single  scholar.  Inheriting 
the  poetic  imagination  and  fire  of  his  father,  he 
had  at  command  such  a  felicity  of  illustration 
that  subjects  dry  under  ordinary  treatment  be- 
inme  in  his  hands  attractive.  The  lectures  which 
he  delivered  on  the  Hilibert  Foundation  on  the 
Oriyin  and  Growth  of  Rclifiion  (1878),  and  the 
(iifl'ord  series  on  XHtiinil  Heligioii,  Phi/sical  Rc- 
lii/ion,  Anihropolofiicol  Rclir/ioii.  and  Theosophi) 
or  Psi/clwlofiical  Rclif/ion  (18!l0-02),  attracted 
much  attention.  He  continued  to  publish  on 
literary,  lingriistic,  and  philosophical  subjects  up 
to  the  time  of  his  death,  which  occurred  at  Ox- 
ford. October  28.  ItlOO.  Among  his  long  list  of 
works,  mention  may  be  made  of  a  translation 
into  German  of  Kalidasa's  Mpf/hadi'ita  (1847): 
Tlir  LniKjuage  of  the  Scat  of  War  in  the  East 
(2d  ed.  1855):  Comixiratirc  Mi/tholofi;/  (in  the 
"Oxford  Essays"  for  185G)  :  Hixtory  of  Ancient 
San.tkrit  lAteraiurc  (2d  cd.  1800)  ;  lectures  on 
The  Science  of  Lnn<iua<jc  (18G1:  last  ed.  1880)  : 
The  Science  of  Religion  (1870).  Chips  from  a. 
German  Workshop,  in  four  volumes,  was  pub- 
lished 18fia-75:  the  Hibbert  Lectures  on  the  Ori- 
pin  and  Growth  of  Religion,  in  1878:  Selected 
Essai/s,  in  1881  :  Sij:  Si/stems  of  Indian  Philos- 
opht/  (1809)  :  Auld  Lanti  Si/ne  (1st  and  2d  series. 
1800)  :  and  Ramal.rishnii,  ffis  Life  and  Sai/inris 
(1800).  His  translation  of  Kant's  Critique  of 
I'urc  Reason,  with  a  scholarly  introduction,  ap- 
]H'ared  in  two  volumes  (1881).  He  wrote  a 
romance,  Deutsche  Liehe  (12th  ed.  1001).  He 
was  editor  of  the  important  series  The  Sacred 
/foo/.-.s  of  the  East :  was  one  of  the  eight  foreign 
members  of  the  Institute  of  France,  a  Knight  of 
the  Prussian  Order,  a  member  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
<'il  of  the  Queen  of  England,  besides  being  the 
recijiient  of  many  honorary  degrees.  After  his 
death  appeared  his  Last  Essays  {  1001  )  and  My 
.\  ntdtiioaraphy  (1001),  edited  by  his  son.  Con- 
-nlt  fAfc  and  l.rltrrs  of  the  Rii/ht  Uonorahle 
Friedrich  Max  Miiller.  edited  bv  his  wife  (Lon- 
don,  1003). 

MtfLLER,  r.EORG  Er.TAS  (18.50—),    A  Oerman 
professor    of    philosophy,    born    at    Grimma,    in 


Saxony.  lie  was  educated  at  the  universities  of 
Leipzig,  Berlin,  and  Gottingeh.  In  1870  he  en- 
tered the  German  army  as  a  volunteer,  and  took 
part  in  the  campaign  against  France.  On  re- 
turning to  academic  life  he  b«'came  priv,it-doecnt 
at  (i.'itlingen  (187<>),  and  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Czernowitz  (1880).  In  April,  1881,  he  was 
appointiil  full  professor  at  Gdttingen.  He  pub- 
lished: /.ur  Theorie  der  sinnlichcn  .\ufmerK:iam- 
keit  (1873)  ;  Zur  (Irundleyung  der  Psychophysik 
(1878);  Zur  Theorie  der  M  uskelcnnl  ruction 
(1801);  Zur  Analyse  der  Untcrschiedsemp/lnd- 
lichkcit,  with  L.  G.  Martin  (1809)  ;  and  Expcri- 
mcntelle  Reitriiqc  zur  Lehre  vom  GcdHchtnis, 
with  Pilzeeker  ("1900). 

MiJLLER,  Geoko  Friedrich  (1805-98).  A 
(Icniian  evangelist  and  philanthropist.  He  was 
born  at  Kroppenstadt,  Prussia,  near  Magdeburg, 
September  27.  1805.  He  entered  the  University 
of  Halle  (1825)  as  a  divinity  student,  although 
his  life  was  anything  but  exemplary.  Late  in  that 
year  he  was  converted,  and  in  lS2fi  began  preach- 
ing. In  June,  1828,  he  w'as  invited  to  London  by 
the  Society  for  Promoting  Christianity  among 
the  Jews,  to  engage  in  its  service  for  six  months, 
and  in  March,  1820,  reached  London.  He  settled 
as  pastor  of  Ebenezer  Chapel.  Teignmouth.  in 
connection  with  the  Plymouth  Brethren;  in  1832 
he  removed  to  Bristol,  and  was  co-workei'  with 
Henry  Craik.  While  at  Teignmouth  he  gave  up 
pew-rents  and  depended  on  voluntary  gifts,  for 
which  a  box  was  placed  in  the  chapel.  The  re- 
sult was  a  largely  increased  income,  and  from 
that  time  on  he  would  take  no  salary,  depending 
wholly  upon  voluntary  gifts.  In  December.  1835, 
after  a  visit  to  the  Continent,  he  published  a 
proposal  for  the  establishment  of  an  orphan- 
house  for  destitute  children  bereft  of  both  par- 
ents. Spontaneous  ofl'ers  of  money  and  service 
were  received,  and  the  opening  of  the  liome  was 
announced  May  18,  183G.  At  the  end  of  1856 
there  were  297  orphans  under  his  care.  The 
number  of  orphans  increased  and  the  buildings 
were  nuiltiplied,  until  in  1875  "2000  children 
were  lodged,  fed,  and  educated,  without  a  shilling 
of  endowment,  without  a  committee,  without  or- 
ganization, by  funds  drawn  from  all  parts 
of  the  world."  In  1849  he  moved  the  orphanage 
to  Ashley  Down,  a  suburb  of  Bristol,  to  specially 
constructed  buildings.  Attended  by  his  wife, 
he  made  evangelistic  tours  all  over  the  world. 
His  yarrative  and  other  books  and  pamphlets 
had  a  large  sale,  and  gave  information  of  his 
work.  He  died  at  Ashley  Down,  March  10,  1898. 
Consult  his  biographv,  bv  A.  T.  Pierson  (New 
York.  ISOO). 

MiJLLER,  Gerhard  Fbiedrich  (1705-83).  A 
(iernian  historian,  born  at  Herford.  in  West- 
phalia, and  educated  at  Leipzig.  Entering  the 
newly  established  Saint  Petersburg  Academy,  he 
gave  instructions  in  history.  geogra])hy.  and 
Latin,  and  was  soon  appointed  professor  of  his- 
tory. In  1740  he  went  to  Siberia  and  traveled 
for  ten  years,  engaged  in  the  study  of  its  antiqui- 
ties and  geography.  Of  his  great  work  on  Si- 
beria only  one  volume  was  pulilished  (1750).  On 
bis  return  he  became  historiographer  to  the  Em- 
pire, and  in  MVM.  after  many  attacks  by  his  col- 
leagues, was  appointed  keeper  of  the  national 
archives.  He  drew  up  for  the  Government  a 
collection  of  its  treatises,  and  wrote  a  number 
of  works  on  Russian  history,  in  which  subject 
he  was  a  high  authority.     His  most  important 


MTJLLER. 


100 


MTTLLER. 


book,  a  Collection  for  the  Uisiory  of  Russia,  ap- 
peared at  Saint  Peteisburj;.  in  nine  volumes 
(1732-05).  His  work  in  geography  and  cartog- 
raphy was  also  important. 

MtfLLER,  niy'lOr,  lv.\.\  voN  (1830—).  A 
German  ela^sieal  jdiilologist.  He  was  born  at 
Wunsiedel,  in  IJavaria;  was  professor  in  tlio 
University  of  Erlangen  (18ti4-93),  and  from 
18'J3  professor  in  the  University  of  Municli. 
His  published  works  are  numerous;  he  is  Im'sI 
known  as  general  editor  of  the  comprehensivu 
Hitndhuch  der  h-l(issische)i  .llti-rlumsuisscnschaft 
(Munich,  1885),  and  also  as  the  editor  of  many 
of  the  works  of  Galen,  and  as  reviser  of  Xtigels- 
bach's  Lateinische  Stilistik  "(Xuremberg,  1888). 

MtJLLER,  .ToiiAN.v  Fkieurich  Tiieodor 
(known  as  I'kitz  Mi'tller,  or  MCller-Desterro) 
(1821-97).  A  German  naturalist,  known  for  liis 
contributions  to  bionomics  and  to  the  evolution 
theory.  He  was  born  at  Windischholzhauseu, 
near  Erfurt.  He  studied  at  Greifswald  and  licr- 
lin.  The  troubles  of  1848  finally  drove  him  from 
home  and  Berlin,  and  he  emigrated  to  Southern 
Brazil,  settling  at  Blumenau,  on  the  island  of 
Santa  Catharina.  Here  he  lived  the  life  of  a 
colonist  and  pioneer  until  1850,  when  he  became 
a  teacher  of  mathematics  and  natural  history 
in  the  g^-mnasium  at  Desterro.  After  various 
changes  he  was  in  1874  appointed  naturalistn 
viajante  of  the  museum  at  Rio  .Janeiro,  and  lived 
at  Itajahy.  .Vfterwards  he  was  suddenly  dis- 
missed from  his  position,  without  any  explanation 
from  the  authorities,  and  returned  to  Blumenau. 

Jliiller  |)ublisheil  mimerous  ])apers  on  jelly- 
fishes  and  worms,  but  more  particularly  on  crus- 
taceans and  insects,  his  articles  appearing  mostly 
in  Wiegmann's  Archiv  fiir  Xatiirflcschiclitc,  Kos- 
jHOS,  yatiii;  and  the  Annals  of  the  Rio  .Janeiro 
Museum.  His  single  hook.  Facts  for  Daririn, 
vas  called  out  by  Darwin's  Origin  of  Siiccirs, 
and  it  gave  him  wide  fame.  It  was  written  at 
Desterro  in  ISO.'?,  was  ])ublislied  at  Leipzig  in 
1804,  and  was  translated,  with  some  additions, 
into  English  in  lx)ndon  in  180!).  It  was  the 
application  of  Darwinian  principles  to  certain 
forms  of  a  single  class,  the  Crustacea.  Tn  this 
book  we  have,  in  the  eliapter  on  the  "Progress 
of  Evolution,"  the  first  clear  statement  of  the 
biogenetic  law  or  recapitulation  theory  after- 
wards restated  by  Haeckel.  !Muller  al.so  pro- 
posed the  theory  of  mimicry  which  bears  his 
name.     See  Mimicry. 

MtJXLER,  .JoiiANX  GoTTii.VRD  vox  (1747- 
18301.  A  (Jcrman  line  engraver,  born  at  liern- 
bausin,  near  Stuttgart.  He  at  first  studied 
under  the  Court  painter  Guibal.  but.  developing 
n  talent  for  engraving,  went  to  Paris  in  1770. 
where  for  six  years  he  studied  under  Wille.  He 
won  a  number  of  prizes  (here,  and  was  elected 
a  member  of  tlie  I'reiicli  Academy.  In  1770  Duke 
Charles  recalled  him  to  Stuttgart,  where  lie 
taught  for  nine  years,  and  whence  be  was  sum- 
moned to  Paris  to  engrave  a  portrait  of  Louis 
X\'I.,  after  Duplessis.  Next  in  importance  to 
this  is  his  engraving  of  Trumbull's  '•liattle  of 
Bunker  Hill."  (In  his  return  to  Stuttgart  he 
became  professor  of  engraving.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  principal  European  academies, 
and  was  knighted  in  1818.  He  engraved  thirty- 
three  plates  in  all.  of  which,  besides  those  men- 
tioned, the  best  are:  "Madonna  delln  Seggiola." 
after  Raphael;  ".Snint  Catharine  with  Two  An- 


gels," after  Leonardo  da  Vinci ;  "Schiller,"  after 
the  portrait  by  Graf;  and  "Saint  Cecilia,"  after 
Doiiii'iiii  hino. 

MtJLLER,  JouA.\?.ES  (1430-70).  The  real 
name    of    the    German    scientist   Regiomontanus 

(q.v.). 

MULLEB,  .Johannes  (1801-158).  Tlie  most 
nia>tcrlul,  accurate,  and  influential  physiologist 
and  niorphologist  of  his  time.  He  was  born  at 
Coblenz.  Rhenish  Prussia.  July  14,  1801  ;  began  to 
study  theology,  but  al>andoned  it  for  medicine, 
beginning  his  medical  studies  at  Bonn  in  the 
autumn  of  1819.  While  there  he  |)reparcd  a  prize 
essay,  De  Kespiratioiic  F<ifus  ( 1821 ) .  He  gradu- 
ated in  1822.  In  the  spring  of  1823  he  went  to 
Berlin  and  studied  with  Hudolphi.  then  returned 
to  Bonn  as  privat-docenl,  to  teach  physiologj'  and 
comparative  anatomy.  In  1820  he  was  appoint- 
ed professor  extraordinarius  in  the  University 
of  Bonn,  and  he  was  made  full  professor  in  1830. 
In  1833  he  was  called  to  the  University  of  Ber- 
lin, where  he  succeeded  Rudolphi  as  jjrofessor 
of  anatomy  and  physiology-,  and  after  Meckel's 
death  he  edited  the  Archir  fiir  Aiialomie.  Phiisio- 
loijir.  und  icissotschiiftliclie  Mcilirin,  and  re- 
mained at  Berlin  until  his  death,  which  occurred 
April  28.  1858. 

With  his  unusual  powers  of  application,  thor- 
oughness, and  breadth,  his  acuteness  and  pene- 
tration, young  ^fiiller  opened  up  in  diflercnt  di- 
rections new  fields  of  research.  In  1820  he 
published  an  important  work  on  the  physiolog)' of 
sight,  and  a  treatise  entitled  Vciirr  die  phantas- 
lischen  Grsichtserscheiniiii(ieii.  uni\  in  1827  a  work 
based  on  his  lectures  on  physiologj- :  in  1820  his 
work  on  general  patholog\-.  and  in  1833  the 
first  part  of  his  epoch-making  Ilandhonk  of 
IJiinuiu  Phi/siologi/,  which  was  completed  in 
1840.  In  1834  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences.  As  a  physiologist 
he  was  the  founder  of  a  new  school,  working  by 
novel  methods.  To  him  physiology-  owes  the 
foundation  of  Bell's  law.  the  principle  (rf  reUex 
movements  and  other  nervous  activities:  com- 
prehensive and  detailed  views  on  vision  and 
hearing;  a  thoroughly  well-grounded  knowledge 
of  the  nature  of  the  blood,  lymph,  and  chyle;  the 
l)roof  of  the  independence  of  the  quality  of 
glandular  secretions  from  the  grosser  structure 
of  the  glands,  and  the  knowledge  of  chondrin. 
Miiller  opposed  the  school  of  nature-philosophers 
and  jdaced  physiology  on  a  sound  basis.  He  was 
also  a  founiicr  and  leader  in  the  new  morphology'. 
The  science  of  comparative  enibryologj-  was  great- 
ly enriched  bv  his  researches.  He  discovered 
the  proni'phrie  ducts  which  bear  his  name,  and 
explained  the  nature  of  hermaphroditism;  he 
made  extended  contributions  to  and  laid  the 
foundations  of  our  knowledge  of  the  embryology 
and  metamorphoses  of  the  echinoderms.  and  he 
examined  into  the  mode  of  development  of  certain 
sharks,  ^\hicll  led  up  to  his  subsequent  studies 
on  the  ganoids  and  .\mphioxns.  The  debt  mor- 
phology- owes  him  is  shown  in  his  discovery  of 
the  lymph-hearts  of  the  .Amidiibia.  the  micro- 
pyle  of  the  egg~  of  fishes,  holothurians,  and  the 
like,  the  intimate  structure  of  glands,  of  car- 
tilaginous and  bony  tissue,  of  erectile  tissue,  of 
the  musculature  of  tbe  intestines,  and  the  finer 
structure  of  the  peritoneum. 

His  principal  works  in  comparative  anatomy 
and    morphologv-    were    his    yrrfilcichcnde    Ana- 


\ 


MULLER. 


101 


MULLER. 


tomie  der  Myxiiioidtit  (1834-43),  which  Carus 
has  called  'the  eodex  of  llie  iiiurplioluyy  of  verte- 
brates.' In  collaljoration  with  Henle  he  jmb- 
li.shed,  in  1S41,  i<i/.iUi)iutische  Bcschreibuiig  dcr 
I'liiyiosttimcii,  and  in  systematic  zoijhjgy  his 
principal  works  were  fiyslem  dcr  Aslcrideii 
(IS4'2),  with  the  collaljoration  of  Troschcl,  and 
Ilorw  IchlhijoUjijiciv.  Besides  these  he  published 
upward  of  two  hundred  arliides,  addresses,  and 
reports,  most  of  whicli  appeared  in  the  Tnuisac- 
tiiDis  of  the  lierlin  Acadriiii/  of  tSciciices  and  in 
the  Arcliii  fiir  Analornie,  etc. 

Consult  the  biographical  notices  by  Du  Bois- 
Reymonil  {Abliiiiidlii/igrn  dcr  Berliner  Al^ademie, 
185!)),  containing  a  list  of  his  works;  Virehow, 
Johaiiiu's  M iilhr,  fine  (Irdiichtnisrcde  (Berlin. 
18.58)  ;  BischoH',  Veher  Johannes  Miiller  und  sein 
Vcrhiiltnis  zunt  jetzlijen  StandjiunKl  der  Physio- 
logic (Munich,  1858)  :  Proccedinys  of  the  Royal 
iioeiely  of  London,  vol.  ix.,  p.  55(3. 

MULLER,  Johannes  von  (175'2-180'J).  A 
German  liistorian.  He  was  born  January  3,  1752, 
at  Schall'hausen,  where  his  father  was  a  clerg}'- 
man  and  rector  of  the  g^'mnasium.  He  studied 
at  GiUtingen  under  Heyne.  Schh'izer,  Waleh,  and 
others.  In  1772  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
(ircek  at  Scliatlliausen,  and  in  the  same  j-ear 
published  his  first  work.  Helium  Cimbrieum. 
He  now  began  to  devote  his  leisure  hours  to  the 
investigation  of  Swiss  chronicles  and  documents. 
In  1780  he  published  the  first  volume  of  his 
great  work,  dcschiclite  der  Schweizcr,  and  in 
1781  was  called  to  the  Collegium  Carolinum  at 
Cassel,  as  professor  of  statistics.  In  178fi  he 
was  appointed  librarian  and  Councilor  of  State 
to  tlie  Elector  of  Slainz ;  here  he  finished  the 
second  volume  of  his  Swiss  history;  his  Darstel- 
lung  des  Fiirstenbundes  (1787);  and  Brief e 
zu-cier  Domherrcn  (1787).  In  1792  he  went  to 
\'ienna,  where  the  Emperor  made  him  a  member 
of  the  Aulic  Council,  and  where  he  in  1800 
became  first  Imperial  librarian.  In  1804  he 
left  Vieiuia  for  Berlin,  where  he  wrote,  among 
other  things,  an  additional  volume  of  his  Swiss 
history.  Introduced  to  Napoleon  after  the  battle 
of  .Tena.  he  was  appointed  by  him  (1807)  Secre- 
tary of  State  in  the  new  Kingdom  of  West- 
phalia. He  died  at  Cassel,  May  29,  1809.  His 
works  have  all  been  replaced  by  more  modern 
researches,  but  in  their  own  day  they  were  of 
great  value.  Besides  those  mentioned,  the  Tier- 
vndzicanzifi  Biiehcr  aUyemciner  GescHchte,  based 
on  lectures  delivered  in  Geneva  (1811  and  often 
republished),  are  important.  Miiller's  fiamnit- 
liehc  ^Vcrl-e  were  published  (27  vols.,  Stuttgart, 
1810  19;  new  ed.,  40  Vols.,  1831-35). 

MULLER,  .JrLUT.s  (1801-78).  A  German 
tlieiilogian.  He  was  born  at  Brieg.  Silesia, 
and  was  a  brother  of  Karl  Otfried  Miiller 
(q.v. ).  He  studied  at  Breslau  and  GiUtin- 
gen. at  first  devoting  himself  to  law,  but  after- 
wards to  tbeolo.g>-.  In  1825  he  was  appointed 
)iastor  at  Schijnbrunn  and  Rosen,  near  Strehlen, 
whi-re  he  remained  seven  years.  He  was  ap- 
))oiri(ed  in  1831  second  university  preacher  in 
GiUtingen,  and  (here  lectured  on  practical  theol- 
ogy and  jiedagogics.  lu  1834  he  became  extraor- 
dinary professor  of  theology  in  Giittingen.  and 
soon  after  full  professor  in  IMarburg,  whence 
he  went  in  1839  to  occupy  a  similar  chair  in 
Halle.  The  work  on  which  his  reputation  as  a 
theologian  chiefly  rests  is  Die  christliche  Lehre 


ron  der  Siinde  (1839;  Gth  ed.  1889;  Eng.  trans., 
from  the  5th  ed.,  Edinburgh,  18U8)  ;  also  Dog- 
inatisclie  Abhandlunycn  (1870).  He  afterwards 
published  |)am))lilels  on  subjects  of  temporary  in- 
terest, i)artieularly  in  vindication  of  the  cause  of 
evangelical  union  against  the  attacks  of  the  rigid 
Lutherans.  In  conjunction  with  Neander  and 
Nitzsch,  he  edited  a  periodical  entitled  Deutsche 
Zeitschrifl  fiir  christlivhe  Wisscnsehnfl  und 
ehristlielies  Lebcn.  Consult  his  biography,  by  L. 
Schnltze    (Bremen.   1879). 

MULLER,  K.U!L  Oitried  (1797-1840).  A 
German  archaeologist  and  philologist,  born  at 
Brieg,  in  Silesia.  He  studied  at  Breslau  and 
Berlin,  where  he  was  the  pupil  of  August  Boeckh. 
His  dis.sertation.  Liber  jEyincticorum  (1817), 
showed  the  direction  of  his  future  studies,  which 
were  devoted  to  the  reconstruction  of  the  history 
of  Greek  localities  and  races.  In  1817  he 
was  appointed  a  teacher  at  the  Magdaleneum  in 
Breslau,  in  1819  professor  e.\traordinarius  of 
philolog3',  and  in  1823  professor  ordinarius  at 
Giittingen.  In  connection  with  his  studies  he 
traveled  widely,  and  in  1839  secured  leave  of 
absence  for  a  visit  to  Greece  and  Italy.  A  sun- 
stroke received  while  he  was  copying  inscriptions 
at  Delphi  led  to  an  attack  of  fever,  from  which 
he  died  at  Athens,  where  he  was  buried  on  the 
Hill  of  Colonus.  His  desire  to  reconstruct  the 
entire  ancient  life  naturally  led  Jliiller  to  a  wide 
range  of  scholarly  activity.  His  great  work  was 
to  be  his  Geschichte  hellcnischer  Stiimme  und 
Htmlte,  of  which  he  completed  vols,  i.,  Orcho- 
menos  und  die  Minyer  ( 1820) ,  and  ii.,  Die  Dorier 
(1824);  a  second  edition  of  these  works  by 
Schneidewin  (1844;  trans,  by  G.  C.  Lewis  and  H. 
Tafnell.  London,  1839).  In  the  same  field  be- 
longed his  treatise.  Ueber  die  WohnsUze,  Ab- 
stammung  und  iiltcre  Geschichte  des  macedofii- 
schen  Vo'lks  (1825).  and  his  Et rusher  (1828;  2d 
ed.  by  Deecke,  1877).  His  Hiindiiuch  dcr  ArchA- 
ologie  der  Kunst  (1830;  3d  ed.  by  Weleker, 
184G;  trans,  by  Leitch,  London,  1850),  though 
now  antiquated  in  its  collections,  is  of  value  from 
the  many  acute  observations  it  contains.  It  was 
accompanied  by  Miiller  and  Oesterley,  Denlcrmiler 
der  altcn  Kunst  (Ciiittingen,  1834-39),  w'hich  was 
continued  and  completed  by  Wieseler  (1846-56). 
A  third  edition  appeared  (1877-81);  a  fourth 
edition  of  part  ii.,  Kunstmythohgie.  was  begun 
at  Leipzig  in  1899.  His  Prolegomena  zu  einer 
rrissenschaftlielien  Mythologie  (1825)  was  based 
on  his  belief  that  the  elements  of  the  Greek  reli- 
gion were  to  be  found  in  analysis  of  the  myths, 
which  would  refer  the  specific  names  to  specific 
places  and  tribes.  He  strongly  opposed  the 
theories  of  large  foreign  influence  in  Greek  civili- 
zation. In  the  last  years  of  his  life  he  under- 
took to  prepare,  for  the  English  Society  for  the 
DilTusion  of  I'seful  Knowledge,  a  history  of  Greek 
literature.  A  translation  by  Ij<>-wis  and  Donald- 
son from  the  author's  manuscript,  entitled  .1  His- 
lory  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece,  was 
published  in  London  in  1840.  and  with  a  con- 
tinuation by  Donaldson  in  1858.  The  Cierman 
original.  Geschichte  der  grieehischen  Litteratur 
his  auf  das  Zeifalter  Alexanders  (1841;  4th  ed., 
revised  and  confinued  by  Heitz,  1882-84),  was 
jiublisbeil  by  his  brother  after  his  death,  as  well 
as  h'leine  deutsche  Sehriften  (1841).  A  col- 
lected edition  of  Kunst archiiologische  Werke.  in 
five  volumes,  was  published  in  Berlin  (1872-73). 
Miiller  was   also   prominent   as  an  editor.     His 


MULLER. 


102 


MULLER. 


edition  in  Greek  and  German  of  .Eschylits's  Eu- 
minidts  (Gottingen,  1S33)  gave  rise  to  a  lieree 
controversy  with  (iottfried  Hermann  and  his 
school,  while  his  eritieal  editions  uf  Varro,  l)c 
Lingua  Lutina  (l^-ipzijr,  18:i.i),  and  »stus.  Dc 
Siytiilieutionc  Viihoium  (ill..  1839),  were  long 
standards  and  are  still  valnalde.  For  his  biog- 
raphy, eonsult  ¥.  Ranke   (Berlin,  1870). 

MULLER,  Lkopold  (18.34-02).  An  Austrian 
genre  painter,  Ixirn  in  Dresden,  of  Austrian 
jmrents.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Karl  Blaas  and  of 
Christian  Ruben  at  the  Aeademy  in  Vienna. 
(_)bli<jed  to  support  his  family  after  his  father's 
death,  he  worked  eight  years  as  an  illustrator 
for  the  Vienna  /'iV/ino.  Continuing  his  studies 
subsequently,  he  visited  repeatedly  Italy  and 
Egj'pt,  and  made  his  name  favorably  known 
through  a  series  of  scenes  from  popular  life  in 
Italy  and  Hungary.  Afterwards  he  displayed 
his  eoloristic  talent  to  greater  advantage  in 
Oriental  subjc<-ts,  such  as  "Arabian  Jloney- 
Changers,"  "Pilgrims  to  Mecca  Resting,"  "Be- 
douins in  Camp,"  "Camel  Mart,"  "Young  Copt 
Woman"  (New  Pinakothek,  Munich).  Other 
works  include  "The  Inundation  in  \ienna.  18G'2:" 
"Old  Little  Matron"  and  "Last  Task  of  the 
Day"  (both  in  the  Vienna  JIuseum)  ;  and  "Sol- 
diers in  the  Thirty  Years'  War"  (Prague  Gal- 
lery ) . 

MULLER,  LuciAN  (1836-98).  A  German 
Latinist.  He  was  born  at  Jlerseburg,  and  stud- 
ied at  the  universities  of  Berlin  and  Halle.  In 
1870  he  was  made  professor  of  tlie  Latin  lan- 
guage and  literature  at  the  PhilologicoHistori- 
eal  Institute  at  Saint  Petersburg.  His  works, 
which  display  great  erudition  and  critical  acu- 
men, are  marred  by  his  bitter  attacks  on  eminent 
scholars  whose  opinions  dilVcr  from  his  own. 
They  include  his  famous  [)r  /iV  Mcirica  Poitarum 
hatinorum  prwirr  I'liiutiim  rt  Terenlium  (2d  ed. 
1804)  ;  editions  for  the  liililiolhecii  Tcuhiirriaiia 
of  Horace  (2d  ed.  1870);  of  CafuVus  (1870): 
and  other  Latin  jKiets;  editions  of  lAidliiis 
(1872):  Phirdrus  (1877):  Knniits  (1884); 
ywriiis  (188.51  ;  Horace's  Odr.t  and  Epodcx.  with 
Gennan  commentaries  (1882):  and  Horace's 
Sniirrx  and  E/iistlrx  (1841-43).  His  treatise 
entitled  Ein  norazjubilaiim  (1802)  contains  a 
short  autobiography. 

MULLER,  Max.  Sec  Mi'LLEB,  Friedrich 
Max, 

MULLER.  Morten  (1828—).  A  Norwegian 
Innil-cape  painter,  born  at  Holmestrand  on  the 
Christiania  Fjord.  After  studying  in  Diisseldorf 
(1847-50),  first  under  Tideniand  and  Gude,  then 
at  the  .'\eademy  under  Schirmer.  he  lived  in 
Stockholm,  and"  in  1800  went  to  Christiania, 
where  he  conducted  a  school  for  painting,  sub- 
vent  ioned  by  the  Government.  In  1871  he  re- 
nioveil  again  In  Diisseldorf.  and  in  1874  was  nnide 
n  member  of  the  Stuckholm  .Vcadi'iny  and  Court 
painter.  The  rugged  grandeur  of  the  f  jnrds  and 
mountainous  woodland  fastnesses  of  his  native 
country  are  the  favorite  subjeets  of  his  eliar- 
aeterislle  landscapes,  in  which  he  combines  a 
romantic  eoni'ejition  of  nature  with  purely  real- 
istic color  elTects.  Representative  examples  arc 
n  "View  on  Christiania  Fjord"  (18.5.5).  and  "Kn- 
trnnce  Into  Hardanger  Fjonl"  (both  in  the  Na- 
tional Gallery.  Christiania);  "Pine  F'orcst  in 
Norway"    (I8l!0.   Hamburg  Gallery):    "Romsdal 


Fjord"  (1870)  :  and  "Forest  Lake  by  Moonlight" 
(1802). 

MULLER,  Otho  Fkiedekik  (1730-84).  A 
Danish  zoJilogist,  burn  in  Copenhagen.  His  con- 
tributions lo  the  knowledge  of  Infusoria  are  es- 
j)eci;illy  valuable.  He  wrote:  Fauna  Inscctorum 
Eriedrichsdaliana  (1704);  Flora  Friedrichsduli- 
ana  (1707);  ^'ermium  J'crrcslrium  et  Flin-i<tli- 
Hum,  sen  Aiiimdlinin  Jnfusorium,  Heliiiiiilhiro- 
rum  et  Testaceorum  non  Marinorum  ,Succincta 
Hi.storia    (1771);  Zoiiloyica  Danica    (1779-1800). 

MULLER,  Otto  (1810-04).  A  German  nov- 
elist. He  was  liorn  at  Schottcn,  Hesse:  was  for 
some  time  connected  with  the  Court  lilirary  at 
Darmstadt,  and  edited  news])apers  at  Frankfurt 
and  Mannheim.  In  1854  he  established  the 
Franhfurter  .l/«sei(»i.  He  was  the  author  of 
(J)uirlotte  Ackcrmann  (1854);  Der  StadtschuU- 
hci.is  von  Frankfurt  (3d  ed.  1878),  treating  of 
(ioethe's  grandparents ;  Aus  Pctrarcas  alien 
Tagcn  (1801);  Uer  Majoratsherr  (1873);  and 
t^cliallcn  auf  Uiihen  (1881).  Consult  the  biug- 
raphy,  by  Schulte  vom  Briihl   (Stuttgart,  1805). 

MULLER,  Peter  Era,smu.s  (1776-1834).  A 
Dani-h  liieulogian  and  antiquary.  He  was  born 
at  Copenhagen,  and  studied  at  the  luiiversity 
there,  passing  liis  theological  exaniinaliun  in 
1701,  -After  spending  some  time  in  the  tierman 
universities,  he  visited  France  and  England.  Re- 
turning, he  wrote  numerous  works;  was  apjioint- 
ed  professor  of  theology'  at  the  University  of 
Copenhagen  in  1801.  and  in  1830  became  Bishop 
of  Zealand,  the  higliest  ecclesiastical  dignity  in 
Dcnnuxrk.  He  was  an  eminent  tlienlogian.  and 
his  theological  works,  including  that  on  the  Cliris- 
tian  moral  system  (1808)  and  utlier  volumes,  are 
very  higlily  valued.  But  his  literary  reputation 
rests  u])on  his  essays  on  Danish  and  Norse  an- 
tiquities, of  which  tlie  mo.st  valualilc  are:  Oni  del 
islamlske  Sprogs  Vigliglwd  (1813);  Kritisk  Vn- 
dersiigclse  af  Uanmarks  og  Gorges  Sagnhistorie 
(1823-30)  ;  and,  above  all.  his  tiagahihiiothek,  or 
I.ihrani  of  the  Sagas  (1810-18). 

MULLER,  Victor  (1820-71).  A  German  his- 
torical ]iainter,  born  in  Frankfort.  First  in- 
structed there  at  the  Stadel  Institute  by  Steinle, 
he  studied  afterwards  at  the  Antwerp  Academy 
and  under  Couture  in  Paris.  Soon,  however,  he 
became  a  follower  of  Courbet.  whose  technique, 
the  reverse  of  Couture's,  he  adopted,  and  sulisc- 
qucntly  helped  to  promote  in  Germany.  In  1858 
he  returned  to  Frankfort,  where  he  .soon  at- 
tracted attention  with  a  scries  of  pictures,  thor- 
oughly realistic  in  euncc|>tion  ami  of  great  colur- 
istie  charm,  but  scarcely  understood  by  a  public 
accustomed  to  the  sentimental  trend  of  (lie 
Diisseldorf  school  of  that  period.  He  therefore, 
in  1800.  removed  to  Munich,  where  such  revo- 
lutionary departures  frum  traditional  treatment 
as  the  "Slcejiing  Wood-Nymph"  (  1803),  or  "Hero 
and  Leander."  were  more  likely  to  be  apjin'riatcd. 
Out  of  a  cycle  frum  Sliakesjiearc.  wliich  lie 
painted  there.  "Ilainlct  in  the  (Jraveyard" 
(1800)  is  surpassed  only  by  the  "Balcony  Scene 
in  Romeo  and  .luliet"  (New  Pinakothek.  Mu- 
nich). To  his  inllui'nee  as  a  eolorist  was  due 
not  only  the  introduction  of  the  tune-element 
into  the  paintings  of  the  Munich  school,  but  also 
the  truer  concept  ion  of  historical  characters  and 
n  more  wholesome  observation  of  nature  among 
the  younger  generation  of  artists. 


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MXJLLER. 


103 


MTJLLIGAN  LETTERS. 


MtJLLER,  Wexzel  (1767-1835).  An  Austrian 
C(mi)>u>i'r.  Ijuiii  at  Tyniau,  Moravia.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  DitttrsUorf,  anil  from  1813  was  kapell- 
uicister  at  the  Leopoldstadt  Theater,  Vienna. 
He  wrote  more  than  two  huniired  o[)eras,  be.sides 
symphonies,  cantatas,  and  masses.  His  com- 
positions include:  Jtas  lerfehlte  liendczvou.t 
(1783);  Das  nciie  tsonnlagsKleid  (1703);  Die 
Schiiistrrn  von  Pray  (1704)  :  and  Asmodi  oder 
dns  hiisc  W'eib  utid  der  iS'aYoii  ( 1834) . 

MiJIXER,  WiLiiELM  ( 1704-1827 ) .  A  German 
poet,  excellinf;  in  popuhir  and  political  songs  that 
attracted  great  composers,  notaldy  Schubert,  and 
also  inlluencod  Heine's  lyric  development.  Miil- 
ler.  who  was  born  in  IJessau.  October  7,  1794, 
studied  pliilologj-  and  history,  fought  in  the  War 
of  Liberation,  visited  Italy  (1817-10).  was  made 
professor  in  the  rielehrtenschnle  at  Dessau  ( 1819). 
and  ducal  lilirarian  tliere.  He  died  in  Dessau, 
September  30.  1827.  His  poems,  publislied  uniler 
the  titles  MiUlerlifder  (1818);  Oedichte  eines 
Valdhornisten     (1821);     Licder     dcr     Griechen 

1821-24)  ;  Licder  des  Lebens  mid  der  Liebe 
I  1824)  :  Li/rische  Reisen  (1827),  were  collected 
with  other  ^yorJx■s  by  Schwab  in  five  volumes 
(1830).  A  new  edition  by  Miiller's  son,  the 
Orientalist,  Max  Miiller,  appeared  in  1808;  the 
Poenm  were  published  in  one  volume   (1874). 

MTTL'LER,  \Vilu.\si  John  (1812-4.5).  An 
English  landscape  and  figure  painter,  born  at 
Bristol.  He  studied  with  .James  Pyne.  land- 
scape painter,  and  in  1833  exhibited  for  the  first 
time  at  the  Royal  Academy,  the  "Destruction  of 
Old  London  Bridge,  Morning."  He  spent  seven 
months  traveling  in  Germany.  Switzerland,  and 
Italy,  and  in  1838  he  visited  Greece  and  Egypt. 
In  1841  he  published  his  "Picturesiiue  Sketches 
of  the  Age  of  Francis  I,."  and  joined  the  Govern- 
ment expedition  to  Lycia,  the  results  of  which 
were  paintings  of  Oriental  life  and  scenery,  five 
of  whicli  were  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy  in 
184.5.  Among  these  are  '"Tiie  Tent."  "Xanthus." 
the  "Burial-Ground  at  Smyrna."  and  "Head  of  a 
Cingari."  In  the  National  tiallerj'  are  some  fine 
Welsh  landscapes,  and  a  clever  Lycian  sketch, 
both  in  oil,  and  in  the  South  Kensington  Mu- 
seum are  several  water-color  drawings.  Muller 
died  at  Bristol.  His  art  was  original,  his  selec- 
tions were  good,  his  color  was  pure  and  strong. 

MtJLLER,  mu'lOr.  Wolfgang  (called  Muller 
y  von  Kiinigswinter)  (1816-73).  A  German  poet 
and  novelist,  born  at  Kiinigswinter  on  the  Rhine. 
He  .studied  medicine  at  Bonn,  and  practiced  at 
Diisseldorf.  but  afterwards  removed  to  Cologne, 
and  gradually  gave  up  medicine  to  devote  himself 
to  literature.  Jliiller's  poetry  finds  its  material 
in  the  Rhine,  its  beauty,  its  legends,  and  the  life 
of  its  people.  The  more  important  of  his  books  are : 
Oedichte  (1847;  3d  ed.  1868)  ;  Der  Uattenfiiniier 
ton  Haiilct  Ooar  (1856);  Liederbucli  (1857;  4th 
ed.  1871);  Lnrclei,  an  epic  cycle  (1851:  4th  ed. 
1873)  ;  KrzrihJiiiifjen  eines  rheinischcn  Chronisten 
(1860-61)  :  and  Jm  Riltersaol  (1874).  His  best- 
known  poem  is  "Mein  Herz  ist  am  Rhein."  Six 
voluiiu-i  of  his  selected  poems  were  i)ublished  tin- 
der the  title  Dichtunqcn  eines  rheinischen  Pncten 
M  87 1-76).  Consult  Joesten,  Wolfgang  Miiller 
(Cnlosme.  1805). 

MtJXLER  -  GITTTENBRUIOJ",  gu't>-n-bryn. 
Adam  i  ls.52 — ».  An  Austri.tn  author,  born  at 
Guttenbrunn.  and  eihicated  at  Hermannstadt  and 
Vienna.      In    1879   he   removed   to   Vienna   from 


Linz.  His  first  success  was  Des  liauses  Four- 
chumbault  Knde  (1880),  supplementing  Augier's 
drama  Les  Fourclmmbault.  Tliis  was  followed 
by  /m  lianne  der  Pflicht  (1882),  the  comedy 
Hchuuspielerei  (with  Laube,  1883),  and  Irma 
(  1885).  Among  his  novels  and  stories,  which  for 
the  greater  part  apjieared  serially,  the  best- 
known  are:  Fruu  Durnrijschen  (1884;  3d  ed. 
ISOl)  ;  (Irscheitcrtc  Liebe  (1889)  ;  and  Die  Ma- 
yyarin    (1806). 

MULLET  (OF.,  Fr.  mulct,  diminutive  of 
mulle,  from  Lat.  niullus.  red  mullet).  Any  one 
of  a  variety  of  useful  fishes,  principally  of  the 
family  Mugilida-.  In  this  family  the  bodj'  is 
nearly  cylindrical,  with  large  scales  and  two 
widely  separated  dorsal  fins,  tlie  first  with  four 
stitr  spines.  The  inoutli  is  small.  The  best- 
known  mullets  l)elong  to  the  genus  jMugil.  of 
which  there  are  many  species  found  in  all  warm 
waters.  The  common  or  "striped'  mullet  (Mugil 
crphaius)  is  the  largest  (10  to  12  pounds)  and 
best  of  all.  It  occurs  on  both  coasts  of  America, 
and  also  in  Europe.  It  often  ascends  rivers, 
and  searches  for  soft  or  fat  substances  for  food, 
frequently  obtained  by  thru.sting  its  mouth  into 
the  mud.  It  is  easily  reared  in  ponds,  readily 
answers  the  call  which  usuall.v  summons  it  to  be 
fed,  and  was  in  gieat  request  among  the  ancients. 
Mullets  are  used  fresh,  salted,  and  .smoke-dried. 
A  preparation  of  their  roe,  called  'botarcha.'  is  in 
great  esteem  as  a  condiment  in  Italy  and  the 
south  of  France.  The.y  are  often  caught  in  the 
Me<literranean  by  angling  from  a  rock,  with  a 
bait  paste,  when  they  have  been  previously  at- 
tracted to  the  spot  by  macaroni  thrown  into  the 
water.  The  white  or  'bluebaek'  mullet  [Mugil 
curema)  is  found  on  both  shores  of  America, 
and  is  of  importance  as  a  food  fish.  An  abundant 
species  about  the  Florida  Keys  is  the  "fantail' 
mullet  (Mugil  trirhodon) .  Mullets  are  very 
numerous  in  surface-swimming  shoals  in  the 
lagooiLs  of  the  Gulf  Coast  in  late  winter  and 
spring,  and  are  captured  generally  by  means  of 
casting  nets.  Among  the  fishermen  of  Spanish 
America,  mullets  are  called  'liza.'  'lizita,'  and 
'macho,'  with  descriptive  adjectives  for  the  vari- 
ous species. 

The  name  is  also  given  in  the  Western  and 
Southern  United  States  to  various  suckers  of  the 
genus  Moxostoma.  Consult  Goode,  Fishery  In- 
dustries, sec.  i.  (Washington,  1884).  See  Plate 
of  Mlt,let.s  and  Allies. 

MULLET  (OF.  molelte.  mollette,  Fr.  niolletle, 
rowel,  from  Lat.  mola.  millstone).  In  heraldry, 
a  cliarge  in  the  form  of  a  star,  generally  with 
five  points,  intended  to  represent  a  spur-rowel. 
See  C.\DENCT. 

MULLIGAN  LETTERS.  A  series  of  letters 
written  liy  -James  (i.  Blaine  (q.v.)  to  Warren 
Fisher,  a  business  associate,  which,  it  was  al- 
leged, proved  corrupt  connection,  on  the  part  of 
Blaine,  with  legislation  in  Congress  favoring  the 
Little  Rock  and  Fort  Smith  Railroad  and  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad.  The  letters  were  ob- 
tained from  Fisher  by  one  .James  Mulligan,  a 
former  clerk  of  Fisher,  who  had  been  called  to 
Washington  to  testify  before  a  committee  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  appointed  to  investi- 
gate the  charges  a;;ain-^t  Blninc  Blaine  olitained 
the  letters  from  Mulligan,  and  on  .June  5.  1876. 
read  them  before  the  House,  after  defying  the 
committee  to  compel  him  to  surrender  them.   The 


MULLIGAN  LETTERS. 


104 


MULREADY. 


letters  were  freely  iiseci  in  the  Presidential  cam- 
pai','iis  of  1871)  and  18S4  by  the  opponents  of 
Bluiue,  who  took  full  advantage  of  tlie  suspieioiis 
sound  of  several  detached  sentences.  By  the  ad- 
herents of  Blaine  it  was  asserted,  apparently  with 
good  reason,  that  the  letters  did  not  in  any  way 
prove  corruption  or  even  participation  in  dis- 
creditable business  and  political  transactions  on 
the  part  of  Blaine. 

MULLINGAR,  niul'lin  .riir'.  The  capital  of 
County  \\  csttiiiath.  Ireland,  on  the  Brosna,  50 
miles  west  by  north  of  Dublin,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  rail  and  by  tlie  Koyal  Canal  (Map: 
Ireland,  D  3).  The  most  important  horse  and 
cattle  fairs  in  Ireland  are  held  here  periodically. 
It  has  a  cathedral  and  infantry  barracks.  Popu- 
lation, in  lltOl,  4r,00. 

MTJLLINGER,  niullin-ger,  Jakes  Bass 
(l.S:ii— ).  .An  Hufjlisli  historian,  born  at  Bisliop 
Stortford.  He  was  educated  at  University  Col- 
le{,'e,  London,  and  at  Saint  .John's,  Canibridjj;e, 
where  he  graduated  with  high  honors.  After 
lecturing  at  Bedford  College,  Ixjndon,  he  was 
made  librarian  and  lecturer  on  history  in  Saint 
John's  College,  and  for  four  years  he  was  lecturer 
on  ecclesiastical  history  in  Trinity  College  ( 181)0- 
94).  He  wrote:  The  Anciciil  African  Church 
(1869);  The  Schools  of  Charles  the  Great 
(1870);  An  Introdnelion  to  English  Uislorij 
(with  Gardiner.  1881)  :  The  .If/c  of  Milton  (with 
Mastennan.  lSi)7)  ;  and  a  History  of  Saint  John's 
Colli cic,  Cumbridyc  (1901). 

MULLION  (corrupted  from  iniinnioii.  from 
Fr.  moifjnon.  stump  of  an  amputated  limb,  from 
OF.  moit/n,  from  Lat.  mancus,  maimed;  probably 
influenced  by  popular  etymology  with  Eng.  himZ- 
Ict,  five-pointed  star).  The  name  for  a  vertical 
architectural  member  used  to  subdivide  an  open- 
ing, such  as  a  window  or  the  bay  of  a  gallery, 
into  two  or  more  divisions  within  the  main 
framework.  It  was  [)ractically  unknown  to  all 
ancient  styles  of  architecture.  In  the  early 
Christian  (especially  Syrian).  Byzantine,  and 
Romanesfpie  styles  it  occurs  with  increasing  fre- 
quency in  the  very  simple  form  of  a  circular  shaft 
or  colonnette  (sometimes  a  small  pier),  subdi- 
viding a  window  into  two  arched  openings  or  the 
bay  of  a  gallery  into  two  arcades. 

It  was  in  tiic  Gotliic  style  that  the  nniUion 
received  its  true  elaborate  development  through 
the  use  of  tracery  combined  with  the  enormous 
increase  in  the  size  of  windows  and  other  o|)en- 
ings,  necessitating  the  nuiltiplication  of  minor 
nu'nd>ers.  The  ortluxlox  cathc<lral  window  has 
three  mullions  forming  four  suliordinate  sections, 
and  their  profiles  are  varied  and  rich,  being  often 
a  group  of  shafts  and  a  composition  of  fillet  and 
cavetto  middings.  Tliese  Gothic  mullions  are 
excpiisitely  slender  and  far  removed  from  the 
heavy  pretJothie  mullion-eolonnette,  though  the 
column,  in  more  delicate  form,  was  also  a  (iothic 
form  of  mullion.  The  Henaissanee  architects 
abandoned  tlu'  mullion.  returning  to  the  antique 
idea  of  imdiviiled  openings  and  eijually  clivicled 
arcades  and  lolonnades.  Only  occa-ionally  is  a 
single  eolomiclte  used  as  a  windowinullion,  es- 
pcriiilly  ill  I  M  ily  work. 

MttLLNER,  mul'ner,  .\iioi.p  (1774-1829).  A 
German  dramatist  and  critic,  born  at  I.angendorf, 
near  Weis^cnfels,  Saxony.  Tie  studied  law  in 
l^-ipzig,  and  practiced  it  at  Weissenfels  until 
1810.     Encouraged  by  the  success  of  several  come- 


dies skillfully  composed  after  French  models,  he 
produced  in  1812  a  one-act  tragedy,  Der  neun- 
undzwanzigste  Februar,  in  imitation  of  Werner's 
Der  vierundzwanziyste  I'cbniar  (1810),  the  tirst 
of  those  "fate-dramas'  with  wliich  the  German 
stage  was  Hooded  during  the  following  decade. 
Surpassing  its  model  in  the  accumulation  of  hor- 
rors, Miillner's  play  lacked  the  innate  poetry  wluch 
was  the  redeeming  feature  uf  Werner's  produc- 
tion. The  same  applies  to  his  best-known  work, 
Die  Schiild,  a  four-act  drama,  based  on  the  story 
of  a  young  man.  who,  according  to  a  prophecy, 
is  destined  to  kill  his  brother.  This  typical  'fate- 
tragedy'  was  brought  out  in  Vienna  in  1813,  and 
subseipiently  on  all  the  ])riucipal  stages  of  Ger- 
many, retaining  its  popularity  for  many  years, 
although  its  elTeetiveness  was  due  mainly  to 
clever  technical  construction.  Consult :  Huhne, 
Znr  lliographie  iind  Chnrakteristik  MUllners 
(Wohlau,  1875);  and  Minor,  Die  Schicksals- 
traqodie  in  ihren  Bauptvertretern  (Frankfort, 
1883). 

MULOCK,  mfi'lok,  Di.VAn  M.\ria.  An  English 
autlior.     Sec  Craik,  Dinah  iL\RiA. 

MULOCK,  Sir  William  (1843—).  A  Cana- 
dian statc!-iiian.  born  in  the  Province  of  Ontario, 
anil  educated  at  the  University  of  Toronto.  In 
1882  he  was  elected  a  Liberal  member  of  the 
Dominion  House  of  Commons,  and  in  180C  was 
made  Postmaster-General  in  the  Administration 
of  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier.  The  establishment  of  a 
penny  postage  rate  between  Canada  and  other 
portions  of  the  Empire  was  mainly  due  to  him, 
and  he  also  advocated  an  all-British  cable  sys- 
tem, and  the  formation  of  better  steamship 
facilities. 

MUL'READY,  William  (17SG-1863).  An 
Irish  genre  painter.  He  was  born  at  Ennis, 
County  Clare.  April  1.  1786.  His  father 
moved  to  London  when  ilulready  was  a  child, 
and  he  early  showed  artistic  powers  which 
were  encouraged  by  the  scul|>tor  Banks,  through 
whose  infiuence  he  gained  ailmittance  to  the 
academy  schools.  His  education  and  culture 
were  obtained  in  England,  for  he  never  went 
abroad,  and  as  a  genre  painter  he  ranks  witli 
Wilkie.  His  first  painting  of  impnrtance.  "Re- 
turning from  the  Ale  House."  appeared  in  1800, 
while  two  later  works,  "Punch"  and  "Idle 
Boys,"  commanded  very  general  attention.  Mul- 
ready  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  .\cad- 
einy  in  1815.  and  the  following  year,  on  the 
merits  of  his  picture  entitled  "The  Fight  Inter- 
rupted," he  was  made  .Xcademician.  From  now 
on  his  works  were  e.agcrly  awaited  at  the  yearly 
exhibitions,  their  subjects  being  of  the  popular 
order,  but  painted  with  great  carefulness  and 
fidelity  to  detail.  They  were  rather  small  in 
size,  but  rich  in  color,  and  closely  resembled  the 
Dutch  school. 

His  most  important  works  arc  in  the  South 
Kensington  Museum  and  in  the  National  Gallery. 
In  the  fonner  are  seventeen  of  his  painting-, 
among  them  "Ilampstead  Heath"  (1806): 
"Giving  a  Bite"  (1836)  ;  "Chfxising  the  Wedding 
Gown"  (1846):  "Tlie  Butt"  (".Shooting  a 
Cherry")  (1848).  In  the  latter  arc  si.v 
of  his  paintings,  including  a  "Snow  Scene" 
and  "Crossing  the  Ford"  (1842).  "The  Bathers" 
is  in  the  National  Gallery,  Edinburgh,  and  his 
"Wolf  and  the  Lamb"  is  in  possession  of  the  King. 
Mulrcady's  paintings  were  before  the  public  for 


MTJLREABY. 


105 


MULTIPLICATION. 


more  than  sixty  years.  An  early  marriage  con- 
tracted soon  after  his  arrival  in  London  was 
proihative  of  much  unhappincss.  He  was, 
throuj^lunit  liis  life,  a  successful  and  painstaking 
teacher.  Mulready  died  in  London.  .July  7,  18G3. 
Consult  Stcpiiens,\U(«ionu/s  of  Mulrcady  (Lon- 
don, 18(17). 

MTJLTAN,  or  MOOLTAN,  moTrl'tiin'.  The 
capital  (if  a  district  of  the  Punjab,  British  India, 
190  miles  southwest  of  Lahore,  and  4  miles  from 
the  left  hank  of  the  Chenah.  the  inundations  of 
which  sometimes  reach  the  city  (Map:  India, 
B  2).  It  possesses  railway  comniuuication  with 
all  the  principal  cities  of  India,  and  has.  in  the 
Indus  Valley  Railwa,v.  a  commercial  outlet  from 
Central  Asia,  the  Punjab,  and  the  L'nitcd  Prov- 
inces, to  the  Arabian  Sea  at  Karachi.  Steamers 
ply  to  Hyderabad,  a  distance  of  .570  miles.  The 
city,  situated  in  a  district  remarkable  for  its 
fertility,  is  built  on  a  mound  consisting  of  the 
ruins  of  ancient  cities,  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
dilapidated  wall  from  40  to  .50  feet  high.  The 
vicinity  abounds  in  mosques,  tombs,  and  slirines, 
attesting  the  city's  antiquity  and  former  mag- 
nificence. The  most  important  of  these,  situated 
in  the  old  fort,  is  the  tomb  of  Rukn-i-Alam,  'pil- 
lar of  the  world.'  dating  from  1340,  an  octagonal 
redbrick  structure  covered  with  nnilticolored 
glazed  tiles  and  raised  mosaics,  and  forming  a 
conspicuous  object  in  the  surrounding  landscape, 
being  100  feet  high  and  built  on  an  elevation. 
The  tomb  of  Bhawal  Hakk.  dating  from  12(i4.  and 
the  tomb  of  Shams-i-Tabriz,  are  also  noteworthy. 
The  bazaars  are  numerous,  extensive,  and  well 
sfoeked.  and  the  stores  are  adequately  supplied 
with  European  and  Asiatic  connnodities.  There 
are  manufactures  of  silks,  cottons,  shawls,  scarfs, 
brocades,  tissues,  etc.,  and  extensive  banking 
interests.  The  local  merchants  are  proverbially 
rich.  JIultan  is  a  military  station,  with  an 
important  cantonment  one  and  one-half  miles  to 
the  east,  ilultan  was  taken  by  the  British  in  the 
second  Sikh  War.  in  .Tanuarv.  1840.  Population, 
in  1801.  74..5(;2;  in  1901,  87,394. 

MULTIPLE  (ML.  mulfipli/s.  manifold,  from 
Lat.  nudltifi.  man,v  +  -plus.  fold).  An  integral 
number  divisible  without  remainder  by  another 
integral  number.  Thus.  3.5  is  a  multiple  of  7, 
and  also  a  multiple  of  .5.  EquimuUipJcs  are 
multiples  containing  different  numbers  an  equal 
number  of  times;  e.g.  21  and  33  are  equinniltiples 
of  7  and  11.  Tlie  least  common  multiiilr  of  sev- 
eral numbers  is  the  least  number  containing  each 
of  them  without  a  remainder.  The  least  com- 
mon multiple  contains  all  prime  factors  not 
common  to  all  of  the  numbers,  and  all  common 
prime  factors  with  their  highest  exponents.  Thus, 
the  least  conmion  nuiltiple  of  5-7  (i.e.  35),  3^-2 
(i.e.  18),  and  7- -2" .5  (i.e.  980)  is  5-7^-2^-3-  (i-e. 
8820). 

Srathematieal  symbols  which  satisfy  given  con- 
ditions for  different  numerical  values  are  said  to 
be  'nniltiple  valued' :  e.g.  sin~'x  ( i.e.  the  angle 
whose  sine  is  x)  is  two-valued  betw'cen  0"  and 
3C0";  thus,  if  the  sine  equals  ^■..  the  angle  has 
two  values,  60°.  120".  (See  TiticoNOMETHY.) 
Contacts  above  the  first  order  between  curves 
or  surfaces  are  called  'multiple  eontaets.'  A 
'multiple  point'  of  a  curve  is  a  singularitv  com- 
posed of  several  coincident  points;  e.g.  if  the 
curve  crosses  itself  twice  at  the  same  place,  the 
intersection  is  called  a  triple  point.     A  double 


point  admits  of  two  tangents,  a  trijjle  point  ad- 
mits of  three  tangents,  and  so  on,  and  these  are 
called  'nuiltiple  lan^eMls.' 

MULTIPLE  POINDING.  A  form  of  action 
in  Scotland,  by  which  competing  claims  to  one 
and  the  same  fund  are  set  at  rest.  Its  purjiose 
is  to  avoid  double  [winding  or  double  distress; 
and  it  corresponds  to  what  is  known  in  England 
as  interpleader   ( q.v. ) . 

MULTIPLICATION  (Lat.  multiplicatio, 
from  iniilliplicarc,  to  nuiltiply,  from  multiplex, 
manifold,  from  )nullu.s,  niaii.y  -f  pliaire,  to  fold, 
Gk.  Tr\4Kfii',  /(/r/,:ei»,  to  twine).  A  fundamental 
process  in  arithmetic  and  algebra.  In  arithme- 
tic, the  symbols  for  niultiidication  are  .,  X.  In 
algebra,  they  are  .,  X,  and  simple  juxtaposition. 
E.g.  ab,  a  X  b,  ab,  are  synd)ols  for  <i  times  6. 
It  ma.v  be  defined  as  the  process  by  which  a  num- 
ber called  the  product  is  formed  from  a  number 
called  the  multiiilicr.  in  the  same  wa.v  that  this 
multiplier  is  formed  from  unity.  E."  the  num- 
ber —  3  may  be  formed  from  unity  by  the  pro- 
cess symbolized  as  —  (1  -(-  1  -f-  1),  and  simi- 
larly, the  product  —  3-4  may  be  formed  by  the 
process  -  (4-|-4-t-4)  =  —  12.  Elementary 
multiplication  is  subject  to  the  associative 
and  distributive  laws  (qcpv. );  but  there  are 
branches  of  higher  mathematics  in  which  excep- 
tions occur.  (See  SmsTiTi'TioN ;  Qihternions.) 
For  a  method  of  checking  multiplication,  see 
Checking. 

In  a  series  of  operations,  multiplication  takes 
precedence  over  addition  and  subtraction.  E.g. 
2  +  3  •  6  — -  4  equals  2  +  18  —  4,  not  5  ■  2.  The 
operation  of  multiplication  can  be  abbreviated  by 
the  use  of  logarithms  (q.v.),  the  slide  rule 
(q.v.).  or  tables  of  products  and  factors  or  of 
quarter  squares.  The  plan  of  nuiltiplication  by 
means  of  Napier's  rods  (lidhdoloiiitv  sire  numrra- 
tionis  per  rircjulus  lihri  duo,  Edinburgh,  1017) 
has  been  revived  through  the  manufacture  of  sets 
of  Ileglettes  multiplicdlriccs  planned  by  Genaille 
and  Lucas  (Paris,  1883).  Crowing  out  of  the 
demand  for  a  system  by  which  [irime  numbers 
could  be  detected,  there  appeared,  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  numerous  tables,  of  service  in 
the  theory  of"  nunibers.  In  1728  Poetius  pub- 
lished a  table  of  factors  for  numbers  up  to  100,- 
000.  In  1770  Lambert  arranged  such  a  table  in 
modern  form  for  numbers  up  t«  102.000.  Burk- 
hardt's  table  (1814-17)  includes  factors  of  num- 
bers to  36.000.  and  Crelle.  Pase,  and  Glaisher 
have  carried  these  to  9,000,000.  Tile  oldest  of  the 
large  tables  is  that  of  Crelle  (7th  ed.  with  an  in- 
troduction by  Bremikcr.  Berlin,  189.5).  This 
gives  the  products  to  1000  •  1000.  Zimmermann's 
Keehentafel  (Berlin.  1889)  and  Midler's  iluUi- 
plicationstabellen  (Karlsruhe,  1897)  give  the 
products  to  100  •  1000.  ;ind  are  well  arranged. 
For  the  products  to  100-100.  .Tordan's  Mnthc- 
mnlische  und  (jeodiHischc  Hilfstafeln  (9th  ed., 
Hanover.  189.5)  is  one  of  the  best.  Products 
have  also  been  tabulated  by  means  of  quarter 
squares,  a  relation  known  to  the  Arabs  and  doubt- 
less of  Hindu  origin.     The  construction  of  these 

tables  depends  upon  the  identity  ab   =  — t 


(a  —  by 


thus  the   product   of   any   two   num- 


bers is  given  by  subtracting  the  quarter  square 
of  their  difTerenee  from  the  quarter  square  of 
their  sum.     Among   the   various   tables   of   this 


MULTIPLICATION. 


106 


MUNCH. 


type,  Laumly's  ( ISjO)  contains  the  quarter 
squares  of  all  numbers  up  to  100,000.  Blater's 
(Nienna,  1887),  complete  to  200,000.  is  regarded 
as  the  best.    See  Calculating  Machines. 

MULVA'NEY.  A  character  in  Rudyard  Kip- 
linj;*  ■SiiMicrs  Tliree"  in  I'ttihi  Tulm  from  the 
mils  (1888).  The  trio  are  Terence  itulvaney, 
the  Irishman,  Learoyd,  from  Yorkshire,  and  Or- 
Ihcri'i.  the  Cockney. 

MUM.     See  Beer. 

MUM^BO  JUM'BO.  A  stranj,'e  bugbear  de- 
scribed by  Mviniid  Park  as  common  to  the  Man- 
dingo  towns  of  Africa,  and  used  to  discipline 
<luarrclsome  wives  of  the  natives.  The  person 
a.ssuniing  the  character  is  clothed  in  a  suit  made 
of  bark.  After  various  rites  the  offender  is 
seized  by  Mumbo  Jumbo,  stripped,  tied,  and 
vhipiied  with  his  rod.  The  name  is  used  in  a 
wider  sense  of  negro  idols  and  fetishes. 

MUM'MICHOG  (Xorth  American  Indian 
name).  A  small  minnow-like  fish  of  sluggish 
tidal  streams  of  the  Kastern  United  States.     See 

KlI.LIFISII. 

MUM'MIUS,  Lucus  (c.185-130  B.C.).  A 
KoiiKiM  lomiiuinder  of  plebeian  birth.  In  B.C.  146 
he  was  elected  consul  and  placed  in  command  of 
the  war  against  the  Achiean  League.  The  first 
battle  was  decisive.  It  was  fought  near  Corinth 
and  resulted  in  the  complete  defeat  of  tlic  <;n'cian 
allies.  The  cities  of  Corinth.  ThelH's.  and  Chal- 
cis  were  plundered  and  then  destroyed  by  the 
Roman  troops.  As  trophies  of  his  victory,  Jlum- 
mius  caused  many  of  the  most  valuable  works  of 
art  to  be  sent  to  Rome.  The  surname  of  Achai- 
cus  was  given  to  Mummins.  and  a  triumph  was 
decreed.  Cicero  speaks  of  Mummius  as  a  blunt 
and  plain  but  honest  man,  and  says  that,  of  all 
his  enormous  plunder,  none  was  reserved  for  his 
own  use.  In  141  he  was  agjiin  elected  consul. 
Nothing  certain  is  known  about  his  later  life  or 
his  death,  some  writers  saying  that  he  died  in 
exile  at  Delos,  and  others  that  his  death  occurred 
in  Home,  and  tliat  his  daughter  received  a  dowry 
from  llii-  SrTintf. 

MUMMY-CASE.  In  undent  Egjptian  em- 
balming, the  case  inniiediately  surrounding  the 
shrouded  mummy.  It  was  in  the  outlines  of  a 
human  body  and  was  made  to  fit  the  corpse. 
There  were  usually  two  mummy-eases  for  each 
mummy.  The  inner  one  was  plain,  wliile  the 
outer  one  was  covered  with  ])aintings  anil  hiero- 
glyphs, recounting  the  life  and  deeds  of  thi'  dead. 
The  material  was  \isually  cedar.  The  double  case 
was  inclosed  in  an  oblong  collin.  and  this  in  its 
turn  in  a  snrcopliagus.  See  Ecvpt.  section  on 
Manners  and  Customs:    Embalming;    Sarcoph- 

AGIS. 

MUMPS  (from  Dutch  mompcn.  to  cheat,  from 
viomiiun.  to  mumble).  The.  A  popular  nauu-  of 
a  specific  inllammatiim  of  the  salivary  glands  de- 
scrilied  by  nosologists  as  ;«iro/iVi.s.  It  is  an  in- 
fectious, contagious  disease,  occurring  a.s  a  rule 
in  epidemics,  although  isolated  cases  are  often 
seen.  While  it  chietly  attacks  children  and 
adolescents,  adults  are  not  exempt. 

The  disorder  usually  ))egins  with  a  feeling  of 
stillness  about  the  jaws,  which  is  followed  by 
pains,  heat,  and  swelling  beneath  the  ear.  The 
swellinj;  begins  in  the  parotid,  hut  the  other 
Balivnry  iilands  usually  soon  iM-come  implicated, 
SO  that  the  swelling  extends  along  the  neck  to- 


ward the  chin.  One  or  both  sides  may  be  aflected, 
and,  in  general,  the  disease  api)ears  first  on  one 
side  and  then  on  the  otlier.  There  is  seldom  much 
fever.  The  inllammation  is  usually  at  its  highest 
point  in  tliree  or  four  days,  after  which  it  begins 
to  decline,  suppuration  of  the  glands  scarcely  ever 
occurring.  In  most  cases  no  treatment  further 
than  due  attention  to  the  bowels,  and  protection 
of  the  parts  from  cold,  by  the  ap])lication  of 
llatniel  or  of  cotton,  is  required,  and  the  pa- 
tient completely  recovers  ill  eight  or  ten  days. 

A  singular  circumstance  connected  with  the 
disease  is  that  in  many  cases  the  subsidence  of 
the  swelling  is  immediately  followed  by  swelling 
and  pain  in  the  testes  in  the  male  sex.  and  in  the 
miiinmw  in  the  female.  The  inllauunatiou  in 
these  glands  is  seldom  very  painful  or  long  con- 
tinued, but  occasionally  the  inflammation  is 
tr.ansferred  to  the  brain,  when  a  comparatively 
trilling  disorder  is  converted  into  a  most  perilous 
disease. 

MUN,  me.v,  Adriex  Albert  ^Iarie.  Count  de 
(1841 — ).  A  French  politician  and  author,  lead- 
er of  the  Catiiolic  AiitiRepublican  Party.  He 
was  born  at  Lumigny,  studied  at  Saint  Cyr.  and 
fought  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War  and  against 
the  Commune.  Save  for  an  interval  (187'.>-81) 
he  was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Deputies  from 
1870  until  1803.  Through  his  infiuence  the  power 
of  the  French  clergy  was  thrown  to  the  Bou- 
langists.  In  1802  he  founded  the  league  of  the 
'Sacre  Cieur'  and  on  the  Pojie's  instructions  prom- 
ised to  work  with  the  Republic  for  refonu  if  the 
Government  would  give  up  its  atheism.  Mun 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Dreyfus  trial,  forc- 
ing Billot,  Jlinister  of  War,  to  concur  in  the 
judgment  of  the  court.  The  Frencli  Academy 
elected  him  to  its  membership  in  1807  to  suc- 
ceed .lules  Simon. 

MUN,  Tiio.MAS  (1.571-1041).  An  English  mer- 
chant and  economic  writer,  born  in  London.  As 
a  young  man  he  was  engaged  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean trade,  and  in  1015  was  appointed  ineni- 
l>er  of  the  committee,  or  director,  of  the  East 
Indiiv  Company.  In  1621  he  published  A.  Dis- 
course of  Trade,  from  En<jtiind  into  the  East 
Indies,  in  which  he  ilefended  the  East  India 
Company  against  the  charge  that  it  drained  Eng- 
land of  bullion.  His  most  important  book, 
KnuUmd's  Treasure  hi/  Foreign  Tnidi:  was  pub- 
lished after  his  death  in  1()G4.  This  work  is  the 
ablest  of  the  writings  of  the  mercantilists,  and 
exerciserl  great  influence  o^er  the  eeonomii'  and 
political  tliought  of  the  time,  efleetually  refuting 
the  Bullionist  view,  that  only  such  foreign  trade 
as  yielded  a  direct  balance  of  bullion  was  ad- 
vantageous to  the  realm. 

MUN'BY,  Artui'r  .Ioseph  (1828—).  An 
EM;.'lish  |Hjet,  born  in  Yorkshire.  He  graduated 
from  Trinity  College.  Cambridge,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  I  <(•.«(■.?  yew  and 
t)ld  ( 186.5)  contained  "Doris,"  a  lovely  pastoral. 
Dorothi/  I  ISSO).  a  countrv  story  in  elegiac  verse, 
was  immensely  po]iular  in  England  ami  the 
T'nited  States.  Since  then  have  appeared  Vulfiar 
Verses  (1891),  written  in  dialect:  and  f>usnn:  A 
Poem  of  Defrrces  (1803).  Munhy  defended  his 
realism  in  an  appendix  to  Porntlni. 

MUNCH.  mfiiiK.  Peter  Andreas  (1810-03). 
.\  Seandinavian  historian.  He  was  born  at 
Chri-iliania.  Norway,  and  educate<I  at  the  T'lii- 
ver-iity  of  Christiania.     He  became  professor  of 


MUNCH. 


107 


MXTNDELLA. 


history  at  Christiania  in  1841,  and  in  1861  was 
appointed  liistorioyiaplier  and  archivist  of  Nor- 
way. He  maintained  tliat  three  distinct  dialects 
prevailed  in  the  Iciugdonis  of  Norway,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark,  and  that  the  so-called  Icelandic 
literature  was  really  the  production  of  ancient 
Norway,  lie  lield  that  the  modern  Icelanders 
keep  one  dialect,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  l<"aroe 
Islands  another,  of  the  ancient  Norwegian.  Ue 
rejected  the  term  'Icelandic'  for  which  he  sub- 
stituted 'Old  Norse.'  lie  published  an  Old  Xorsc 
Grammar,  an  Old  yorse  Reading  Hook,  and  a 
Uislurij  of  the  XurifCfiian  People  (S  vols.,  18'yl- 
63).  and  edited  a  number  of  Icelandic  works,  in- 
cluding the  elder  EJda  (1847),  and  the  Roi/al 
Mirror  (1848).  Ilis  collectod  essays,  edited  by 
Gustav  Storm,  were  published  in  four  volumes 
(Christiania,   IS73-7H). 

MUNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN.  munK  bel'- 
ling-hou'zcn,  Kligii  s  Franz  Josef,  Baron 
(1800-71).  An  Austrian  dramatist,  known  un- 
der the  pseudonym  Friedrich  llalm.  He  was 
born  at  Cracow,  studied  jurisprudence,  and  held 
a  number  of  C4oveniment  offices  in  Anstria.  His 
first  play,  GriselJis.  produced  in  18.34  (llth  ed. 
1800),  was  well  received.  It  was  followed  by 
Der  Adept  (18.'30);  Camoeits  (1837);  Imelda 
Lamhertazzi  (18381  ;  and  Der  Sohii  der  Wildniss 
(1843;  yth  ed.  1894),  a  conspicuous  success  on 
all  the  stages  of  Germany,  and  known  on  the 
American  stage  under  the  name  of  Ingomar,  the 
Barbarian.  In  1854  appeared  Der  Feehter  von 
Ravenna,  his  greatest  work,  which  was  greeted 
•with  universal  applause.  Of  all  his  subsequent 
efforts  the  romantic  comedy  Wildfeuer  (1804; 
7tli  ed.  1896)  alone  brought  hira  a  renewal  of 
his  earlier  triumphs.  His  collected  works  were 
pnblislicd  in  eiglit  volnmes  in  1857-04. 

MUNCHEN-GLADBACH,  nnin'Ken-glat'- 
biiG.     A  town  in  Prussia.     See  Gladbacii. 

MTJNCHHAUSEIT,  munivliou-zcn.  Hieroxy- 
3irs  Kahl  Friedkich,  Baron  (1720-97).  An 
adventurous  German  noble,  born  on  his  father's 
estate.  Bodcnwerdcr,  in  Hanover,  where  he  died. 
He  sencd  in  the  Russian  ciivalry  against  the 
Turks  (1737-39),  and  told  marvelous  tales  of 
his  adventures.  These  were  first  gathered  in  Eng- 
lish by  Rudolph  Erich  Raspe  (q.v. ),  a  German 
exile  (0.\ford,  1785).  as  Baroti-  Miinchhaiisen's 
'Narratii-e  of  His  Marvelous  Trarels  and  Cam- 
paigns ill  Russia.  G.  A.  Biirger  rendered  this 
into  German  (1780),  and  in  that  language  it 
gained  universal  popularity  as  a  monument  of 
methodical  lying  uni)aralleled  in  literature.  Con- 
sult: Carl  iliiller-Franreuth.  Die  deutsehen  Lii- 
gendielitungen  his  aiif  Miinehhausen  (I88I). 
which  shows  that  some  of  Raspe's  tales  are  bor- 
rowed from  Bebel's  Faectlrr  (1508),  and  others 
from  Lange's  Delieia-  fl705).  Consult  also 
Oriesbach's  introduction  to  a  reprint  of  Biirgcr's 
translation    (Stuttgart.    IS90). 

MUNCIE,  mun'sl.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Delaware  County.  Ind..  55  miles  northeast  of 
Indianapolis;  on  the  White  Uiver,  and  on  the 
Cleveland.  Cincinnati.  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis. 
the  Lake  Erie  and  Western,  the  Cincinnati.  Ricli- 
mond  and  iluncic.  the  Chicano,  Indiana  and 
Eastern,  and  the  Cliicayo  and  Southeastern  rail- 
roads, being  the  terminus  of  the  last  mentioned 
Toad,  which  maintains  shops  liere  (Map:  In- 
diana, D  2).  Intercommunication  among  the 
Vol.  XIV.— 8. 


various  lines  is  furnished  by  a  belt  road  that 
encircles  the  city.  Muncie  is  the  seat  of  Palmer 
I'niversity,  and  has  a  public  library  with  13.000 
volumes,  a  line  courthouse,  and  a  city  hospital. 
.\  public  library  buihling  costing  .$50,000  was 
nearing  completion  in  1903,  and  an  ap])ropriation 
has  been  made  by  Congress  for  a  Government 
building  to  cost  $80,000.  The  city  is  situated  in 
the  natural  gas  belt  of  the  Slate  and  is  near  de- 
posits of  coal,  advantages  that  have  conlributeil 
to  its  development  as  an  important  industrial 
centre,  noted  particularly  for  its  extensive  iron 
and  steel  interests.  There  are  also  large  glass 
works,  pulp  and  paper  mills,  canneries,  and 
manufactories  of  lawn  mowers,  silver  and  silver- 
plate  goods,  underwear  and  clothing,  handles, 
caskets,  wheels  and  carriage  woodwork,  gas  en- 
gines and  supplies,  etc.  The  municijjalily  owns 
an  electric  light  plant  for  street  liirhting.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890,   11,345;   in  1900,  20,942. 

MUN'DA.  An  ancient  town  of  Hispania  in 
tlie  country  of  the  Turdetani.  in  moderu  Amlalu- 
sia.  It  is  noted  for  the  victory  gained  here  by 
C;ESar  o\'er  the  sons  of  Pompey  in  B.C.  45. 

MUN'DAS,  or  Munda-Kols.  The  inhabitants 
of  Cliota  Nagpur.  and  one  of  the  principal  tribes 
of  the  Kolarian  stock  in  Northeastern  Hindustan. 
They  are  also  known  as  Horo-hu.  The  JIundas 
are  short  of  stature  and  very  dolichocephalic. 
Monogamy  is  the  rule.,  and  the  position  of  the 
wife  is  higher  than  with  many  Oriental  peoples. 
Some  writers  use  Munda  as  a  general  term  for 
Kolarian    (q.v.). 

MUN'D AY,  Anthony  (1553-1033).  An  Eng- 
lish poet,  playwright,  and  compiler,  born  in  Lon- 
don. In  Rome  he  obtained  material  for  The  Mir- 
rour  of  Mutahilitie  (1579).  a  moralistic  effort  in 
verse,  and  after  some  experience  on  the  English 
stage  he  wrote  tracts  against  the  .Jesuits  and 
other  Roman  Catholics,  particularly  Edmiuid 
Campion.  The  best  of  his  eighteen  plays  is 
The  Uonnfatl  of  Robert,  Earl  of  Huntingdon, 
Afterwards  Called  Robin  Hood  of  Merrie  Sher- 
icodde  (1598-99).  Munday  also  translated 
French  romances,  wrote  'jjageants,'  such  as  The 
Triumphs  of  the  Golden  Fleece  (1623),  and 
verse,  such  as  A  Banquet  of  Dainiie  Coneeyts 
(1588). 

MUNDE,  nu-in'da,  Paul  Fortunatus  (1S40- 
1902).  An  American  gynecologist,  born  in  Dres- 
den. He  came  to  the  United  States  with  his 
father  after  the  revolution  of  1848-49.  and  in 
1800  graduated  at  the  Harvard  Medical  School. 
In  the  same  year  he  volunteered  as  surgeon  in 
the  Austro-Prnssian  War.  and  he  served  in  a  like 
capacity  with  the  grade  of  first  lieuten.ant  in  the 
French  campaign  of  1870-71.  He  settled  in  New 
York  City  in  1873  as  an  obstetric  specialist;  in 
1880  became  professor  at  Dartmouth  Medical 
College,  and  in  the  New  York  Polyclinic  in  1882. 
He  edited  the  Amcriean  Journal  of  Obstetrics 
(1874-92),  and  wrot<>:  Obstetric  Palpation 
(1880);  Minor  f^nrgical  Gt/necology  (1880); 
Appentli.r  to  the  Midn'iferi/  of  Cazean.T  and  Tam- 
ier  (1884);  Pregnnneg  and  the  Puerperal  Slate 
( 1S87  )  ;  and  Disea.'iies  of  Women   (1891 ) . 

MXJNDEL'LA,  Antiioxv  .Toiin  (1825-97). 
An  English  statesman  and  philanthropist,  born 
at  Leicester,  of  Italian-Welsli  descent.  At  eleven 
he  began  to  learn  his  trade  with  a  hosiery  manu- 
facturer; at  twenty-three  he  was  a  partner  with 


MTJNDELLA. 


108 


MTJNGO. 


a  tirm  in  Xottingliain.  ami  he  prosjiercd  in  the 
biij^iiU'BS.  He  was  iii:-lruiiieiital  in  forming  the 
lirst  arbitration  court  lor  the  settk-ment  of  dif- 
ferences between  employers  anil  eniiiloyed  ( ISIiti) , 
and  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Shellield 
(1808).  In  Parliament  he  ilirecteil  liis  energies 
toward  the  improvement  of  laws  regulating  fac- 
tories and  education,  and  was  particularly  suc- 
cessful in  the  lightening  of  women's  and  chil- 
dren's labor.  In  1SS()-S.5  he  was  viiepresident  of 
the  Council  of  Education  under  (iladstone,  and  he 
succeeded  in  passing  a  compulsory  education  act 
( 1881  I.  while  as  president  of  the  Hoard  of  Trade 
( 1S8G  and  18!V2)  he  started  a  labor  department 
of  which  The  Labor  llazcHc  was  the  organ.  In 
1804-05  he  was  chairman  of  the  Poor-Law  Com- 
mittee: he  resigiie<l  from  Parliament  in  1894.  but 
was  recalled  the  following  year  and  died  while  in 
service. 

MTTNDEN,  nu.in'dcn.  A  town  of  Southern 
Pni>>ia.  in  the  Province  of  Hanover,  situated 
at  tlie  Lunlluence  of  the  Fulda  and  the  Wcrra.  11 
miles  northeast  of  Cassel.  It  has  a  gymnasium 
and  a  palace  in  which  a  museum  was  opened  in 
1808.  The  chief  manufactures  are  confectionery, 
hats,  chemicals,  and  cigars.  In  the  vicinity  are 
coal  mines  and  millstone  quarries.  Population, 
in   1000.  02:t(i. 

MUN'DEN,  .lo.sEpn  SllEl'HERl)  (17.58-18.12). 
An  English  comedian,  now  noted  especially  for 
Charles  Lamb's  well-known  cncuniiuni.  On  the 
Acting  of  Mundcn.  Born  in  London,  he  began 
life  in  a  conunercial  position,  but  he  early  found 
a  place  on  the  provincial  stage,  and  in  1700 
made  his  ap|K'arancc  in  London.  His  ability  to 
"make  faies'  was  famous,  and  he  was  greatest  in 
broad  farce,  though  in  serious  parts  he  was  not 
without  success.  Among  his  best  characters  were 
Sir  Francis  f!ripe,  Sir  Peter  Teazle,  Old  Dornton, 
and  Sir  HolHUt  Bramble.  He  retired  in  1824.  and 
died  on  Kebruary  li,  1832,  in  London.  Consult: 
Land),  The  Essiii/s  of  Elin  (  1st  series,  London. 
]82.'i):  Memoirs  of  Joseph  Shepherd  Mundcn, 
Comedian,  by  his  son  (it)..  1844);  Ilutton.  in 
Actors  and  Actresses  of  (Ireat  lirilain  and  the 
Vnited  Stales,  ed.  by  Matthews  and  Ilutton  (  Xew 
York.  188(!). 

MXJNDO,  ni\.in'du.  A  wild  tribe  in  Cebfi  and 
the  I'aiiay  Islands.     See  PllILlPl'iNE  ISLANDS. 

MUNDT,  niynt,  Klara.  A  German  novelist, 
best  known  under  her  i)seudonym  Luise  Miihl- 
bach    (c|.v.). 

MUNDT,  TiiEonoR  ( 1808-01 ) .  A  German  nov- 
eli-l  and  critic  of  the  "young  German'  school,  hus- 
band of  "Luise  Miililbach."  In  1848  he  became 
professor  of  history  at  Breslau.  and  in  18.50 
profer.sor  and  university  librarian  at  Berlin.  He 
De("amc  first  known  by  his  Madonna,  oder  (ic- 
g-priiehe  mil  einer  lleiUqen,  a  memorial  of  Char- 
lotte Slieglitz.  Mundt  edited,  with  Varnhagen 
von  Ense.  Knebel's  letters  and  posthumous  works, 
and  also  piddished  Liither's  I'idilisehe  Sehriflen. 
Hi"  wrote  books  of  travel  and  romantiially  histor- 
ical novels:  Carmela  (1844);  Mendoza  ' {lUil )  ; 
Hie  Miitadore,  ete.  (  18.50 1;  and  also  llesehiehle 
der  W'l  lllilli  ratar  :  tlesehiehle  der  lAlleralur  der 
<l'ii>  iitiarl  (18421  ;  llesehiehte  der  (lesellschafl  : 
and  :i  iti(ii:il  Kiiiist  der  deulsehen  Prosa   (ls:i7). 

MUNDUBUCU,  monndoo-roo-koTr'.  A  power- 
ful tribe  of  the  great  Tupian  stock  (q.v. ),  resid- 
ing chiefly  about  the  conlluence  of  the  Tapajcs 


and  Amazon,  in  Xorth  Central  Brazil.  They  are 
variously  estinuiteil  at  from  30,000  to  40,000. 
The  men  are  tall,  athletic,  broad-chested,  and  of 
light  complexion,  and  their  naked  bodies  are  en- 
tirely covered  with  artistic  tattooing.  The  women 
arc  pleasing  in  manner,  with  a  natural  and  un- 
conscious vivacity.  l>oth  sexes  are  noted  for 
their  honesty.  The  men  practice  agriculture  and 
do  beautiful  feather  W(jrk.  The  women  are  skill- 
ful in  weaving  cotton  fabrics  and  liannnocks.  Be- 
sides their  habit  of  preserving  the  heads  of  their 
enemies,  which  has  gained  them  the  name  of 
Paiguize,  or  Beheadcrs,  among  the  surrounding 
tribes,  they  have  the  custom  of  killing  persons 
hopelessly  ill  or  decrepit. 

MTJNGrEE,  mun'ger,  Theodore  Thornton 
(  1S30 — ).  .\n  American  clergyman.  He  was  born 
at  Bainbridge.  X.  Y.,  graduated  from  Y"ale  Col- 
lege in  18.51,  and  from  the  Yale  Divinity  School 
in  1855.  The  following  year  he  entered  upon  the 
wciik  of  tlic  Congregational  ministry,  serving 
first  at  Dordicster,  JIass.  He  remained  here 
until  18t)0,  then  devoted  two  years  to  travel  and 
study,  after  which  he  resumed  the  ministry,  lo- 
cating in  Haverhill  from  1802  to  1870,  and  in 
Lawrence  from  1871  to  1875.  In  the  latter  year 
he  removed  to  California,  and  during  the  twelve 
months  of  his  residence  established  a  church  at 
San  Jose.  Returning  to  the  East,  he  became 
pastor  at  Xorth  Adams,  Mass.,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1885,  when  he  resigned  to  accept  a 
call  to  the  Inited  Church.  XVw  Haven.  Conn. 
He  has  published:  On  the  Threshold  (1880); 
The  Freedom  of  Faith  (1883);  The  Appeal  to 
Life  i  1887)  :  and  Horace  liushnell,  Preacher  and 
Thiotn,ii,iii    (1809). 

MUNGHIR,  nmn-ger'.   A  town  of  India.     See 

MoNOllYK. 

MUNGO.     See  Shoddy. 

MUN'GO,  Sai.nt  (518?-fi03).  The  popular 
naun'  of  Saint  Kentigern,  one  of  the  three  great 
missionaries  of  the  (.'hristian  faith  in  Scotland. 
Saint  Xinian  (q.v.)  converted  the  tribes  of  the 
s(aitli:  Saint  Columba  (q.v.)  was  the  apostle  of 
the  west  and  the  north;  Saint  Kentigern  was 
the  apostle  of  the  Strathclyde  Britons,  who  held 
the  country  between  the  Clyde  on  the  nortli  and 
the  furthest  boundaries  of  Cumberland  on  the 
south.  (See  Strathclyde.)  He  is  said  to 
have  been  the  son  of  a  British  prince  and 
jirincess,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  born  at 
Culross  on  the  Forth,  near  Perth,  in  518.  He 
planted  a  monastery  on  the  site  of  Glasgow,  and 
became  the  Bishop  of  the  Kingdom  of  Cumbria 
(i|.v. ).  The  nation  would  seem  to  have  been 
only  partially  converted,  and  persecution  drove 
Saint  Kentigern  from  the  realm.  He  found 
refuge  among  the  kinilred  people  of  \Vales,  and 
there,  upon  the  banks  of  another  Clyde,  he  found- 
ed anotlier  monastery  and  bishopric,  which  still 
bears  the  name  of  his  disciple.  Saint  .\saph.  Re- 
called to  (ilasgow  in  573  by  King  Roderick  the 
Bountiful,  Kentigern  renewed  his  ei)iscopal  and 
missionary  labors,  in  which  he  was  cheered  by  a 
visit  from  Saint  Columba.  He  died  .lanuary  13, 
ti03,  and  was  buried  where  the  Cathedral  of  (!las- 
gow,  called  Saint  Mungo's.  now  st;inds.  There 
is  a  fragment  of  a  Life  of  Saint  Kentigern  written 
in  the  twelfth  century,  and  a  longer  Life  by 
.Tocelyn  of  Fnrncss.  written  about  1180.  Constilt 
Forbes,  in  The  Historians  of  Scotland,  vol.  v. 
(Edinburgh,  1874). 


MUNGOOS. 

MTJNGOOS,  or  MONGOOSE  {Teluj,'li  maii- 
gisiij.  Tlio  imiiij^oos  (//tc/jcs^i-.')'  yriscus)  is  ;i 
species  of  iclineuiuon  (q.v.),  a  native  of  liulia, 
but  introduced  into  other  countries,  notably 
Jamaica,  for  the  ])urpose  of  deslroyinjr  rats  and 
other  vermin,  upon  which  it  feeds.  In  India  it  is 
often  kept  about  tlie  houses  to  reduce  the  number 
of  lizards,  mice,  rats,  and  snakes.  It  kills  and 
eats  the  most  ])oisonous  snakes,  such  as  the 
cobra,  the  bite  of  wliich  is  either  avoided  by  the 
animal's  af;ility  or  else  is  not  fatal  to  it. 

The  muiiLiOos  was  introiluced  into  Jamaica  in 
1ST2.  when  nine  specimens  were  imported  to  de- 
stroy the  rats  on  a  sugar  plantation.  At  first 
they  were  highly  beneficial,  reducing  the  stated 
annual  loss  from  rats  from  .'foOfl.OOO  to  one-half 
that,  but  in  less  than  twenty  years  the  island 
was  almost  overrun  with  them.  Not  only  (lid 
they  kill  rats  and  mice,  however,  but  snakes, 
lizards,  gronmlbirds.  and  even  poultry.  At  one 
time  snakes  had  become  so  rare  tliat  they  were 
regarded  as  practically  exterminated,  but  since 
ISiU)  they  are  apparently  on  the  increase.  Tlie 
ground-doves  and  other  terrestrial  birds,  partly 
at  least  by  change  of  habit,  are  also  adapting 
themselves  to  this  new  enemy  and  their  exter- 
mination is  no  longer  to  be  feared.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  the  mungoos  is  common  and  very  tame 
in  most  parts  of  the  island  and  in  many  other 
islands,  and  is  generally  looked  on  with  favor. 

The  mungoos  is  from  l.")  to  18  inches  long,  and 
has  a  tail  1-t  to  If)  inches  in  length,  very  thick 
at  the  base  and  tapering  to  a  point.  The  fur 
is  rather  long  and  grizzly  reddish-gray.  A 
very  full  ace<iunt  of  its  habits  is  given  in  the 
Royal  yatinrtl  IJistori/.  For  the  details  of  its 
history  in  the  West  Indies,  consult:  Morris,  The 
Mungoose  on  Hugar  Estates  in  the  West  indies 
(London,  1882);  The  Field  (London)  for  July 
l.-i,  I8!1.j. 

MUNICH,  mu'nik  (Ger.  Miinchen).  The 
capital  of  Bavaria,  and  the  third  largest  city  in 
Germany,  situated  at  an  elevation  of  1700  feet, 
mostly  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Isar,  on  the  south- 
ern border  of  a  ]iartly  swampy  and  partly  fertile 
forested  plateau,  2!t0  miles  by  rail  south  of  Leip- 
zig (Jlap:  Germany,  D  4)  ;'  latitude  48°  9'  N.. 
longitude'  11°  3:5'  E.  The  city  is  only  about  25 
miles  north  of  the  Bavarian  Alps,  and  is  subject 
to  a  somewhat  raw  climate  characterized  by 
abrupt  changes  of  tem])eratnre,  which  are  at 
times  trying.     Mean  annual  temperature,  4G°  F. 

Munich  is  comparatively  modern.  It  is  pro- 
gressive and  handsomely  equipped  with  the 
latest  municipal  improvements,  having,  in  fact, 
been  mostly  relmilt  since  about  1830.  It  owes 
its  artisti<!  and  regal  appearance  to  the  art- 
loving  Louis  I.  and  his  successors.  The  very 
wide  avenues  and  the  many  buildings  constructed 
in  all  the  leading  styles  of  architecture  lend 
great  dignity  to  the  metropolis.  The  streets  arc 
generally  regular,  and  the  city  is  lavishly  adorned 
by  numerous  squares  and  pleasure  parks  and 
gardens.  The  largest  park  is  the  beautiful  Eng- 
lish Garden.  It  contains  over  500  acres,  watered 
by  branches  of  the  Isar  and  adorned  with  small 
temples,  towers,  etc.  JIagnificent  thorouglifares 
are  the  Maximilianstrasse,  lined  by  public  luiild- 
ings,  and  the  I'rinzregentenstrasse.  both  leading 
across  the  river  to  the  ihiximilian  pleasure 
groimds  on  the  opposite  side.  The  Ludwigstrasse, 
stretching  northward  from  the  royal  palace,  is 


109 


MUNICH. 


aKo  a  splendid  street.  Hanked  with  impressive 
Kenaissanee  edifices. 

The  Max-Jose])li-Platz,  together  with  the 
Marienjilatz,  represents  the  centre  of  life  in 
ilunich.  The  former  c<mnects  the  old  and  new 
sections,  and  is  embellished  by  Raueh's  huge 
bronze  statue  of  King  Max  Joseph.  The  Alte 
Kcsidenz — one  of  the  three  parts  of  the  royal 
palace — extends  liere  along  the  north  side  of  the 
square  and  has  in  tlie  rear  the  Court  gardens, 
with  their  open  arcades  and  frescoes.  This  struc- 
ture dales  from  1590  and  contains  four  court.s, 
but  is  of  little  architectural  worth.  Its  apart- 
ments, however,  are  a  source  of  great  interest  to 
sightseers,  being  luxuriously  furnished  in  the 
seventeenth  century  style  and  rich  in  historical 
associations.  The  throne  room  was  at  one  time 
occupied  by  Napoleon.  The  royal  chapel  and 
the  treasury  possess  numerous  objects  of  in- 
trinsic and  historic  value. 

The  other  two  parts  of  the  palace  are  the  fine 
Festsaalbau  and  the  Kiinigsbau.  The  latter,  fin- 
ished in  1833,  and  fashioned  after  the  Pitti 
Palace,  is  notable  for  its  splendid  Nibelungen 
frescoes  by  Schnorr  (1801).  The  former  is  ,a 
handsome  edifice,  completed  in  1842  in  the  late 
Italian  Renaissance.  It  is  enriched  with  Ionic 
pillars  and  with  allegorical  figures  of  the  Bava- 
rian provinces.  Several  apartments  contain  Hil- 
tensperger's  frescoes  from  the  Odyssey.  Beauti- 
ful salons  are  also  the  throne  room,  with  striking 
bronze  statues  by  Schwanthaler ;  the  Ilapsburg 
room,  with  paintings;  the  Barbarossa  Hall,  with 
reliefs  by  Schwanthaler;  and  the  Hall  of  Charle- 
magne, containing  ambitious  decorations  descrip- 
tive of  scenes  from  the  Emperor's  life.  But  the 
best  known  of  these  apartments  are  those  con- 
taining Stieler's  thirty-six  portraits  of  beautiful 
women,  painted  from  various  types  of  Bavaria's 
fairest  womanhood. 

Connected  with  these  royal  edifices  are  the 
great  Hof  und  National  Theater  dating  from 
1823,  with  an  attractive  portico  borne  by  Corin- 
thian columns,  and  containing  seats  for  2200  per- 
sons, and  the  artistic  and  impressive  Court 
chapel — a  structure  dating  from  1837,  in  the 
Byzantine-Komanesque,  and  having  sumptuous 
decorations.  Still  another  feature  in  connection 
with  this  royal  residence  arc  the  coach  houses 
and  harness  rooms,  with  a  collection  of  historic 
carriages,  sleighs,  and  sledges.  Adjacent  also  are 
a  valuable  ethnographical  museum,  an  Art  Union, 
with  works  of  living  artists,  and  an  instructive 
museum  of  plaster  casts.  Other  palaces  in  the 
city  are  the  palace  of  Prince  Charles,  the  palace 
of  Prince  Regent  Luil|iold,  the  jialace  of  Duke 
ilax,  with  good  decorations,  and  the  royal  Wit- 
telsbach  palace,  an  artistic  red  structure  begun 
in  1843. 

Munich  has  no  churches  of  great  fame.  The 
Ludwigskirche  is  a  rather  attractive  example  of 
Italian  Renaissance,  and  contains  a  noteworthy 
Last  .ludgment  by  Cornelius.  The  Saint  Boniface 
basilica,  dating  from  1850.  with  some  three  score 
of  gray  marble  colunuis,  is  also  worthy  of  men- 
tion, as  are  the  cathedral — the  Frauenkirche — 
the  Gothic  Mariahilfkirche,  and  the  Gothic  Gie- 
singer  Church.  The  synagogue  is  one  of  the  larg- 
est and  finest  in  Germany.  .Ml  these  churches, 
except  the  cathedral,  lielong  to  the  nineteenth 
century.  AuKUig  the  impressive  secular  build- 
ings are  the  War  Ofiice,  the  Post  Office,  and  the 


MUNICH. 


110 


MUNICH. 


new  Gotliic  Rathaus,  an  attractive  building  com- 
pleted in  1874. 

Tliu  picture  and  sculpture  collections  of  Munich 
arc  famous.  The  building  of  tlie  Old  Pinakotliek, 
situated  in  the  northern  section  of  the  city,  not 
far  from  the  royal  palace,  was  constructed  in 
lS2ti-.'?(i.  in  the  Kenaissancc  style.  It  is  about 
174  yards  long,  and  is  cinbellislii'd  on  the  exterior 
by  statues  by  .Sclnvanlhuler.  It  contains  about 
1400  canvases.  Almost  all  the  great  masters  of 
paintings  since  Kaphael's  time  are  represented 
here  by  works  of  the  highest  e.\cellence.  The 
greatest  gems  perhaps  are  Diirer's  Saints  Peter, 
John,  I'aul,  and  Mark;  several  portraits  and 
other  pictures  by  Rubens,  including  the  "Battle  of 
the  Amazons,"  the  "Massacre  of  the  Innocents," 
and  the  "Lion  Hunt;"  Perugino's  "Virgin  and 
Saint  Rernard;"  Raphael's  "Madonna  Tempi;" 
and  .Murillii's  •Two  Beggar  Boys  Eating  Fruit." 
The  Old  I'inakothek  contains  in  addition  valuable 
cal)inets  of  vases ;  also  engravings  and  drawings. 
Its  loggie  are  decorated  by  Cornelius.  Adjacent 
on  the  north  is  the  New  Pinakothek.  with  a  good 
collection  of  modern  artists,  mostly  Bavarian. 
There  are  about  700  works.  Here  is  found  also 
an  antiquariuni  with  fine  bronzes  and  terracottas 
principally  from  Rome  and  Greece.  In  the  vicinity 
is  also  the  (ilyptothek — containing  mainly  a  col- 
lection of  ancient  statuary.  The  edilice  is  of  a 
classic  and  imposing  Ionic  ]iattern.  graced  with 
columns  and  artistically  embellislied.  It  has 
Assyrian  and  Eg^•ptian  departments,  as  well  a.s 
departments  devoted  to  excellent  Greek  and 
Roman  examples  and  to  incunabula.  The  highly 
l)rized  collection  of  marbles  from  the  island  of 
.-Egina  is  also  in  the  (ilyptothek.  Its  most  valu- 
able sculpture  perhaps  is  the  Greek  Barberini 
Faun   (».f.  :100). 

In  connection  with  the  realm  of  art  in  Munich 
may  be  mentioned  the  Kunstgewerbehaus;  also 
the  Academy  of  Art,  an  and)itious  edifice  in 
Italian  Renaissance,  completed  in  1S8.").  The  ar- 
tisl.s  of  Munich  maintain  in  the  so-called  Exhibi- 
tion Building  (finished  in  1S4.5)  a  permanent  ex- 
hibition of  their  paintings  exposed  for  sale.  The 
Bavarian  National  Museum,  founded  in  185.5, 
and  housed  in  a  fine  edifice,  is  of  great  value. 
Among  its  numerous  colh'ctions  covering  many 
departments  of  human  endeavor,  the  most  valu- 
able ))erhaps  arc  the  art  wiuks  of  the  mcdiieval 
Renaissame  and  modern  |)criods.  The  Schwan- 
thaler  Museum  contains  models  of  the  ma.stcr's 
works.  A  noteworthy  picture  collection  also  is 
the  Schaek  Gallery,  possessing  choice  originals, 
and  interesting  copies  of  the  great  masters  by 
many  of  Germany's  foremost  modern  painters. 
Other  museums  are  the  collection  of  pictures  and 
drawings  left  by  the  painter  Kaulbaeh.  and  the 
Lotzbeck  museum  of  pictures  and  marldes. 
^lunieh  i.'*  celebrated  also  as  a  musical  centre, 
especially  for  German  operas.  The  National 
Theater  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  modern 
operatic  institutions.  lndn;.'  inlimalcly  idcntifieil 
with  the  Wagner  inlluence  and  tradition. 

Among  the  many  nmnuments  not  already  men- 
tioned are  those  of  Louis  I.,  Schiller.  (Muck. 
Schelling,  I'rannhofer,  Gilrtner;  the  large  and 
striking  monument  to  Maximilian  11..  dating 
from  IS7.">:  the  fine  statue  of  Elector  Maximilian 
1.,  after  plans  by  Thorwaldsen  :  an  obelisk  miidr 
of  the  metal  of  eaidured  cannon,  and  erected  to 
the  memory  of  the  Bavarian  soldiers  who  died  in 


the  war  with  Russia;  the  fine  monument  to 
Liebig,  the  chemist;  the  new  and  splendid  Wit- 
telsbach  fountain;  also  the  bronze  Fischbrunneu, 
associated  with  the  Butchers'  Festivals.  The 
Church  of  Saint  Michael  contains  a  fine  monu- 
ment by  Tlinrwaldsen  to  Eugfene  Beauharnais. 
The  Siegestlior — (jatc  of  Victory — constructed  in 
1843  in  honor  of  the  Bavarian  Army,  is  a  splen- 
did arch  patterned  after  that  of  Constantine  at 
Rome.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  huge  figure  of 
Bavaria.  On  the  magnificent  Kijnigsplatz,  near 
the  (ilyptothek.  rises  the  Propyhea,  an  attractive 
portal  completed  with  Doric  and  Ionic  features 
in  1802 — a  tribute  to  the  cause  of  Gre<'k  inde- 
pendence. Notable  also  is  the  ancient  Isarllujr, 
with  elaborate  frescoes.  Still  otlu'r  objects 
worthy  of  visit  in  Munich  are  the  Bronze  Foun- 
dry and  the  Royal  Arsenal,  with  an  interesting 
military  museum,  containing  relics  of  the  Na- 
poleonic wars. 

At  the  head  of  the  educational  institutions  is 
the  celebrated  university.  ( .See  ^IvNlcii,  Uni- 
VER.siTY  OF).  The  city's  educational  .system  is 
scarcely  surpassed  either  for  comprehensiveness  or 
excellence.  The  Maximiliancum  on  the  riglit  bank 
is  an  institution  founded  In'  Jlaximilian  II.  for 
advanced  civil  service  instruction.  It  is  surround- 
ed liy  attractive  (Jastcig  ]ilcasure  grounds  extend- 
ing along  tlie  river  shore.  The  important  Poly- 
technic Scho<d  is  in  a  line  modern  edifice.  Near 
by  is  an  art  industrial  school.  There  are  aUo  in 
the  city  a  military  academy  and  a  military 
school,  an  academy  of  science  with  noteworthy 
collections,  and  numerous  organizations  for  the 
development  of  all  the  chief  branches  of  knowlcdae 
and  its  application.  Of  the  many  valuable  li- 
braries, the  Royal  Library  is  by  far  tlie  most 
important.  Its  sjiacious  Florentine  building  was 
constructed  after  18.'i:i.  and  possesses  a  magnifi- 
cent staircase.  Tlic  library  is  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  world.  It  contains  some  1,350.000  vol- 
umes, and  over  30.000  manuscripts.  It  is  espe- 
cially rich  in  German  documents  and  scholastic 
literature,  possessing  some  of  the  rarest  of  liter- 
ary e<litions  and  other  specimens,  including  a 
translation  of  Boccaccio,  a  codex  aureus  (in  gold 
letters  and  dating  l)efore  900),  and  Four  Books 
of  (iospels.  In  this  library,  also,  arc  the  archives 
of  Bavaria — a  collection  of  500.000  documents. 
The  city  has  a  botanic  garden,  and  a  crystal 
palace,   where  expositions  are  lield. 

Industrially,  Munich  is  imiiorlant  and  prosper- 
ous. Its  iron,  bronze,  and  bell  foundries,  its  litho- 
graph and  engraving  cs(al)lisliuu'nts.  its  optical 
and  mechanical  instrument  factories  are  cele- 
brated, as  are  its  enormous  breweries  (some  45 
in  number),  which  have  made  the  city  famims  for 
excellent  beer.  The  large,  palatial  llofbriiuhiiuser 
are  a  feature  of  the  city's  social  life.  The 
other  manufactures  comprise  cotton,  wool,  and 
damask  goods,  wax-cloth,  leather,  paper-hangings, 
carriages,  pianos,  gold  and  silver  articles,  ma- 
chinery, sleid  wares,  etc.  In  its  manufaituring 
and  Commercial  interests  the  city  has  madi>  •;reat 
strides  in  very  recent  times.  Beer  is  tlic  cliief 
export.  .Also  grain,  hojis.  coal,  wool,  furniture, 
carpets,  and  art  goods  figure  in  the  shipments. 
Miuiich  has  a  network  of  canals  for  tralTic — over 
100  miles  in  length.  Numerous  important  in- 
ilustrial  and  conunercial  unions  and  associations 
are  established  here. 

Munich  is  the  seat  of  all  the  important  Gov- 


MUNICH 

LUDWIGSTRASSE   (UPPER) 

RATHAUS  AND    MARIENPLATZ   (LOWER) 


1 


MUNICH. 


Ill 


MUNICIPAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


eniment  institutions  of  Bavaria.  It  is  adniinis- 
ti'icil  liy  two  burgomasters,  about  forty  magis- 
trates, anil  some  seventy  couneilmcn.  The  an- 
nual bu<lget  balances  at  approximately  $4,300,- 
000.  The  municipal  debt  is  about  $25,000,000, 
oH'set  by  nearly  twice  that  anmunt  invested  in 
public  property — mostly  in  buildings  and 
grounds.  Over  a.  third  of  the  taxes  go  to  tlie 
service  and  reduction  of  the  debt.  The  charitable 
institutions  are  excellent. 

The  popular  festivals  and  'DuUs'  (fairs)  are 
a  feature  of  ^Munich.  They  are  all  elaborate  and 
interesting — for  instance,  the  annual  carnival, 
the  Magdalen  Festival  in  July,  and  the  October 
Festival.  The  last  is  a  kind  of  agricultural  fair 
which  attracts  the  picturesque  country  popula- 
tion. The  environs  are  of  no  little  interest.  Their 
most  unique  attraction  is  the  fanmus  Bavaria,  an 
immense  bronze  statue  rising  on  a  low  elevation 
west  of  the  city.  It  is  a  hollow  female  figure  02 
feet  high,  and  cast  from  the  bronze  of  foreign 
cannon,  according  to  designs  by  Schwanthalcr. 
It  was  uncovered  in  IS.jO.  From  its  head  there  is 
a  good  view  of  the  city.  The  adjacent  Hall  of 
Fame  is  a  Greek  colonnade,  dating  from  1858. 
It  holds  about  100  busts  of  famous  Bavarians, 
including  .Jean  Paul  and  Schelling.  The  Nymph- 
enburg  is  a  royal  chateau  near  the  city.  Its 
grounds  are  very  attractive.  The  cemeteries  of 
Munich  are  said  to  contain  the  most  artistic 
tombs  in  the  Empire.  The  population  of  the  city 
has  more  than  doulilcd  in  tlie  last  few  decades. 
In  1871  it  numbered  1G9.0I13;  in  1000,  400,059, 
nearlv  all  Catholics.  The  death  rate  fell  from 
30.4  to  24.1   in  a  thousand  from   1871  to   1S08. 

HisTOliY.  The  history  of  JIunich  may  he  said 
to  date  from  the  time  of  Henrv  the  Lion,  in  the 
twelfth  centur.\'.  It  grew  rapidlv  under  the 
House  of  Wittelsbach.  The  cit.v  was  fortified  in 
1254.  Otho  the  Illustrious  having  established  his 
residence  here.  In  the  first  half  of  the  four- 
teenth century  the  library  was  founded,  -\bout 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  art  col- 
lections were  begun.  Munich  became  a  royal 
residence  in  1800.  From  the  reign  of  Louis  I. 
dates  the  city's  present  magnificence. 

Consult:  Kalin.  Miiitchcn.i  (jrosshidiistric  iind 
Grosshandel  (ih.,  1801)  ;  Aufleger  and  Trautniann, 
.Ut-Miiiirhni  in  lidd  und  Wort  (ib.,  1895)  ;  and 
the  Jnhrhiich  zur  Miiiirhencr  (lescliiclite  (ib., 
1SS7  et  seq.). 

MUNICH,  Uxi\-ERSITY  OF.  One  of  the  leading 
German  imiversities.  founded  by  Duke  Ludwig  of 
Bavaria  with  the  approval  of  Pope  Pius  II.  as 
a  Studium  Generale  at  Ingolstadt.  The  members 
of  the  faculties  took  an  oath  of  loyalty  to  the  See 
of  Rome.  Though  the  bull  authorizing  the  open- 
ing of  the  institution  was  issued  in  1458,  it  was 
not  opened  until  1472.  True  to  its  pledge,  Ingol- 
stadt L'niversit.v  remained  faithful  to  the  Church 
of  Rome  during  the  trying  period  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. In  1550  the  Jesuits  gained  control  of  the 
university  and  conducted  it  until  their  suppres- 
sion in  1773,  though  lekstatt  labored  from 
174()  to  remove  them.  At  tlie  instance  of 
Ludwig  Maximilian,  whose  name  the  institu- 
tion now  bears,  it  was  moved  in  1800  to  Land- 
shut,  where  it  remained  until  1820.  when  it  was 
transferred  to  M\mich  and  reorganized.  In  ad<li- 
tinn  to  the  collections  and  institutes  brought 
thither  from  Landshut.  the  Government  trans- 
ferred   to    the    university    the   botanical    garden. 


anatomical  theatre,  observatory,  and  antiqua- 
rium,  and  a  valuable  collection  of  coins.  In  1902 
the  university  consisted  of  the  faculties  of  theol- 
ogy, law,  political  science,  medicine,  ami  jihiloso- 
I)hy,  with  an  attendance  of  175,  1324,  150,  1095, 
and  1450  respectively.  The  university  also  in- 
cludes a  number  of  seminars,  clinics,  museums,  a. 
botanical  garden,  and  an  observatory.  The  Uni- 
versity Library  contains  over  400.000  volumes 
ami  about  2000  '  manuseripts.  Tlie  Collegium 
Georgianum,  founded  in  1404  for  the  education 
of  Catholic  priests,  and  the  Maximilianum, 
founded  in  1852  and  o]iened  in  1870.  for  the  edu- 
cation of  talented  Bavarian  vouth,  are  alliliated 
with  the  university.  The  income  of  the  univer- 
sity is  about  .$250,000  a  vear,  the  greater  share 
being  contributed  by  the  Government.  The  num- 
ber of  professors  in  1902  was  117,  besides  83 
privat-docenten,  including  such  illustrious  men 
as  Hermann  Paul,  the  eminent  philologist  Von 
Zittel,  and  Riintgen. 

MUNICIPAL  ARCHITECTURE   (Lat.  mu- 

niriiiiilis,  from  iniDiicciia,  citizens,  from  nuinus, 
duty  +  c«/)cre,  to  take).  An  important  branch 
of  civil  architecture,  that,  naniel.v,  which  has  to 
do  with  buildin.gs  erected  out  of  pulilic  funds  for 
the  use  and  amusement  of  the  inlial>itants  of  a 
city,  or  ])urel.v  for  the  adornment  of  the  city 
itself.  The  term  is  sometimes  extended  to  in- 
clude public  and  semi-public  buildings  for  busi- 
ness or  amu.scmcnt  erected  by  private  capital, 
such  as  exchanges,  railway  stations,  aiul  theatres. 
It  is  doubtful  if  municipal  buildings,  properly 
speaking,  existed  in  the  preliistoric  and  the 
ancient  Oriental  worlds;  tlie  temple  and  royal 
palace  filled  all  needs  in  these  civilizations.  The 
great  cit.y  gates  of  ancient  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
were  the  only  structures  in  the  Orient  that  could 
be  included  under  the  title  of  municipal  build- 
ings. 

Greece.  With  the  development  of  Greek  citv 
life  after  the  seventh  century  B.C.  several 
classes  of  such  buildings  were  erected.  Among 
these  may  be  named  the  Tlirnire  (q.v.).  whiclt 
was  always  erected  with  public  funds,  and  which 
first  began  early  in  the  fifth  centurv  B.C.  to  be 
built  of  stone  and  in  the  form  and  st.vle  recog- 
nized in  the  ruins  of  those  at  Epidaurus.  Athens. 
Sicyon,  etc.  Of  Greek  buildings  devoted  to  public 
games  and  sports,  the  most  important  were  the 
Stfidiiim  (q.v.)  and  the  Hippodromr  (q.v.)  for 
the  dilVerent  kinds  of  races,  neither  of  which  gave 
opportunity  for  much  distinctive  architecture. 
The  Oi/iniiasiiim  and  Pnlesfra  were  devoted  to 
contests  requiring  less  space  and  to  training  and 
])ractice,  and  embodied  most  of  the  features  de- 
velo|)ed  Inter  by  the  Romans  in  the  Imperial 
therniip.  Those  at  Ephesus  and  Alexandria-Troas 
are  especially  well  ju'eserved.  The  commercial 
centre  of  the  city  was  the  market-place,  or  agora, 
corresponding  to  the  Roman  lAirum  (q.v.),  an 
open  rectangular  space  bordered  by  colonnades 
and  halls,  and  decorated  with  monumental  en- 
trances, statuary,  and  fountains.  The  various 
halls  for  the  transaction  of  municipal  business, 
such  as  the  f'ri/taneum  and  the  Tiniilciitcrinn. 
were  often  connected  with  the  market-place,  and 
there  were  frequently  two  nf/orw  in  each  city — 
the  political  and  the  commercial.  Those  at 
Priene.  .-Kssos.  and  otlu-r  cities  of  Asia  Jtinor 
are  particularly  important,  as  no  well-preserved 
examples  have  been  found  in  Greece  itself.     One 


MUNICIPAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


112 


MUNICIPAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


can  judge  of  the  great  possibilities  of  the  Greek 
coltiiiiiiur  style  even  better  fruui  these  many 
public  porticoes  than  from  the  temples.  Finally, 
the  so-called  leschoi  were  public  halls  for  ban- 
quets and  other  reunions  and  celebrations. 
To  the  list  of  Greek  inunieipal  buildings  should 
be  added  .such  decorative  and  memorial  struc- 
tures as  the  choragic  monument  of  Lysicrates 
anil  the  Tower  of  the  Winds  at  Athens,  public 
fountains,  and  the  like. 

KoME.  The  Romans  developed  municipal  archi- 
tecture even  furlher  in  magnilieence  and  variety 
after  the  second  century  B.C.  Their  theatres  were 
richer  in  decoration ;  their  amphitheatres  were  a 
new  form  altogether;  their  circus  was  architec- 
turally more  signilieant  than  the  stadium  anil  hip- 
podrome. The  Roman  Forum,  which  was  at  first 
an  irregular  sipiare  without  architectural  beauty, 
was  later  l)cirdered  by  basilicas  (q.v.),  great 
halls  for  commercial  and  judicial  purposes,  while 
memorial  and  triumphal  arches  were  placed 
at  its  entrances  and  alon';  its  main  road.  Rome 
was  embellished  with  new  fora  by  successive 
emperors,  these  gifts  culminating  in  the  stupen- 
dous Forum  of  Trajan,  with  its  basilica,  temple, 
arch,  and  triumphal  column.  In  the  early  days 
of  the  Empire  a  new  type  of  city  was  developed, 
in  which  the  various  main  groups  of  pul)lic  build- 
ings were  united  and  harmonized  by  vast  stretches 
of  porticoes.  Such  ])ortic<)cs  in  Rome  itself  were 
the  I'orticus  Maxima",  extending  to  the  Tiber,  and 
the  mile-long  Porticos  Triumphi  in  the  Field  of 
:Mars,  They  masked  the  poorer  streets.  In  the 
cities  of  Syria  and  the  rest  of  Western  Asia  a 
great  era  of  rebuilding  set  in,  the  old  blank- 
walled  main  streets  being  rejjlaeed  by  colonnaded 
boulevards,  decorated  with  statues  and  intersect- 
ing at  right  angles.  This  type,  which  originated 
at  .Antioch.  can  now  best  be  stuilicd  at  Palmyra, 
Gerasa.  and  other  cities  near  the  coast-line. 

Till"  many  new  Human  colonies  and  municipali- 
ties in  North  .\friea  and  Syria  gave  even  more 
oc<'asion  than  tlie  old  cities  for  the  carrying  out 
of  a.  regular  plan  of  municipal  architecture.  The 
cities  of  Theveste  and  Thamugadi  are  important 
examples.  Ponipcii  gives  an  older  type.  The 
Pompeian  Forum. with  its  well-preserved  basilica: 
its  curiir  or  municipal  meeting  halls,  with  their 
eolomnules;  its  Temple  of  .luiiiter.  Hanked  by 
memorial  arches;  its  "Pantheon.'  with  the  money- 
chan;;ers'  shii])s;  its  market  hall.  T("mplc  of 
A'emis.  lounging-gallery.  and  otheV  well-grouped 
striu'tures,  shows  how  the  gov("rnment  of  a  jiro- 
vincinl  town  of  moderate  size  groupud  the  public 
buildings  around  its  main  scpiare. 

Of  the  theatres,  those  at  Aspendos  in  Asia 
Alinor,  and  Orange  in  France,  are  the  best  pre- 
served: of  the  amphitheatres,  those  of  Rome  (the 
Colosseum),  Verona.  Capua.  Aries.  NImes.  and 
Thysdrus;  of  the  basilicas,  those  of  Maxentius  in 
Konii".  of  Pompeii,  and  iif  Tr("ves. 

With  tlM"  decline  of  f?oman  power  and  the 
transfer  of  the  capital  to  Byzantium,  the  foc\is 
of  activity  in  municipal  architecture  was  shifted 
and  Cimstantinople.  or  New  Rome,  became  the 
scene  of  an  extraordinary  work  of  reconstruction 
iindi"r  Constantine.  Theodosius.  and  (later)  .Tus. 
tinian.  Fora.  pr.laces,  triumphal  arches,  colon- 
nades, basilicas,  baths,  and  churches  gave  splen- 
dor to  the  new  city,  though  less  perfect  in  detail 
than  the  best  Roman  works.  M<"anwhile,  until 
♦  he  final  overthrow  of  the  nlder  capital,  public 
buildings,  porticoes,  and  bii-iljens  wore  still  be- 


ing erected  in  Rome,  and  the  majestic  ruins  of  the 
Basilica  of  ila.xcutius  and  Constantine  attest  the 
importance  of  these  expiring  ell'orts  of  Konian 
art.  After  the  fifth  century  there  was  nothing 
but  lethargy  in  municipal  architecture  until  tlie 
later  Middle  Ages. 

iliDOLE  AiiES,  The  growth  of  municipal  archi- 
tecture in  the  Middle  Ages  was  very  j;radual  and 
depended  Jargcly  upon  the  character  of  city  gov- 
criunent.  In  the  monastic  and  feudal  cities  there 
were  no  works  of  nuinicipal  architecture  of  any 
importance.  Conditions  were  more  favorable  to 
the  erection  of  municipal  buildings  in  the  free 
communes  and  episcopal  cities,  which  possessed  j 
complete  or  partial  autonomy. 

The  most  important  municipal  buildings  were 
the  hotel-dc-ville  in  France,  the  Rathaus  in  (Jer- 
many,  and  the  piiUiz~i>  iiuhbUco  or  com iini mile  in 
Italy.  The  cities  of  Northern  and  Central  Italy, 
of  Northern  France  and  the  Netherlands,  of 
Northern  Germany  (especially  the  Hanseatic 
League),  were  most  conspicuous  for  such  build- 
ings during  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  i)eriods. 
The  plan  of  the  ciinmunial  palaces  varied  accord- 
ing to  whether  the  local, constitution  provided  for 
meetings  of  a  large  body  of  citizens  or  only  of  a 
select  few  inside  the  building.  The  Doge's  Palace 
in  Venice  had  halls  for  the  Ciran  Consiglio  and 
others  for  the  Council  of  Ten  and  the  smaller 
council.  At  tlie  more  democratic  Padua,  the  im- 
mense hall,  with  its  wagon  roof — the  largest  in 
Europe — provided  for  larger  meetings.  At  Udine 
and  Piacenza  are  the  best  examples  of  a  whole 
lower  story  open  in  vaulted  arcades  for  the  ]iopu- 
lar  meetings,  with  halls  on  the  second  floor  for 
the  smaller  committees.  These  palaces  in  Lom- 
bardy  were  usiuilly  termed  brolctti  (Como,  Ber- 
gamo, Cremona,  ilonza,  etc.).  The  main  meeting 
room  on  the  second  lloor  was  nearly  always  pro- 
vided with  a  balcony  or  rin(jhirni.  from  which 
annoiuiccments  were  made  to  the  people. 

The  cities  of  Tuscany  and  Umbria,  later  in 
achieving  independence  (except  Pisa),  erected, 
however,  even  more  magnificent  public  palaces 
than  their  northern  neighbors.  The  Palazzo  Vec- 
chio  and  Bart'cllo  in  Florence,  the  Palazzi  Pub- 
blici  at  Siena  and  Perugia,  built  d\iring  the 
Gothic  period  (1"3.">0-13.50) ,  are  the  largest  in 
Italy  and  especially  remarkable  for  magnificent 
towers,  llanlly  a  city  in  Italy,  even  oiu"  enjoy- 
ing but  a  modicum  of  administrative  autonomy, 
but  had  a  public  )>alace  of  some  sort,  and  in  some 
cities  there  were  two  jKilaces,  the  episcopal  and 
the  civil. 

Such  connnunal  ])alaces  were  much  rarer  in 
feudal  France:  they  are  almost  wholly  wanting 
in  the  southern  and  central  provinces.  But  the 
jiowerful  cities  of  the  Netherlands,  Lille,  Louvain, 
^Mechlin.  Brussels.  Ghent,  Bruges.  Vpres.  .Vrras, 
and  Li^ge,  built  as  magnificent  jmblic  palaces  as 
their  Tuscan  compeers.  That  of  Brussels,  with 
its  frreat  central  towers,  is  a  fine  cxam])le  in  the 
<leveloiied  Gothic  style.  Germany  is  jiarticularly 
rich  in  such  buildings,  not  on  as  lar;;e  a  scale, 
certainly,  but  interesting  from  their  very  num- 
ber. Municipal  belfries  (q.v.)  or  rnmpnt>Ui  were 
prominent  in  many  cities  of  both  Northern  Eu- 
rope and  Italy. 

The  comnuinal  organization  in  the  cities  was 
\isiially  based  upon  the  association  of  the  labor 
and  trade  guilds.  Tt  was  the  officers  of  thesfi 
guilds  who.  eominff  tnycther  for  nnituiil  benefit, 
originated  in  most  cases  the  citj'  administration 


MUNICIPAL  AKCHITECTUBE. 


113 


MUNICIPAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


and  coiistitutiuii.  Many  of  these  guilds  had 
supaiate  buildinyji  for  their  meeliugs  and  tliey 
Usually  repeated  oil  a  smaller  scale  the  archi- 
tectural features  of  the  couununal  palaces.  The 
Loggia  dei  ilereaiiti  at  Bologna,  those  at  Ancona 
and  Perugia,  the  Or  San  ilichele  at  Florence,  are 
a  few  among  many.  Tlie  lawyers'  guild  sometimes 
built  sumptuoirsly,  as  in  the  Palazzo  dei  (iiure- 
eousulti  at  Cremona.  In  the  ease  of  some  of  the 
veiy  powerful  Plemish  guilds,  such  as  the  cloth 
guild,  their  buildings  equaled  or  surpassed  the 
average  town-hall;  this  was  the  case  at  Ypres.  In 
some  cases  the  governing  body  had  a  separate 
[lalace  from  that  where  the  popular  meetings 
were  held.  Thus  at  Pistoia  there  was  a  Palazzo 
del  Comune  and  also  a  Palazzo  del  Podesta.  Other 
associations  besides  the  guilds  erected  common 
hulls:  the  religious  fraternities,  such  as  that 
which  built  the  Bigallo  in  Florence,  or  the  vari- 
ous beautiful  buildings  in  Venice.  Hospitals, 
like  the  Ospedale  degli  Innocenti  in  Florence,  the 
Hospital  at  Jlilan,  and  the  Jlisericordia  at 
Arezzo,  are  distinctly  public  monuments. 

The  most  important  of  tlie  minor  works  of 
municipal  architecture  were  the  bridges  (q.v. ), 
fountains  (q.v.) ,  and  gates.  The  first  two  classes 
have  been  treated  under  their  separate  heads,  so 
that  it  will  be  necess;irv  to  describe  only  tlie  city 
gates.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the  fortitication 
of  cities  by  heavy  walls  wa.s  a  universal  custom 
and  the  gates  were  fully  as  important  as  the 
triumphal  arches  and  gateways  of  Roman  cities. 
The  great  gate  at  Liibeek  and  several  gates  at 
Florence  show  the  German  and  Halian  styles. 
They  were  usually  dedicated  to  a  saint  and  con- 
tained a  shrine  and  frescoes  or  carved  images  in 
the  central  opening;  guardrooms  on  the  sides  and 
above  contributed  to  making  the  gate  a  monu- 
mental structure.  The  round  or  pointed  single 
archway  wa.s  often  Hanked  by  two  towers,  as  in 
the  Porta  della  Vaeca  at  Genoa. 

In  so  far  as  the  general  arrangement  of  the 
larger  mediaeval  cities  is  concerned,  the  Cathedral 
Square  was  the  main  centre  of  the  city,  the 
market-place  and  a  place  of  resort;  but  wherever 
there  was  also  a  strong  municipal  civic  organiza- 
tion there  was  also  a  second  .square  dominated  by 
one  or  more  city  buildings  and  kept  free  for 
public  assemblies.  Seldom  do  we  find  a  single 
square  used  for  both  classes  of  buildings. 

MoiiAMMEnAN.  There  was  far  more  of  munici- 
pal architecture  in  the  mediaeval  Mohammedan 
cities  of  the  Orient  than  Europeans  realize.  The 
hazaars  with  their  long  covered  galleries  rivaled 
the  gallery  arcades  of  modern  cities;  the 
Ihnns  and  caraimnserais  with  their  immense 
courts  were  often  on  a  colossal  scale.  Number- 
less sehils  or  fountains  were  dotted  through  the 
streets.  The  city  gates  were  monumental.  The 
alrarrirs  were  an  interesting  eomliination  of  gov- 
ernmental palace  and  fortress.  Tliere  were  nu- 
mennis  hospitals  and  colleges  with  attached 
mosques  and  mausoleums,  as  at  Ispahan.  Few 
European  cities  showed  so  ample  a  display  as 
Bagdad,  Cairo,  Damascus.  Adrianople.  Constanti- 
nople, or  even  the  medi:r'val  cities  of  second  rank, 
like  Fez.  Kairwan.  Emesa,  and  a  hundred  more. 
The  Mohammedan  engineers  in  Western  Asia 
were  famous  for  their  bridges,  fortifications,  and 
castles.  The  great  wealth  and  advanced  culture 
of  the  Arabs.  Moors,  and  Persians,  and  of  the 
Moslem  Hindus — far  superior  to  that  of  the  West 
in  the  Middle  Ages — made  it   easy  to  build  up 


beautiful  cities,  now  all  reduced  to  squalor  and 
ruin. 

Re>aiss.\nce.  While  the  Renaissance  was 
more  fruitful  in  works  of  private  and  religious 
arclutectuie  than  in  municiiJal  arcliiteeture,  a 
great  mimber  of  notalde  buildings  were  erected 
for  public  purposes  in  the  cities  of  Italy  and  of 
Western  Europe.  The  general  downfall  of  civic 
liberties  checked  the  progress  of  some  phases  of 
municipal  architecture,  but  the  change  of  style 
ushered  in  by  the  Renaissance  led  to  the  erection 
of  many  new  edifices  in  the  more  modern  style. 
Thus  in  Italy  the  elegant  town  hall  at  Verona 
(Palazzo  del  Consiglio),  by  F'ra  Giocondo 
(1470)  ;  the  town  hall  at  Padua,  the  Loggia  del 
Papa  at  Siena,  the  Procurazie  Veeehie  at 
Venice,  belong  to  tlie  lifteenth  century;  to  the 
sixteenth,  the  Library  of  .Saint  Mark,  and  the 
Loggetta  of  the  Campanile  (demolished  by  the 
fall  of  the  tower,  ltlU2).  at  \'eniee,  the  magnifi- 
cent arcade  surrounding  the  ancient  'Basilica'  at 
Vicenza,  by  Palladio,  and  many  loggias  and  ad- 
ministrative palaces  in  other  cities.  The  HOtel-de- 
Ville  at  Paris  (1540).  the  town  halls  of  Rheinis, 
Rouen,  and  otlier  French  cities,  and  even  of  small 
towns  like  Beaugency,  erected  in  the  sixteenth 
century;  the  great  town  halls  of  Antwerp  and  of 
several  Dutch  cities,  and  the  jiicturesque  Rat- 
huuser  or  council  halls  of  Bremen,  Nuremberg, 
Altenburg,  Cologne,  and  other  German  cities, 
prove  that  there  was  still  opportunity  for 
effective  and  beautiful  municipal  buildings. 
Fountains  were  also  multijilied,  often  of  great 
elaboration  and  sculptural  splendor.  (See  Foun- 
tain.) In  the  seventeenth  and  early  eigliteenth 
centuries  there  developed  a  remarkable  move- 
ment for  the  embellishment  of  cities  by  the 
decorative  treatment  of  open  squares  and  spaces. 
Of  this  movement  the  piazza  in  front  of  Saint 
Peter's,  with  its  colonnades,  obelisk  and  fountain, 
and  the  Piazza  del  Popolo,  both  at  Rome,  and 
the  Place  de  la  Concorde  and  Place  VendOme  at 
Paris,  are  the  finest  e.xamples.  It  was  in  the 
eighteenth  century  that  a  new  era  of  municipal 
architecture  commenced  in  Ciermany  with  the 
transformation  of  Berlin  under  Frederick  the 
Great,  followed  by  that  of  JIunich  in  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  then  by  that 
of  Vienna,  and  that  of  Paris  by  Baron  Haues- 
mann  under  Napoleon  III.  New  classes  of  build- 
ings were  developed  and  erected :  museums,  pic- 
ture and  sculpture  galleries,  halls  of  fame,  thea- 
tres, and  public  educational  buildings.  Every 
style  of  architecture  was  employed,  but  mainly 
the  neo-classic  and  neo- Renaissance.  The 
triumphal  arch  again  came  into  vogue.  Great 
boulevards  became  the  fashion.  The  old-fashioned 
narrow  streets  were  discredited,  even  in  Italy. 
The  sun  was  let  in  cverj'where. 

Recent  De\t;lopment.  Eirope.  Of  the  more 
recent  development  of  municipal  architecture, 
Paris.  Vienna,  and  Budapest  stand  out  as  the 
most  conspicuous  examples;  but  Berlin,  Munich, 
and  other  ficrman  cities,  Rome  and  Naples, 
and  in  less  degree  many  other  cities  in  Europe 
have  undergone  a  process  of  architectural 
remodeling.  The  great  operations  undertaken  by 
Napoleon  III.  in  Paris  under  Haussmann's  direc- 
tion included  not  only  the  reform  of  the  city's 
street-plan,  but  also  the  erection  of  many  public 
buildings.  This  work,  interrupted  by  the  fall  of 
the  Empire,  was  resumed  under  the  Republic, 
and  has  been  steadily  prosecuted  ever  since,  at 


MUNICIPAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


114 


MUNICIPAL  DEBTS. 


the  joint  exi)en»e  of  tht-  city  and  State.  The  new 
Opera  House,  the  reconstructed  Palais  dc  .Justieo, 
the  Tribunal  de  Coiiinierce,  the  completed  and 
remodeled  Louvre,  the  Saint-Aliclicl  Fuuntain, 
and  since  the  war  of  1870-71  the  new  llolclde- 
Ville.  Sorbonne  (university),  and  Ecole  de  Mede- 
cine,  the  demolition  of  tlie  ruined  Tuileries  and 
creation  of  new  yardens  on  its  site,  tlie  two  new- 
art  palaces,  and  the  Alexander  IIL  and  other 
bridges,  are  the  monuments  of  this  remarkable 
activity.  So  the  uew  Reichstagsgebiiude  (Parlia- 
jnent-house ) ,  the  Museum,  the  various  columns 
of  victory  and  other  monuments,  including;  the 
recently  built  SicgcsAllee.  at  Berlin;  the  S(|uares 
and  modern  public  buildings  of  Alunich.  the  new- 
town  hall  at  llamburj;,  indicate  the  tendencies  of 
German  taste  in  municipal  liuildings  and  embel- 
Jishments;  while  in  Austria-Hungary  the  mar- 
velous rebuilding  of  the  central  portion  of  Vienna 
and  the  more  recent  architectural  enterprises 
in  Budapest  are  equaled  only  by  the  trans- 
formation of  Paris  under  Napoleon  III.  While 
the  architectural  treatment  of  the  Viennese 
public  buildings  (the  Gothic  Town  Hall,  the 
classic  Parliament-house,  the  Renaissance  Uni- 
versity, museums,  art  institute,  the  Hofthcatcr. 
etc.)  leaves  something  to  be  desired,  the  general 
etTect  is  highly  impressive  by  its  stateliness  and 
grandeur  of  disposition  along  a  single  splendid 
street,  the  Ringstrasse.  In  Great  Britain  nearly 
every  important  city  has  in  recent  years  either 
rebuilt  portions  of  its  more  overcrowded  districts 
on  improved  plans,  or  erected  new-  town  , halls, 
exchanges,  public  batlis,  schools,  and  museums; 
and  the  English  architects  have  developed  in 
these  public  wiu'ks  an  architectural  style  of  con- 
siderable interest  and  character,  quite  diflerent 
from  the  modilicd  Krcnch  Renaissance  style 
■which  has  more  generally  prevailed  elsewhere. 
Italy,  though  backward  in  many  respects  in  this 
field  of  architecture,  has  not  only  remodeled  some 
of  the  worst-crowded  districts  of  Naples  and 
Rome,  but  has  embellished  many  of  her  cities 
with  public  buildings  in  modern  style,  estab- 
lished new  parks  and  public  gardens,  and  in  some 
cases  completi'd  tlu'  unliiiislied  facades  of  ancient 
buildings — notably  that  of  the  Cathedral  of  Flor- 
ence (1,SS;?-8!I).  "  The  end)anking  of  the  Til>er 
(187!)-1900)  in  Rome,  the  construction  of  new 
bridges,  the  building  <if  'arcades'  or  glass-roofed 
streets  of  moninnental  design,  flanked  by  attrac- 
tive shops  (as  at  Milan.  Naples,  etc.),  and  the 
erection  of  railway  termini  sometimes  of  consid- 
erable architectural  splendor,  are  further  evi- 
dences of  nuinicipal  activity. 

rxiTFn  St.vtks.  In  the  I'nited  States  mirnicipal 
architecture  has  until  recent  years  had  little  to 
show  worthy  of  serious  consideration.  While 
the  first  fifty  years  of  independent  national  ex- 
istence witnessed  the  erect  inn  of  many  note- 
worthy Federal  and  niimicipal  buildings,  espe- 
cially custom  houses  and  State  Capitols,  these 
were,  for  the  most  part,  imlilTerently  ]ilaced, 
with  no  adequate  approach  or  surroundings.  The 
public  buildings  of  American  cities — town  halls, 
railway  stations,  schools,  cnurthonses.  and  ad- 
ministrative olTices — were  chean  and  common- 
place, or  pretentious  anri  ugly.  Only  rarely,  as  at 
Washington.  Savunnnh.  and  Ch.Trle-^Inn,  has 
there  been  until  recent  years  even  the  semblance 
of  any  recogjiition  of  the  art  of  mmiicipnl  plan- 
ning, or  of  the  importance  of  artistic  treatment 
alike  in  the  design  and  .setting  of  public  build- 


ings. The  rectangular  street-plan  was  universally- 
accepted  as  the  ideal  arrangement.  Of  late, 
witli  the  general  awakening  of  the  art  instinct  in 
the  L'nited  Stales,  stiumlatcd  by  the  object  les- 
sons atl'orded  by  several  great  'expositions'  (Chi- 
cago, Omaha,  BuH'iilo),  there  has  begun  a  wide- 
spread reform  in  nnniieipal  architecture,  of  which 
tlie  new-  plan  for  the  improvement  of  Washington, 
the  proposed  adoption  of  llie  'group  system'  for 
the  public  buildings  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  the  new 
park  system  of  Boston,  and  the  proposed  re- 
modeling of  the  Chicago  lake  front,  are  a  few 
out  of  many  evidences.  Recent  town  halls,  ex- 
changes, luiiversity  buildings  (Columliia,  New 
York  University,  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
Washington  University,  Leland  Stanford.  .Jr..  and 
California  universities  and  others),  pul)]ic  li- 
braiies.  court-hou.ses,  and  railway  stations  in  the 
United  States  are  excellent  structures  architec- 
turally, and  give  promise  tluit  the  ugliness  of 
American  cities  is  to  be  greatly  mitigated  if  not 
done  away  with  in  the  near  future. 

MUNICIPAL  ART  SOCIETIES.     Societies 

in  the  L'nited  Stato  which  take  their  name  from 
the  purpose  of  their  organization,  which  is  the 
jiromotion  of  nnniieipal  art,  i.e.  art  as  applied  to 
cities.  They  seek  in  a  general  way  to  beautify 
cities.  Among  the  means  advocated  to  this  end 
are  the  planning  of  cities  with  regard  to  artistic 
beauty,  as  well  as  to  the  needs  of  trallic;  the 
planting  of  streets  with  trees,  and  the  restriction 
of  tile  billboard  nuisance;  the  increase  in  the 
number  and  size  of  ])arks,  especially  in  the  con- 
gested districts;  worthy  sites  and  beautiful 
architecture  for  puldie  buildings,  and  their  dcc- 
(uation  with  statuary  and  mural  painting;  the 
embellishment  of  the  city  with  statues,  monu- 
ments, and  other  works  of  art — things  which 
have  long  been  esteemed  es.sential  in  European 
cities.  These  ideas  are  promoted  by  local  so- 
cieties, like  the  Municipal  Art  Societies  of  New 
York.  Chicago.  Baltimore.  Cincinnati,  etc.,  the 
Fairniount  Park  Association  of  rhiladclphia.  and 
by  the  American  Park  and  (Outdoor  Association. 
.Vmong  the  achievements  of  the  movement  have 
been  the  ofhcial  ap[ioiiitmcnt  of  Municipal  Art 
Commissions,  composed  ]irincipally  of  artists,  by 
New  York  and  Chicago,  with  general  supervision 
over  public  buildings,  monuments,  and  other  ar- 
tistic undertakings;  the  enactment  of  legislation, 
both  State  and  local,  against  the  billboard  nui- 
sance in  Chicago;  the  appointment  of  commissions 
of  experts  to  devise  comiirehcnsivc  plans  for  the 
growth  of  Washington  (inOl)  and  similar  pro- 
posals for  New  York  (ino:!).  Two  volumes  of 
Municipal  Affairs  are  devoted  to  the  movement, 
vols.  ii.  and  iii.  (New  Y(u-k.  l.SOS-OO).  Consult 
also  C.  M.  Robinson.  The  Improvement  of  Toirns 
and  Vilies   (ib.,   1000)  ;   ^fnr]ent   Civic  Art    (ib., 

inn-2). 

MUNICIPAL  DEBTS.  In  a  strict  sense  of 
the  word,  debts  incurred  by  municipalities. 
When,  however,  the  total  municipal  indebtedness 
of  a  country  is  being  discussed,  particularly  in 
cnmi)aris(m  with  State  or  national  debts,  the  in- 
debt(Mlness  of  all  minor  civil  divisions  is  generally 
incluiled.  Municipal  debts  are  divideil  into 
bonded  or  funded,  and  lloating.  and  (he  latter 
may  be  diviiled  still  further  into  temporary-  loans 
in  anticipation  of  revenue  and  obligations  due 
for  material  furnished  or  services  rendered. 
Bonded   indebtedness,  as  a  rule,  so  far  exceeds 


I 


MUNICIPAL  DEBTS. 


115 


MUNICIPAL  DEBTS. 


floating  indebtedness  that  the  latter  is  frequently 
iynored  in  uidinary  discussions. 

History,  Oiliects,  and  JIetiiou.s.  The  develop- 
ment of  municipal  debt  is  for  the  most  part  coin- 
cident with  (lie  expansion  of  niunicijjal  functions, 
an  expansion  whicli  began  witli  the  nineteenth 
century  and  was  particularly  active  during  the 
decades  between  18,50  and  1S70.  A  factor  whicli 
contributed  largely  to  the  growth  of  American 
municipal  debts  was  the  aid  given  to  railway 
enterprises.  Many  municipalities  so  burdened 
themselves  with  debt  for  the  sake  of  assisting 
in  the  construction  of  railways  through  their 
limits,  that  for  many  years  they  were  obliged 
to  forego  the  most  essential  public  improvements. 
Such  railway  aid  was  granted  by  rural  as  well 
as  by  urban  communities. 

Railway  assistance  aside,  the  chief  objects  for 
which  urban  conununities  issue  bonds  are  the 
opening  and  paving  of  streets,  the  construction  of 
water-works,  sewers,  bridges,  schoolhouses  and 
other  public  buildings,  and  lighting.  Counties, 
in  some  sections,  issue  bonds  for  bridges  and  for 
liighway  improvements.  Finally,  school  districts, 
chietly  those  located  in  rural  sections,  issue  bonds 
to  raise  money  to  construct  schoolhouses.  Obvi- 
ously, loans  in  anticipation  of  taxes,  and  floating 
debts,  may  have  tlieir  origin  in  almost  any  of  the 
various  needs  of  the  municipality.  Loans  in  an- 
ticipation of  revenues  are  usually  raised  on 
notes  or  tax  certificates.  Obligations  for  ma- 
terial and  for  labor  or  other  personal  services,  or 
for  amounts  due  on  contracts,  are  frequently  ac- 
knowledged by  warrants  on  the  general  treasury, 
or  on  some  special  fund ;  and  such  warrants  be- 
come negotiable  paper.  When  the  cost  of  specific- 
ally local  improvements,  like  paving  or  sewers, 
is  met  by  special  assessments  on  the  property 
directly  benefited,  and  the  collections  are  de- 
layed or  distributed  over  a  series  of  years, 
the  obligations  are  met  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
ranging  from  warrants  to  s!iort-t«rm  bonds.  In 
negotiating  municipal  loans,  bonds  are  commonly 
sold,  after  public  advertisement,  to  the  highest 
bidder.  Temporary  loans  on  notes  are  commonly 
ofl'ected  at  banks. 

The  financial  luincijiles  involved  in  a  consid- 
eration of  municipal  debts  are  in  most  respects 
similar  to  those  alreaily  set  forth  under  Debt, 
PiBLic;  and  Finance.  Jlunicipnl  bonds  are 
issued  for  definite  periods  and  the  best  and  com- 
mon practice  is  to  provide  in  advance  for  their 
payment  at  matvirity.  Formerly  such  provision 
was  made  through  sinking  funds,  but  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  past  there  has  been  a  growing  ten- 
dency to  pay  off  municipal  bonds  in  iiistallnients. 
This  plan  obviates  the  necessity  of  administering 
a  number  of  special  and  rapidly  accumulating 
funds,  which  sometimes  present  financial  difficul- 
ties, and  are  always  subject  to  diversion  on  the 
part  of  unscrupulous  or  ill-advised  municipal 
oflicials. 

In  fixing  the  tenn  for  which  municipal  bonds 
are  to  run,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  since 
niunici]>al  bonds  are  issued  to  distribute  the  ex- 
pen*  of  certain  improvements  over  a  number  of 
years,  the  term  of  the  bonds  issued  should  bear 
some  relation  to  the  probable  life  of  the  improve- 
ment involved.  Street  pavements,  for  instance, 
require  renewal  in  from  ten  to  twenty  years ;  it 
would  therefore  he  a  gross  mistake  to  make 
Donds  issued  to  cover  their  cost  run  forty  or  fifty 
years.     Land  purchases,  on  the  other  hand,  in- 


volve a  class  of  property  that  appreciates  rather 
than  depreciates  as  time  goes  on;  it  might  ac- 
corilingly  be  permissible  to  pay  for  them  by  an 
issue  of  long-term  bonds.  Another  important 
factor  in  fixing  the  life  of  bonds  is  the  character 
of  the  undertaking  to  which  the  proceeds  are  to 
be  devoted.  Water-works,  for  instance,  produce 
a  revenue,  and  not  only  may,  but  should  l)e  self- 
supporting.  The  means  are  therefore  at  hand 
to  pay  oil'  the  debt,  and  the  sooner  this  is  accom- 
plished the  quicker  can  water  rates  be  reduced 
or  the  service  improved.  Schoolhouses  produce 
no  revenue;  and  this  fact  aflords  a  reason,  but 
not  necessarily  a  suflTicient  one,  for  making  the 
life  of  the  bonds  co-terminous  with  the  probable 
useful  life  of  the  structure. 

The  interest  rates  on  municipal  bonds  have 
fallen  from  0  and  7  per  cent,  a  few  decades  ago 
to  3 lo  and  4  per  cent,  as  a  normal  figure  for  the 
bonds  of  municipalities  of  good  standing.  The 
premiums  generally  received  virtually  lower  the 
interest  rate,  often  to  a  considerable  extent. 

Debt  Limitation.s.  The  interests  of  borrower 
and  lender  combine  to  make  necessary  some  limit 
to  the  amount  of  indebtedness  which  a  munici- 
pality may  incur,  and  the  purposes  for  wliich 
money  may  be  borrowed.  Considering  the  latter 
first,  it  is  obvious  that  permanent  loans  should 
never  be  made  to  meet  current  expenses,  although 
occasionally  it  may  be  necessary  or  wise  to  fund 
a  floating  debt  that,  through  bad  financiering,  has 
grown  beyond  ordinary  revenues.  Public  loans 
to  aid  private  enterprises  are  generally  held  to- 
be  against  public  policy,  and  are  unconstitutional 
in  some  States.  As  to  the  amount  of  indebtedness 
which  a  municipality  may  incur,  prudence  de- 
mands that  this  be  kept  so  low  as  not  to  over- 
burden the  taxpayer  with  interest  and  other 
capital  charges,  or,  in  the  case  of  jiroductive 
undertakings,  the  patrons  thereof.  Even  wOiere 
there  are  no  constitutional,  statutory,  or  charter 
limits  on  indebtedness  and  taxation,  there  is  a 
practical  limit  to  the  burden  of  taxation  which 
the  citizen  will  bear.  B)it  most  municipalities 
are  subjected  to  definite  limitations  as  to  debt 
and  taxation.  Such  limits  varj'  widely  in  differ- 
ent countries  and  States,  and  even  among  the 
cities  of  a  single  State.  It  is  generally  some 
percentage  of  the  assessed  valuation,  but  as  the 
relation  of  this  to  the  actual  value  of  the  prop- 
erty assessed  varies  widely,  comparative  debt 
limits  are  likely  to  be  very  misleading,  unless 
supplemented  by  explanatory  statements.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  for  the  United  States 
that  the  legal  debt  limit  ranges  from  .3  to  10  per 
cent,  of  the  total  assessed  valuation,  althniigh 
some  cities  are  subject  to  no  legal  limitations  in 
this  respect.  Where  the  limit  is  by  statute  in- 
stead of  constitution,  appeals  for  its  extension  or 
for  exemptions  on  account  of  certain  classes  are 
frequently  made  to  the  Legislature,  Water- 
works bonds  are  quite  often  exempted  from  com- 
putations of  the  debt  limit,  and  recently  there 
have  been  efforts  in  several  States  to  exclude 
from  the  debt  limit  all  bonds  issued  for  revenue- 
producing  W'orks.  In  CJreat  Britain  some  classes 
of  loans  are  subject  to  the  sanction  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  the  control  of  other  classes  has  been 
deputed  by  Parliament  to  the  Local  Government 
Board.  This  body  has  a  well-orcanized  stall'  of 
experts;  it  gives  formal  local  hearings  on  appli- 
cations for  specific  loans  and  grants  or  withholds 
its  consent  to  the  applications.    On  the  Continent 


MTJNICIPAL  DEBTS. 


116 


MUNICIPAL  DEBTS. 


1 


of  Europe  tlu'ie  is  suiiie  central  control  of  debts 
in  at  least  Prussia  ami  France.  The  nearest  ap- 
proach to  central  control  of  loans  in  tlic  United 
•States  is  found  in  Massachusetts,  but  its  exercise 
is  due  primarily  to  sanitary  rather  than  financial 
safeguards.  Legislative  permission  to  make 
water-supply  and  sewerage  improvements  is  sel- 
dom if  ever  granted  in  Massachusetts  unless  the 
plans  for  the  proposed  work  are  approved  by  the 
State  Board  of  Health. 

Statistics.  Keliahle  comparative  figures  of 
municipal  indebtedness  are  even  more  difficult  to 
obtain  tlu\ii  a  comi>arative  summary  of  debt  limi- 
tations. The  debts  of  individual  cities,  espe- 
cially when  reduced  to  a  jxr  capita  basis,  can 
be  interpreted  intelligently  only  when  accom- 
panied by  statements  regarding  tax  rates,  the 
extent  to  which  the  cost  of  municipal  improve- 
ments is  met  by  special  assessments,  and  espe- 
cially by  data  as  to  tlie  character  and  extent  of 
the  services  rendered  to  the  citizens  by  the  munic- 
ipality. Low  per  ca])ita  bonded  indebtedness  is 
not  necessarily  advantageous  to  citizens  and  tax- 
payers, since  it  may  mean  that  the  city  in  ques- 
tion is  either  without  improvements,  or  that  it-s 
water-works,  lighting  service,  bridges,  and  even 
sewers,  are  owiu'd  by  private  companies. 

The  municipal  debts  of  some  of  the  large  Euro- 
pean cities  in  1888-80  are  given  by  Fairlie*  as 
follows  (condensed  and  rearranged)  : 


BrUHsels 

Paris 

Manchester... 

Liverpool 

AniPterdain... 
BinnliiKliam. 

GIai*pow 

Muiiii'h 

London 

Leipzig 

Berlin 

Lyons 

Cciioffne 

Bordeaux 


Amount      Per  capita 


$56,000,000 

$2»0 

443,(I(I(),1H)0 

160 

79.000.IKHI 

1.50 

43,000.000 

110 

40.IHI0.IK10 

80 

CO.UIKt.UIHI 

80 

43.niHI.(HKI 

69 

2.'>.iK>o.niH) 

55 

24:i.'2O0..'il.'; 

54 

1T..">IK).IKK1 

40 

f)«,2i'.i.n.") 

37 

14.000.(I(KI 

.32 

10.(KKl.injO 

29 

6.000.000 

24 

•  Cre<lite<l  by  Fnlrlle  to  Cadeaux,  Les  j^nances  ile  Parts: 
Stalistinchts  Jit/irbucfi  tier  IJtutschtn  ^tdtlte.  VIII. : 


I'aiil 


Duboisi,  Hsiai  sur  tea  Financfti  Cotnmutuite-it. 

According  to  the  Englisli  Local  Government 
Board  re))()rts,  the  local  del>ts  of  England  and 
Wales  increased  from  £1)2.820.100  in  1874-75  to 
f2,'>2.13ri.;')74  in  18!)ti-!t7.  whereas  in  the  same 
period  the  debt  of  tlie  linited  Kingdom  decreased 


from  £7C8,il45.7.>7  to  £(i4().773.(;!}7.  In  other 
words,  the  local  debt  increased  in  t\\enty-two 
years  from  12.07  to  39.3;')  per  cent,  of  the  national 
debt,  l-'airlie  (see  bibliogia])hy)  states  that  in 
England  the  municipal  (lebt  trebled  from  1875 
to  18!)8,  and  that  in  France  it  increased  by  two- 
thirds  between  1SU8  and  18!)!). 

For  the  Luited  States  local  debt  statistics  by 
cities.  Slates,  and  for  the  whule  country  were 
given  in  the  Tenth  and  Eleventh  Censuses  (1880 
and  18!)0).  Beginning  witli  18!in.  the  United 
States  Department  of  Lal)or  has  devoted  a  large 
part  of  its  Septeiuber  Bulletin,  each  year,  to 
■'Statistics  of  Cities,"  among  which  it  includes 
bonded,  floating,  total,  net,  and  per  capita  net 
debts,  sinkin.g  funds,  and  legal  borrowing  limits 
for  cities  of  .30,000  pu])ulation  and  upward.  The 
bulletin  for  1902  contained  figures  for  the  fiscal 
year  preceding  (1900-01.  1901,  and  1901-02,  ac- 
cording to  local  conditions)  for  137  cities.  The 
per  capita  net  debts  (figured  on  estimated  popu- 
lations) range  from  $1.48  for  San  Francisco  to 
$115.57  for  Newton,  !Mass.  Tlie  average  is  not 
given.  In  connection  with  the  low  debt  of  San 
Francisco,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  water- 
works and  lighting  plants  are  owned  by  a  private 
company,  ami  that  in  many  res]x'ets  the  city  is 
backward  in  public  iui]>rovements.  Newton,  on 
th£  other  hand,  is  a  very  progressive  city.  Se- 
lecting the  largest  city  in  each  group  of  ten.  the 
table  following  has  been  compiled  from  the  1902 
bulletin. 

Of  the  137  cities  in  the  original  list,  23  report 
no  sinking  fund,  and  an  equal  number  repiu't  no 
debt  limit.  Providence.  R.  I.,  is  allowed  to  con- 
tract debts  up  to  30  per  cent,  of  its  assessed 
valuation  and  sinking  fund  combined,  and  Nor- 
folk. A'a..  may  go  as  high  as  20  jier  cent,  of  the 
assessed  valuation.  The  lowest  limit  is  2^^  per 
cent,  of  the  assessed  valuation. 

Biiu.iooRAPHY.  Adams,  PuhUc  Debts  (New 
York,  1890)  :  Fairlie,  MiDiicipiil  AdnnninlratioH 
(New  York,  1901 )  ;  the  works  noted  under  Debt, 
Public,  and  Finance:  United  States  Census  Re- 
ports for  1880  and  189D;  Septendjer  Bulletins, 
United  States  Department  of  Labor  (beginning 
1899)  ;  British  Local  (Jovernment  Board  Reports 
(annual)  ;  and  the  semi-annual  "States  and  City 
Sup]ilement"  to  the  Comiiiercinl  and  Financial 
Chronicle  (New  York).  The  latter  contains  ab- 
stracts of  constitutional  and  legislative  provi- 
sions regarding  uumicipal  debt  limits. 


(: 


DkHTS    and    LEOAI,   BORBOtVINO    LIMITS   OF    FomTKEN    AMERICAN   ClTIES 

(Compiled  from  Statistics  of  Cities,  United  States  Department  of  Labor,  1902) 


New  York.  N.  Y 

Pittflburg,  Pa 

ln<)iann[>nl)s.  Iild 

New  Haven.  Conn 

('anibridffe.  Mass 

WilniluKlon.  Del 

Snnierville.  Mass 

San  Antonio,  Texas.. 

Wat«'rbur.v.  Ciinn 

Llu<-nln,  Neb 

Springfield,  Ohio , 

.totiriMlown.  Pa 

Topekn.  Kan 

Canton.  Ohio 


Estimated 

population, 

1902 


3.68:1,930 

333.600 

182.500 

112.000 

94.084 

78..'iOfl 

6.3.600 

65,600 

48.139 

42.600 

40.000 

40.000 

»4.600 

33.000 


Debt 


Bonded 

Bondefl  and 
floating 

$426,174,823 

$432,481,295 

23.278.702 

24.422.156 

:»,855.735  t 

4.051.735  t 

3.429.500 

3.8t»4,500 

8.:)74.500 

8.374.500 

2,ini.;t99 

2,232.393 

1.461.000 

1.761  ,(KX) 

2,271.1100 

2.542,827 

1,570.000 

1,570.000 

1.666,988 

1.8«1,RX1 

893.846 

938,846 

684.600 

5.34,500 

1.110.390 

1,110.390 

969.189 

1,017.169 

Net  (total  less  Net 

sinkiuf?  fund)      per  capita 


$311,140,375 

18.596.79:1 

4.0.'il,7:(5  t 

3,823, !>94 

6,374,910 

2,232,393 

1.7lil,(KK) 

2,4.'M,0,V2 

1,495,123 

1,812,426 

9:18.846 

4:19.174 

1.101,120 

1.003,289 


$86,82 
65.76 
22.20  t 
34.14 
67.76 
28.44 
27.73 
44.16 
31.06 
42.65 
23.47 
10.98 
31.92 
30.40 


Le^ral  bor- 
rowing 
limit, 
per  cent. 


10- 
7  + 
2t 

§ 

2m 
s 

2V4f 

8t 
none 
none 
none 

2  11 
none 
none 


•  Of  nHsetwMl  vnliintlnn  ;  exeludlncc  water  debt,  t  Of  assessed  valuation.  J  Ineludlnp  $866,209  assessment  bonds. 
5  Controlled  b.v  State  leirlslntiire.  t  Of  avernire  nssessed  valuation  for  three  .years.  ||  Of  assessed  valuation  :  may 
be  7  per  cent,  by  vote  of  people,  for  general  city  purposes,  also  uu  equal  amount  for  school  purposes. 


MXTNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT. 


117 


MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT. 


MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT.  The  adinin- 
istnilii'U  i>l  llic  iill'Mirs  nf  u  I'ily,  town,  borough, 
villago,  or  oilier  minor  civil  division  of  a  State, 
but  generally  re.stricted  to  the  government  of  pure 
niuniciiial  corporations  as  opposed  to  (jiiasi  muni- 
cipal cor|ioratioiis,  sueli  as  eounties.  townships, 
and  .seho(jl  districts.  Municipal  government  sel- 
dom reaches  its  fullest  development  outside 
of  the  larger  cities,  but  numerous  municipal  ac- 
tivities are  often  undertaken  in  progressive  urban 
coinnuinities  of  only  a  few  thousand  inhabitants. 
Since  the  municipality  is  the  creature  of  the 
State,  it  follows  that  its  form  of  government,  its 
various  activities,  and  its  powers  are  not  only 
derived  from  the  State,  but  are  also  sul)ject  to 
alteration  or  repeal  at  its  will.  The  municipality 
has  a  direct  and  far  more  intimate  relation  with 
those  subject  to  its  government  than  does  the 
State,  supplying  many  want.s  common  to  its  in- 
habitants, and  performing  or  supervising  the  per- 
formance of  many  services  which  outside  of  the 
municipality  are  left  to  private  enterprise. 

Tn  some  of  the.se  respects,  as  in  the  exercise  of 
the  police  power,  the  care  of  the  public  health, 
the  administration  of  charity,  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  local  justice,  the  municipality  is  actu- 
ally the  agent  of  the  State,  and  discharges  duties 
of  interest  to  the  State  at  large;  in  others,  as  in 
the  furnishing  of  water  or  light,  the  State  per- 
mits the  community  as  a  whole  to  act  as  a  local 
organization  for  the  satisfaction  of  purely  local 
needs  of  interest  to  the  community  only.  The 
very  remarkable  growth  of  the  urban  popu- 
lation during  the  last  half  century  has  greatly 
increased  the  importance  of  municipal  govern- 
ment, and  at  the  same  time  multiplied  its  difli- 
culties.  About  three-fourths  of  the  population  of 
England  and  Scotland  now  live  under  conditions 
of  urban  life,  while  in  the  older  parts  of  the 
United  States  the  town  dwellers  outnumber  the 
country  dwellers.  For  the  origin  and  nature  of 
the  legal  powers  of  municipalities,  see  Munici- 
pality ;  see  also  the  general  article  Govebnment. 
For  the  history,  growth  in  population,  and  cer- 
tain economic,  social,  and  political  phases,  see 
Ciir. 

TMimicipal  government  may  be  considered  under 
four  main  heads:  (1)  Functions;  (2)  organiza- 
tion;   (3)    finance:    (4)    public  policy. 

Municipal  Finctions.  The  functions  of  a  mu- 
nicipality include  all  the  public  activities  of  the 
city,  whether  direct,  such  as  laying  out  and 
maintaining  streets,  or  indirect,  such  as  regulat- 
ing traffic  and  maintaining  order  on  the  public 
thoroughfares.  These  activities  are  many  and 
complex,  and  frequently  overlap,  but  they  may  be 
grouped  as  follows:  ( 1 )  The  so-called  public  utili- 
ties, which  include  ways  and  means  of  comnuini- 
cafion  and  transportation,  together  with  the  sup- 
ply of  light  and  water  to  the  inhabitants:  (2)  dis- 
posal of  wastes:  (3)  protection  of  life,  health,  and 
property;  (4)  charities  and  correction ;  {n)  edu- 
cation: (6)  recreation:  (7)  municipal  housing. 
The  provision  of  trfn/x  and  mean»  of  cnmimini- 
calion  nnd  traiiftjiortntton  is  (me  of  the  first  and 
most  obvious  functions  of  municipal  govern- 
ment. Its  basis  is  the  public  streets,  upon 
the  surface  of  which  all  land  traflfie  moves,  be- 
neath which  arc  jilaced  pipes  to  bring  in  munici- 
pal supplies  and  to  carry  out  w-astes.  and  either 
above  or  below  which  are  wires  for  transmit- 
ting messages.     As  an  aid  to  the  movement  of 


street  trallic,  it  falls  within  the  duties  of  the 
municipal  government  either  to  provide  street 
railways  or  to  .see  that  they  arc  ]irovided  and 
projicrly  operated  by  private  enterpri>e.  In 
many  of  the  English  and  vScotch  cities  the  street 
railways  have  been  constructed  and  are  owned  by 
the  municipality  itself,  although  it  is  a  com- 
mon |)ractice  to  lease  them  to  a  private  company 
for  operation.  In  the  United  States  this  is  usu- 
ally a  function  of  private  enterprise,  subject  to 
the  supervision  of  the  city.  Where  waterways 
are  involved,  bridges  and  peihaps  ferries  must 
be  provided,  and  frequently  docks,  wharves,  and 
harbors  as  well.  Bridges  are  now  almost  always 
built  at  pul>lic  expense,  and  :u-c  as  free  to  all  as 
the  streets,  but  sometimes  bridges  are  owned  by- 
private  companies,  and  sometimes,  but  rarely  in 
large  municipalities,  toll  is  charged  for  the  use 
of  the  bridges.  The  construction  and  control  of 
harbors  is  not  a  municipal  function  in  the  United 
States,  and  in  other  countries  their  care  is  gen- 
eially  a  function  of  the  national  government. 
JIunicipal  docks  are  far  more  common  than  muni- 
cipal harbors.  Where  docks  are  required,  they 
often  are  or  may  be  an  important  source  of  rev- 
enue: but  the  first  consiileration  should  be  to 
aft'ord  every  facility  for  the  speedy  and  cheap 
handling  of  goods  and  passengers.  The  relation 
of  municipal  government  to  the  telephone  ;uid 
telegraph  service  is  chiefly  regulative,  es])ecially 
in  the  United  States,  and  thus  far  extends  but 
little  beyond  the  police  control  of  the  electric 
wires  involved. 

One  of  the  most  important  municipal  services 
is  the  supply  of  water  for  household  and  indus- 
trial purposes,  for  fire  protection,  and  for  sewer 
and  street  flushing.  The  lighting  service,  like 
the  water  .supply,  is  both  for  public  and  pri- 
vate use.  The  light  furnished  may  be  either  in 
the  form  of  gas  or  electricity.  Almost  every- 
where at  present  the  water  and  lighting  suj)- 
plies  are  municipal  functions,  although  they  may 
be  intrusted  to  private  companies.  Municipal 
markets  for  the  .sale  of  meat  and  other  food  su])- 
plies  are  frequently  maintained  for  the  sake  of 
both  convenience  and  sanitation.  The  sanitary 
aspects  of  cattle  markets,  abattoirs,  and  slaughter 
houses  are  of  gTeat  importance.  Consequently, 
where  markets  are  not  provided,  the  municip;il 
health  authorities  exercise,  or  should  exercise, 
a  rigid  supervision  over  private  markets,  and 
also  over  the  various  foods  prepared  or  exi)osed 
for  sale  therein.  The  supply  of  such  articles  as 
milk  and  ice  to  the  inhabitants  is  left  to  private 
enterprise,  but  on  sanitary  grounds  is  usually 
sul)ject  to  regulation  by  the  municipal  govern- 
ment. 

Wa.ste.s.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  large 
quantity  of  water  supplied  to  the  modern  muni- 
cipality must  be  removed  again  in  a  more  or  less 
befouled  condition.  All  American,  many  British, 
and  the  largest  Continental  cities  have  found 
water  to  be  the  best  vehicle  for  removing  excreta, 
an<l  as  a  result  we  have  the  modern  sewerage 
system,  which  carries  away  this  dangerous  waste 
together  with  the  water  otherwise  befouled  by 
domestic  use.  The  surface  dr;iinage  from  roofs, 
yards,  and  streets  may  be  removed  with  the  sew- 
age, or  else  in  separate  conduits.  The  food  wastes 
of  the  kitchen  and  table,  consisting  of  decomposa- 
ble organic  matter,  and  commonly  known  as  gar- 
bage, require  separate  disposal ;  and  the  same  is 


MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT. 


118 


MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT. 


true  of  ashes,  waste  paper,  and  other  rubbish. 
Street  dirt  must  be  coUeited  and  removed,  and  the 
streets  must  be  sjirinkK'd  to  keep  down  tlie  dust 
which  is  inevitable  even  with  the  best  sweeping. 
All  these  are  ii]uniei]>al  functions  which  caniiot 
be  left  to  private  enterjirise.  Finally,  the  human 
dead  must  be  considered  under  the  general  head 
of  wastes,  and  cemeteries  must  be  provided  for 
burying  or  crematories  for  burning  the  bodies. 
Cemeteries  arc  frccjuently,  but  crematories  rarely, 
owned  by  municipalities.  The  other  services  in- 
cluded under  the  heading,  in  so  far  as  they  are 
performed  with  regularity  and  system,  are  almost 
invariably  rendered  by  the  municipality,  either 
directly  or  by  contractors  at  its  expense  and 
under  its  supervision. 

Pbotkction  of  Life,  Health,  and  Propeuty. 
The  protective  functions  of  a  municijial  char- 
acter include  the  work  of  the  police,  the  courts, 
the  fire  department,  and  the  board  of  health,  to- 
gether with  the  building  ins|)ection  service,  and 
the  provision  of  public  baths,  wash  houses,  and 
water  closets.  The  cluiritiis  and  correction  serv- 
ice includes  poor  relief  and  the  maintenance  of 
asylums  and  reformatories.  The  educational 
service  end)races  not  only  the  work  of  the  com- 
mon schools  i)reparatory  to  the  college,  but 
manual  training,  and  sometimes  tccluiical 
education,  night  schools,  v.aeation  schools, 
libraries,  anil  museums.  The  municipality  in 
undertaking  the  work  of  elementary  education 
and  poor  relief  is  acting  as  the  agent  of  the  State, 
and  is  subject  to  more  or  less  central  control  so 
far  as  these  activities  are  concerned.  The  recrea- 
tion service  includes  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  parks,  ])laygrounds,  gymnasiums,  to- 
gether with  the  provision  for  public  concerts  and 
lectures.  The  (hree  first  named  institutions  might 
also  be  inchuled  under  both  education  and  health 
service,  while  concerts  and  lectures  may  lie  in- 
eluded  under  education  as  well  as  recreation.  Mii- 
nieipal  hoiisinii  is  ]>ractically  unknown  in  .Amer- 
ica, but  is  a  marked  feature  of  numicipal  activity 
in  Great  Hritain.  It  has  arisen  partly  through 
the  demolition  of  whole  blocks  of  unsanitary 
houses,  which  seemed  to  make  necessary  a  provi- 
sion for  reliousing  the  ejected  tenants,  and  partly 
from  a  desire  to  alVord  nuinicipal  aid  in  tlu'  ef- 
forts being  made  by  philanthropists  to  imjirove 
the  home  condition  of  the  working  classes.  The 
houses  built  at  municipal  expense  are  generallv 
designed  to  provide  living  places  thoroughly  saii- 
itarv  in  their  construction  and  appointments  for 
the  poorest  class  of  self-sup|>orting  wage-earners. 
ORdAMZATloN.  The  successful  administration 
of  the  many  and  varied  activities  just  outlined 
demands  a  <legree  and  character  of  organization 
resend)ling  in  sonic  respects  that  of  n  large  pri- 
vate corporation.  In  the  governnu-nt  of  States 
it  is  common  to  divide  the  functions  of 
government  as  well  as  the  olhcials  who 
discharge  them  into  three  groups — the  legis- 
lative, the  executive,  and  the  judicial.  The 
same  general  plan  inight  be  folbiwed  in  consider- 
ing municipal  government,  but  separation  into 
these  three  branches  is  by  no  ineans  so  easy,  on 
account  of  the  greater  overlapping  of  municipal 
fuiu'tiiins.  The  juilicial  power,  except  as  it  is 
exercised  by  numicipal  mayors,  is  more  a  State 
than  a  numicipal  function,  and  will  not  be  fur- 
ther considered,  except  to  note  the  existence  of 
municipal   police  courts  for  the  prompt  trial  of 


persons  arrested  for  misdemeanors  or  crimes. 
The  legislative  functions  of  municipal  govern- 
ments are  exercised  primarily  by  the  council, 
and  the  executive,  by  various  officers  and  boards, 
with  the  mayor  as  the  chief  executive  officer. 
Some  of  the  executive  boards  possess  yioisi'-lcgis- 
lative  powei-s,  while  others,  such  as  boards  of 
health,  exercise  both  legislative  and  judicial 
functions.  The  mayor's  duties  are  legisla- 
tive, judicial,  and  executive.  He  often  presides 
over  the  meetings  of  the  council,  casts  the  de- 
ciding vote  in  case  of  a  tie.  usually  has  the  power 
to  veto  ordinances,  appoints  officials,  supervises 
the  afTairs  of  the  city,  hears  and  passes  upon 
charges  involving  possible  dismissal  of  officials, 
and  sometimes  acts  as  a  judge  of  municipal 
courts.  In  the  United  States  the  mayor  is  elected 
by  ])0pular  vote,  though  formerly  he  was  ()uite 
generally  elected  by  the  council :  elsewhere  he  is 
commonly  appointed  either  by  the  city  council  or 
by  the  central  government.  (See  Mayois. )  In  ex- 
tent of  power  the  mayors  of  the  United  States 
rank  first,  and  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  in- 
crease their  powers  and  responsibilities.  In  point 
of  training  the  mayors  of  Germany  take  the 
lead :  in  that  country  the  mayoralty  is  a  profes- 
sion, and  a  successful  officer  is  promoted  from 
one  city  to  another  and  larger  as  his  ability  and 
reputation  increase.  In  all  countries  the  mayor 
is  the  chief  representative  of  the  city,  but  in  Great 
Britain  alone  the  office  is  mainly  one  of  dignity 
and  honor.  In  that  country  the  mayor  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council  and  presides  over  its  meetings, 
but  he  does  not  possess  the  veto  power.  The  im- 
portance of  the  mayor's  office  in  the  United 
States  is  largely  due  to  the  control  which  he  ex- 
ercises over  legislation  through  his  power  of 
veto,  and  to  his  power  of  appointing  and  remov- 
ing execntive  officers.  The  latter  ]iower  is  gener- 
ally subject  to  approval  by  the  council,  Imt  it  is 
in  freedom  from  this  restriction  that  the  growing 
importance  of  the  otHce  chielly  consists.  The  ex- 
tension of  the  power  of  ap])ointment  is  significant 
because  it  diminishes  the  number  of  officials  elect- 
ed by  popular  vote,  as  well  as  the  number  chosen 
by  the  council,  and  combined  with  the  pow'er 
of  removal,  which  is  cimiing  to  be  generally 
granted,  enables  the  mayor  to  shape  nuinicipal 
policy  and  to  direct  the  manner  in  which  tliat 
policy  is  carried  out.  The  later  municipal  char- 
ters (luite  generally  grant  the  mayor  the  ]iowcr  to 
appoint  the  various  heads  of  departments,  except 
the  chief  financial  oflicer,  who  is  usually  elected 
by  popular  vote.  .Aside  from  the  exercise  of  judi- 
cial power  involved  in  the  removal  of  officials  for 
cause,  mayors  do  not  usually  act  as  judges  ex- 
cept in  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  and 
in  these  countries  their  judicial  functions  are 
chiefly  in  the  capacity  of  justices  of  the  peace. 
In  the  larger  cities  of  the  United  States  this 
function  is  seldom  exeri'iseil  by  the  mayor.  aii<l  in 
some  sections  it  is  entirely  lacking:  but  it  may 
.still  be  found  in  force  in  Delaware,  in  the  South- 
ern States.  Indiana.  Iowa,  and  elsewhere.  See 
Mayok. 

TiiK  t'oiNTTi,.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the 
city  council  vary  greatly  in  the  different  coun- 
tries of  the  world,  and  quite  as  much  so  in  the 
several  commnnwealfhs  of  the  United  States,  or 
even  in  the  lil  ies  of  a  single  State.  Germany 
leads  in  the  comprehensive  control  of  its  coun- 
cils over  nuinicipal  alTairs,  ar.d  Great  Britain 
ranks  next  in  this  particular.    The  German  coun- 


MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT. 


119 


MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT. 


cils  control  schools  and  charities,  which  in  Great 
Britain  are  under  two  sets  of  quite  independent 
authorities,  but  while  the  German  councils  are 
in  sonic  respects  subject  to  the  board  of  magis- 
trates, including  the  head  magistrate,  the  bur- 
gomaster or  mayor,  and  while  the  latter 
has  other  important  functions,  the  English  coun- 
cil has  full  local  control  within  its  sphere. 
The  French  municipal  councils,  unlike  those 
of  Germany  and  Great  Britain,  have  few  or  no 
administrative  powers,  their  control  being  limit- 
ed chielly  to  the  appropriation  of  money  and 
questions  of  policy.  In  the  Unit*'d  States  the 
councils  formerly  closely  resembled  those  of  Great 
Britain,  and  frequently  had  control  of  charities 
and  of  other  municipal  activities,  but  one  by  one 
many  of  their  powers  have  been  taken  from  them 
and  bestowed  on  the  mayor  or  else  on  independent 
boards.  Among  these  boards  may  be  mentioned 
water,  sewerage,  street,  park,  fire,  police,  and 
health  boards,  or  combinations  of  two  or  more 
of  these  into  a  single  lioard.  Again,  single-headed 
departments,  more  or  less  independent  of  the  coun- 
cil, have  been  created  by  municipal  charters  or  by 
special  legislation.  The  financial  contrcd  of  .some 
of  these  new  bodies  has  been  left  with  the  city 
council,  at  least  to  the  extent  of  making  or  Avitli- 
hokling  appropriations,  and  liorrowing  money  by 
means  of  bond  issues.  In  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  the  councils  are  restricted  to  the 
exercise  of  those  powers  specifically  or  impliedly 
authorized  by  the  State,  and  implied  jjowers  are 
seldom  so  construed  as  to  warrant  permanent 
loans,  purchase  of  land,  erection  of  buildings,  or 
other  ])ublic  works.  On  the  Continent  of  Europe 
grants  of  municipal  authority  are  far  more  gen- 
eral and  limitations  specific,  but  the  central 
government  exercises  a  general  control  and 
supervision  over  the  nnmicipalitics  unknown  in 
the  United  States,  and  rarely  if  ever  practiced  in 
Great  Britain.  In  the  latter  country,  however, 
the  Local  Government  Board,  in  sanitary  mat- 
ters, and  the  Board  of  Trade,  in  the  case  of  muni- 
cipal enterprises  which  produce  revenues,  pass 
upon  loans,  and  by  their  power  of  granting  or  re- 
fusing authority  for  these  they  e.xercise  no  little 
control  over  municipal  councils.  The  council  in 
the  United  States,  ]iarticularly  in  small  cities, 
is  generally  a  single-clmmbered  body,  elected  by 
districts,  but  there  are  numerous  instances 
of  a  select  council,  or  Upper  House,  the  members 
of  which  are  frequently  elected  by  a  larger  con- 
stituency than  those  of  the  Lower  House,  or  by 
the  city  as  a  whole,  and  sometimes  serving  for  a 
longer  term.  In  England  the  council  sits  as  one 
body,  but  it  is  composed  of  councilors  elected  by 
the  people  and  of  aldermen  chosen  by  the  council, 
usually  from  its  own  membership.  (See  Great 
Brit.\i.\.)  In  Continental  Europe  there  usually 
is  but  one  chandjer  of  councilors,  and  frequently 
the  members  are  elected  on  a  general  ticket.  As  a 
rule,  the  councils  in  European  countries  are  far 
larger  than  those  in  the  L'nited  States,  contain- 
ing from  .50  to  130  members,  and  in  one  case,  Bu- 
dapest. 400  members.  In  the  L'nited  States,  even 
where  two  chambers  exist,  there  are  rarely  over 
■50  to  flO  members,  but  Philadelphia  is  a  notalile 
exception,  with  nearly  200  members  in  both 
branches.  The  tenure  of  nuinicipal  councilors  is 
from  one  to  four  years  in  the  United  States; 
three  years  for  councilors  and  six  years  for  al- 
dermen in  Great  Britain ;  four  years  in  France 
and   Spain;    five   years    in    Italy;    six   years    in 


Austria,  Prussia,  Hungary,  Holland,  Belgium; 
ami  nine  years  in  Bavaria.  In  most  of  the 
European  c<mntries  jjrovision  is  made  for  periodic 
renewal  of  the  council.  The  usual  rule  is  renew- 
al by  thirds  or  halves,  annually,  biennially,  or 
triennially,  according  .^o  the  length  of  the  term. 
The  most  universal  legal  qualification  for  coun- 
cilmen,  aside  from  age,  is  residence.  In  America 
councilmen  must  not  only  reside  in  the  city  which 
they  represent,  but,  by  written  or  unwritten  law, 
within  the  district  which  elects  them.  In  France 
any  taxpayer  is  eligible,  even  though  not  a  voter, 
I)rovided  the  luimber  of  non-resident  councilmen 
does  not  exceed  one-fourth  the  whole.  In  Eng- 
land taxpayers  residing  within  fifteen  miles  of 
the  municipality  may  be  elected  for  any  district 
thereof.  Property  qualifications  for  a  portion  of 
tile  members  of  the  council  are  required  in 
European  countries,  but  in  a  few  cities,  in- 
cluding Dresden  and  Leipzig,  half  of  the  member- 
ship must  be  from  non-property-holders.  In  the 
L'nited  States  property  qualifications  for  member- 
ship in  the  council  were  formerly  quite  common, 
but  are  no  longer  required.  In  all  countries  the 
work  of  councils  is  largely  done  by  committees, 
and  this  is  particularly  true  of  those  countries 
where  the  council  has  large  powers  and  duties, 
which  doubtless  accounts  for  the  large  bodies  in 
Great  Britain  and  elsewhere  in  Europe.  In  Chi- 
cago and  in  most  small  cities  the  presiding  officer 
of  the  council  is  the  mayor.  In  other  large 
American  cities  there  is  usually  a  president  of 
the  council  elected  by'  the  city  at  large.  In  Eu- 
rope the  council  usually  elects  its  own  presiding 
officer.  Generally  speaking,  memliers  of  munici- 
pal councils  receive  no  salary  and  frequently  ser- 
vice is  compulsory.  In  a  number  of  the  large 
cities  of  the  l'nited  States,  however,  members  re- 
ceive pay  ranging  from  a  small  per  diem  allow- 
ance to  .'(i2000  a  year,  which  is  the  amount  paid 
to  members  of  the  New  York  Council. 

ExEciTi\E  Bo.\nn.s  AND  OFFICERS.  These  range 
from  the  mayor  and  council  committees  to  the 
more  or  less  indeficndent  boards  and  commissions 
so  common  in  the  United  States,  and  on  down 
to  minor  officials  acting  under  these  officers.  The 
number  and  variety  of  services  which  these 
boards  and  officials  perform  has  been  partly  indi- 
cated in  the  enumeration  of  the  city's  functions. 
In  cities  where  the  council  is  supreme,  the  com- 
mittees of  that  body  exercise  large  executive 
powers.  Great  reliance,  however,  is  placed  on 
trained  executive  officers  selected  by  such  commit- 
tees or  by  the  council  as  a  whole  for  the  various 
departments  of  municipal  activity.  Outside  of 
the  United  States  such  officials  are  seldom  cho.sen 
by  popular  vote,  but  in  this  country  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  choose  many  of  these  ofiicers  by 
popular  election.  Minor  positions  are.  of  course, 
filled  by  the  board  concerned  or  by  the  chief  ex- 
ecutive officer  responsil)le  for  the  work  under- 
taken by  the  appointee,  rather  thiin  by  popular 
election  or  by  the  council.  The  town  clerk  is  the 
most  important  official  in  an  English  municipal 
corporation.  Besides  his  duties  as  recording  offi- 
cer of  the  council  and  general  secretary  of  the 
municipality,  he  acts  as  legal  adviser  of  tlie  coun- 
cil and  as  custodian  of  records.  His  tenure  of 
office  is  frequently  for  life,  he  receives  ,a  high 
salary,  and  he  is  a  trained  nfiicial  much  .is  is  the 
mayor  of  a  ({erman  city.  The  city  clerk  in  the 
United  States  is  never  an  officer  of  such  training 
and  importance.    Generally  he  is  simply  a  record- 


MTJNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT. 


120 


HTJNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT. 


ing  otTicer  to  the  council,  or  perhaps  a  kind  of 
mayor's  assistant.  Legal  advice  to  the  municipal 
authorities  in  the  United  States  is  given  by  an 
otlieer  >tykcl  the  corporation  counsel,  and  suits 
are  prosecuted  and  defended  by  a  city  attorney, 
although  the  two  dassjfe  of  service  may  be 
rendered  by  one  man,  and  the  names  vary  in 
ditrerent  localities.  The  city  engineer  is  every- 
where a  trained  man,  and  municipal  engineering 
has  become  a  distinct  branch  of  the  engineer- 
ing profession.  In  the  large  cities  the  legal 
and  engineering  work  is  so  extensive  and  im- 
portant as  to  require  large  staffs  of  experts, 
this  is  also  tlie  case  in  the  financial  depart- 
ment, using  the  latter  term  to  embrace  all  the 
executive  otliccrs  employed  in  assessing,  collect- 
ing, and  disbursing  money,  and  in  maintaining 
a  check  on  collections  and  disbursements. 

FiNA.NCE.  Under  this  head  Ordinary  Revenues 
include  the  proceeds  of  taxes,  si)ecial  assessments 
for  benefits,  like  the  frontage  tax  for  street  pav- 
ing, and  various  licenses  and  fees.  Extraordinary 
Revenue  includes  money  from  loans,  bond  issues, 
and  trust  funds  or  beipiests.  Some  cities  of  Con- 
tinental Kuroi)c  receive  no  little  revenue  from 
landed  projjerty,  and  the  cities  of  Great  Britain 
and  Germany,  and  a  few  in  tlie  United  States, 
derive  considerable  revenue  from  municipal  fran- 
chises. Where  municipal  ownership  prevails  in 
Hritish  cities  effort  is  often  made  to  turn  into 
the  common  treasury  a  revenue  for  the  reduction 
of  the  general  tax  rate.  In  the  United  States  a 
portion  of  the  revenue  from  water-works,  and 
less  frequently  from  municipal  industries,  is 
sometimes  ajiplied  in  a  similar  manner.  The 
taxing  power  is  generally  limited  to  the  council, 
the  chief  exceptions  being  the  education  and  pour 
authorities  in  (ireat  Britain,  which  have  an  inde- 
pendent power  of  taxation.  In  the  United  States 
the  councils  often  have  to  raise  large  sums  by 
taxation  for  independent  boards,  and  also  for  the 
county  and  for  tlie  .Stale.  It  is  common  for  the  in- 
dependent boards  to  incur  bonded  indebtedness 
without  consulting  the  council,  but  only  as  the 
authority,  in  general  or  specific  terms,  is  granted 
by  the  Stale  i.cgislature.  The  sub-departments 
under  the  general  head  of  fin!>nee  are  tax  asses- 
sors, who  place  a  valuation  on  taxable  property; 
a  board  of  review  or  a])peals  from  the  rulings  of 
the  last-named  officers;  tax  C(dlectors;  the  treas- 
urer, who  receives  money  from  the  collectors;  the 
disbursing  officer  or  controller,  who  issues  or  ap- 
proves warrants  for  the  payment  of  bills  and 
claims:  and  the  auditing  department.  In  some 
cities,  particiilarly  the  smaller  ones,  the  treas- 
urer is  also  the  clisbursing  oflieer.  and  the  council 
instead  of  a  controller  may  approve  claims.  The 
mxiniripiil  hiidyrt,  or  the  estimate  of  receipts  and 
expenditures  tipon  which  the  tax  rate  and  appro- 
priations are  based,  is  prepared  according  to  va- 
rious methods.  In  general,  the  several  depart- 
ments niaki'  up  their  respective  estimates,  and 
these  are  amended  by  the  mayor,  or  by  a  special 
board  created  for  that  purpose,  and  sent  to  the 
council  for  further  amendment  and  final  ratifica- 
tion. 

Pity  Ciiartkhs.  The  municipality  being  a 
mere  creature  of  the  State,  its  area,  powers,  and 
form  of  government  are  laid  down  by  the  I.egis- 
Inture  in  the  form  of  (1)  n  specific  act  or  char- 
tor;  (2)  n  given  act  for  cities  of  a  given  class; 
or  (3)  a  series  of  either  general  acts  relating  to 
groups  of  cities  or  to  all  municipal  corporations; 


or  (4)  special  legislation  on  any  subject  and  at 
any  time  that  suits  the  wislies  of  the  Legisla- 
ture. Strictly  speaking,  the  first  only  is  a  city 
charter,  but  the  other  grants  of  power  have  the 
same  general  etlect,  except  that  3  and  4  are  suc- 
cessively more  confusing  and  less  satisfactory 
than  1  and  2.  In  the  United  States  city  charters 
may  or  may  not  be,  as  the  Legislature  sees  fit, 
submitted  to  popular  vote  for  approval.  Fre- 
quently both  charters  and  charter  amendments 
arc  so  submitted,  and  where  general  muniei])al 
corporation  acts  prevail  the  transition  from  one 
class  to  another  is  generally  by  popular  vole,  but 
it  may  follow  from  an  increase  in  population. 
As  a  rule,  voters  of  a  municipality  have  some 
voice  or  inlluence  in  framing  new  or  auuniling  old 
charters,  except  perhaps  where  general  legislation 
prevails.  This  participation  goes  so  far  in  sonio 
eases  as  to  permit  the  framing  of  the  designed 
changes  by  au  authorized  charter  commission  or 
to  the  adoption  of  changes  requested  by  the  muni- 
cipal officials.  In  ilissouri,  California,  and  Wash- 
ington, charter-making  is  virtually  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  municii)ality.  subject  to  more  or  less 
specific  legislative  restrictions.  Far  more  com- 
monly, the  respective  legislatures  jiass  enabling 
a'cts,  which  may  or  may  not  be  in  the  nature  of 
charter  amendments,  and  leave  their  adoption  to 
the  popular  vote. 

Other  JIuxicip.\l  Problems.  A  comprehen- 
sive term  used  in  discussions  of  municipal  affairs 
is  .l/«HiV i/)((J  Reform.  This  is  nothing  more  or 
less  than  an  effort,  to  secure  honest  and  ellicient 
munici|>al  government.  The  problem  varies  with 
eacli  locality,  and  even  changes  in  .a  given  lo- 
cality from  year  to  year.  The  bane  of  uuuiiciiial 
government  is  partisan  politics.  The  remedy  for 
bad  nuinicipal  government,  from  whatever  cause, 
invariably  lies  with  the  citizens  and  taxpayers, 
who  are  often  too  indifferent  to  their  own  inter- 
ests, or  at  least  to  the  public  interest,  to  insist 
on  good  government.  .V  decided  reform  in  mu- 
nicipal affairs  was  effected  in  Scotland  in  18.S.3, 
and  in  England  and  Wales  in  IS.3.5.  as  a  result  of 
agitation  directed  against  incompetent  and  cor- 
rupt borough  government.  The  reform  acts  of 
the  year  named  were  supplemented  from  time  to 
time,  and  in  1882  a  consolidated  municipal  cor- 
porations act  was  passed.  In  ISSS  another  act 
was  passed,  providing  that  cities  and  towns  of 
more  than  .'iO.flOO  inhabitants  should  be  admin- 
istrative counties,  and  also  creating  ,a  more 
unified  government  for  Greater  London,  known  as 
the  London  County  Council.  In  1000  this  uni- 
fication was  carried  still  fiirther.  but  only  to 
the  extent  of  reducing  by  consolidation  into  some 
fifteen  borough  governments  a  large  numl)cr  of 
minor  authorities.  In  the  United  States  the 
progress  of  nuinicipal  refonu.  as  rellected  by 
changed  methods  of  administration,  is  difficult  to 
trace.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  many  inde- 
pendent State  legislatures  eontndling  municipal 
affairs,  to  the  great  variations  of  practice  within 
each  .State,  and  to  the  spasmodic  efforts  for  re- 
form. One  of  the  notable  steps  in  many  .Slates 
has  been  the  adopt i<m  of  constitutional  amend- 
ments, from  18.50  to  ISSO,  prohibiting  special  acts 
of  the  Legislature  which  apply  to  a  single  muni- 
cipality. Other  great  agencies  of  municipal 
reform  in  the  United  States  have  been  the  various 
local  reform  organizations,  notable  among  which 
have  lieen  the  good  government  clubs,  and  their 
federation  into  the  National   Municipal  League. 


i 


MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT. 


121 


MUNICIPALITY. 


(See  subhead  Charters,  .above.)  Other  organiza- 
tions whose  aniuuil  procceilings  are  noted  below 
(see  liibliograiiliy)  have  pUiyed  an  important 
part  in  munieii)al  reform. 

The  need  for  Municipul  t^pc-cialists  becomes 
more  and  more  im|)eralive  as  the  numcipal  ac- 
tivities increase  in  number  and  complexity. 
Mayors  in  Germany,  city  clerks  in  England,  and 
city  engineers  in  all  countries  are  already  a  dis- 
tinct professional  class,  stimulated  by  the  pros- 
pect of  advancement  to  more  imimrtant  cities  as 
their  abilities  increase.  Sanitary  or  health  offi- 
cers, professional  accountants,  superintendents  of 
water  supply  and  other  public  works  are  also 
rapidly  gaining  in  professional  ability,  and  piib- 
lic  recognition  of  such  ability  is  likewise  in- 
creasing. 

Bibliography.     Shaw,  iluniciiidl  Oorernment 
in  Great  Britain    (New  York,   1S!)5)  ;   id..  Muni- 
cipal  Gorrrnmcnt    in   Continental  Europe    (Xew 
York,    180.5)  ;    Goodnow,   Municipal   Home   Rule 
(New    Y'ork,    1892);    id.,    Municipal    Problems 
(New   Y'ork,    1897)  ;    Wilcox,    Citi/    Government 
(New  Y^ork.  1897)  ;  Maltbie,  English  Local  Gov- 
ernment of  To-Day   (New  Y'ork,  1807)  ;  Art  and 
Life  and  Bvihlirui  and  Decoration  of  Cities,  by 
various  authors  (London,  1897)  :  Eaton,  Gorern- 
ment  of  Municipalities  (New  York,  1890)  ;  Conk- 
ling,  City  Gorernmrnt  in  the  United  States  (4th 
ed..  New  Y'ork,  1800)  ;  Weber.  Groivth  of  Cities 
(New   York,    ISOO)  ;    A    Municipal    Programme 
(New    Y'ork,     1900)  ;     Goodhue,     Municipal    Im- 
provement   (3d  ed..   New  Y'ork.   1900)  ;   Parsons, 
The  City  for   the  People    (Philadelphia,   1901)  ; 
Fairlie,   Municijial   Administration    I  New  Y^ork, 
1001);    Robinson,    Improvement    of    Toivns    and 
Cities   (New  York.   1001);   Brooks,  Bibliography 
of  Municipal  Affairs  and  City  Conditions    (New 
York.    1001):    Chapin,    Municipal    Sanitation    in 
the    United    States    (Providence,    1001);    Baker, 
Municipal    Engineering     and    Sanitation     (New 
York,      1002)  ;"     Zeublin,      American     Municipal 
Progress    (New  Y'ork,   1902)  ;   Baker,   Municipal 
rear-Book    (New   Y'ork.    1001):    Donald.    Mu7ii- 
cipal  Tear-Book    (British,   London.    1002)  ;    Vic- 
torian Municipal  Directory    (ifelbourne,    1001)  : 
Conferences  for  Good  Government   (Philadelphia, 
1894,  current)  ;  Annual  Proceedings  of  the  Ameri- 
can   Soeieti/    of    Municipal    Improvement     (New 
York)  :  League  of  American  ^tnnicipalities   (Des 
Moines.    Iowa)  :    League   of   Civic  ■Improvement 
(Springfield,    Ohio)  ;    Legislation    hy    States,    a 
descriptive  classified  index   (Albany,  annually)  ; 
Municipal   Affairs    (quarterly,   New  Y'ork,    1807, 
current)  ;  Municipal  £H._r/i'iKrri'H.r/( monthly,  Phila- 
delphia, current)  :   Municipal  Journal  and  Engi- 
neer  (monthly.  New  Y'ork.  current)  ;    Municipal 
Journal   (weekly.  London,  current)  :  Engineering 
News    (weekly.   New  Y'ork.   current)  ;   Engineer- 
ing    Record'  (weekly.     New     Y'ork).      Consult 
also    the     authorities     referred     to     under    the 
articles    mentioned    in    cross    references    above. 
See  Administrative  Law;    Bath-Houses,  Mu- 
nicipal;   Civil    Service;    Cremation    of    the 
Dead;     National     Education,     Systems     of; 
Electric     Lighting;     Engineer;     Ferry;     Fi- 
nance; Fire  Protection,  Municipal;  GIarbage 
AND    Refuse    Disposal;    Gas,    Illuminating; 
Great      Britain;      Prussia;      France,      etc.; 
Health,    Boards   of;    Heating   and   Ventila- 
tion;   Housing    Problem;    Municipal   Debts; 
Municipal     Ownership;     Parks     and     Play- 
grounds;     Pavement;      Police;      Recreation 


Piers;  Sew.\ge  Disposal;  Sewerage  and 
Drainage;  Smoke  Nuisance;  Special  Assess- 
ment; Street;  Subways;  Tax;  Telephone; 
Water  Purification;  Water- Works. 

MUNICIPALITY,   or   MUNICIPAL   COR- 
POKATION.      A  town  or  city  possessed  of  cer- 
tain privileges  of  local  self-government;  also  the 
governing  body  in  such  a  town.     Municipal   in- 
stitutions date  back  to  the  Roman  Empire.     The 
provincial  towns   of   Italy,   though   sul)jected  to 
the  rule  of  a  Roman  ollicial.  were  allowed  to  en- 
joy the  riglit  of  regiilating  their  internal  atl'airs. 
A  class   of   the   inhabitants   called   the   curia,   or 
decuriones,  elected  two  ollieers  called  duumviri, 
wliose  functions  were  supposed  to  be  analogous 
to  those  of  the  consuls  of  the  Imperial  city,  and 
who  exercised  a  limited   jurisdiction,   civil   and 
criminal.     There  was  an   important  functionary 
in  every  municipality  called  the  defensor  civita- 
tis,  or  advocate  for  the  city,  the  protector  of  the 
citizens   against   arbitrary   acts   on    the    part    of 
the  Roman  governor.     The  municipal  system  de- 
clined with  the  decline  of  the  Empire,  yet  it  re- 
tained   a    fair   degree   of   vitality,    and    rose   to 
renewed  life  in  union  with  feudalism,  and  with 
the  Anglo-Saxon   institutions   of   Great  Britain. 
Indeed,   some   cities  of   Italj',   France,  and  Ger- 
many have  derived  their  present  magistracy  by 
direct    succession    from    the    days    of    Imperial 
Rome,  as  is  notably  the  case  with  Cologne.     The 
bishop,  as  the  shield  between  the  conquerors  and 
the    conquered,    in    many    cases    discharged    the 
duties  or  obtained  the  functions  of  the  defensor 
civitatis.     To  the  north  of  the  Alps,  under  the 
feudal  system,  he  became  oflTicially  the  civil  gov- 
ernor of"  the  city,  as  the  count  was  of  the  rural 
district.     In  Southern  Europe,  where  feudalism 
was  less  vigorous,  the  municipalities  retained  a 
large  share  of  freedom  and  self-government.     Of 
the  cities  of  the  Jliddle  Ages,  some  were  entirely 
free.      Venice,    CJenoa.    Florence,    Hamburg,    and 
Lilbeck  all  stood  in  this  position.     Next  in  dig- 
nity were  the   free   Imperial   cities   in  C4ernuiny, 
which,  not  being  comprehended  in  the  dominions 
of  any  of  the  princes,  were  in  immediate  depend- 
ence on  the  Empire,     ilost  of  these  cities  rose 
to   importance    in    the    thirteenth    century,    and 
their  liberties  and  privileges  w-ere  fostered  by  the 
Holy  Roman  emperors  to  afl'ord  some  counterpoise 
to  the  growing  powers  of  the  immediate  nobility. 
The  chief  organs  of  government   in  the  ticrmaa 
cities  were  the  councils,  usually  one  for  delibera- 
tion and  a  smaller  one  for  administration,  both 
being  chosen  from  the  various  trade  and  artisan 
guilds.    There  were  also  from  two  to  four  Inirgo- 
masters  in  each  city  who  presided  over  the  coun- 
cil meetings.    The  Italian  cities  were  governed  by 
executive     officers    known    as    consuls,     usually 
twelve  in  number.     By  the  side  of  these  were  a 
council  and  a  general  assembly  of  the  citizens. 
During  the  contest  between  the  Italian  cities  and 
the  Emperor  an  officer,  called  the  podcsta,  was 
put  in  control  of  the  cities  which  the  Emjjcror 
succeeded  in  subjecting  to  his  authority.     Other 
cities,  seeing  the  advantage  of  a  single  executive, 
voluntarily  introduei'd  this  officer  in  place  of  the 
consuls.      In    Southern    France    the    Italian    con- 
sular system  existed,  but  occasionally  the  podcsta 
appears   as   the   chief   numicipal   officer.      In   tlie 
northern  part  of  France  the  maire  and   cchevins 
were  most  frequently  the  governing  authorities 
of  Ihe  towns. 

Before    the    Norman    Conquest    the    English 


MUNICIPALITY. 


123 


MUNICIPALITY. 


burglis  were  subjci-t  to  tlie  rule  of  an  elective 
officer  called  the  •poitreve,"  who  e.xerciseU  in 
the  buryh^  functions  similar  to  those  of  the 
shire  levc  in  the  shire.  The  Xormans  recognized 
the  already  existing  privileges  of  the  towns  by 
granting  them  charters.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  privileges  was  the  firma  burgi, 
or  lease  of  the  town  to  the  inhabitants  in  con- 
sideration of  the  pajnient  of  a  fixed  sum  in 
lieu  of  all  feudal  dues.  This  involved  the  right 
of  the  inhabitants  to  elect  their  own  niagislrales, 
the  independent  exercise  of  jurisdiction  in  their 
payment  of  the  local  taxes,  and  tlic  performance 
of  the  (juota  of  ta.xes  assigned  by  Parliament.  .\ 
sherilf  or  viscount  was  placed  by  the  King  over 
each  shire,  and  a  bailitf  instead  of  the  former 
elective  officer  over  each  burgh.  In  the  larger 
towns  the  bailill  was  allowed  to  assume  the  Xor- 
nian  appellation  of  mayor.  The  municipal  fran- 
chise seems  to  have  been  vested  in  all  the  resi- 
dent and  trading  inhabitants,  who  shared  in  the 
payment  of  the  local  taxes  and  tlie  jjerformance  of 
local  duties.  Titles  to  freedom  of  the  town  were 
also  recognized  on  the  grounds  of  birth,  appren- 
ticeship, marriage,  and  sometimes  free  gift.  In 
all  the  larger  towns  the  trading  ])opulation  came 
to  l)e  divided  into  guilds  or  trading  companies, 
through  membership  of  which  admission  was  ob- 
tained to  the  municipal  franchise.  Eventually 
the  whole  conununity  was  enrolled  in  one  or 
other  of  the  guilds,  each  of  which  had  its  prop- 
erty, its  by-laws,  and  its  common  hall,  and  the 
conununity  elected  the  chief  officers.  It  was  on 
the  wealthier  and  more  influential  inhabitants 
that  municipal  offices  were  generally  conferred; 
and  it  gradually  became  the  practice  for  these 
functionaries  to  perpetuate  their  authority  by 
coi')])tation.  Contentions  and  disputes  arose  re- 
garding the  right  of  election,  and  eventually  the 
Crown  threw  the  weight  of  its  influence  into  the 
scale  of  self-elective  ruling  bodies.  This  was  the 
period  of  incorporation,  when  charters  were 
granted  incorporating  not  the  inha1)itants  of  the 
town,  but  the  governing  body.  Xo  new  govern- 
mental powers  were  conferred,  but  the  corpora- 
tions were  given  the  right  to  hold  property  and 
to  sue  and  be  sued.  The  desire  of  the  Crown  to 
control  the  representatives  which  the  towns  were 
now  allowed  to  send  to  Parliament  led  to  a  reck- 
less policy  of  granting  nuinicipal  charters,  so 
that  presently  the  urban  communities  were  over- 
represented  in  Parliament.  During  the  period 
of  the  early  Stuarts  the  writ  of  Quo  ir</)iv/(i/o 
was  iised  frecpiently  to  de|)rive  the  towns  of  their 
lilieral  charters,  with  a  view  to  replacing  them 
with  (barters  of  a  less  liberal  type,  in  ordrr  that 
the  Crown  might  the  more  easily  control  the  Par- 
liamentary representation  of  the  towns.  Tlie 
burghs  of  Scotland  had  a  history  much  like  that 
of  the  burghs  of  England:  their  earlier  charters 
were  mere  recognitions  of  already  existing  rights, 
and  were  granted  to  the  inhabitants  at  large. 
In  the  course  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies the  municipal  siifFrage  fell  more  and  more 
into  the  hands  of  restricted  bodies  of  men  until 
an  act  nf  I4lilt  gave  to  the  councils  the  right  of 
appointing  their  successors,  the  old  and  new 
council  together  electing  the  office-bearers  of  the 
corjioratinn.  This  state  of  things  continued  till 
1S.T3.  nr)l  without  much  complaint.  In  the  Scot- 
tish burghs  the  several  trades  possessed  a  much 
more  exclusive  monopoly  than  in  England.  Along 
%vith  the  outcry  for  Parliamentarv  reform  arose 


an  outcry  for  uuiniLipal  rcforni ;  and  a  separate 
municipal  reform  act  putting  an  end  to  the  close 
system  was  passed  fur  each  part  of  the  kingdom. 
In  the  United  States  the  English  system  of 
municipal  administration  became  the  type  for 
the  government  of  the  early  towns  and  cities. 
In  nearly  everi*  instance  a  special  organization 
was  provided  for  the  cities  and  was  outlined  in  a 
charter  granted  by  the  colonial  legislature  or  by 
the  Crown.  Generally  the  governing  body  of  the 
municipality  consisted  of  the  mayor,  recorder, 
aldermen,  and  councilmen.  At  first  the  corpora- 
tion seldom  acted  as  the  agent  of  the  State,  but 
was  an  organ  for  the  .satisfaction  of  |)urcly  local 
needs,  such  as  the  management  of  local  [jroperty 
and  finance.  It  had  no  power  of  government  ex- 
cept the  right  to  issue  local  police  ordinances, 
(xradually,  however,  the  municipal  corporation 
came  to  be  an  organ  for  the  administration  of 
matters  of  State  concern,  as  well  as  of  purely 
local  matters.  Thus  the  regulation  of  matters 
relating  to  public  education,  the  public  health, 
poor  relief,  elections,  local  justice,  etc..  is  quite 
generally  intrusted  to  the  municipalities.  As 
now  undei'stood,  therefore,  a  municipal  corjiora- 
tion  in  the  United  Slates  is  a  body  politic  and 
corporate  created  by  the  State  for  the  purpose 
of  State  administration  as  well  as  of  local  admin- 
istration, and  vested  with  certain  privileges, 
such  as  the  right  to  hold  property,  to  sue  and  be 
sued,  etc.  The  transformation  of  the  municipal- 
ity from  an  organ  of  local  government  to  an 
organ  for  the  administration  of  central  matters 
created  the  necessity  for  legislative  control, 
which  has  had  the  result  of  depriving  the  cities 
to  a  very  large  extent  of  the  management  of  their 
local  affairs.  The  corporation  is  not  the  body 
of  the  people,  nor  is  it  the  officers  collectively 
considered,  but  rather  that  artificial  body  or 
legal  entity  created  by  the  act  of  incorporation 
and  limited  thereby.  A  distinction  must  be  made 
between  a  municipal  corporation  proper  and 
what  are  known  as  fiiiasi  corporations  not  created 
upon  petition  of  the  people  of  the  district,  but 
rather  as  territorial  or  political  divisions  of 
the  State,  such  as  counties,  townships,  and  school 
districts  created  for  the  convenience  of  State  ad- 
ministration. The  laws  regulating  the  incor- 
jmration  of  English  towns  and  cities  liave  little 
application  to  municipal  corporations  in  this 
country.  Here  none  arc  founded  on  coinmon  law 
or  royal  charter,  and  liut  f<"W  are  based  upon 
prescription.  It  may  be  said  that  they  exist 
only  by  legislative  enactment,  and  possess  no 
powers  not  created  by  statute.  A  few  municipal 
corporati(ms  are  created  by  charter  singly,  hut 
general  laws  of  incorporation  have  been  passed 
in  many  States,  and  at  the  present  time  the  con- 
stitutions of  more  tliaii  twenty  States  forbid  the 
Legislature  to  incorporate  cities  and.  as  a  rule, 
villages  by  special  act.  In  twelve  of  these  the 
juoliil)ition  extends  also  to  amendments  or 
changes  of  charters.  When  the  incorporation  is 
single  or  special  the  charter  sets  out  that  the 
inhabitants  are  constituted  a  body  politic  with 
such  a  name  and  style;  that  by  that  name  they 
may  have  perfietiial  succession,  and  may  u.se  a 
common  seal,  sue  and  be  sued.  etc.  The  terri- 
torial boundaries  are  defined  and  provision  made 
as  to  the  fonii  of  government — u-ually  by  a 
council  made  up  of  aldermen  and  councilmen.  or 
by  trustees — as  to  division  into  wards,  qualifica- 
tions of  voters,  powers  of  city  council  to  collect 


MUNICIPALITY. 


123 


MUNICIPALITY. 


debts  and  impose  taxes,  etc.  General  laws  of 
niunieipal  iiu'iirpoiatiun  usually  start  by  abolish- 
ing all  special  charters  existing  and  establishing 
general  regulations  lor  the  incorporation,  govern- 
ment, and  regulation  of  municipal  corporations 
tlirougliout  the  State.  Freqnently  such  laws 
chissify  the  towns  to  be  incorporated  as  regards 
their  importance  into  cities  of  first  or  second 
grade,  towns,  and  villages.  To  become  operative, 
the  charter  granted  by  the  I^egislaturc  must  be 
accepted  by  the  body  of  citizens  to  be  incor- 
porated. 

When  established  the  municipal  corporation  is, 
in  the  absence  of  constitutional  provisions  to  the 
contrary,  completely  subject  to  the  power  of  the 
Legislature;  thus  it  has  been  held  tliat  the  latter 
may  repeal  cliaiter  provisions,  allowing  the  li- 
censing of  lifpKJr  dealers,  and  even  such  as  relate 
to  police  regulations.  In  other  words,  a  numi- 
cipal  charter  is  not  a  contract,  and  may  always 
be  altered  or  revoked,  with  the  important  excep- 
tion that  the  rights  of  existing  creditors 
nnist  not  be  disregarded.  The  Legislature 
has  general  control  over  public  property; 
thus  it  may  authorize  a  railroad  to  occupy 
streets  of  a  city  witliout  its  consent  and  witliovit 
payment  therefor.  T.ut  the  courts  are  beginning 
to  hold  that  the  nuuiicipalities  may  also  own 
private  property  which  is  not  directly  devoted  to 
governmental  (imposes,  and  which  is  no  more 
subject  to  control  of  the  Legislature  than  the 
property  of  private  individuals.  Svich  are 
wharves,  cemeteries,  ferries,  libraries,  parks,  hos- 
pitals, etc.  The  Legislature  cannot  deprive  the 
municipality  of  property  of  tliis  kind,  or  direct 
that  it  shall  be  a|)plied  to  other  purposes,  as.  for 
example,  that  land  used  for  a  city  reservoir  shall 
be  converted  into  a  public  park.  The  power  of 
the  municipality  to  alienate  its  public  property 
■without  legislative  authorization  has  generally 
been  denied  by  Ihe  courts,  although  the  right  to 
dispose  of  private  property  as  it  sees  fit  has  been 
readily  conceded.  It  is  also  a  general  rule  that 
the  public  property  of  a  municipal  corporation  is 
not  subject  to  execution  in  satisfaction  of  a  judg- 
ment. No  exact  form  of  words  is  necessary  to 
give  force  to  the  charter,  and  the  corporation 
may  even  be  created  by  implication,  as  where 
powers  and  privileges  are  conferred  upon  the  in- 
habitants of  a  locality  which  cannot  be  enjoyed 
or  exercised  without  acting  in  a  corporate  capa- 
city. 

The  powers  which  may  be  exercised  by  a  nui- 
nicipality  are  such  as  are  expressly  granted  in 
the  charter,  such  as  may  be  fairly  implied  there- 
from, and  such  as  are  essential  to  the  declared 
objects  and  ])urposes  of  the  corporation — not  sim- 
ply convenient,  but  indispensable.  Any  fair  or 
reasonable  doubt  concerning  the  existence  of  a 
power  dainu'd  is  resolved  by  the  courts  against 
the  corporation.  That  is  to  say,  the  rule  of 
strict  construction  applies.  In  some  of  the  re- 
cent decisions,  however,  there  is  evidence  of  a 
tendency  to  depart  somewhat  from  this  rule  in 
the  direction  of  conceding  to  municipal  corpora- 
tions wider  powers,  especially  as  regards  the 
management  of  public  utilities.  Thus  it  has  been 
held  that  a  municipality  which  has  the  right  to 
establish  an  electric  light  plant  for  lighting  the 
streets  may  without  an  express  grant  from  the 
Legislature  distribute  lights  to  private  families. 
Where  the  city  is  given  discretionary  power  ui)on 
any  subject  it  is  not  for  the  courts  to  say 
Vol.  XIV.— 9. 


whether  such  discretion  has  been  wisely  used  or 
not,  unless  fraud  is  shown  or  the  discretion  is 
being  manifestly  abused  to  the  oppression  of  the 
citizen.  Thus,  if  it  have  power  to  open  new 
streets  or  grade  old  ones  when  necessary  for  the 
welfare  of  the  city,  the  question  of  necessity  is 
one  for  the  determination  of  its  own  authorities. 
But  when  a  muniei])al  corporation  is  empowered 
to  take  certain  action  for  others,  and  it  is  bene- 
ficial for  them  to  have  it  done,  the  law  requires 
that  it  should  be  done,  although  the  language  is 
merely  permissive  in  form.  .Vniong  the  principal 
powers  usually  conferred  upon  nuniicipal  cor- 
porations may  be  mentioned  the  right  to  acquire 
and  hold  such  property  as  may  be  necessary  to 
the  pro])er  exercise  of  other  ])owers  granted,  the 
right  of  taxation  and  of  eminent  domain,  the  ap- 
pointment or  election  of  ollicers,  the  maintenance 
of  local  courts,  the  enactment  of  ordinances,  and 
the  maintenance  of  actions  in  the  courts.  Many 
special  powers  are  given,  such  as  relate  to  the 
incurring  of  loans,  special  assessments,  licenses, 
police  regulations,  wharves,  ferries,  entertain- 
ment of  guests,  etc.  It  is  a  general  rule  of  con- 
struction that  the  legislative  power  conferred 
upon  municipal  corporations  cannot  be  delegated 
to  other  authorities,  nor  can  they  divest  them- 
selves of  it  in  any  manner  whatever.  The  power 
to  act  for  the  general  welfare  of  the  city  is  usu- 
ally granted,  in  addition  to  other  powers  ex- 
pressly enumerated.  Under  this  grant  it  is 
generally  held  that  nuuiicipal  corporations  may 
pass  such  ordinances  not  inconsistent  with  other 
provisions  of  the  charter  or  the  laws  of  the 
State  as  may  be  expedient  in  maintaining  the 
peace,  good  order,  safety,  and  welfare  of  the 
commiuiity.  Thus  they  may  enact  ordinances  to 
jn-ovide  for  a  proper  observance  of  the  Sabbath, 
for  the  closing  of  saloons  at  night,  for  restrain- 
ing domestic  animals  from  running  at  large  on 
the  streets,  for  the  suppression  of  vagrancy,  for 
the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  animals,  etc.  But 
the  'general  welfare'  grant  does  not  authorize  the 
municipality  to  levy  taxes  of  any  kind.  As  a 
result  of  their  contractual  powers,  however, 
municipalities  may  incur  debts,  provided  they  are 
to  be  paid  out  of  the  ordinary  income  of  the 
city  for  the  current  year.  The  better  opinion 
seems  to  be  that  in  the  absence  of  a  specific 
grant  municipalities  may  borrow  money  where  it 
is  necessary  to  the  successful  existence  of  the  cor- 
poration, or  where  its  non-exercise  would  render 
inoperative  and  incomplete  privileges  granted. 
Where  the  Legislature  imposes  a  duty  on  muni- 
cipal corporations  which  necessarily  involves 
large  expenditures  the  power  to  borrow  may  be 
deduced.  It  has  been  held  that  where  the  city 
bad  express  power  to  establish  meat  markets,  a 
fire  department,  or  a  liquor  dispensary,  the 
power  to  borrow  could  be  implied  as  a  neeessarv 
means  for  carrying  out  these  undertakings.  It 
may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule,  however,  that  muni- 
cipal corporations  have  no  general  borrowing 
power  or  jjower  to  issue  negotiaI)le  paper  in  evi- 
dence of  debts  without  legislative  authorization. 
The  constitutions  of  nuuiy  States  contain  pro- 
visions limiting  the  anuiunt  of  indebtedness 
which  nuuiicipal  corporations  may  incur.  The 
prohiI)ition  is  usually  construed  to  apply  to  in- 
debtedness of  all  forms.  It  is.  however,  held  by 
some  courts  that  contracts  for  meeting  the  ordi- 
nary expenses  of  the  municipality  and  in  antici- 
pation of  receipts  do  not  create  an  indebtedness 


MUNICIPALITY. 


124 


MUNICIPALITY. 


within  tlio  meaning  of  the  limitation.  A  nnini- 
lijiality  cannot  escape  liability  for  its  obligation 
arisini;  ex  deliclu  l>v  pleadiiif;  that  its  inilel>led- 
ness  has  reached  the  constitutional  limit.  Those 
«ho  contract  with  a  niunici|)ality  whereby  its 
indebtedness  is  increased  do  so  at  their  own  risk. 
If,  therefore,  an  individual  lends  money  to  a  city 
which  has  no  legal  power  to  borrow  he  cannot 
recover  it  by  pleading  ignorance  of  the  powers 
of  the  city.  But  where  municipal  bonds  contain 
recitals  that  the  city  is  acting  within  its  con- 
stitutional power,  and  has  complied  witli  all  the 
requirements  of  the  law.  it  will  be  estopped  from 
disputing  the  truth  of  such  reiiresentations  as 
against  a  bona  fide  purchaser  of  the  bonds. 

The  legislature  has  no  power  to  enact  legisla- 
tion which  will  have  the  effect  of  impairing  the; 
obligation  of  a  contract  between  the  city  and  a 
private  party.  Thus  it  cannot  so  limit  the  tax- 
ing power  of  a  municipality  as  to  render  it 
impossible  for  the  city  to  meet  its  ordinary  ex- 
penses and  pay  interest  on  its  outstanding  bonds. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  legislature  has  no  power 
to  authorize  a  municipality  to  levy  taxes  for 
other  than  public  purposes.  Thus  it  cannot 
authorize  the  granting  of  aid  by  a  municipality 
(if  it  involves  taxation)  to  a  private  enterprise 
to  enable  it  to  begin  business,  sime  that  would 
amount  to  taking  private  property  without  com- 
pensation. .\mong  the  public  purposes  for  which 
a  municipality  may  levy  taxes  may  be  mentioned 
the  construction  of  sewers,  the  laying  out  of 
parks,  the  establishment  of  water-works,  etc. 
Moreover,  the  legislature  cannot  levy  a  special 
tax  npon  the  inhabitants  of  a  municipality  for 
other  than  strictly  municipal  purposes.  Thus 
it  cannot  require  them  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
improving  a  navigable  stream  or  to  take  stock 
in  a  railway  company,  although  they  may  be  re- 
qtiireil  to  build  a  local  canal  or  levee.  The  city 
may  be  compelled  by  mandanms  to  fulfill  its 
obligations  to  private  parlies,  as  where  it  refuses 
to  levy  a  tax  for  the  purpose  of  paying  interest 
on  its  outstanding  bonds  or  for  the  satisfaction 
of  juilgments  against  it.  The  city  may  be  en- 
joined from  doing  an  injurious  act  to  an  indi- 
vidual or  from  committing  trespass  upon  his 
premises.  Furthermore,  it  may  he  enjoined  at 
the  instanw  of  a  taxpayer  from  violating  the 
law  or  doing  other  acts  prejudicial  to  the  general 
w(dfare.  as  where  the  city  proposes  to  enter  into 
a  contract  which  will  create  an  indebtedness  in 
excess  of  the  constitiitional  limits.  .Mimicipal 
otiicers  may  also  be  proceeded  against  under  a 
writ  of  <iuo  trarranlo  for  usurping  ]>owers  not 
legally  conferred  upon  them.  In  the  I'nited 
States  the  practice  of  frequent  interference  in 
the  affairs  of  the  cities  by  the  legislature  has 
led  to  so  many  abuses  that  in  nmst  of  the  recent 
constitutions  provisions  have  been  inserted  pro- 
hibiting the  legislatures  from  passing  special  acts 
which  apply  to  a  particular  city  when  a  general 
law  can  be  made  applicable.  These  provisions, 
liowever.  have  fre(piently  Ix^en  evaded  liy  arrang- 
ing the  cities  into  classes  in  such  manner  that  a 
particular  city  will  constitute  a  class  by  itself 
anil  by  making  the  act  applicable  to  a  single 
class.  The  practical  difliculties  of  dispensing 
entirely  with  special  legislation  has  led  the 
courts  in  some  instances  to  sustain  the  constitu- 
tionality of  methods  of  classification  which  seem 
unreasonable  if  not  ludicrous.  Where  n  part  of  a 
municipality  is  detached  from  the  main  body  of 


the  city  the  old  corporation  retains  all  the  lia- 
bilities and  private  property  of  the  city  if  no 
provision  to  the  contrary  is  made  by  legislation, 
l'r(i]icrty  of  a  i)ublic  character  falling  within  the  ■, 
limits  of  the  new  corporation  passes  into  its  ^ 
control,  the  theory  being  that  there  has  been  no 
transfer  of  title,  i)ut  simply  a  change  of  trustee.  •1 
A  new  municipal  corporation,  embracing  sub-  S 
stantially  the  same  boundaries  as  the  old,  is  re-  i 
garded  in  law  as  the  successor  of  the  old,  en-  fi 
titled  to  all  its  property  rights  and  subject  to  its  1 
liabilities.  Upon  the  repeal  of  the  charter  of  a  ir 
municipal  corporation  a  court  of  equity  will  lay  y. 
hold  of  its  [jrivatc  property  and  administer  it  for  ^ 
the  benefit  of  the  creditors  of  the  corporation.  It 
is  a  general  rule  of  construction  that  if  the  exist-  ! 
ence  of  a  municipal  corporation  is  not  questioned  I 
by  the  State  it  cannot  be  put  in  issue  by  a  pri-  j 
vate  individual  in  a  collateral  proceeding.  < 

In   discussing  the   liability   of  municipal   cor-    ; 
poralions  for  torts  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish     j 
iictween   the   two   classes   of   powers   which    they     i 
exercise,  viz.   public   governmental   functions  on'  1 
the  one  hand  and  jirivate  corporate  functions  on    , 
the  other.     When  acting  in  the   former  capacity    1 
municipal  corporations  are  acting  as  the  agent  of    '■ 
the  State  and  are  governed  by  the  rules  of  public     j 
law.  one  of  which  is  the  irresponsibility  of  the    ' 
government  for  the  tortious  acts  of  its  agents.    ' 
When   acting   in   a   private   local   capacity,   pri-    j 
marily    for    the    advantage    and    benefit    of    the 
locality,  the  nuinicipal  corporation  is  .subject  to 
the  rules  of  the  j)rivate  law.  according  to  which  j^ 
it  is  held  liable  for  the  torts  of  its  olliccrs.     The/ 
rule  of  liability  for  torts  does  not  apply  to  tjiuiti 
corporations,  such  as  counties,  townships,  school 
districts,  etc.,  because  they  are  agencies  of  the 
State  created  for  the  purpose  of  State  admin- 
istration,   and    usiially    without    solicitation    or 
concurrence  of  action   of  the   inhabitants.     The  i 
principal  torts  which  arc  imimtable  to  municipal  ■ 
corporations  when   acting  in   tlie   latter  capacity 
arc  negligence,  non-compliance  with  tlie  statutes, 
nuisance,  and  trespass.     The  courts  have  gctieral- 
l,v  held  that  municipal  corporations  are  not  liable 
for   failure   to  exercise   discretionary   legislative 
power  which  may  be  conferred  by  the  legislature 
or  for  the  manner  in  which  they  mav  exercise  it 
if  done  in  goixl  faith.  Thus,  it  is  not  liable  for  its 
neglect   to  abate   a   nuisance,   as   where  an   indi- 
vidual was  injured  by  an  explosion  of  fireworks 
which   the  municipality   was  authorized   to  pro- 
liibit.      But    where    the   duty    is   ministerial   and 
absdlute  the   corporation   becomes   liable   {or  the 
injury  arising  because  of  failure  to  perform   it, 
and  where  it  positively  licenses  sometliing  which 
constitutes  a  nuisance  it  will   he  held  liable  for 
any  injuries  that  may  result  therefrom.     In  the 
exercise  of  a  discretionary  power,  as  in  the  con- 
striu-tion   of  a   sewer,   the   citv   will   not  he   held 
liable   for   injuries   resulting  from   defective   ser- 
vice unless  it   results  in  the  positive  invasion  of 
an    individual's    propertv   and    unless    it    can    be 
shown    aflirmatively    that    the    municipality   has 
been   g\iilty   of  negligence.      It   is  a   general   rule 
that   a    municipal    corporation    is    not    liable    for 
injuries  arising  from  neglect  or  failure  to  enforce 
strictly  its  ordinances  for  the  good  government  of 
the  city,  but   an  act  of  the  Legislature  making 
the  city   liable   for   property   destroyed   by   mobs 
has  been  held  to  be  constitutional.     In  the  exer- 
cise of  it«  police  powers  the  city  is  not  generally 
liable  for  the  acts  of  omission  of  its  agents,  as 


I 


MUNICIPALITY. 


125 


MUNICIPAL   OWNERSHIP. 


where  a  policeman  shoots  a  bystander  wliile  at- 
teniptin<;  to  kill  a  dog  running  at  large.  The 
same  is  true  of  negligence  on  the  part  of  the  fire 
department  and  of  the  health  department.  In 
all  these  eases  the  municipality  is  acting  in  its 
public  governmental  capacity  as  an  agency  of  the 
State.  In  the  management,  however,  of  institu- 
tions not  directly  connected  with  the  function  of 
government,  such  as  wharves,  gas  and  water 
works,  markets,  and  wash-houses,  municipal  cor- 
porations are  held  liable  for  injuries  that  may 
result  therefrom,  the  theory  being  that  in  this 
capacity  the  corporation  is  engaged  in  private 
business,  from  which  often  a  revenue  is  derived. 
It  is  also  a  general  rule  that  municipal  corpora- 
tions are  responsible  for  the  management  of 
streets.  The  rule,  however,  docs  not  apply  to 
qiMsi  corporations  in  the  management  of  public 
highways.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that,  ixnlike 
pure  municipal  corporations,  they  are  engaged 
chiefly  in  the  performance  of  public  govern- 
nientiil  duties  from  which  they  do  not  generally 
derive  any  revenue  or  particular  private  advan- 
tage. The  peculiar  rule  exists  in  New  England 
that  the  property  of  any  citizen  of  a  muni- 
cipality against  which  a  judgment  has  been  re- 
covered may  be  seized  in  execution  thereof.  Else- 
where the  remedy  is  execution  upon  the  jirivate 
property  of  the  municipality.  Consult:  Dillon, 
The  LaiP  of  Muniriptil  Corporations  (Boston, 
18(10)  ;  .Jones,  The  Xrrilirience  of  Municipal  Cor- 
porations (Xew  York,  1892)  ;  Goodnow,  Com- 
parative  Administraiirr  Lair  (New  York,  180.3)  ; 
id.,  iliiniripnl  Honir  Rule  (New  Y'ork,  1897). 

MUNICIPAL  LAW.  To  the  Romans,  mu- 
nicipal law'  meant  the  special  law  of  the  cities, 
other  than  Rome,  which  were  included  in  the 
Roman  Empire.  A  lex  municipalis  was  a  city 
charter,  granting  limited  self-government  in  mat- 
ters of  local  interest.  On  the  Continent,  toward 
the  clo.se  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  phrase  was 
sometimes  used  to  describe  any  local  law.  whether 
of  a  city  or  a  province,  as  contrasted  with  the 
general  law  of  Christendom,  i.e.  the  Roman  law. 
civil  and  canon.  Later,  with  the  development 
of  international  law,  municipal  law  came  to  de- 
scribe local  law  in  contrast  with  international 
law.  The  term  is  no  longer  used  in  this  way  on 
the  Continent:  municipal  law  now  means  city  law- 
ns contrasted  with  national  law:  but  among 
English-speaking  peoples  national  law  is  called 
nnmicipal  in  contrast  with  international  law. 
English  municipal  law  has  thus  become  the 
■very  inappropriate  description  of  all  the  law^ 
written  or  unwritten,  by  which  England  is  gov- 
erned in  matters  purely  English. 

The  expression  •municipal  law'  is  sometimes, 
however,  employed  in  the  United  States  in  the 
Continental  sense  above  indicated,  to  describe  the 
organization  of  municipal  corporations  and  the 
local  laws  enacted  and  enforced  by  municipal 
authorities.  It  is  under  this  head  (municipal 
corporations),  therefore,  that  information  con- 
cerning the  organization  of  city,  county,  town- 
ship, and  village  governments,  the  organization 
and  jurisdiction  of  local  courts,  and  police  laws 
for  the  regulation  and  restraint  of  vice,  may  be 
found.  See  Muxicip.^litt.  Consult  the  authori- 
ties referred  to  under  .JuRlsPBUnENCE. 

MUNICIPAL  LEAGUE,  N,vnoN.\T..  An  or- 
ganization composed  of  associations  seeking  to 
accomplish  municipal  reform  in  the  various  citie3 


of  the  United  States,  it  was  established  in  Xew 
York  in  1894.  as  the  outcome  of  a  naticmal  con- 
ference held  in  Rhiladelphia  in  .July  of  that  year 
to  promote  the  interests  of  good  government.  It 
has  no  political  interests  wliatever,  but  confines 
its  operations  to  the  securing  of  good  miinicip:il 
laws,  the  appointment  of  men  of  integrity  and 
ability  to  office,  and  the  correction  of  abuses  in 
municipal  methods  of  government  in  American 
cities.  The  reforms  recommended  by  the  League 
are  being  tried  with  consideralde  success  by  va- 
rious municipalities  throughout  the  United 
States,  Cuba.  Hawaii,  and  Porto  Rico.  The 
League  is  also  directing  attention  to  the  ques- 
tion of  instruction  in  municipal  government,  in 
American  educational  institutions,  and  to  the 
subject  of  uniform  municipal  accounting  and 
statistics.  A  meeting  is  held  annually  to  confer 
and  report  on  the  subject  of  nuinicipal  reform. 

MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP.  Possession  by 
a  municipality  or  any  minor  civil  division  of  the 
State.  The  term  is.  however,  more  commonly 
limited  to  public  as  opposed  to  private  ownership 
of  water-works,  lighting  plants,  street  railways, 
telephone  systems,  and  other  revenue-producing 
industries  designed  to  meet  the  wants  of  urban 
populations.  The  term  generally  implies  munic- 
ipal operation  as  well  as  ownership,  but  ex- 
ceptions are  frequent  and  sometimes  notable. 
The  term  •municipal  socialism'  has  sometimes 
been  used  in  much  the  same  sense  as  municipal 
ownership:  but  it  is  more  inclusive,  embracing 
various  eflforts  to  meet  the  collective  wants  of  a 
municipality,  whether  founded  on  municipal 
ownership  or  not.  In  its  broadest  sense,  munic- 
ipal socialism  would  provide  for  all  waiits  com- 
mon to  the  citizens  of  a  municipality,  in  so  far  as 
they  were  not  met  by  the  State.  A  narrower 
usage  would  apply  the  term  more  particularly  to 
unusual  municipal  enterprises,  such  as  the  man- 
agement of  coal-yards  or  bakeries.  The  terra 
'municipal  trading'  has  been  applied  in  England 
to  municipal  ownership,  but  it  has  not  gained 
currency  outside  of  Great  Britain. 

The  services  which  a  municipality  may  be  ex- 
pected to  render  its  citizens  are  more  compre- 
hensive than  those  included  under  municipal 
ownership,  municipal  socialism,  or  municipal 
trading,  as  may  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  ar- 
ticle JIrMClP.4LLlTy.  The'  object  of  the  pres- 
ent article  is  to  consider  those  undertakings 
which  require  the  nse  of  the  streets  or  other  public 
places,  and  which  might  be  carried  on  by  either 
municipal  or  private  enterprise,  but  are  actually 
carried  on  by  the  former.  Since  by  their  nature 
such  undertakings  exclude  competition,  they  are 
called  natural  or  municipal  monopolies.  Under 
either  kind  of  ownership  they  can  be  carried  on 
only  by  authority  from  the  State,  in  the  form 
of  general  or  special  legislation,  besides  which  a 
private  corporation  must  generally  secure  the 
grant  of  a  municipal  francliise  permitting  it  to 
use  the  public  streets.  Within  the  limitations 
stated  the  most  common  ol^cets  of  municipal 
ownership  are  sewerage  systems  and  water- 
works, and  gas  and  electric-lighting  plants. 
More  rarely  street  railways,  ferries,  and  tele- 
phones are  owned  by  the  municipality. 

.\queducts  for  the  supply  of  the  cities  of  an- 
tiquity were  the  nearest  approach  to  nuinicipal 
ownership  as  the  term  is  understood  to-day,  al- 
though from  remote  times  cities  have  ownicd 
lands,    improved   harbors,   built    docks,    and   de- 


MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP. 


126 


MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP. 


rived  revt-mno  iIiitlI'ioih.  JJul  llicni'  seivkes 
were  conluu'd  to  a  relatively  sniall  number  of 
important  cities  until  the  uiueteentli  eentury, 
when  water-works,  gasworks,  electric-liglit  and 
power  plants  sprang  up  with  increasing  rapidity. 
At  the  opening  of  the  twentieth  cenlurv  these  ser- 
vices were  to  he  fnuiid  in  practically  all  the 
larger  and  in  the  majority  of  the  siiiallor  munic- 
ipalities of  the  civilized  world,  particularly  in 
the  I'nited  States.  Great  Britain,  and  tu  a  less 
extent  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  and  in  Aus- 
tralia. 

The  proper  scope  of  municipal  ownership  is 
still  a  suhject  of  debate.  Perhaps  the  nearest 
approach  to  a  general  agreement  is  ( I )  that  it 
may  rightly  embrace  all  those  sen-ices  which  are 
primarily  or  largely  of  a  sanitary  character,  like 
water  supply  and  sewerage,  and  (2)  that  it 
should  be  restricted  to  (|uasi-pul)lic  industries, 
in  which  private  competition  is  impossible  or  at 
best  uncertain.  Under  (2)  some  draw  the  line 
so  as  to  include  only  imperative  and  universal 
needs,  the  suj)plying  of  which  is  at  the  same  time 
a  natural  monopoly.  The  dilTiculty  with  such  a 
limitation  is  that  it  varies  with  local  conditions, 
time,  and  individual  opinions.  Thus  the  demand 
for  public-  liglitiiig  in  the  larger  cities  of  the 
present  day  is  far  more  imperative  than  was  that 
for  a  public  water  supply  a  luindred  years  ago. 
or  in  sonic  localities  to-day.  There  is  a  growing 
conviction  that  the  relative  cheapness  and  elU- 
ciency  of  service  are  the  chief  facts  to  be  con- 
sidered in  deciding  between  public  and  private 
ownership,  and  that  local  conditions  determine 
whether  public  or  private  ownership  is  tlie  better 
in  these  respects.  A  third  point  upon  which 
there  is  more  or  less  agreement  is  that  municipal 
ownership  should  not  be  carried  so  far  as  to  in- 
crease municipal  debts  beyond  prudent  limits. 
So  far  as  revenue-producing  nninlcipal  works 
of  a  monopolistic  character  are  concerned,  it  is 
generally  possible  so  to  adjust  income  and  ex- 
pense that  the  revenue  from  such  luidertakings 
will  meet  capital  charges  as  well  as  other  ex- 
penses. But  there  is  also  the  possibility  that  the 
j)opular  demand  for  low  charges  will  result  in  a 
deficit  that  must  be  met  from  the  general  tax 
rate,  and  with  a  large  number  of  municipal  lui- 
dertakings to  l>e  proviiled  for  it  is  conceivable 
that  this  might  prove  financially  embarrassing  if 
not  disastrous. 

Water-Works.  With  the  exception  of  sewer- 
age systems,  which  rarely  yield  a  revenue,  water- 
works are  the  most  common  form  of  municipal 
enterprise. 

The  relative  decrease  in  piililic  ownership  from 
1870  to  1890  was  due  to  the  remarkable  activity 
of  private  water-company  ])romnlers  at  a  time 
when  the  municipalities  were  just  awakening  to 
the  need  for  sucli  iiii|iroV('mcnts,  but  lacked  the 
fnnd>  for  piildic  owniiship.  or  had  not  iM'come 
infused  with  its  spirit.  In  the  larger  cities  munic- 
ipal ownership  is  the  rule,  all  but  eight  of  the 
38  cities  of  over  1^0,000  population  (lensus  of 
1900)  owning  their  own  works  at  the  beginning 
of  190.3.  New  York,  which  was  first  supplied  by 
a  private  company  in  1770.  put  municipal  works 
in  operation  in  1^12.  fhicago  was  supplied  by  a 
uompany  in  H40.  and  by  its  own  works  in  18.54. 
Philadelphia  built  its  works  in  1801.  .Xt  Boston  a 
private  comp;iny  established  water-works  in  lO.Vi 
— the  first  public  water  supply  in  the  I'nited 
States.    A  second  small  company  built  works  in 


17;kj,  and  coiiliiiucd  to  operate  on  a  small  scale 
until  1893.  when  its  pipes  were  bought  by  the 
city,  which  had  built  works  in  1848.  The  Balti- 
more works  were  built  by  a  company  in  1807, 
and  bought  by  the  city  in  lSo4.  Cleveland  built 
itji  works  in  1854-50.  At  Buffalo  a  company 
established  works  in  1852  and  was  bought  out  by 
the  city  in  18(i8.  In  San  Francisco  the  water- 
works are  still  under  private  ownership.  At 
Cincinnati  a  company  built  works  in  1820  and 
sold  them  to  the  city  in  1839.  Up  to  the  close  of 
lS9(i  changes  from  private  to  public  ownership 
had  occurred  in  205  cities  and  towns,  against 
only  20  changes  from  puljlic  to  private  owner- 
ship. There  have  been  many  changes  to  munic- 
ipal ownership  since  189U.  In  the  North  Central 
and  Xorthwestern  States  municipal  ownership 
is  decidedly  in  the  majority,  ami  in  the  Pacific 
States  the  reverse  is  true.  Xew  England  is  about 
evenly  divided,  with  Massachusetts  strongly  in 
favor  of  municipal  ownership,  and  Maine  even 
more  strongly  in  favor  of  private. 

In  the  I'nited  Stales  in  1801  there  were  but 
sixteen  works,  of  which  only  the  plant  at  Win- 
chester, Va.,  was  owned  by  the  city  it  served. 
The  development  of  municipal  ownership  during 
the  century  is  shown  by  the  accompanying  table: 

NuMBEB  OF  Public  and  Private  Workp  i.n'  the  United 

States  at  the  End  of  Each  Decade, 

Begixxixo  With  1800  " 


yeah 

Public 

Private 

Total 

Per  ceut. 

of  total, 

public 

ISOO 

1 

6 

6 

9 

23 

33 

57 

116 

293 

806 

1,690 

15 

21 

25 

35 

« 

60 

79 

127 

305 

1,072 

1.4S9 

16 

26 

30 

14 

U 

83 

136 

213 

598 

1,878 

3.179 

G.3 

1810     

19.2 

1S20                  

16.8 

IKtO 

20.5 

1840 

35.9 

1850 

39.7 

1860 

1870 

11.9 
47.7 

1880 

49.0 

1890      

12.9 

189« 

63.2 

•  CompHeii  trom  the  Manual  of  .American  Water- Works 
for  1897.  Figures  tor  1898,  but  pxfluiliuK  all  places  of 
less  than  1000 "population  by  the  Census  o(  1890,  published 
in  the  Report  of  the  fnlted  States  Commission  of  Labor 
fnr  1899.  show  1787  municipal  (53.73  per  cent.)  to  1639 
private  works. 

In  Canada,  in  1896  municipal  ownership  pre- 
vailed in  75  per  cent,  of  the  municipalities  hav- 
ing works,  or  109  of  145  cities  ami  towns.  At 
Montreal  water-works  were  built  by  a  company 
in  1801  and  bought  by  the  city  in  1845.  At 
Toronto  private  works  were  built  in  1841  and 
bought  by  the  city  in  1873. 

In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  in  1901,  of  fA 
county  boroughs  in  England  and  Wales,  includ- 
ing the  great  towns.  45  owned  their  water  sup- 
plies, and  of  the  141  other  boroughs  139  had 
municipal  works.  All  the  large  town-  of  Scot- 
land o«-n  their  works.  In  Ireland.  Dublin  and 
Cork  have  municipal  service.  About  half  the  so- 
called  urban  districts  in  England,  other  than 
boroughs,  have  municipal  works.  Water-works 
appear  to  have  been  introduced  by  the  municipal- 
ity of  London  in  1283:  by  Plyiiiouth  in  1585; 
and  Oxford  in  IfilO.  Manchester  ;Mid  Liverpool 
each  bought  out  a  private  company  in  1847, 
niasgow  in  1855,  Birminiihani  in  187fi,  and  Shef- 
fii'ld  in  1SS8.  Edinburgh  transferred  municipal 
works  to  a  company  in  1819,  but  they  were  re- 
stored to  municipal  ownership  in  1809.  Oreater 
London  has  been  served  for  years  by  eight  com- 


MUNICIPAL   OWNERSHIP. 


127 


MUNICIPAL   OWNERSHIP. 


panics,  lMj,'iuiiing  with  the  Xew  Kiver  Company, 
whose  works  were  eonipleted  in  1U13  witli  tlie  aid 
of  James  1.  The  other  seven  companies  date 
from  1721  to  1822.  After  years  of  agitation  for 
municipal  ownersliip,  a  Parliamentary  act  was 
passed  in  1002  providing  for  tlie  ]mrcliase  of  the 
I.ondon  companies  and  the  control  of  tlie  water 
supply  by  a  joint  board  representing  the  several 
borouglis  and  the  other  public  bodies  comprised 
within  what  is  known  as  Greater  London.  The 
transfer  is  to  be  made  in  June,  1004. 

Most  of  the  large  cities  of  the  European  Conti- 
nent have  extensive  water- works.  In  Germany 
liractically  all  places  of  50.000  population  and  up- 
ward have  municipal  works.  Berlin  secured  control 
of  her  water-works  in  1873.  buying  them  from  a 
company  which  began  to  build  them  in  18.53.  Ham- 
burg and  Frankfort-on-the-JIain,  Vienna,  JIos- 
eow.  Paris.  Piome.  and  other  large  cities  own 
their  water-works.  The  municipal  water-works 
of  Rome  may  be  said  to  date  from  312  B.C.  (See 
AguEoiCT. )  At  Paris  an  old  Roman  aqueduct 
was  restored  in  the  seventeentli  century,  and  a 
small  municipal  supply  seems  to  have  been  con- 
tinued from  that  date  until  more  adequate  works 
were  installed  by  the  city  about  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  As  a  rule,  private  owner- 
sliip prevails  in  Latin-speaking  countries.  In 
Australia  there  are  a  number  of  important  munic- 
ipal works. 

Gas-Works.  In  North  and  South  America 
these  are  rarely  under  municipal  ownership,  but 
in  Europe  they  are  frequently  owned  by  the 
municipality. 

Of  981  towns  in  the  United  States,  each  having 
a  jiopulation  of  3000  and  more  by  the  census  of 
1900.  returns  for  the  close  of  1001  showed  21 
municipal  works :  but  of  these  the  Philadelphia 
plant  was  leased  to  a  private  com]iany  in  1807. 
after  over  fifty  years  of  municipal  ownership  and 
operation.  Two  of  the  21  municipal  plants  sup- 
ply natural  gas.  The  municipal  Avorks  at  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  were  established  in  1852. 

Of  693  gas-works  in  (heat  Britain  and  Ireland 
reported  late  in  1901.  240  were  owned  by  the 
municipalities  served,  and  they  supplied  barely 
half  the  population  involved.  In  1883  there  were 
only  143  municipal  works.  With  the  exception 
of  London,  Liverpool,  and  Dublin,  nearly  all  the 
large  towns  have  municipal  works. 

At  least  41  of  54  cities  of  Germani/  having  a 
population  of  50.000  and  upward  have  munic- 
ipal works,  and  as  far  back  as  1885  figures  for 
tlie  whole  country  showed  338  municipal  to  329 
private  gas-works.  Among  the  larger  cities  with 
private  works  are  Munich,  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main.  and  Altona. 

Municipal  works  are  found  in  most  of  the  cities 
of  Holland.  Norway.  Sweden,  and  Switzerland, 
and  in  a  few  cities  of  France,  Italy,  and  Aus- 
tralia. 

SEWER.\r.E.  JIunicipal  ownership  is  almost 
universal,  but  many  countries  are  practically 
without  sewerage  systems  for  household  wastes. 
It  is  doubtful  if  any  country  is  better  provided 
with  sewerage  facilities  than  the  United  States, 
where  1000  of  the  1524  places  with  a  population 
of  3000  in  1900  reported  sewerage  systems  late 
in  1001.  Of  (he  I00(!  places  with  sewers,  private 
ownership  was  reported  in  47  instances.  Most  of 
these  sewer  companies  were  in  small  places ;  hut 
Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  Wilmington.  N.  C.  and 
Austin,  Texas,  each  with   more  than  20,000  in- 


habitants in  1000,  were  served  by  sewers  owned 
by  private  companies. 

Stbeet  Railways.  This  class  of  service  has 
been  developed  since  1850,  and  up  to  1870  was 
confined  chielly  to  the  United  States.  Municijial 
ownership  outside  of  Great  Britain  is  rare,  and 
even  there  it  lias  sprung  up  recently.  In  fact, 
until  1803  Huddersfield,  England,  and  the  rail- 
way on  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  were  the  onl.y  ex- 
amples of  municipal  ownership  and  operation, 
the  first  dating  from  1882  and  the  second 
from  1883.  A  few  British  cities  constructed  lail- 
way  tracks  and  leased  them  to  companies  be- 
tween 1870  and  1803.  At  the  close  of  1901  there 
were  40  municipalities  in  Great  Britain  that 
owned  and  operated  horse  or  electric  street  rail- 
ways, and  27  (including  a  few  in  the  other  list) 
that  owned  railways,  but  leased  them  to  operat- 
ing companies.  Among  the  40,  such  large  cities 
as  London,  Manchester,  and  Sheflield  are  in- 
cluded, but  there  are  also  private  lines  in  some 
of  these  40  places.  The  operation  of  the  railway 
on  the  Brooklyn  Bridge.  New  York  City,  was 
assumed  by  a  private  company  in  1898.  in  con- 
nection with  the  Brooklyn  railway  service.  In 
1001  the  small  city  of  Grand  Junction,  Colo.,  as- 
sumed the  ownership  and  operation  of  a  short 
hiu-se  railway  line.  In  1002  an  electric  railway 
at  Saint  Thomas,  Ont..  was  taken  over  in  like 
manner.  The  street  railway  system  of  Toronto, 
Ont..  was  bought  by  the  city  at  the  expiration 
of  the  franchise  of  a  company  in  1891.  After  be- 
ing operated  for  a  few  months  by  the  city  it  was 
sold  to  a  company,  under  a  contract  providing 
for  conversion,  by  the  purchaser,  from  horse  to 
electric  traction,  together  with  a  payment  to  the 
city  of  a  percentage  of  gross  receipts  increasing 
with  the  latter.  In  other  countries  than  those 
already  named  there  are  a  few  street  railways 
owned  by  the  city  and  lea.sed  to  operating  com- 
panies. A  subway  to  accommodate  street  rail- 
way traffic  in  congested  districts  of  Boston  has 
been  built  by  the  city  and  leased  to  a  company, 
and  the  same  general  plan  is  being  carried  out 
on  a  much  more  comprehensive  scale  in  New 
York. 

Electric  Lights.  This  service  was  started  on 
a  practical  scale  in  or  about  1880. 

Probably  the  first  municipal  plant  in  the  United 
States  was  put  in  operation  in  1882,  at  Fairfield, 
Iowa.  At  the  close  of  1898  there  were  in  places 
of  1000  or  over  by  the  United  States  census  of 
1800.  460  municipal  and  2572  private  electric- 
lighting  plants.  At  the  close  of  1001.  in  places 
of  3000  population  and  over,  by  the  census  of 
1000,  there  were  193  cities  and  towns  with  munic- 
ipal and  1100  with  private  plants,  besides  85 
cities  having  both.  The  largest  municipal  plants 
are  at  Chicago  and  Detroit;  but  these,  like  many 
other  American  municipal  electric-lighting 
plants,  are  for  lighting  streets  and  public  build- 
ings only. 

The  first  electric-lighting  plant  in  the  United 
Kingdom  was  established  by  a  private  com- 
pany in  1882.  The  oldest  municipal  plant 
was  started  by  Bradford,  in  1880.  At  the 
close  of  1001  there  were  only  248  works  in 
operation  in  the  United  Kingdom,  of  which 
168  were  municipal.  In  addition,  84  munic- 
ipalities and  31  companies  were  then  in- 
stalling works.  Among  (he  larger  municipalities 
Glasgow  bought  out  a  companv  in  1802,  Liver- 
pool  in   1897,  Leeds  in   1898,   Sheffield   in   1899, 


MUNICIPAL   OWNERSHIP. 


128 


MUNK. 


and  Biriiiinyliam  in  lUiW;  Uubliii  Imilt  works  in 
IS'.ii;,  anil  in  \>i^S  Kdinbuigh  ami  ilanclie^.ti'r  did 
likewise.  1-ondon  is  divided  between  niuniei|)al 
and  private  ownership,  with  the  latter  far  in  the 
lead.  From  the  outset  niuiiieipal  ownership  of 
eleetriclifjliting  plants  has  been  encouraged  by 
the  general  (iovernnient ;  and  that  to  suoli  an  ex- 
tent, es])eoially  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  indus- 
try, as  to  cheek  the  growth  of  private  plants. 

On  the  CoiitiiKiit  f>f  Europe  private  ownership 
of  electric-lighting  plants  seems  to  be  the  rule, 
with  some  exceptions  in  the  northern  ])art.  The 
works  at  Berlin  were  opened  by  a  company  in 
188ti,  but  the  city  controls  their  operation  in 
important  particulars,  and  shares  largely  in  the 
gross  receipts.  At  Hamburg.  (Icrniany.  nuuiic- 
ipal  works  were  put  in  operation  in  1881). 

Telephonks.  This  service,  like  the  telegraph, 
is  national  rather  than  municipal  in  scope,  and 
is  generally  controlled  by  large  comjianies,  as  in 
the  United' States,  or  by  the  general  govi'rnments, 
as  in  many  countries  of  Europe,  in  Japan,  and  in 
Australia.  Tunbridge  Wells,  England,  and  (Jlas- 
gow,  Scotland,  inaugurated  the  first  nuinicipal 
telephones  in  Great  iiritain  in  1901,  and  early  in 
1902  some  40  other  jilants  or  projects  were  under 
way.  The  English  trunk  lines  are  owned  by  the 
national  postal  authorities:  municipal  telephones 
are  reported  at  .Vmstcrdani. 

Ferries.  In  the  I'nited  States  there  are  about 
10  cities  with  municipal  ferries  to  70  witli  pri- 
vate ones.  Boston  being  the  most  notable  example 
of  municiiial  ownership.  In  Great  Britain  a 
large  municipal  ferry  between  I.iverpiiol  and 
Birkenhead  is  owned  and  operated  by  the  latter 
municipality.  Public  bodies  at  Glasgow  and 
at  Belfast  also  control  ferries.  There  are  a  few- 
other  municipal  ferries  in  Great  Britain. 

Other  1m)Istries.  The  chief  additional  ser- 
vices that  might  properly  be  discussed  under 
municipal  ownership,  as  here  considered,  are 
docks  and  wharves  and  ))ul>Iie  markets.  The  for- 
mer, particularly  on  a  large  scale,  are  more  fre- 
quently found  in  Europe  than  in  America :  but 
New  York  City  has  expended  many  millions  on 
dock  construction,  and  receives  a  considerable 
yearly  revenue  from  dock  leases.  Municipal  mar- 
kets are  common  in  Europe,  .\ustralia.  and 
Canada,  where  they  are  frequently  exclusive  in 
character.  In  the  United  States  they  exist,  but 
thev  are  in  competition  with  private  markets. 
Of  "cities  and  towns  of  over  .30.000  inhabitants 
120  were  reported  in  1901  to  have  municipal  mar- 
kets, but  doubtless  the  list  was  incomplete,  and 
at  the  same  time  it  included  some  outdoor 
markets  or  market  places.  Xew  York.  Boston, 
Baltimore,  and  Xew  Orleans  have  large  markets, 
which  yield  considerable  revenue.  Subways  for 
electrical  wires  have  been  constructed  in  a  num- 
ber of  American  cities  for  lease  to  the  various 
owners  of  wires.  .\  few  cities  have  Imilt  subways 
for  general  use  and  receive  a  rental  therefrom. 

Bnii.incRAriiv.  Consult:  Fairlie.  Miitiinitnl 
Adminintrnlion  (New  Y'ork.  1901);  Bemis  (edi- 
tor). Muniriiml  Mouopolirfi  (Xew  Y'ork.  189!)); 
Foole,  Muniiipiil  Piihliv  Scrvirc  Iiirhmtrics 
(Chicago,  1899)  :  Francisco.  Municipalilit'-i  m. 
Prirair  Cnrporrilioim  (Rutland.  Vt..  1900)  ; 
Baker.  Muuicipnl  Yiiirliook  for  tlir  fmVerf 
flliile/i  (New  York.  1902)  :  Ponald.  Miiiuripal 
Trar-lionk  for  firral  Jirilnin  (London.  1002)  : 
Bnker.  Mnntiiil  of  Americuii  ^Valcl•■^\'orl;s  (Xew 
York.    1897);    Water.    Gas.    and   Electric-Light 


riitiils  I  iidrr  Private  and  Municipal  Oimership, 
Report  of  United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor, 
1899  (Washington,  1900)  :  Muuiripal  Tradinij, 
Report  of  Joint  Parliamentary  Committee  (Lon- 
don, 1900).  Also  see  general  works  under  Mf- 
XICIPAL  Gover.xment. 

MUNICIPAL    REFORM    ACTS,    E.XGLisn. 

The   various   acts   passed   by   I'arliauu'nt   in   the 
nineteenth  century  aiming  to  reform  the  govern- 
ment of  the  English  municipalities.     The  Parlia- 
mentary reform  of  1832  having  left  untouched  the 
notorious  abuses  in  the  English  system  of  munic- 
ipal   government,    a    Parliamentary    commission 
was  appointed  the  following  year  to  investigate 
exhaustively  the  general  condition  of  municipal 
corporations  throughout  the  Kingdom.     A  monu- 
mental report  was  made  by  the  commission  show- 
ing that  the  municipal  governments  were  in  the 
hands  of  self-elected  cliques;  that  the  corporate 
funds    were    wasted;    that    public    improvements 
were  almost  wholly  neglected;  that  the  nuinicipal 
courts  were  corr\ipted  and  prostituted  for  party 
purjioses;  and  tliat  the  whole  system  of  municipal 
institutrons  as  then  constituted  was  a  source  of 
weakness  rather  than  of  strength  to  the  country 
at  large.     The  report  of  the  commission  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  JIunicipal  Corporations  Act  of  1835, 
which  lias  been  well  called  "the  great  charter  of 
English  municipal  freedom."   By  this  act  178  bor- 
oughs were  reformed,  125  others  given  corporate 
jirivilegcs,  and  provision  wa.s  made  for  the  reme- 
dying of  many  defects,  and  the  correction  of  the 
most  notorious  abuses  of  the  municipal   system. 
It  admitted  to  the  franchise  all  property-owners 
and  oceu|)iers  of  property  rated  at  £10  per  annum, 
and  established  a   uniform  system   of  nuuiici]ial 
organization.    This  scheme  provideil  first  foi'  an 
elected  council,  varying  in  size  according  to  the 
population  of  the  borough;  the  council  was  to  be 
a  l)icameral  bo<ly,  the  Upper  House  consisting  of 
a    cert;iin    number    of    aldermen    elected    by    the 
council.    The  act  further  ])rovideil  for  a  mayor  to 
be  chosen  by  the  body  of  councilors  and  aldermen 
from   am<mg  their   own   members.     The   mayor, 
aldermen,  and  councilors  were  to  constitute  the 
full    nuinicipal   governing   body.      The   chief   fea- 
tures of  this  act  have  remained  as  the  framework 
of  the  English  nmnicipal  constitution;  although 
the    various    acts    of    Parliament,    passed    from 
time  to  time,  n\oditying  in  unessential  particulars 
the    municipal    .structure    made    a    consolidation 
and  revision  of  the  statutes  necessary.     This  Wiis 
accom])lished  by  the  consolidated  nuuiicipal  code 
o(  1882.     By  the  Local  (iovernmcnl  .\ct  of   1888 
the   numicipal   constitution   was   modilied   to  tlie 
extent   that  cities  and   towns  with   a   population 
of  50.000   inh;ibitanls   were   made  distinct   coun- 
ties  fur  administrative   purposes,   the   municipal 
councils  assuming  all  duties  which  would  other- 
wisc    devolve    upon    county    councils.      Consult: 
Chalmers,   Local   Uovcriimciils    (London,    188:i); 
Goodnow,  Comparulirc  .[iliiiiiii.''lnilirr  I, inc.  vol. 
i.    (Xew   York.   1807);   Shaw.  Municipal  tlorcrn- 
went   ill   tlieut   Britain    (ib.,    1805).      See   works 
referred  to  under  Municipal  Government;  Mu- 
nicipality. 

MUNTC  mi.ink.  Han.i  ( 1589-ir)28).  A  Danish 
navigator,  born  :it  Elsinore.  In  1019.  by  order  nf 
King  Christian  IV..  he  set  out  with  two  stiips 
to  discover  (he  northwest  passage  to  the  Indies. 
He  |>i'netrated  Davis  Strait  as  far  norlh  as 
09°.   and   (hen   (urned   sou(hw;u-d   and   spent   tho 


MTTNK. 


129 


MUNNICH. 


winter  on  Cliesteifield  Inlet.  Cold,  famine,  and 
srurvy  dcstioyud  so  many  of  his  men  that 
V.  hen  he  regained  the  coast  of  Nurwa}'  in  Sep- 
tember, 1020,  only  two  persons  besides  himself 
survived.  He  sailed  on  a  second  voyage  in  1021, 
and  upon  his  return  in  1023  reported  that  he  had 
readied  7.5"  north  latitude,  and  had  seen  an  open 
sea  beyond.  An  account  of  his  tirst  voyage  was 
published  at  Copenhagen  in  1023,  under  title  of 
Kl'tcrrctuing  uf  imriyaiinonen  og  reiscn  id  den 
Nye  Danmark  af  HI yrmand  Hans  Munk. 

MXJNK,  Hebjiaxn  (1S39— ).  A  German 
neurologist.  He  was  born  at  Posen.  studied  at 
Berlin  and  Gijttingen,  and  in  1802  became  do- 
cent  in  the  former  luiiversity.  Seven  years 
afterwards  he  was  promoted  to  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  physiology*,  and  in  1870  he  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  physiological  la- 
boratory in  the  veterinary  college.  In  1897  he 
became  full  professor  in  the  miiversity.  Besides 
studies  on  the  productive  methods  of  thread- 
worms. JIunk  wrote  on  the  physiologA'  of  the 
nerves  and  especially  on  the  brain:  Uiitcrsiichun- 
gen  iiber  das  Wesen  der  'Scrrcnerregung  (1808) 
and  I'rber  die  Fiiuktimien  der  Grosshirnrinde 
(2d  ed.   1890). 

MUNK,  Salomon  (1803-07).  A  French  Ori- 
entalist. He  was  born  in  Glogau,  Silesia,  of 
.lewish  [larents,  studied  at  Berlin,  Bonn,  and 
Paris,  and  in  1S40  was  made  custodian  uf  Ori- 
ental manuscripts  in  the  Paris  Xational  Library. 
He  accompanied  Montefiore  and  Cremieux  to 
Egyjjt.  bringing  back  many  valuable  manuscripts. 
Although  he  had  become  blind,  he  was  in  1805 
apjiointed  professor  of  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and  Sy- 
riac  in  the  Coll&ge  de  France.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles- 
Lettres,  and  published  an  edition  (with  French 
translation)  the  Guide  of  the  Perplexed  (1S56- 
(jii)  by  Moses  ben  Mainiou  (see  .\Iaimonides) . 
His  furtlier  works  inchule  Palestine  (1845)  and 
Philosophy  Among  the  Jews    (1848). 

MTTNKACS,  mnn'kach.  A  town  of  Hungary, 
situated  on  the  River  Latorcza,  about  70  miles 
east-southeast  of  Kaschau  (Map:  Hungary.  H  2). 
It  has  manufactures  of  coarse  cloth.  In  the 
vicinity  are  mined  alum,  iron,  and  crystals.  The 
fortress  of  ilunkacs,  situated  on  a  rock  near  the 
1'i\vn  and  used  as  a  prison,  is  noted  for  its  many 
-ieges.  especialh'  for  its  defense  against  the  Aus- 
trians.  to  whom  it  surrendered  in  1088  after  a 
siege  of  three  years,  the  garrison  having  been 
connnanded  bv  Helen  Zrinyi,  the  wife  of  the 
patriot  leader  Tiikolyi.     Population,  1900.  14,416. 

MXJNKACSY,  mnn'ka-chf..  :Miciiael  (1844- 
1900).  An  llun.sarian  historical  and  genre  paint- 
er, whose  real  name  was  Jlichael  Licb.  lie  was 
born  at  MunkScs.  February  20.  1844,  the  son  of 
a  petty  official,  lieeanie  an  orphan  at  an  early  age, 
and  in  1855  was  apprenticed  to  a  joiner.  After 
several  years  of  liard  work  and  privation,  chance 
threw  him  in  tlw  wa.v  of  the  portrait-painter 
Szamos.sy  at  Gyula,  who  aided  and  befriended 
him.  as  did  also  the  landscape  painter  Ligeti.  at 
Budapest,  whither  i\liud<;1esy  had  gone  in  1803. 
A  small  grant  from  the  art  society  there  enabled 
bim  to  study  for  a  year  (1.805)  at  the  .\cademy 
in  Vienna,  after  which  he  proceeded  to  Munich, 
nhere  he  studied  under  .Alexander  Watnier.  and 
found  a  special  protector  in  Franz  Adam,  the 
battle  painter.    In  1868  he  went  to  Dijsseldorf  to 


work  under  Knaus.  Two  years  later  his  first  im- 
portant picture,  •The  Last  Day  of  a  Condenuied 
Man"  (in  the  collection  of  Mrs.  \V.  P.  Wilstach, 
Philadelphia),  took  Paris  by  storm,  bringing  him 
the  gold  medal.  His  future  was  forthwith  as- 
sured, and  in  1872  he  took  up  his  residence  in 
Paris,  where  for  several  years  he  continued  to 
depict  ejjisodes  from  the  popular  life  of  his  na- 
tive country  with  impressive  truthfulness  and 
a  sombre,  blackish  coloring.  In  1870  he  entered 
upon  a  new  field,  painting  a  .series  of  charming 
Paris  interiors,  in  which  he  adopted  a  richer 
coloring,  but  his  most  important  production  of 
this  period  was  "JNlilton  Dictating  Paradise  Lost" 
(1877,  Lenox  Library,  New  York).  It  was  not, 
however,  until  ISSl  that  he  reached  his  own  ideal 
with  the  completion  of  the  now  world-famous 
"Christ  Before  Pilate"  (.lohn  Wanamaker,  Phila- 
delphia), which  has  become  one  of  the  most  wide- 
ly discussed  pictures  of  recent  times.  It  was 
•exhibited  all  over  Europe  and  in  the  L'nited 
States  in  1886,  on  which  occasion  Munkacsy  visit- 
ed Xew  York.  In  1884  he  painted  his  second 
biblical  subject,  "Christ  on  Calvary,"  like  its 
predecessor  replete  with  dramatic  life,  treated  in 
the  light  of  history  with  ethnographic  reality 
and  supreme  coloristic  vigor.  It  also  was  brought 
to  America  in  1887,  and  the  artist's  next  impor- 
tant work,  '"The  Last  Moments  of  Mozart" 
(1886),  a  touching  representation  of  the  dying 
composer  rehearsing  his  famous  Re<iuiem,  found 
its  way  into  the  collection  of  Gen.  Russell  A. 
Alger,  Detroit,  Mich.  His  subsequent  creations 
were  of  a  decorative  character,  and  comprise  the 
"Apotheosis  of  the  Fine  Arts,"  for  the  Art-His- 
torical Museum  in  Vienna,  and  "Arpad  Taking 
Possession  of  Hungary"  ( 1890) ,  for  the  new  House 
of  Parliament  in  Budapest.  The  strain  and  dis- 
appointments connected  with  this  work  brought 
on  a  mental  disease,  and  the  artist  passed  the 
last  three  years  of  his  life  in  the  sanitarium  at 
Endenich,  near  Bonn,  where  he  died.  Jtay  1.  1900. 
Many  of  the  prominent  public  and  private  collec- 
tions of  the  United  States  contain  examples  of 
his  paintings.  Consult:  Tahi,  in  Die  Kuns<t  fiir 
Alle,  XV.  (Munich,  1900). 

MTJNN,  Or-son  Desaix  ( 1824—  ) .  An  Ameri- 
can journalist  and  lawyer,  born  in  Hampden 
Coiuitv.  ilass.  He  was  educated  at  the  Jlon- 
son  Academy.  In  1846,  in  conjunction  with  Al- 
fred E.  Beach,  he  bought  the  Heientific  Ameri- 
can, which  had  been  founded  six  months  be- 
fore. In  1876  he  began  to  issue  the  Seirntifio. 
American  Siipplentent,  and  in  1885  he  established 
a  monthly  Arehifeets'  and  Builders'  Edition. 

MUNNICH,  mii'niK.  BiRKHARn  Ciiristoph, 
Count  (108:3  1707).  A  Russian  general  and 
statesman,  born  at  Neuenhuntorf  in  Oldenburg, 
Germany.  In  the  War  of  the  Spanisli  Succes-iion, 
he  served  as  captain  of  Hessian  troops.  He  be- 
came a  colonel  in  the  Polisli  army  in  1716.  en- 
tered the  Russian  service  in  1721.  and  six  years 
afterwai-(!s  became  general.  He  was  created  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Russian  army  by  Peter  II. 
in  1727,  and  in  1732  was  made  field  marshal  and 
president  of  the  War  Coimcil.  He  played  a  dis- 
tinguished part  in  the  war  with  Turkey,  overran 
tlie  Crimea  in  1730.  and  advancing  beyond  the 
Dniester,  made  himself  master  of  Moldavia. 
.After  the  death  of  the  Empress  Anna  Ivanovna 
in  1740.  he  opposed  the  i)arty  of  Biron,  the  Re- 
gent, whom  he  overthrew.     The  regency  was  con- 


MUNNICH. 


130 


MUNSELL. 


ferrcd  on  Anna  Kailovna.  mother  of  Ivan, 
tlie  younf;  lioir  to  the  throne,  anil  .Miinnieli  be- 
came Chief  Minister  and  the  most  pouerfnl  man 
in  Russia.  After  the  conp  ilV'tat  which  placed 
Klizabelh  Petrovna  on  the  throne  (1741),  Jlun- 
nich  was  a  nested,  and  the  sentence  of  death 
passed  upon  him  was  chanfred  only  at  the  foot 
of  the  scalVohl  to  exile  in  !>il)eria.  where  he  re- 
mained for  twenty  years.  Peter  111.  restored  to 
him  his  estates  in  17U2,  and  he  was  made  direc- 
tor-general of  the  Baltic  ports  by  the  Empress 
Catharine.  Consult:  llalem,  (leschichlc  dcfi 
Feldmaischalh  Crafen  Mihinich  (Oldenburg,  new 
ed.,   1838). 

MUNOZ,  MiTTn'nyoth.  Juan  Baitist.\  (1745- 
99).  .\  Spanisli  historian,  born  at  Mu.seros,  Va- 
lencia, and  educated  at  the  University  of  Valen- 
cia. His  leadinj;  work  was  Hixtoiiii  del  niicvo 
mundo  (1793),  which  Charles  111.  had  commis- 
sioned him  to  write.  It  follows  the  cour.se  of 
American  discovery  down  to  1500.  The  council 
of  the  Indies,  to  which  he  had  been  njipointed  cos- 
mographer  (1770).  forbade  its  p\iblication:  but 
Charles  IV.  .sanclioiicd  it.  dc>pite  tlic  author's 
revelations  concerniuf;  the  atrocious  treatment  of 
the  aborigines  by  Spaniards  in  the  Xew  World. 
Some  writings  of  Mufioz  are  to  be  found  in  vol. 
Ixii.  of  the  liihiiotrca  dc  atitores  csptii'iolrs  and 
elsewhere  in  the  collections  of  the  Academy  of 
History.  Madrid,  but  many  of  his  manuscripts 
were  burned  in  the  library  of  \'alencia  when  that 
city  was  stormed  by  the  French  (1812). 

MXTNRO',  Hftiii  Andrew-  Jouxstoxk  (1819- 
85).  An  eminent  Knglish  classical  scludar.  He  was 
born  in  Klgin.  Scotland,  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College.  Cambridge,  and  was  from  18(i9  to  1872 
the  first  university  professor  of  Latin  at  Cam- 
bridge. His  edition  of  Lucretius  (4th  ed.  188.")). 
with  commentarj-  jnd  prose  translation,  remains 
one  of  tile  standard  English  contributions  to 
Latin  scholarshi|i.  His  edition  of  Horace  ( 1808), 
containing  a  valuable  introduction,  and  his  Criti- 
cisms and  IChiciilntious  of  Cuttilhis  (1878)  are 
also  highly  esteemed.  He  contributed  to  the 
Journal  of  I'hilolo;/!/  and  other  learned  periodi- 
cals, and  wrote  nuich  Greek  and  Latin  verse. 

MTJNRO,  Xeil  (1804—).  An  English  nov- 
elist. biiiTi  at  Inveraray,  in  Arg\-llshire,  Scotland, 
.Iiinc  .i.  1S04.  He  was  educated  at  the  parish 
school,  and  sul)sei|uently  entered  the  ollice  of  the 
Olas'_'ow  Krcniuii  Vcii-.v.  He  is  the  author  of 
admiralile  tales  and  romances  dealing  with  life 
in  the  Scottish  Highlands.  They  include:  The 
Lost  Pibroch  (1890);  John  Splendid,  which 
gained  him  his  reputation  (1898);  (lilinn,  the 
rirnnifr   I  1S90)  :  and  Poom  Castle  (1901). 

MUNRO,  Sir  Thomas  (17011827).  A  Scot- 
tish major-general.  Governor  of  Madras,  boni  and 
edvicated  in  Glasgow.  He  was  noted  as  a  civil 
ruler,  beginning  with  his  ai>pointnient  to  the 
newly  aopiired  district  of  TJaramahal.  .\fter- 
wnrds  he  was  made  Governor  of  (^inara.  and  then 
of  Ballnri.  Cuddapah.  Karnid.  an<l  the  Palnad, 
where  his  wi<e  rule  was  most  cfTeclive  in  quell- 
ing disorder.  He  established  the  ryotwar  sy-itcm 
of  land  tenure  now  in  vogue  throughout  a  large 
part  of  Brilisb  ln<lia.  whereby  peasants  may  hold 
property  by  paying  a  land  tax  to  the  State.  In 
1819  20  be  was  Governor  of   Madras. 

MUNROE,  mfln-rcV,  Ciiaries  EnWARn  (1849 
— ).     An  American   chemist   and  educator.     He 


was  born  at  Cambridge,  ilass. ;  graduated  from 
the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  in  1871,  and  in  the 
same  year  became  assistant  in  chemistry.  Fiom 
1874  to  1880  he  was  professor  of  chemistry  at 
the  United  States  Xaval  Academy,  and  then  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  explosives.  In  1886 
he  was  ajipointcd  chemist  to  tlie  torpedo  corps 
at  Newport.  R.  I.,  and  in  1892  received  a  chair  in 
chemistry  and  the  post  of  senior  dean  in  Cuhuu- 
bian  University,  jlunroe  invented  a  smokeless 
powder,  and  attained  an  international  reputa- 
tion as  an  autluu'ity  on  explosives.  His  publi- 
cations include  An  Index  to  the  Literature  of  Ex- 
plosives  (1880). 

MUNROE,  IviKK  (1856—).  An  American 
writer  uf  liooks  for  boys,  born  near  Prairie  du 
Chien,  \\  is.  He  studied  civil  engineering  at  Har- 
vard, and  while  professionally  engaged  on  the 
routes  of  the  Northern  and  the  Southern  Pacific 
railways  gained  material  fiu'  many  of  his  tales. 
Afterwards  he  worked  for  v:uious  newspapers  in 
New  York  City,  and  was  the  first  editor  of  Har- 
per's Young  People  (1879-82),  but  on  his  mar- 
riage with  a  daughter  of  Amelia  Barr,  the  novel- 
ist, went  to  reside  in  sotithern  Florida,  a  district 
that  colored  his  writings,  which  include: 
The  Flamingo  Feather  (1887):  Dory  Hales 
(1889)  ;  The  Fur  Seal's  Tooth  (1893)  ;  At  ]Var 
With  Pontiac  (1895)  :  With  Croelett  and  lionic 
(1897)  :  Under  the  Great  Pear  (1900)  ;  and  The 
Belt  of  Seren  Totems  (1901 ). 

MTJN'SEE.  A  subtribe  of  the  Delaware 
(q.v.),  originally-  constituting  one  of  the  three 
great  divisions  of  that  tribe  and  dwelling  along 
tlie  upper  streams  of  the  Delaware  River,  ;uid 
the  adjacent  country  in  New  York,  New  .lersey, 
and  Pennsylvania.  They  were  considered  the 
most  warlike  portion  of  the  tribe  and  assumed 
the  leadership  in  war  councils.  From  their  prin- 
cipal totem  they  were  frequently  called  the  Wolf 
tribe  of  the  Delaware.  They  were  jjrominent  in 
the  early  history  of  New  York  and  New  .Torsey, 
being  among  the  first  trilies  of  that  region  to 
meet  the  whites.  By  a  noted  fraudulent  treaty 
known  as  the  Walking  Purchase,  the  main  body 
was  forced  to  remove  from  the  Delaware  Kiver 
about  the  year  1740.  They  settled  on  the  Susqu(^ 
hanna,  on  lands  assigned  them  by  the  Iroquois, 
but  soon  afterwards  moved  w-estward  and 
joined  the  main  Delaware  tribe  on  the  Ohio 
River,  with  whom  the  greater  portion  eventually 
became  incorporated.  A  considerable  body,  who 
were  converted  by  the  Moravian  missionaries, 
drew  off  from  the  rest  and  formed  a  separate  or- 
ganization, most  of  tlieiii  remm  ing  to  Canada 
during  the  Revolution.  Others  joined  the  Ojiliwa 
and  Stoekbridge  Indians.  The  majority  were  in- 
corporated in  the  Delaware,  with  whom  they  par- 
ticipated in  their  subsequent  wars  and  removals. 
Those  who  still  keep  the  name  of  Munsee  are  in 
tliree  bands,  two  of  which  are  consolidated  with 
other  tribal  fragments,  so  that  no  separate  cen.sus 
is  available.  These  tribes  are  the  Munsec>^  of  the 
Thames,  Ontario.  Canada.  120:  Munsee  (or  Chris- 
tian), and  Chippewa,  northeastern  Kansas,  90; 
and  Stoekbridge  and  ^lunsee.  Green  Bay  .\g(Miey, 
Wis..  530.  Those  of  the  I'nitcd  Stat<s  are  official- 
ly reported  as  civilized  and  entirely  competent 
to  manaire  (heir  own  afTairs.  The  mixed  band  in 
Kaii~n^  ba-  di-^-olved  tribal  relations. 

MUNSELL,  mun'sel.  .ToEt.  (180880).  .\n 
American  editor,  publisher,  and  antiquary,  born 


MUNSELL. 


131 


MTINSTER. 


in  Xorthfiold,  Mass.  He  seltlcd  in  Albany,  X. 
Y.,  in  lS:i7.  and  entered  journalism.  He  subse- 
quently lieeanie  the  etlitor  of  various  publications, 
anion^  whicli  were  the  Xcir  Yoiic  State  Mf  chmiir^ 
tile  Lady's  Mu<;(i::iiic,  and  the  yew  Enytnnd  Uis- 
torical  and  (U'ltciiloi/icdl  I'egistcr.  He  rendered 
valuable  services  to  tlie  cause  of  American  his- 
tory by  publishing  the  Aniuils  of  Albany  ( 10  vols., 
1840-50)  ;  Colkclions  on  the  History  of  Albany 
(4  vols.,  1855-57)  ;  and  a  series  of  book.s,  some 
of  considerable  value,  known  as  the  "Munsell 
Historical  Series." 

MXJNSEY,  mun'sl.  Fr.\>;k  Andrew  (1854—). 
An  American  publLslier,  born  at  Jlercer,  Maine. 
In  1SS2  he  established  at  New  York  City  The 
Uohlcn  Aryosji.  a  children's  weekly,  which  he 
afterwards  changed  to  Tin  Aryosy.  a  monthly 
for  adults.  In  1890  he  founded  Miiiisey's  Weekly. 
which  he  changed  to  the  monthly  Miinsey'S'  Maga- 
zine the  next  year.  He  also  founded  The  Puritan 
and  the  Junior  Munscy.  and  afterwards  obtained 
control  of  the  \Yashington  Times,  the  New  Y'ork 
Daily  -Yrics.  and  the  Boston  Journal. 

MUNSON,  mfln'son,  .T.4.MES  Kigexe  (1835 
— ).  An  American  inventor,  born  at  Paris, 
Oneida  County,  N.  Y'.  He  studied  for  a  time  at 
Amherst,  then  removed  to  Xew  Y'ork  City,  where 
he  became  a  court  stenographer,  ii  position  wliich 
he  held  for  more  than  thirty  years.  He  formu- 
lated the  Munson  system  of  stenography,  an 
automatic  typesetting  machine,  and  a  mechan- 
ism of  operating  typewriting  machines  by  tele- 
graph, and  published  a  number  of  books  of 
phonoLirapliy. 

MtJNSTER,  nn.in'ster.  The  capital  of  the 
Prussian  Province  of  Westphalia,  situated  in 
a  level  district  at  the  confluence  of  the  Aa. 
with  the  Miinster  Canal,  65  miles  northeast  of 
Diisseldorf  (Map:  Prussia,  B  2).  The  town  is 
mediiPval  in  a|i]>earance.  with  its  ancient  gabled 
buildings,  old  Renaissance  houses,  rococo  dwell- 
ings of  the  eighteenth  century,  arcaded  markets, 
and  shaded  allOes.  The  site  of  the  former  forti- 
fications, which  divided  the  old  and  new  towns, 
has  been  converted  long  since  into  promenades. 
-Miinster  has  many  churches,  of  which  two  are 
prominent:  Saint  Lambert's  and  the  cathedral. 
The  former  is  a  graceful,  pleasing  structure.  It 
is  Gothic,  dates  from  the  fourteenth  century,  has 
been  restored  in  recent  times,  and  possesses  a 
majestic  new  tower.  The  ch\iroh  is  associated 
with  the  history  of  the  Anabaptists  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  cathedral  is  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  has  some  noteworthy  fea- 
tures, though  none  of  great  interest.  The  impos- 
ing Church  of  Our  Lady  also  merits  mention  as 
well  as  the  beautiful  Romanesque  tower  of  the 
Ludgcrikirche. 

The  Rathaus  is  a  handsome,  gabled.  Gothic 
structure.  The  Peace  of  \Yestphalia  was  signed 
in  it  in  1G48,  in  a  curious  room  called  the  Fried- 
enssaal,  which  contains  portraits  claimed  to  have 
been  painted  by  Terluirg.  Among  the  interest- 
ing old  buildings  are  also  the  Renaissance  Weigh 
House ;  the  Renaissance  Stadtkeller.  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Kunstverein,  with  pictures  of 
minor  value :  and  the  Schuhhaus,  or  the  ancient 
guild-hall  of  shoemakers.  The  castle  was  the 
episcopal  residence  in  former  times,  and  is  now 
occupied  by  the  leading  officials  of  the  city.  In 
its  grounds  is  a  botanical  garden.  The  Govern- 
ment ofTiees,  the  law  courts,  and  the  attractive 


Gothic  post-office  are  modern.  The  splendid 
modern  Ludgerus  fountain  is  adorned  with  in- 
teresting religious  statues.  The  Roman  Catholic 
university.  whi<-h  ceased  to  exist  as  sucl'  in  1818, 
wlien  the  institution  was  reduced  to  a  theological 
and  a  philosophical  faculty  (which  figured  as  the 
Academy  of  Jliinstcr  from  1S43),  was  revived  in 
1!I02  by  the  establisliment  of  a  faculty  of  law. 
Xoteworthy  also  among  the  many  educational  in- 
stitutions are  the  royal  pedagogical  seminary,  a 
seminary  for  priests,  and  two  'Ivonvikte.'  iliin- 
ster  has  a  JIuseum  of  Christian  Art,  the  Pauline 
Library,  with  alxiut  115,000  volumes,  and  an  ex- 
tensive Roman  Catholic  gymnasium.  There  is  a 
notable  zoiilogical  garden,  which  is  much  fre- 
quented by  tlie  citizens,  and  contains  an  anti- 
quarian collection.  The  industrial  products  of 
-Miinster  include  leather,  linen  and  cotton  fab- 
rics, starch,  thread,  and  sugar.  There  are  also 
carriage  works  and  distilleries.  A  large  trade 
is  carried  on  in  the  produce  of  the  country.  Car- 
riages and  sculptures  of  stone  are  exported.  The 
population  in  1871  was  24,815;  in  1001,  0.3,776, 
mostly    Catholics. 

History.  Miinster  had  its  origin  in  a  cele- 
brated monastery  which  appears  as  early  as  the 
time  of  Charles  the  Great.  A  considerable  set- 
tlement sprang  up  around  the  monastery  in  the 
first  part  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  town  re- 
ceived municipal  rights  about  1180,  and  in  the 
course  of  many  years  the  inhabitants  succeeded  in 
vindicating  tlieir  liberties  against  their  feudal 
lords,  the  bishops  of  Miinster.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  ^liinster  entered  the  Hanseatie  League. 
In  the  fifteenth  century  it  became  a  centre  of 
learning  and  religious  life,  and  during  the  Refor- 
mation suffered  greatly  from  the  strife  of  parties. 
In  1533  Miinster  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Ana- 
baptists, whose  leader,  the  celebrated  John  of 
Leyden  (q.v. ) ,  erected  the  city  into  a  kingdom  of 
Zion  with  himself  as  sovereign  (1534).  The  city 
was  taken  by  the  Bishop  in  the  following  year, 
and  .J.ihn  of  Leyden  was  put  to  death.  Against  the 
ambitious  and  warlike  Bcrnhard  of  Galen,  Bishop 
of  iliinster,  the  city  carried  on  a  desperate 
struggle  in  defense  of  its  rights,  but  it  was  finally 
compelled  to  submit  with  the  loss  of  almost  all 
its  liberties  (1661).  The  Bishopric  of  Miinster, 
which  held  a  prominent  place  among  the  eccle- 
siastical States  of  the  old  German  Empire  and 
embraced  a  territory  of  nearly  4000  square 
miles,  was  secularized  in  1803. 

MTJN'STER.  The  largest  of  the  four  prov- 
inces of  Ireland,  occupying  the  southwest  part 
of  that  country  and  bounded  north  by  Conna\ight, 
east  by  Leinster,  and  west  and  south  by  the  At- 
lantic (Map:  Ireland,  C  4).  It  contains  the  six 
counties  of  Clare.  Cork,  Kerry,  Limerick,  Tip- 
perary.  and  Waterford.  Area,  0481  square  miles. 
The  population  of  the  province  in  1841  was 
2.404,460;  in  1891,  1,173,643;  and  in  1901,  1,075,- 
075. 

MtlNSTER,  mnn'ster,  Seb.\stian  (1489- 
1552).  A  German  theologian  and  geographer. 
He  was  born  at  Ingelheim.  studied  at  Heidelberg 
and  Tubingen,  and  in  1529  left  the  Catholic 
Church  for  the  Reformed.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  and  Hebrew  at  Heidelberg  until  1536, 
when  he  became  profess(n-  of  mathematics  at 
Basel.  He  edited  in  1534  the  first  Hebrew  Bible 
to  appear  under  the  care  of  a  German.  But  his 
chief  work  was  his  Oosmographia  (1544),  a  geog- 


MXJNSTER. 


132 


MTJNTZ. 


rapliy  ■which  was  translated  into  Italian,  French, 
and  Latin,  and  passed  through  twenty-four  edi- 
tions in  a  liundred  years. 

MtJNSTERBERG,  nu.in'ster-berK,  HiGO 
(1S03 — ).  A  Gtrnian-Amorican  psychologist, 
born  in  Danzig.  He  received  the  degree  of  Ph.D. 
at  Leipzig  in  1885  and  that  of  iLD.  at  Heidelberg 
two  years  afterwards,  and  taught  psychologj-  at 
Freiburg  for  live  years  (1887-92).  In"l802  he  be- 
came professor  of  psychology  at  Harvard  Univer- 
sity, lie  devoted  himself  mainly  to  the  physio- 
logical side  of  the  science,  anil  it  was  under  his 
supervision  that  the  psychological  laboratory  at 
Harvard  was  organized.  His  nuire  important 
publications  are:  Die  ^yiUcnshandlu»y  (1888); 
GedunUcniihertragung  (1889)  ;  Der  Ursprung  der 
Siltlichkeit  (1889);  Beitriige  zur  experimentel- 
len  Psi/chologie  (1891):  Psycholoqxi  and  Life 
(1899)":  (Iriindziige  der  Pst/cliologie  (1900); 
American  Traits  (1901). 

MUNSTER-LEDENBURG,  mi.in'ster  Wden- 
bOiorK,  FiR.N.sr  Frikdkhu  Hf.rhert,  Graf  zu  (17CC- 
IS.'iill.  A  Hanoverian  statesman.  Hi'  was  born 
at  Osnabriick;  studied  at  Gilttingen,  and  in  1788 
entered  the  governmental  service  of  Hanover.  For 
three  years  ( 1801-04)  he  was  Ambassador  to  Saint 
Petersl)urg,  and  as  Cabinet  Minister  at  London 
immediately  afterwards  did  nuich  to  bring  about 
the  entente  between  Russia  and  England.  His 
foreign  policy  was  marked  by  deep  opposition  to 
Napoleon.  In  181.3-14  he  was  at  the  headquarters 
of  the  allied  forces,  and  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Vienna  Congress  (1814-15).  In  Germany  his 
programme  was  progressive,  but  anti-1'russian; 
the  constitution  of  the  Kingdom  of  Hanover  and 
its  formation  in  the  midst  of  Prussia  may  be 
considered  typical  of  his  policy.  In  }BS\  Miln- 
stcr  retired  from  office.  Consult  Ilormayr,  E.  F. 
H.  Cnif    MiiuKlcr   (.Iciin,   IS?.")). 

MUNSTER-LEDENBURG,  Georg  Herbekt, 
Graf  zu,  Frciherr  von  Grotthaus  (1820-1902).  A 
German  diplomat,  son  of  the  foregoing,  born  in 
Lonilon.  Kngland.  He  was  educateil  at  lionn, 
Heidcllicrg.  and  (iiittingcji,  served  for  a  time  in 
the  first  chamber  of  the  Hanoverian  Parliament, 
and  from  ISoli  to  18(i4  was  envoy  extraordinary 
of  till'  (Jovernment  of  Hanover  at  the  Court  of  St. 
Petersbur};.  .After  the  annexation  of  Hanover  to 
Prussia  in  180fi  he  declared  himself  pro-Prussian, 
and  from  1807  was  a  member  of  the  Upper  House. 
He  represented  Goslar  in  the  Diet  of  the  North 
German  Confederation  from  18(17  to  1870,  and 
in  the  German  Reichstag  from  1871  to  1873.  He 
became  .-Vmbassador  at  London  in  1873.  at  Paris 
in  1885,  and  in  1900  retired  from  the  diplomatic 
service.  He  wrote  sevi'ral  works  on  contemporary 
German  and  Continental  public  allairs.  including 
PoUtischc  Sliizzcn  iiher  die  Lagr  lUiropa.f  vam 
Wiener  KongresK  bin  zur  flegenvart  (1807),  and 
Der  norddeutsehe  Blind  mid  dessen  Vehergang 
zu  rinrni  ilriit.iehen  I'eiehe  (2d  cd.  1808). 

MUNTANER,  moon'tn-nnr'.  Ex  R.\m6x 
( 12051330).  A  Spanish  chronicler,  born  at  Pera- 
lada.  in  Catalonia.  On  the  burning  of  his  native 
town  by  the  French  he  became  a  wandering  soldier 
and  minstrel,  and  for  thirty  years  led  an  adven- 
turous life.  IlavinK  returned  to  Catalonia,  he 
began  in  1325  to  write  in  Catalan  the  history  of 
the  princes  of  .Aratron  from  the  time  of  .Tames 
ihe  Conipieror  to  the  coronation  of  .\lfonso  IV. 
This  chronicle  of  great  events,  of  which  he  was 
an  eye-witness,   is   valuable   for   the   history   of 


his  lime,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  accuracy, 
homeliness,  epic  beauty,  and  grace.  It  remained 
in  manuscript  until  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  most  ancient  editions  of  the  orig- 
inal are  those  of  Valencia  (1558)  and  Barcelona 
(1502).  The  former  is  entitled  Chronica  o  de- 
scripcio  dels  fels  e  hazanayes  del  inclyt  Rcy  Don 
Jaumes  Primer  .  .  .  e  de  molts  de  sos  de- 
seendents,  etc.  It  has  been  translated  into  Ger- 
man, Italian,  and  French.  Lanz  published  an 
edition  of  the  original  at  Stuttgart  in  1S44. 
Consult  also  the  edition  by  A.  de  Bofarull  i  Bar- 
celona,  1800).    " 

MUNTHE,  myn'te,  LuDVlG  (1841-9C).  A 
Norwegian  landscape  painter,  born  at  Aaroen, 
near  Bergen.  He  was  first  instructed  by  Schicrtz, 
a  German  painter  and  architect  at  Bergen,  and 
then  became  a  pupil  of  Flamm  at  Diisseldorf, 
which  he  subsequently'  selected  for  his  permanent 
residence.  -\  thoroughly  realistic  treatment  char- 
acterizes his  ])aintings,  of  which  autunm  and  \vin- 
ter  scenes  in  stormy  or  gloomy  weather,  foicst  and 
coast  views  form  the  prevailing  subjects,  and 
which  may  be  judged  by  such  specimens  as  a  "Pine 
Forest  in  Winter"  (1870),  Ilamburg  Gallery; 
■"Wood  Interior  in  Winter,  with  Stags"  (1878), 
National  Gallery,  Christiania,  which  was  award- 
ed the  gold  medal  in  Paris;  "Birch  Wood  in 
Autumn"  (1880),  and  "Autumn  in  Holland" 
(1895),  both  in  National  Gallery,  Berlin. 

MUNT'JAC  (.Javanese  name).  Any  of  a 
genus  (Cervulus)  of  small  Oriental  deer  which 
dwell  solitarily  in  the  jungle,  and  whose  young 
are  spotted.     The  species  best  known   is  that  of 


THE  INDIAN    .MI-'NTJAC. 

India,  called  'barking  deer'  by  Anglo-Indian 
sportsmen,  or  'kakar'  (Cervulus  muntjnc)  by 
the  Hindustani.  It  is  a  little  larger  than  a  roe- 
l)uck.  Its  lyratc  antlers  are  peculiar  in  that 
they  rise  from  pedicels  alxnit  five  inches  high, 
or  as  long  as  the  antler  itself,  and  have  only  one 
short  basal  spur.  The  female  has  no  antlers: 
nor  has  she  the  givat  exposed  upper  canine  tusks, 
which,  like  those  of  the  nnisk.  are  the  eflective 
weapons  of  the  bucks  in  their  fights.  Allied 
species,  some  with  smaller  horns,  arc  found  in 
China  and  the  Malayan  islands,  and  an  interest- 
ing fossil  genus  (.•\mphitragulus) .  inhabiting 
Tertiary  Europe,  was  totally  hornless  in  both 
sexes.     See  Plate  of  Fallow  Deeu,  !Mt  sk,  etc. 

MXJNTZ,  mynts.  Charles  Aciiille  (1840—). 
A  French  agrieultiiraJ  chemist,  brother  of  the 
art  critic  EugSnc  Milntz.    He  was  born  at  Sulz, 


MUNTZ. 


133 


MTJONGS. 


Alsace,  studied  under  Boussingault  in  Paris, 
and,  after  acting  as  liis  assistant  for  ten  years, 
succeeded  him  as  director  of  tlie  clieniical 
lalioratories  in  the  Institut  National  Agrono- 
iiiique.  Mtiutz  made  special  rcsetirch  on  the 
feeding  of  cattle  and  horses,  and,  following 
iioussingault's  method,  tested  his  theories  by 
])ractice  on  great  herds,  on  Parisian  cab  horses, 
and.  in  the  case  of  his  contributions  to  vinicul- 
ture, in  various  vineyards.  He  founded  a  Biblio- 
th&que  de  I'Enseignement  Agricole,  published  the 
results  of  his  i'X]ieriments  in  the  Aiinah's  of  the 
Agricultural  Institute,  and  other  chemical  and 
agricultural  journals,  and  wrote:  liccherches 
siir  I'alimcntalion  dcs  chcniux,  with  Girard 
(1884)  ;  Les  engrais,  with  the  same  (1888-01)  ; 
and  Lcs  lignes    (1895). 

MUNTZ,  EuGftNE  (1845-1902).  A  French  art 
critic,  born  at  Sulz,  Alsace.  He  took  Taine's 
place  as  professor  of  the  history  of  art  at  the 
Ecole  Xationale  des  Beaux-Arts,  where  he  lec- 
tured from  1885  to  1893.  He  made  a  specialty 
of  Italian  art,  and  the  following  works  are  of 
unique  value:  Notes  sur  les  mosaiques  de  I'Halie 
(1874-92)  ;  Les  arts  d  la  cour  des  papes  pendant 
le  XVdme  et  le  XVIime  siecle  (1878-98)  ;  Les 
precurscnrs  de  la  Renaissance  (1881);  Uistoire 
de  la  Idjiisserie  (1882)  ;  Etudes  sur  I'histoire  de 
la  pcinture  rt  de  I'iconographie  ehretiennes 
(1882);  and  Uistoire  del'art  pendant  la  Renais- 
sance, vol.  i.,  Italic:  les  primitifs  (1888)  ;  vol.  ii., 
Italic:  I'uge  d'or  (1892)  ;  vol.  iii.,  Italie:  la  fin 
de  la  Renaissance  (1895);  Leonard  de  Vinci, 
I'artiste,  le  pcnseur,  le  savant   (1899). 

MiJNZEB,  mun'tser,  Thomas  (e.1489-1525). 
A  religious  enthusiast  of  the  German  Reforma- 
tion, born  at  Stolberg,  in  the  Harz  Mountains. 
He  acquired  a  good  knowledge  of  theologv.  taught 
at  Aschersleben  and  Halle,  became  in  1519  chap- 
lain of  a  nunnery  at  Beutwitz,  and  in  the 
following  year  received  a  call  as  preacher  to 
Zwi<'kau.  There  he  gained  great  popularity  by 
his  attacks  on  the  monastic  and  mendicant  Or- 
ders. In  1521  he  was  compelled  to  leave  the 
town,  and  went  to  Bohemia,  where  his  preaching, 
however,  met  with  little  sympathj'.  In  152.3  he 
became  pastor  at  AUstedt,  in  Thuringia,  married 
a  nun  who  had  alijured  her  vows,  and  carried  on 
his  pastoral  work  in  full  sympathy  with  the  ad- 
vanced representatives  of  the  Reformation.  He 
was  an  ardent  champion  of  German  nationality, 
and  was  the  first  to  substitute  Gennan  for  Latin 
in  the  liturg>\  He  stood  in  close  touch  with 
t  arlstadt  and  shared  the  latter's  iconodas- 
lic  ideas.  In  time  he  developed  a  fanatic 
mysticism  whose  chief  tenet  was  the  validity  of 
inner  revelation,  cind  he  attacked  as  'new'  pa- 
pists' those  reformers  who  set  U]i  the  Gospel 
above  personal  justification.  His  ideas  partook 
also  of  a  political  and  social  nature ;  he  preached 
the  speedy  coming  of  God's  kingdom  on  earth, 
and  sought  to  organize  the  peasants  and  the 
.artisans  of  the  towns  into  secret  associations 
looking,  it  is  asserted,  to  the  destruction  of  all 
authority  and  the  establishment  of  comnuinal 
property.  In  August.  1.524.  he  was  expelled 
from  Allstedt  and  betook  himself  to  I\IiihHiau- 
sen.  where  he  joined  forces  with  Heinrich  Pfeifer. 
a  renegade  monk,  who  had  succeeded  in  gaining 
great  influence  over  the  lower  classes.  Together 
they  were  driven  from  the  city  in  September,  and 
Wiinzer  wandered  through  Southern  Germanv  and 


Switzerland,  forming  close  relations  with  the 
Analjaptist  leaders  and  hastening  in  no  small 
degree  the  peasant  uprising  in  those  regions.  He 
reiiirned  to  iliihlhausen  in  December,  and  with 
Pfeifer,  who  had  likewise  reentered  the  city,  as- 
sumed leadership  of  the  discontented  masses. 
The  old  council  was  overthrown,  and  a  new  coun- 
cil was  installed  under  the  control  of  Miinzer. 
-\liililhau.sen  speedily  became  the  centre  of  a 
violent  agitation.  The  opposition  of  the  nobks 
was  ineft'ectual ;  but  at  Frankenhausen,  on  May 
15.  1525,  Miinzer's  peasant  mob  was  almost  an- 
nihilated by  the  force  of  Philip  of  Hesse,  the 
Elector  of  Saxony,  and  the  Duke  of  Brunswick. 
(.See  Pe.\sant  War.)  Miiuzer  escaped  from 
the  Ijattlefield,  but  was  captured  at  Franken- 
hausen and  taken  to  the  Castle  of  Heldrungen, 
where  he  was  put  to  the  torture.  On  May  25th 
he  was  decapitated  at  Jliihlhausen,'  together  with 
Pfeifer  and  twenty-four  other  leaders  of  the 
jieasants.  Fanatic  though  he  undoubtedly  was, 
there  is  nothing  to  disprove  Miinzer's  warm  love 
for  the  common  people,  whose  cause  he  upheld 
against  Luther,  accusing  the  latter  of  fawning 
on  the  German  princes  while  seeking  to  ap- 
pease the  peasants  with  empty  woids  about  the 
responsibility  of  rulers  to  God.  Consult :  Strobel, 
Leben,  fieliriften  und  Lehren  Thomas  Miinzers 
(Xureniberg  and  Altdorf.  1795);  Seidemann, 
Thomas  Miiu-er   (Dresden  and  Leipzig.  1842). 

MUNZINGER,  mun'tslng-er,  Werner  (1832- 
75).  A  Swiss  traveler  and  linguist.  He  was 
born  at  Olten,  was  educated  at  Bern.  Munich, 
and  Paris,  and  in  1S53  joined  a  mercantile  estab- 
lishment at  Alexandria,  Egypt.  He  was  attached  to 
the  expedition  of  Von  Heuglin  in  ISfil,  but  quitted 
it  when  it  reached  North  Abyssinia,  and  in  com- 
pany with  Kinzelbach  ex])lored  an  unknown  ter- 
ritory. In  1802  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
German  exploring  expedition,  succeeding  Heug- 
lin, but  was  unable  to  ])enetrate  farther  than 
Kordofan.  In  1864  he  was  appointed  British 
consul  at  Massowah  and  in  the  Anglo- Abyssinian 
War  acted  as  a  guide  to  the  Englisli  forces,  after 
whose  withdrawal  he  remained  at  Massowah  as 
consul  in  the  French  service.  In  1870  he  made 
a  journey  to  Southeast  Arabia,  and  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  Khedive  Governor  of  Massowah. 
In  1872  he  was  made  Pasha  and  Governor-Gen- 
eral of  the  Eastern  Sudan,  anil  in  1875  was  mor- 
tally wounded  while  leading  an  expedition  against 
Abyssinia.  He  |niblished:  Xitlen  nnd  Recht  der 
Bogos  I1S59);  Oslafrilfniischc  ^tudicn  (1864); 
Vorahulaire  de  la  langue  Tigr6   (1865). 

MUONGS,  miio'ongz.  A  people  who.  together 
witli  tlie  Thos.  also  dwelling  in  Northeastern 
Tongking  and  Annam  and  the  adjoining  parts  of 
China,  constitute,  in  the  opinion  of  some  leading 
anthropologists,  one  of  the  four  chief  groups  of 
the  Thai  stock,  of  which  the  Siamese  are  the 
best-known  members.  The  Farther  Indian 
Muongs  inhabit  the  basin  of  the  Black  River, 
and  the  Thos  that  of  the  Claire,  while  the  great 
mass  of  the  primitive  poinilation  of  the  Chinese 
provijices  of  Kwang-si.  Southern  Kweichow, 
Northwestern  Kwang-tung.  Eastern  Yunnan,  and 
perhaps  also  the  Le  of  the  island  of  Hainan,  be- 
long in  this  group  of  primitive  Thai  peoples. 
The  Pueun  and  Pu-thai  of  Annamese  Laos  close- 
ly resemble  in  physical  characteristics  and  lan- 
guage the  Muongs  of  Tongking.  A  number  of  the 
Thos-Muongs  tribes  have  methods  of  writing  of 
their  own  resembling  those  of  the  Laotians,  and 


MTJONGS. 


134 


MXJRAL  DECORATION. 


apparently  not  ileriviii  I'luiii  t  liinese,  even  in  the 
case  of  the  tiihes  of  this  group  resident  in  China. 
Like  some  others  of  the  primitive  population 
of  this  part  of  the  world,  they  impress  one  as 
being  rather  non-.Mongolian  in"  physical  charac- 
ters. Consult:  Colquhoun,  .Icro.w  "CArysc  (Lon- 
don, 1883)  ;  Baber,  Travels  in  Inland  and  Western 
China  (ib.,  1882-8(i)  :  Bourne,  Journey  in  tfonlh- 
itestern  China  (ib.,  1888);  Henry,  Ling-Xam 
(ib.,  188G)  ;  Hosie.  Three  Years'  in  Mestern 
China  (ib.,  1800)  :  Garcin,  I'n  an  chez  lea 
Muonfis  ail  Tonkin  (Paris,  1891). 

MUBA,  nioo'ra.  A  populous  but  inferior 
trilic  of  Tupian  stock  (q.v. ),  residing  along  the 
Amazon  River,  Brazil,  from  the  confluence  of 
the  Madeira  as  far  as  the  Purfis.  They  were 
formerly  very  formidable  and  hostile  to  the 
Portuguese,  but  were  completely  crushed  by  the 
JIundurucfi  (q.v.)  in  1788.  Since  that  time'some 
of  them  have  come  into  the  Portuguese  settle- 
ments for  protection  and  have  acquired  a  rudi- 
mentary civilization;  but  those  of  the  interior 
and  upon  the  Pun'is  are  still  in  their  original 
savage  condition.  Their  houses,  grouped  in  small 
Ullages,  are  mere  roofs  supported  upon  p(des. 
without  walls.  They  do  not  cultivate  the  ground, 
but  live  upon  fish.  game,  and  wild  fruits, 
using  bows  si.x  fi'Ct  long,  spears,  and  well-made 
canoes.  They  are  much  addicted  to  a  sort  of 
narcotic  snuff  prepared  from  the  seeds  of  a  spe- 
cies of  mimosa.  They  were  formerly  naked,  but 
those  near  the  settlements  now  wear  clothing. 
They  carry  on  a  trade  with  the  Brazilians  in 
sarsaparilla,  turtle  oil.  and  Brazil  nuts,  in  ex- 
change for  cotton  cloth,  knives,  spear  and  arrow 
heads.  They  are  described  as  lazy,  drunken,  dis- 
honest, and  quarrelsome,  and  are  "among  the  low- 
est of  all  the  Amazonian  tribes. 

MTJBAD,  mnn'rad.  The  name  of  five  Turkish 
sultans.     See  A.mirath. 

MTTRADABAD.  mon'ru<l-A-bad'.  or  MORA- 
DABAD.  ill,-  .  apital  of  a  district  of  tlie  United 
Provinces,  liritish  India,  on  an  elevation  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  llaniganga.  and  on  the  Oudh- 
Rohilkand  Kailway.  oO  miles  northwest  of  Ba- 
reilly  (Map:  India,  C  3).  It  has  two  mosques, 
dating  res]iectively  from  1(;28  an<l  IC.'it!,  an 
American  Methodist  mission  church,  built  in 
1874.  and  the  Anglican  Church  of  Saint  Paul. 
The  cantonment  and  civil  administrative  ofTices 
are  on  the  northwest.  Muradabad  is  noted  for 
its  engraved  metal  ware,  and  has  cotton 
factories  and  several  jirinting  establishments. 
There  is  an  extensive  trade  in  the  agricultural 
and  other  products  <if  the  district.  The  town  is 
aibnini.stered  liy  a  municipal  ci>uncil  of  twenty- 
three  members,  eighteen  of  whom  are  elected. 
Muradabad  was  fo\inded  by  Kustam  Khan  in 
lC2.i.  Tlie  ruins  of  bis  fort,  wilh  brick  walls 
from  four  to  six  feet  in  fliickness.  overlook  the 
river.  Population,  in  ISnl,  72.!<21  ;  in  1001 
7.">.I2S. 

MTJR.ffiNA,   nin  r.''na.      .\    fish.      See   MoR.w. 

MURAL  CIRCLE.  An  astronomical  i;is(ni- 
nicnt  formerly  n~cd  fur  measuring  the  declina- 
tions of  stars.  The  jjrinciple  of  its  construction 
was  somewhat  similar  to  that  now  used  for  the 
meridian  circle,  by  which  it  has  been  replaced. 
Sec  Meridian  ('iRri.E. 

MURAL  CROWN.  In  heraldry,  a  crown  in 
the  form  f>f  the  top  of  a  circular  tower,  masoned 
and  embattled. 


MURAL  DECORATION  (from  Lai.  muralis, 
relating  to  a  wall,  frcini  niiinis,  OLat.  maius, 
wall).  Art  applied  to  the  adornment  of  wall 
surfaces.  Wall  painting  in  fresco,  in  oils,  in 
encaustic;  figured  sculpture  in  low  relief,  colored 
or  |)lain,  in  stone,  marble,  terracotta,  or  stucco; 
mosaic  compositions,  marble  incrustations,  and 
sectile  work,  and  wainscoting  in  carved  and 
])aneled  woodwork,  are  the  principal  modes  used 
for  the  purpose.  The  term  is  couunonly  made 
to  include  also,  by  extension,  the  decorative 
treatment  of  vaults  and  ceilings,  as  well  as  walls. 
For  details,  consult  the  special  articles,  such  as 
Fresco.  Mosaic,  Byzantine  Art,  and  others  of 
this  kind. 

Kovi'T.  In  ancient  EgT.pt  flat  undccorated 
walls  were  avoided;  the  internal  surfaces  of  the 
temples  and  the  external  surfaces  of  pylons  and 
walls  were  converted  into  large  grouped  |)ictures, 
deeply  incised,  and  witli  Hat  tints,  graded  ac- 
cording to  the  light,  being  delicate  in  the  well- 
illuminated  parts,  heavier  in  the  darker  apart- 
ments.    See  Egyptian  Art. 

Asia.  Babylonia  and  Assyria  had  greater  va- 
riety of  method.  The  walls  were  often  divided 
Iiorizontally  into  zones — a  lower  dado  of  sculp- 
ture, an  upper  one  of  painting.  The  sculpture 
was  either  of  tine  stone  partly  colored  (not  en- 
tirely, as  in  Eg^■pt).  or  of  glazed  tiles  in  relief, 
strongly  colored.  Though  the  tones  were  still 
Hat.  more  relief  was  given  than  in  Egjpt  by  the 
accentuation  of  outlines  and  detiiils"  by  heavy 
dark  lines.  Cold  and  other  metals  and  rich  hang- 
ings increased  the  strength  of  the  color  scheme. 
The  exterior  walls  were  often  faced  with  flat 
glazed  tiles  in  massed  colors,  with  the  same  re- 
sult.    See  Babylonian  Art  and  Assyrian  Art. 

(JREECE.  The  pre-flellenic  Greeks  seem  to  have 
used  gj-psum  and  plaster  reliefs  and  wall  paint- 
ings in  similar  fashion  to  the  Assyrians,  and  the 
Greeks  of  the  historic  period  at  first  show  si^-n* 
of  Oriental  influence  in  the  violent  colors  applied 
to  gable,  frieze,  and  nu-tope  sculptures,  without 
the  Oriental  appreciation  of  color  harmcmy.  The 
polychromy  of  Greek  architecture  and  sculpture 
gra<lually,  however,  gave  way  to  the  use  of  plain 
sculpture  and  to  a  reliance  "on  the  play  of  light 
and  shade  by  means  of  projecting  moldings  and 
members  in  place  of  pure  surface  decoration. 
Simplicity  of  method,  reticence  of  style,  plas- 
ticity of  composition,  and  delicac.v  of  coloring 
were  their  characteristics.  Color  was  subordinated 
to  form,  and  the  decorated  surfaces  were  broken 
up  usually  into  small  units.  Tlie  predomi- 
nance of  external  over  internal  elTccts  heliied  to 
niinimizx-  the  importance  of  Greek  mural  decora- 
tion. 

Rome.  The  Romans  returned,  with  different 
methods  and  a  different  style,  to  the  Oriental 
and  Egyptian  idea  of  colored  instead  of  plastic 
mural  adornment,  which  received  great  impor- 
tance from  their  development  of  vast  interiors. 
They  adopted  three  principal  media,  w  ith  increas- 
ing   heaviness    as    the     Empire    advan 1 — wall 

painting  in  fresco,  mosaic  painting,  and  marble 
incrustations.  The  molding  of  decorations  in 
low  lelief  in  the  stucco  covering  of  walls  and 
ceilings  may  be  considered  chiefly  as  an  adjunct 
to  the  painted  decoration.  The  most  character- 
istic of  these  three  treatments  was  the  use  of 
rich  Oriental  and  .\frican  marbles.  The  interior 
walls  of  temples.  Imperial  tlierma'  and  palaces, 
bnsilica.s,  and  other  buildings  were  covered  to  a 


MXJKAL  DECORATION. 


135 


MURAL  DECORATION. 


considerable  licight  in  tliis  way.  wliile  private 
houses  were  generally  contined  to  fresco  work. 
( tSee  Plate  of  Pompeian  Jlural  Decoration,  under 
Decob.\tive  Art.)  Jlural  decoration  on  stueeo 
was  often  microscopic  in  scale,  small  compart- 
ments, and  small  scenes  being  ju.\taposed  without 
much  central  interest,  and  Ijy  attempts  at  per- 
spective effects  and  difl'erent  planes  the  effort  was 
made  to  counteract  the  confining  effect  of  the  walls 
of  a  room;  to  substitute  pictures  one  could  look 
into  for  flat  decorated  surfaces.  See  Roman  Akt. 
E.\RLY  Christian.  In  early  Christian  and 
Byzantine  mural  decoration  one  school  adopted 
as  its  main  medium  the  new  method  of  mosaic 
wall  pictures  (see  JIo.SAic),  which  gave  a  richer 
mural  color  scheme  than  had  ever  been  known 
in  any  style.  Casting  aside  the  Roman  pic- 
turesqueness,  this  school  returned  to  the  Oriental 
flat  effects;  but  with  the  addition  of  glowing 
gold  grounds  and  the  depth  given  by  the  colored 
glass  cubes  an  entire  wall  often  became  a  single 
picture  instead  of  an  agglomeration  of  units. 
The  advantage  of  Byzantine  decoration  was  tliat 
the  eye  was  received  by  and  sank  into  its  rich 
mosaic  surfaces  instead  of  being  thrown  back 
by  shallow  fresco  coloring.  The  other  school  pre- 
ferred plain  or  frescoed  surfaces;  tliis  treatment 
was  common  in  most  of  Syria,  Asia  IMinor,  North 
Africa,  and  Europe.  Jlural  decoration  in  these 
regions  for  long  after  the  decline  of  Rome  was 
practically  extinct  where  Byzantine  inlluence  did 
not  exist.'  Even  in  Byzantine  art  fresco  paint- 
ing tended  in  many  places  to  displace  mosaic. 
See  CitRiSTiAN  Abt;  Byzantike  Art. 

JIoiiAMMEDAN.  The  earliest  special  develop- 
ment of  mediieval  decoration  was  in  the  Jloham- 
medan  world,  and  it  was  one  of  great  interest. 
It  used  color  very  generously,  but  also  sculpture 
in  low  relief;  its  effects  were  mainly  those  of 
tapestry  and  other  stuffs,  even  when  design  was 
in  the  form  of  colorless  carvings  on  tlie  outside 
surface  of  a  dome.  Geometric  patterns  were 
most  prominent ;  floral  forms,  and  very  rarely 
human  figures,  characterize  Persian  art.  Glazed 
tiles  were  specialties  in  Persia,  geometric  mosaics 
in  Egypt,  colored  stuccoes  in  Spain.  There  was 
hut  little  composition,  grouping,  or  subdivision; 
the  main  plan  was  to  cover  the  surfaces  com- 
pletely with  more  or  less  uniformity.  Tliere  were 
practically  no  plain  surfaces  and  no  heavy  pro- 
jections. Such  necessary  projections  as  penden- 
tives  were  broken  up  into  minute  stalactites. 
The  effects  were  rich  and  restful,  often  even 
hypnotic.  The  Oriental  races  always  retained 
the  faculty  of  harmonious  coloring,  and  used  it 
to  the  full  in  mural  decoration.  Tliough  related 
to  the  Byzantine  type,  this  style  was  far  more 
intricate  and  less  well  composed.  See  Moham- 
medan .\rt. 

JIedi.eval.  The  mediaeval  decorative  mural 
work  in  Europe  did  not  begin  to  take  shape  until 
the  close  of  the  eleventh  centxiry;  its  usual  media 
were  extremely  simple,  merely  fresco  painting 
and  sculpture  in  stone.  The  multiplicity  of  styles 
makes  any  unity  of  characterization  such  as  was 
possible  in  other  previous  styles,  quite  impossi- 
ble. In  some  parts  of  Europe  there  was  prac- 
tically no  attempt  at  mural  decoration  till  the 
Gothic  period,  as  in  parts  of  Germany  and  Eng- 
land. In  Central  and  Southern  France  the  entire 
exterior  fagades  were  often  compositions  in  sculp- 
ture; in  Tuscany  and  Northern  Italy  effects  of 
color  on  the  exterior  w'cre  given  by  the  use  of 


marbles,  terra-cotta,  and  brickwork  in  patterns 
or  courses.  In  certain  regions,  sucli  as  Sicily, 
Rome,  and  Venice,  the  Byzantine  and  Oriental 
rich  color  scheme,  especially  in  the  form  of 
mosaic  work,  prevailed.  (See  Romanesque 
.Vrt.)  Wlien,  however,  European  art  became 
thoroughly  nationalized  and  indigenous  in  the 
tJothic  period,  Italy  took  a  decided  lead  in  the 
development  of  painted  nuiral  decoration  in 
fresco  which  superseded  all  other  methods.  The 
reason  for  this  was  tliat  the  more  logical  Gothic 
art  of  the  North,  under  French  leadership,  prac- 
tically suppressed  wall  surfaces,  and  consequently 
mur.ai  decoration,  in  favor  of  detached  ornamen- 
tation in  stone,  stained  glass,  and  the  like,  due 
to  the  framework  system  of  Gotliic  architecture. 
Italy,  almost  alone,  did  not  abolish  wall  sur- 
faces; consequently  her  painters,  like  Cimabue 
and  Giotto  and  their  contemporaries  and  suc- 
cessors, could  develop  tlie  primitive  fresco-work 
of  the  Romanesque  type  into  a  really  artistic 
scheme  of  mural  decoration  such  as  we  see  at 
Assisi,  Florence,  and  Siena.  Grand  figured  com- 
positions, harmoniously  grouped,  were  the  char- 
acteristic of  this  Italian  school.  Rich  borders 
sometimes  followed,  sometimes  contrasted  with 
tlie  architectural  lines.  Above  all  the  coloring 
was  light  and  clear  and  the  efl'ects  flat  and  sym- 
bolic, the  figures  being  rather  like  silhouettes 
on  a  flat  ground.  (See  Gothic  Art.)  Sometimes 
there  were  also  grand  exterior  effects  both  of 
color  and  form,  as  at  Orvieto. 

Renaissance.  The  Renaissance  saw  Italy  still 
easily  leading  in  mural  decoration  from  JIasaccio 
to  Raphael;  the  media  were  even  simpler  tlian 
before,  for  mosaics  were  entirely  discarded  and 
effects  of  sculpture  and  architectural  member- 
ment  less  frequent.  Tlie  climax  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel  and  Raphael's  Stanze  was  reached  by  a 
perfectly  consistent  series  of  steps,  some  advan- 
tageous" such  as  the  al)andonment  of  the  heavy 
architectural  frameworks  of  the  Giottesque 
period  for  simpler  borders;  some  %vere  disad- 
vantageous, such  as  the  attempts  to  do  away 
witli  flat  effects  by  the  introduction  of  perspective 
and  a  variety  of  planes  in  both  environment  and 
figures.  Tlie  juggling  with  jierspective  and 
anatomical  difficulties  indulged  in  during  the 
fifteenth  century  by  Paolo  Uccello,  Melozzo,  and 
Mantegna  led,  in  later  days,  to  the  extravagances 
of  Correggio,  Paolo  Veronese,  and  Tiepolo.  It 
became  the  main  object  of  painters  of  the  six- 
teenth century  to  change  the  subdivisions  of 
flat  mural  decoration  into  a  series  of  realistic 
framed  vistas,  and  this  mistaken  realism  was 
empliasized  by  the  use  of  oil  instead  of  fresco 
colors,  giving'  effects  of  atmospheric  perspective 
besides  the  previously  acquired  linear  perspective. 
See  Renaissance  Art. 

Modern.  During  the  first  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  mural  decoration  declined  to  very 
low  estate.  In  France,  however,  the  influence 
of  the  national  school  of  fine  arts  and  the  Gov- 
ernment patronage  of  the  arts  preserved  it  from 
extinction,  and  the  domination  of  classicalism 
and  tradition  began  toward  1840  to  yield  to  a 
new  and  fresher  spirit,  exemplified  in  the  works 
of  Hippolyte  Flandrin.  The  decorative  sense 
is  more  highly  developed  in  France  than  else- 
where, and  there  has  risen  in  France  a  remark- 
able school  of  mural  painting,  whose  influence 
has  been  felt  throughout  tlie  modern  world. 
Modern   French   decorative   painting  rejects  the 


MURAL  DECORATION. 


136 


MURAT. 


flatness  ami  ininiiiiii.ii.il  iuiuiJ(j>ition  of  (he 
Italian  fourteenth-ientiiiy  artists,  ini-lininj; 
rather  to  the  pictorial  realism  of  the  deveki|ii"il 
Renaissance  schools;  but  it  recognizes  the  dif- 
ference between  an  easel  picture  applied  to  a 
wall  or  ceiling,  and  a  decorative  painting  com- 
posed specially  for  an  arcliitcctural  setting.  I'aul 
Baudry  (Grand  Opera)  and  tlie  late  Puvis  de 
Chavannes  (Pantheon)  are  the  most  noted  ex- 
ponents of  this  school:  but  J.  P.  Laurens,  O. 
Merson,  Galland.  and  others  stand  high  in  this 
art;  and  all  French  jmblic  buildings  are  rich  in 
the  works  of  such  men. 

While  (Jermany  did  much  early  in  tlie  cen- 
tury to  study  and  revive  nuiral  painting,  classical 
tradition  tended  to  stitle  originality,  and  no 
really  great  masters  of  the  art  have  appeared. 
Cornelius  (1783-1867)  and  Kaulbach  (180.5-74) 
made  efforts  to  revive  monumental  mural  paint- 
ing, especially  at  Munich  and  Ucrlin.  but  their 
works  lack  the  real  decorative  spirit.  In  Eng- 
land there  is  almost  nothing  to  show  in  tlie 
way  of  mural  painting,  the  jirefevence  there 
being  usually  for  decoration  by  architectonic 
means  and  conventional  ornament.  In  Spain  the 
eccentric  but  powerful  genius  of  Goya  ( 174ti- 
1828)  asserted  itself  in  the  first  third  of  the 
last  century  in  ceiling  paintings  of  great  merit 
in  JIadrid.  but  he  had  no  successors,  and  Spain 
and  Italy  are  equally  in  arrears  in  this  branch 
of  art.  Until  lately  the  same  was  true  of  the 
United  States,  but  recent  progress  in  American 
art  has  in  nothing  been  more  noteworthy  than 
in  the  r.ipid  advance  of  skill  in  nuiral  painting. 
This  has  been  stimulated  by  the  inlluence  of  tlie 
Chicago  Columbian  Exhibition  and  others.  Many 
great  public  buildings  recently  erected  have  been 
adorned  with  mural  paintings  by  first-rate 
artists  (e.g.  Boston  Public  J-ibrary.  Congressional 
Library  of  Washington,  Appellate  Court  and 
Mendelssohn  Concert  Hall  at  New  York,  etc.); 
and  .\merican  artists,  though  generally  trained  in 
France,  have  shown  independence  and  originality. 
Among  the  leaders  in  this  revival  may  l)e  named 
W.  M.  Htint.  .Maynard,  Kcnyon  Cox,  Blasbfield, 
Blum,  .\bbey.  and  Sargent. 

Modem  mural  decoration  has  generally  aban- 
doned fresco  painting  in  favor  of  oil  painting  on 
canvas,  attached  to  the  wall  with  white  lead. 
Fresco,  tempera,  encaustic,  and  water-glass 
painting  are  rarely  attempted.  Other  forms  of 
decoration  have  been  revived  and  are  largely 
used,  wainscoting,  marble  incrustration,  mosaic, 
and  inlay  and  stucco  relief,  anil  wall-lianging<  in 
])aper.  tapestry,  stampeil  leather,  and  other  ma- 
terials, besides  other  more  purely  architectonic 
methods  of  adornment,  being  widely  used  and 
with  conspicuous  success. 

BiisuocRAPiiY.  No  special  works  have  been 
written  upon  the  general  subject,  except  practical 
manuals  for  the  use  of  painters,  such  as  Thomas, 
Murril  Drcorntions  (London.  180!))  ;  Crownin- 
shield.  Mural  I'ninlinq  (Boston.  1887).  Consult 
also  the  bibliographies  of  MOSAIC,  and  the  other 
articles  rcjcrred  t<». 

MXJRANO,  miio-rii'nft.  A  town  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Venice.  Italy,  on  an  island,  one  and  a 
half  miles  north  of  Venice.  If  has  the  Cathe- 
dral of  San  Donato,  completed  in  the  tenth 
century,  the  Basilica  of  San  Pietro  Martire,  and 
n  museum  with  exhibits  of  glass  product-^.  The 
town  has  been,  since  the  thirteenth  century,  the 


seat  of  the  Venetian  glass  industry.     Population 
I  commune),  in   18S1,  3(i29:   iu   I'JOl,  5130. 

MURAT,  mu'ra',  Jo.\ciiiM  (17U7-I815).  A 
celebrated  French  cavalry  leader.  King  of  Naples 
from  1808  to  1815.  lie  was  born  March  25, 
171)7,  being  the  son  of  a  well-to-do  innkeeper 
at  La-Bastide-Fortunifere,  near  C'ahors,  in  France. 
He  was  intended  for  the  priesthood  and  com- 
menced the  study  of  theologj-  and  canon  law 
at  Toulouse,  but  soon  enlisted  in  a  cavalry 
regiment.  Being  dismissed  for  insubordination 
after  two  years  of  .service,  he  returned  to  his 
home,  and  later  jinK'eeded  to  Paris,  where  ho 
obtained  admission  into  the  constitutional  guard 
of  Louis  XVI.  through  the  good  offices  of  a 
friendly  Deputy,  il.  Cavignac.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  Revolution  he  was  made  a  sub- 
lieutenant in  a  cavalry  regiment,  and  a  little 
later  aide-de-camp  to  (Jeneral  Hue.  His  gal- 
lantry and  his  extreme  Republicanism  soon  won 
him  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  attached  himself 
closely  to  Bona[iarte  in  1705-91).  and  later  served 
under  him  in  Italy  and  iu  Egypt,  signalizing 
himself  in  many  battles.  He  finally  rose  to  be 
general  of  division  (1709),  and  having  returued 
with  Bonaparte  from  Egypt  to  France,  he  ren- 
dered most  important  assistance  on  the  18th 
of  Brumaire,  by  dispersing  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred  at  Saint  Cloud.  Bona[)arte  now  in- 
trusted him  with  the  command  of  the  Consular 
Guard,  and  gave  him  his  youngest  sister,  Caro- 
line, in  marriage  (■lanuary  20,  1800).  The  same 
year  iMurat  commanded  tiie  cavalry  at  Jlarengo, 
and  ex|ielle(l  the  Neapolitans  from  the  Papal 
States.  In  180.3  he  was  a  member  of  the  Corps 
LiyisUitif.  and  in  1804  Governor  of  Paris.  On 
the  establishment  of  the  Em])ire  he  was  loaded 
with  honors,  being  made  a  mar.shal  of  the  Em- 
pire (1804),  and  a  prince  and  (irand  Admiral 
(1805).  He  continued  to  command  the  cavalry 
in  the  armies  led  by  the  Eni]ier(>r,  contributed  to 
the  triumph  of  the  French  at  Austerlitz,  and  to 
other  victories.  In  1800  the  newly  erected  Grand 
Duchv  of  Berg  (q.v.)  was  bestowed  upon  him. 
After  the  battle  of  Jena,  in  ISOfi.  he  led  in  the 
pursuit  of  the  Prussians,  and  in  1807  he  partici- 
pated in  the  battles  of  Eylau  and  Kriedland.  In 
1808  Napoleon  placed  him  in  conunand  of  the 
army  in  Spain,  where  in  May  he  suppressed  the 
insurrection  in  Madrid.  Joseph  Bonaparte 
having  exchanged  the  throne  of  Naples  for 
that  of  Spain.  Murat  was  made  his  successor, 
and  on  August  1,  1808.  was  proclaimed  King  of 
Naples  under  the  title  of  .loachim  1.  Napoleon. 
He  immediately  took  possession  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Naples,  but  the  Bourbons,  through  the  support 
of  (Jreat  Britain,  retained  Sicily.  Murat  institut- 
ed a  number  of  wise  and  beneliccnt  reform-,  but 
had  to  endure  the  yoke  of  Napoleon,  who  lefl  him 
little  but  the  outwanl  show  of  royalty.  In  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812  he  commanded  the 
cavalry,  but  after  sharing  in  the  disaster  which 
befell  the  French  army  returned  to  Naples  anxious 
and  discontented.  He  joined  the  French  army 
again  in  181.'!.  and  distinguished  himself  at  Dres- 
den, but  after  the  battle  of  Leipzig  withdrew 
to  his  own  dominions  and  concluded  a  treaty 
with  Great  Britain  and  Austria  in  January.  1814. 
by  which  be  was  guaranteed  the  possession  of 
his  throne  on  condition  of  joining  the  coalition 
au'ainst  Napoleon  and  contributing  liO.dOO  troops 
to  the  allied  armies,  .\fter  a  iirctcnse  of  at- 
tacking   Eug6ne    Beauhamais    in    Italy,    Murat 


1 


MTJRAT. 


137 


MUKATORIAN  FRAGMENT. 


witlidrpw  to  Naples  and  entered  into  private 
coiiiiimnic-ations  with  Napoleon  at  Ellja.  Un  tlie 
Kniperoi's  retuiu  to  France,  Murat  placed  liini- 
selt'  at  the  head  of  an  arinj'  of  40,0(10  men  and 
conmieneed  a  war  against  Austria.  He  Avas  de- 
feated by  the  Austrians  at  Tolentino,  May  2d-3d. 
Naples  was  evacuated  Jlay  l!)th,  and  Mvirat 
tied  to  the  island  of  Ischia,  and  finally  found 
his  way  to  France,  while  his  wife  and 
eliildren  took  refuge  with  the  British  fleet. 
Napoleon  declined  to  treat  with  his  hrother-in- 
law  on  any  terms  and  forbade  his  presence  in 
Paris.  ;Murat  then  found  a  refuge  near  London, 
and  after  Waterloo  he  lied  to  Corsica.  Declining 
Metternieh's  offer  of  an  asylum  in  Austria,  he 
proi-eedcd  in  a  foolhardy  manner  with  a  few 
followers  to  the  coast  of  Naples  and  proclaimed 
himself  King  and  liberator,  but  was  presently 
taken  prisoner,  and  after  trial  by  a  court- 
martial,  was  shot  in  a  hall  of  the  Castle  of 
Pizzo.  October  1.3,  1815. 

Consult:  Helfert.  Joachim  Murat,  seine  letzten 
Kiim/ife  inul  sciii  Ende  (Vienna,  1878)  :  Gallois, 
Histoire  de  Joachim  Murat  (Paris,  1838)  ; 
Guardionc,  Oioncliimo  Murat  in  Italia  (Palermo, 
ISiv.i).     See  Napoleon  I. 

MURAT,  NapolIso.^  Aciiille  (1801-47). 
Eldest  son  of  Joachim  Murat,  King  of  Naples. 
He  was  born  in  Paris,  and  for  a  time  bore 
the  title  of  the  Prince  Royal  of  the  Two 
Sicilies :  but  after  the  overthrow  of  his  father, 
in  1815,  he  sought  refuge  with  his  mother  in 
Lower  Austria,  where  he  received  an  excellent 
education.  In  1821  he  emigrated  to  the  Laiited 
States,  and  after  a  tour  of  the  country  .settled 
near  Tallahassee,  Fla.,  where  he  bought  a  large 
estate  and  built  an  elegant  mansion.  AVhen 
Lafayette  revisited  the  United  States  in  1825, 
^lurat  traveled  much  with  him,  and  was  by  him 
introduced  to  a  grandniece  of  Washington,  Miss 
C'atharina  Dudley,  whom  he  married  in  1826. 
Murat  declined  numerous  offers  of  a  political 
career,  and  devoted  himself  to  farming,  literary 
purs\iits.  and  philanthropic  undertakings.  His 
literary  works  include:  Lettres  d'uii  citoi/en  dcs 
Etals-Unis  a  un  de  scs  amis  d'Europc  (1830)  ; 
Esi/uis-ic  morale  ct  politique  dcs  Etats-Vnis 
(1832)  ;  Exposition  des  principes  dti  gouierne- 
ment  rcpuhlicain  tel  qu'il  a  etc  perfectionnd  en 
Auirrique  (1833).  These  works  attracted  great 
atti'ntion  in  Europe.  Consult  MacConnell,  "The 
Prince  and  Princess  Achille  Murat  in  Florida," 
in  the  Centura  Magazine  (1803). 

MTJRAT,  Napol£ox  Lltcien  Charles  (1803- 
78).  The  second  son  of  .Joachim  Murat,  King  of 
Naples.  He  was  born  in  !Milan,  and  after  the 
overthrow  of  bis  father  in  1815  lived  for  several 
years  with  his  mother  in  Lower  Austria.  He 
went  to  Boston  in  1825,  and  soon  after  his  arrival 
in  the  thiited  States  he  joined  his  uncle  .Joseph, 
who  was  then  living  in  Philadelphia  under  the 
title  of  the  Count  of  Survilliers.  In  1827  lie 
married  Miss  Frazer,  an  heiress,  of  Bordentown, 
N.  .T.  His  wife  later  established  there  a  fashion- 
able school  for  young  women.  L^nlikc  his  brother. 
Napoleon  Achille,  he  did  not  give  up  the  idea 
of  recovering  his  father's  throne,  and  in  1830  and 
1844  made  trips  to  France  with  that  purpose  in 
view,  but  was  permitted  to  remain  in  Franca 
only  a  short  time.  After  the  February  Revolu- 
tion of  1848  he  returned  to  France  and  was 
elected  a  Deputy  to  the  Constituent  Assembly.    He 


was  Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  Turin  in  1849- 
50.  After  the  coup  d'etat  of  December  2.  1851, 
he  received  a  seat  in  the  Senate,  and  \vas  recog- 
nized by  Napoleon  111.  as  a  ])rince  of  the  Imperial 
family,  which  brought  to  him  an  annual  i)ension 
of  150,000  francs  and  secured  the  payment  of 
two  millions  of  debts.  In  1801  he  advanced 
claims  to  the  throne  of  Naples,  but  his  preten- 
sions were  ollicially  disavowed  by  the  French 
(Jovernuient  and  came  to  naught. 

MURATORX,  moo'ra-to're,  Lono\ico  An- 
tonio (1072-1750).  A  celebrated  Italian  anti- 
quary and  historian.  He  was  born  at  \'ignola, 
near"  IModena,  October  21,  1672.  He  studied 
theology  and  history  in  the  University  of  Mo- 
dena,  and  early  attracted  the  attention  and 
won  the  friendship  of  Father  Bacchini.  the  li- 
brarian at  the  ducal  jialace,  who  fostered  in  him 
a  taste  for  historical  and  antiquarian  re- 
search. In  1688  JIuratori  took  minor  or- 
ders, and  in  1604  obtained  the  degree  of  doctor 
in  canon  and  civil  law.  The  same  year  he  was 
appointed  to  the  staff  of  the  Ambrosian  Library 
at  Milan.  Wliile  there  he  published  his  two 
collections  of  previously  unedited  Greek  and  Latin 
fragments  entitled  Anecdota  (Irccca  and  Anccdota 
Latina.  In  1700  he  returned  to  Modena  at  the 
invitation  of  the  Duke,  in  order  to  become  keeper 
of  the  ducal  archives  and  librarian  of  the  Este 
Library,  Father  Bacchini  having  ri'sigiied  this 
last  post.  For  fifty  years  iluratori  toiled  un- 
ceasingly, collecting  and  editing  mediaeval  chroni- 
cles and  Italian  historical  records.  His  enemies, 
chiefly  the  Jesuits,  accused  him  of  publishing  and 
teaching  heretical  doctrines;  but,  appealing  to 
Pope  Benedict  XIV.,  the  learned  antiquary  and 
historian  received  full  protection  against  such 
attacks.  He  was  one  of  the  foremost  scholars 
of  his  day  and  had  a  European  reputation.  He 
died  on  .January  23.  1750.  His  works  fill  forty- 
six  folio  volumes,  the  most  important  ones  be- 
ing as  follows:  Rerum  Italiearum  Seripfores{25 
vols.,  1723-51),  the  standard  collection  of  docu- 
ments relating  to  Italian  history;  Antiquitates 
Italica'  Medii  .Evi  (6  vols.,  1738-42)  ;  Annali 
d'ltalia  (12  vols.,  1744-49);  and  Antichila  es- 
tensi  (2  vols.,  1717-40).  Consult  the  biography 
by  his  nephew,  G.  F.  Muratori,  Vita  del  celebre 
Lodovico  Antonio  Muratori  (Venice.  1756)  ; 
Troya,  Studi  intorno  agli  annali  d'ltalia  del 
Muratori    (Naples,  1S77:   new  ed.   1001  et  seq. ). 

MU'RATO'RIAN  FRAGMENT,  or  Canon 
OF  Muratori.  A  fragment  of  a  treatise  upon  the 
Bible  canon  commenting  upon  the  several  books 
and  so  giving  a  very  important  list  of  the  books 
accepted  as  canonical  at  the  time  of  its  composi- 
tion, which  probably  was  the  latter  half  of  the 
second  century.  In  the  list  are  the  Gospel  of 
Luke,  which  it  calls  the  third  (the  fragment 
Iiegins  at  this  point,  so  doulitless  Matthew  and 
JIark  had  been  mentioned  in  the  part  now  lost)  ; 
John,  Acts,  the  Epistles  of  Paul  to  the  Corinth- 
ians, Ephesians.  Philiiipians,  Colossians,  Gala- 
tians,  Thessalonians,  Romans,  Philemon.  Titus, 
and  Timothy:  Revelation  of  John;  Jude;  two 
Epistles  of  .John;  Wisdom  of  Solomon;  and.  as 
doubtful,  the  Revelation  of  Peter,  but  omits  the 
Epistles  of  .James  and  of  Peter  and  the  Epistle 
to  tlie  Hebrews.  The  fragment  was  discovered  in 
the  Ambrosian  library  at  Milan  I  1740)  by 
Lodovico  Antonio   Muratori    ( q.v. ) ,   from   whom 


MTJRATORIAN  FRAGMENT. 


138 


MURCHISON. 


it  reecivi'-.  it.-,  luinu'.  It  is  translated  in  the 
.liile-\iicnc  Fathers,  vol.  v. 

MTJRAVIEFF,  nioo'rA-\-y6f' .  An  ancient  and 
distingui.shed  Russian  family,  originally  of  Mos- 
low.  which  in  1488  was  presented  by  Cziir  Ivan 
\  asilievitch  1.  with  large  estates  in  the  Province 
of  Novgorod.  The  best  known  members  of  the  fam- 
ily are:  Mikhail  XiKiTiTCii  (1757-1807).  Cath- 
arine 11.  made  him  the  tntor  of  her  grandchildren. 
.\le.\ander  and  Konstaiilin.  for  whom  he  com- 
jposed  works  in  prose  and  poetry,  which  are  still 
classics  in  Russian  literature.  He  also  occupied 
various  important  administrative  posts.  His 
w<nks  were  published  in  three  volumes  I -Moscow, 
ISIO). — Nikolai  Xikolaikvitcii  (1708-1840). 
He  studied  at  Strassbtirg,  and  thereafter  served 
for  some  time  in  the  army  and  navy.  In  1797 
he  founded  a  private  institution  for  otlicer.s  of 
the  general  staff.  During  the  war  of  1812-14 
against  Xapoleon  he  served  as  colonel.  His 
school  Ijecamc  a  .State  institution  in  181(i,  and  he 
continued  to  superintend  it  until  182:J,  after 
which  he  devoted  himself  to  agriculture. — -Vlkx- 
AXDF.R  XiKoi.jMEvmii  (  1 7!l2-18l)4  ) .  He  was  the 
eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  and  was  prominent  in 
the  Decembrist  uprising,  which  broke  out  in 
182.5  at  the  accession  of  Nicholas  I.  In  con- 
sideration of  his  father's  services  his  life  was 
spared  and  he  was  exiled  to  Siberia.  Later  he  was 
permitted  to  return,  and  during  the  Crimean  War 
lie  entered  the  army  ami  liecame  a  majur-gfiieral. 
— XiKOLAl  X'lKol.AiKViTtll  ( c.l704-lS(>ti ) .  The 
brother  of  the  preceiling.  He  entered  the  army  in 
1810  and  took  part  in  the  campaigns  of  1812-14 
against  the  French.  After  the  end  of  the  war 
he  remained  in  the  army,  and  traveled  extensively 
in  Asia.  He  served  during  the  Persian  War  and 
was  made  a  major-general.  In  18.30  the  Polish 
Rebellion  broke  out,  and  Muravieff  was  called  in 
to  aid  in  suppressing  the  revolt.  In  1832  he  was 
sent  to  EgA'pt  to  treat  with  Mcliemet  .Mi  for  the 
conclusion  of  ])eace  with  Turkey.  He  then  took 
charge  of  the  Russian  forces  dispatched  to  the 
Bosporus  to  aid  the  Sultan  against  Meheniet  .Mi. 
In  1838  he  fell  into  disgrace  and  retired  from  the 
army,  remaining  inactive  until  1848.  During  the 
Crimean  War  he  rendered  valuable  service  to  Rus- 
sia in  the  Caucasus.  The  capture  of  Kars,  in 
November,  1855,  earned  for  Muravieff  the  title  of 
prince  and  other  gn-at  honors. — Mikhail  X'iko- 
LAIEVITl'Il  (C.17!>(>-18(i0) .  A  brother  <if  the  i>re- 
ceding.  He  entered  the  army  and  participated  in 
the  campaigns  against  Krance  of  1812-13.  He  oc- 
cupied manv  important  administrativ<'  positions, 
and  opposed  vehemently  the  emancipatiim  of  the 
serfs.  During  the  Pol'ish  Rebellion  of  18113  he 
was  sent  to  Vilna.  and  acted  with  such  relentless 
rigor  that  in  a  few  months  the  entire  insurrection 
was  suppress(.il.  His  acts  of  cruelty  made  his 
name  infamous  throughout  Euro|)e. — Mikhail 
XlKOLAlKViTCH.  Count  (18451000).  .\  grandson 
of  the  pre<cdiMg.  II(.  was  born  .\pril  lil.  1845. 
studied  in  Heidelberg,  and  in  1804  entered  the 
service  of  the  .Ministry  of  Foreign  .\irairs.  He 
was  attached  to  various  Russian  embassies  in 
Europe,  and  on  the  death  of  Prince  I.obanoff  in 
I8n7  he  became  Mini.,ter  of  Foreign  Affairs.  He 
advanced  Russian  interests  in  the  Far  Fast  and 
put  forth  the  Czar's  note  for  the  Hague  Peace 
Conference  in  1808.     He  died  .Tune  21.   1000. 

.Alinnl  I'M  a  member  of  the  Muravieff  family 
Tnnrried  a  daughter  of  Apostol.  the  .\laman  of 
the  Cossacks,  whose  name  was  added  to  his  own. 


l)f  thi^  liranch  of  the  family  the  best  known  is 
.^KHoLi  MlR.\vit;i-i.--.\i>osTOL('l7yU-182U).  He  par- 
ticijiated  in  the  Decembrist  uprising  of  1825; 
proclaimed  Grand  Duke  Ivonstantin  as  Emperor, 
and  seized  tlie  town  of  Vasilkov.  Troops  were 
sent  against  him  and  he  was  captured,  taken  to 
.Saint  Petersburg,  and  hanged  .July  25,  182(3. 

XiK0i..\i  XiKOLAiEviTcn,  Count  (  c.1809-81 ),  be- 
longed to  another  branch  of  this  family.  He  en- 
tered the  army  while  young,  and  served  in  the 
Caucasus,  where  he  attained  the  rank  of  uiajur- 
general.  In  1848  he  was  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  Eastern  Siberia,  and  gained  for 
Russia  the  entire  territory  of  the  Amur,  and 
concluded  the  Treaty  of  Aigun,  May  28,  1858,  by 
which  this  country  was  delinitely  ceded  by 
China.  His  services  were  rewarded  by  the  title 
of  Count,  and  he  received  the  name  Amurski. 
In  the  summer  of  1850  he  went  with  twelve 
sliijis  to  Vedo,  and  concluded  a  favorable  treaty 
with  .Japan.  He  resigned  his  Governorship  in 
18(11,  and  w-as  made  a  member  of  the  Imperial 
Council. 

MURCHISON,  mflr'chl-son,  Charles  (1830- 
79).  A  .Scotch  physician,  born  in  the  island  of 
Jamaica.  He  was  eilucated  at  the  universities 
of  .-Vberdeen,  Edinburgh,  Dublin,  and  Paris.  In 
1853  he  entered  the  East  India  Company's  mili- 
tary service.,  but  soon  after  reaching  Iiulia  was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Cal- 
cutta -Medical  College.  In  1855  he  published  two 
valuable  papers  on  The  Climate  diid  Diseases  of 
liiirindh.  The  same  year  he  returned  to  Europe, 
and  settled  in  London,  where  he  was  connected 
with  a  number  of  the  leading  hospitals.  lie  pub- 
lished the  important  Treatise  on  the  Continued 
Fercrs  of  Great  Britain   (1862). 

MURCHISON.  Sir  Rodebick  Impet  (1792- 
18711.  .V  J'.ritish  geologist,  born  in  Tarradale, 
Ross.  After  studying  at  the  military  college  of 
Jtarlow.  he  entered  the  army  and  served  as  an 
ollicer  in  the  Peninsular  War  under  Wellington. 
Through  the  advice  of  Sir  Humphry  Da^-y  he 
was  induced  to  take  ii|)  the  study  of  science,  and 
in  1825  became  a  fellow  of  the  Geological  Society 
of  London,  before  which  he  read  a  paper  en- 
titled "Geological  Sketch  of  the  Northwestern 
Extremity  of  Sussex  and  the  Adjoining  Parts  of 
Hants  and  Surrey."  Returning  from  a  geological 
tour  through  France,  which  he  made  in  the  com- 
pany of  Sir  Charles  Lyell.  he  undertook  a  sys- 
tematic exploration  and  stuily  of  the  lower  fos- 
siliferous  strata  of  England  and  Wales.  This 
work  engaged  his  attention  for  many  years  and 
resulted  in  a  reclassification  of  the  Paleozoic 
rocks,  with  the  introduction  of  a  new  system  to 
which,  in  1835,  he  gave  the  name  Silurian.  He 
was  so<m  after  employed  by  Emperor  Nicholas 
in  a  geological  survey  of  Russia,  lieing  associated 
with  De  Vcrneuil  and  Kcyscrling;  during  the 
years  1840-44  he  explored  a  large  part  of  South- 
ern Russia  anil  introduced  a  second  new  system— 
the  Permian — into  the  geological  time  scale. 
From  his  knowledge  of  the  geological  structure 
of  the  Ural  Mountains  and  the  Australian  sys- 
tems, he  was  led  to  believe  that  gold  occurred  in 
the  hitter,  and  as  early  as  1844  predicted  its 
discovery.  Murchison  was  elected  president  of 
the  Hritish  Association  for  the  .\dvaneement  of 
Sei(.nce  in  1840.  president  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Societv  in  1844.  1845.  and  1857.  and 
in  1855,  upon  the  death  of  Sir  H.  T.  De  la  Beche, 


MURCHISOlir. 


139 


MUBDER. 


became  director  of  tlie  British  Geological  Survey. 
He  was  kiiiglitoil  in  18411,  made  knislit  Com- 
mander of  the  liath  in  1853,  and  a  baronet  in 
ISti'S.  From  tlie  Emperor  of  Russia  he  received 
the  grand  cross  of  Saint  Anna  and  tliat  of  Saint 
Stanislas.  Tlie  greater  portion  of  his  con- 
tributions to  science  were  pulilishecl  in  the  so- 
ciety journals.  Among  his  principal  works  are: 
Geology  of  Cheltenham  (1834);  The  iSiluriwn 
Hystem  (18.'i!))  ;  On  the  (Icalogical  structure  of 
the  yortlicrn  and  Central  Regions  of  liussia  in 
Europe  ( 1841 )  ;  and  fleoloijy  of  Russia  in  Europe 
and  the  Ural  ilountains  (1845).  Consult  Geikie, 
Life  of  Sir  Rodetiek  I.  Murchison (London,  1875). 

MXJR'CHISO'NIA  (Neo-Lat.,  named  in  honor 
of  Sir  R.  1.  ilurchison).  An  extinct  gastropod 
of  the  family  PleurotomariidiP,  found  in  rocks  of 
Ordoviciau  to  Triassic  age,  and  especially  com- 
mon in  tlie  Devonian  and  Carboniferous  forma- 
tions. The  shell  lias  a  more  or  less  pointed  spire 
consisting  of  numerous  coils  or  whorls.  The 
aperture  has  in  its  outer  lip  a  slit  like  that  of 
Pleurotomaria,  and  a  corresponding  slit-band 
that  forms  a  more  or  less  pronounced  ridge  on  the 
outside  of  tlie  whorls  all  the  wa^'  from  the  aper- 
ture to  the  apex  of  the  shell.  The  earlier  species 
as  a  rule  have  smooth  surfaced  shells ;  the  later 
species  are  more  frequently  ornamented  b_v  nodes 
and  transverse  ridges.  A  subgenus,  Hormotoma, 
with  rounded  whorls,  is  represented  by  Murehi- 
sonia  gracilis,  a  verv  common  species  in  the  Tren- 
ton limestone  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
Lo.Koplocus,  another  very  peculiar  genus,  with 
the  coils  of  the  spire  unrolled  and  somewhat 
carinate  in  section,  lived  in  the  cavities  of  the 
corals  that  made  up  the  Guelph  beds  of  Canada 
and  western  New  York.     See  Plei'Rotoji.^ria. 

MTIRCIA,  moor'the-a.  A  former  division  and 
an  old  Moorish  kingdom  of  Spain,  situated  in  the 
southeastern  part  of  the  country,  and  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Xew  Castile,  on  the  east  by  the 
former  Kingdom  of  Valencia,  on  the  south  by  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and  on  the  west  by  the  former 
kingdoms  of  Granada  and  Jaen  and  by  New 
Castile  (Map:  Spain,  E  4).  The  division  com- 
prised the  modern  Province  of  JInrcia.  the 
greater  part  of  Albacete,  and  small  portions  of 
.Taen  and  .-Micantc,  with  a  total  area  of  about 
10.000  sipiare  miles. 

The  surface  of  JIurcia  partakes  of  the  general 
character  of  the  whole  peninsula — the  interior 
plateau,  the  ra])id  and  mountainous  slope  toward 
the  sea,  and  the  low  coastal  region.  The  last 
is  a  sandy  semi-arid  belt  from  10  to  20  miles 
wide,  and  broken  by  several  coast  lagoons,  of 
which  the  Mar  Menor  is  the  largest.  The  moim- 
tainous  belt  occupies  the  greater  part  of  the  di- 
vision, and  consists  of  an  irregular  system  of 
ranges  whose  nucleus  and  highest  point  is  the 
Sierra  de  Espufia.  Avith  an  altitude  of  5103  feet. 
North  of  the  mountains  the  interior  plateau 
forms  a  part  of  La  llancha  (q.v. ),  a  deforested 
and  almost  arid  plain.  The  principal  water 
system  is  the  Segura  River  with  its  tribu- 
taries, w'hich  are  used  only  for  irrigation,  and 
are  subject  to  great  variations  in  volume,  being 
at  some  seasons  almost  dry.  and  at  other  times 
subject  to  disastrous  inundations.  The  climate 
is  subtropical  near  the  coast  and  temperate  on 
the  slopes  and  plateaus.  The  winters  are  mild, 
the  sky  nearly  always  clear,  and  the  climate  is 
pleasant  and  healthful:  but  the  rainfall  is  insuf- 
VOL.  XIV.— 10. 


ficient  for  the  needs  of  agriculture.  The  whole 
region  has  been  almost  entirely  deforested,  and 
agriculture  can  l>e  carried  on  only  in  the  valleys 
by  means  of  irrigation.  Many  of  the  valleys,  how- 
ever, are  well  cultivated,  especially  the  Huerta  or 
'Garden'  of  .\lurcia.  which  is  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful places  in  Sjjain.  The  chief  agricultural  prod- 
ucts are  wheat,  barley,  and  Max.  Oranges,  lemons, 
olives,  grapes,  and  hemp  arc  grown  in  the  south. 
Mining  is  an  important  industry,  producing  iron, 
lead,  zinc,  copper,  and  sulphur.  The  production 
of  zinc  has  increased  fourfold  within  the  last 
ten  years,  being  46,000  tons  in  1000.  The  output 
of  iron  has  decreased  from  430,000  tons  in  1890 
to  370,000  tons  in  1900.  Other  industries  are 
silk  manufactures  and  the  plaiting  of  articles  of 
esparto  grass.  The  population  in  1887  was 
708,828,  and  in  1900,  815,804.  The  chief  city  is 
Murcia   (q.v.). 

ilurcia  was  the  centre  of  the  Carthaginian 
colonies  in  Spain.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Sara- 
cens early  in  the  eighth  century  and  by  them 
called  Todmir.  It  formed  a  province  of  the  Cali- 
phate of  Cordova,  after  whose  dissolution,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  eleventh  century,  it  became  an 
independent  iloorish  kingdom.  About  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century  it  was  conquered  by 
Castile. 

MTJRCIA.  The  e^ipital  of  the  Province  of 
Murcia,  in  Southeastern  Spain.  It  lies  on  both 
banks  of  the  Segura  River,  in  the  beautiful  valley 
known  as  the  Huerta  or  'Garden"  of  Murcia 
(Map:  Spain,  E  4).  This  valley  rivals  in  the 
luxuriance  of  its  vegetation  the  famous  Vega  of 
Granada.  It  was  carefully  irrigated  by  the 
Moors,  and  is  covered  with  vineyards  and  groves 
of  mulberry,  olive,  and  fig  trees.  The  city  itself 
has  narrow  streets,  but  a  clean  and  generally  neat 
appearance.  Several  promenades  and  pleasure 
grounds  have  been  laid  out  along  the  embank- 
ments of  the  river,  and  the  Pasco  de  Florida- 
blanca  is  a  wide  avenue  with  fine  rows  of  plane 
trees.  Though  the  city  still  retains  some  of  its 
old  Moorish  atmosphere,  it  has  preserved  but  few 
objects  of  interest.  The  only  building  which  at- 
tracts considerable  notice  is  the  cathedral,  a 
Gothic-Romanesque  structure  begun  in  the  four- 
teenth century.  Its  facade  in  the  baroque  style 
dates  from  the  eighteenth  century,  and  its  tower, 
the  most  interesting  feature,  was  begun  in  1522 
and  completed  in  176G.  Other  prominent  build- 
ings are  the  imposing  bishop's  palace,  the  city 
liall,  with  a  monumental  facade,  the  Colegio  de 
San  Fulgencio,  two  theatres,  a  bull  ring,  and 
the  large  and  well-built  silk  factories.  There 
are  a  provincial  museum,  two  normal  schools, 
and  a  secondary  school.  Tlie  industries  are  large- 
ly derived  from  the  surrounding  huerta,  the  chief 
being  the  silk  industry,  which,  with  grain  and 
fruit,  furnishes  the  principal  articles  of  trade. 
There  are  also  manufactures  of  woolen  goods, 
gunpowder,  soap,  leather,  hats,  and  musical  in- 
struments. The  population  in  1887  was  98,538, 
and  in  1000,  111,693. 

MURDER  (AS.  mor'por,  morpur,  from  mor]), 
OHG.  mord,  Ger.  Mord.  death:  connected  with 
Welsh  marw,  Lith.  smertis.  Lat.  mors,  death,  Gk. 
/SpoTiSs,  hrotos,  mortal.  Skt.  ninr,  to  die).  The 
unlawful  killing  of  a  human  being  with  malice 
aforethought.  The  term  appears  to  have  been 
limited  in  early  English  law  to  a  homicide  com- 
mitted in  secret,  or  accompanied  by  concealment 


MURDEB. 


140 


MTJRDOCK. 


of  the  body.  During  the  Xoriiian  period,  this 
morth  (or  secret)  splaying  of  .Saxon  times  be- 
came the  murdrum — the  homicide  of  the  very 
worst  kind,  and  was  distinguished  by  Glanville 
from  a  mere  homicidium,  or  open  killing.  For 
a  considerable  time,  murdrum  signiticd  the  fine 
imposed  by  the  Crown  on  any  hundred  in  which 
a  man  was  slain,  as  well  as  the  killing  itself. 
This  fine — originally  40  marks,  of  which  40  went 
to  the  King  and  (>  to  the  kinsfolk  of  the  deceased 
— could  be  avoided  by  the  production  of  the  slay- 
er, or  by  proof  that  the  slain  man  was  an  English- 
man and  not  of  Frauco-Xorman  race.  Furnishing 
such  |)roof  was  known  as  F.nglishry.  From 
the  time  that  Englishry  was  aliolislicd  in  1348, 
murder  bears  the  single  meaning  of  unlawful 
liomicide  of  the  worst  species,  which  subjects  the 
slayer  to  capital  punishment. 

The  next  step  in  the  history  of  murder  as  a 
term  of  English  law,  according  to  the  best  au- 
thorities, "consists  in  the  ado|)tion  of  the  ex- 
pression 'malice  aforethought,'  as  the  character- 
istic specific  distinction  of  murder  as  distin- 
guished from  other  kinds  of  homicide."  This 
came  about  from  the  forms  of  the  special  find- 
ings of  the  jury  in  prosecutions  for  homicide. 
In  order  to  entitle  the  slayer  to  a  pardon  under 
the  Statute  of  tlloucester  (6  Ed.  I.,  c.  9,  a.d. 
1278),  it  was  necessary  for  the  jury  to  find  that 
he  acted  "in  .self-defense  and  not  by  fehmy  or  of 
malice  aforethought."  During  the  next  two  cen- 
turies and  a  half,  the  modern  distinction  tjetween 
willful  murder  and  manslaughter  (q.v.)  was  de- 
veliiped,  as  appears  by  a  statute  of  1.531  (23  H. 
\'1I1..  c.  1.  §  3),  which  takes  away  the  benefit  of 
clergy  (q.v.)  in  eases  of  "willful  murder  of 
malice  prepense."  The  first  element  in  the 
crime  is  unlawfulnes.s,  as  distinguislied  fnmi  the 
killing  which  is  justifiable  or  excusable  homicide. 
(See  HoMKiDE  and  .IrsTiKi.\ni.E  Homicide.)  Not 
only  must  the  killing  be  unlawful,  liut  the  person 
killed  must  be  a  "reasonable  creature  in  being." 
Accordingly,  the  killing  of  an  unborn  child  is 
not  murder  at  common  law,  hut  is  abortion 
(q.v.). 

The  other  essential  element  in  murder  is  the 
malice  aforethought  with  which  the  killing  is 
done.  This  requires,  first  of  all.  sanity  and 
discretion  on  the  part  of  the  slayer.  An  idiot, 
a  lunatic  (q.v.),  or  an  infant  (q.v.)  below  the 
age  of  discretion  cannot  commit  murder.  While 
malice  aforethought  is  essential  to  the  crime  of 
murder,  the  law  does  not  require  the  lap-^e  of 
any  prescribed  time  Iv'twcen  the  formation  of 
the  intention  to  kill  and  the  killing.  It  is  suf- 
ficient that  the  murdennis  intenti(ui  precedes  and 
accompanies  the  act  of  homicide.  If  the  will  ac- 
companies the  act  a  moment  antecedent  to  the 
act  itself  which  causes  death,  this  makes  the 
olTcnse  murder  as  certainly  as  if  a  day  inter- 
vened between  the  willing  and  the  doing.  The 
maliie  in  case  of  nnirder  must  be  a<lual.  or.  as  it 
is  sf)mctimes  said,  e\prc><,  in  contradistinction  to 
implied  malice.  This  doc*  not  mean,  bnwever, 
that  the  slayer  must  actually  have  intended  to 
kill  his  virtiiM.  nor  that  he  l)ore  toward  bim  a 
settled  and  malignant  ill-will.  Hence  if  one  shoots 
nt  A.  and  misses  him,  hut  kills  B,  this  is  nnir- 
der, because  of  the  previous  felonious  intent, 
which  the  law  transfer^*  from  one  to  the  other. 
So  if  one  lays  poison  for  .\.  and  B.  against  whom 
the  poisoner  had  no  felonious  intent,  takes  it, 
and  is  killed,  this  is  murder.     In  short,  the  idea 


of  malice  aforethought  is  not  spite  or  malevolence 
to  the  deceased  in  particular,  but  evil  design  in 
general ;  not  premeditated  jxrsonal  hatred  or 
revenge  toward  the  person  killed,  so  much  as  a 
deliberately  unlawful  purpose  which,  if  perse- 
vered in,  must  produce  mischief.  At  the  common 
law  the  procuring  of  a  jx-rson  to  commit  suicide 
(q.v.)  is  murder  if  the  suicide  is  accomplished. 
So  it  is  said  in  the  books  that  if  two  persons 
agree  to  conunit  suicide,  and  attempt  to  carry 
their  design  into  execution,  but  only  one  dies, 
the  survivor  is  guilty  of  murder  if  be  were  pres-' 
ent  at  the  commission  of  the  suicide;  otherwise 
he  is  an  accessory  before  the  fact. 

The  conuuon  law  knew  nothing  of  degrees  of 
murder.  If  the  homicide  was  committed  unlaw- 
fully and  with  malice  aforethought,  the  slayer 
was  a  murderer,  and,  upon  c<mviction,  liable  to 
capital  punishment.  This  penalty  has  been 
thought  too  severe  for  some  kinds  of  murder,  and 
a  number  of  our  States  have  divided  the  offense 
into  two  degrees,  continuing  capital  punishment 
for  the  first  <legree,  and  punishing  the  second  de- 
gree with  ini])risonment.  While  these  statutes 
dill'er  in  detail,  they  agree  in  limiting  the  defini- 
tion of  murder  in  the  first  degree  to  those  cases 
where  the  killing  was  done  in  a  willful, deliberate, 
premeditated,  or  particularly  cruel  manner,  or 
while  engaged  in  the  commission  of  some  heinous 
felony,  such  as  arson,  and  in  some  States  rape 
and  burglary.  Consult:  Bishop,  Xetc  Criminal 
Lau-  (Chicago,  1802)  ;  Stephen,  History  of  the 
Crimimil  Law  of  England  (London,  1883); 
Wharton,  Criminal  Law  (Philadelphia,  180G)  ; 
Clark  and  Marshall,  Law  of  Crimes  (Saint  Paul, 
HlflO)  ;  and  authorities  referred  to  under  Crim- 
inal Law. 

MURDERS  IN  THE  RUE  MORGUE,  The. 
.\  tale  by  Edgar  A.  Poe,  which  appeared  in 
(iraham's  Magazine  in  1841,  and  became  a  model 
for  later  detective  stories.  The  story  opens  with 
newspaper  accounts  of  a  horrible  murder  in 
Paris  of  an  old  lady  and  her  daughter.  The 
writer  and  a  friend  visit  the  house,  and  the  friend 
ascertains  from  the  appearance  of  the  room  that 
the  murderer  was  an  orang-outang  escaped  from 
its  keeper. 

MUR'DOCH,  .L\MES  Edward  (1811-93).  An 
American  actor,  born  in  Philadelphia.  Ilis  first 
appearance  on  the  stage  was  in  his  native  city 
in  18211.  In  1833  he  acted  with  Fanny  Kemble 
during  her  tour  in  America,  and  in  IS.'iG  played 
with  some  success  at  the  Haymarkct  Theatre  in 
London.  During  the  Civil  War  in  America  he 
devoted  himself  to  caring  for  sick  and  wounded 
soldiers,  and  gave  popular  readings  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Unite<l  States  Sanitary  Commission.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  professor  of  elocution  in  the 
Cincinnati  College  of  Music.  Joseph  .TefTcrson 
characterizes  his  acting  as  "not  only  extremely 
versatile,  but  entirely  original."  His  greatest 
sue^'csses  were  in  comedy  and  lighter  tragedy. 
With  William  Russell  he  published  Orllophnnt/, 
or  Culture  of  the  Voice    (lS4r))  :   and   The  f^lagc 

(iss;n).  .        ' 

MURDOCK,  .Tame.s  ( 177fi-I8.56) .  An  Ameri- 
can scholar,  bom  in  Westbrook.  Conn.,  and  edu- 
cated at  Yale,  class  of  1797.  He  taught  school 
in  New  Haven  and  at  Oneida  .\cademy,  now 
Hamilton  College,  studied  for  the  ministry,  was 
licensed  in  ISOl.  preached  for  thirteen  years  in 
the  Congregational  Church  of  Princeton,  Mass., 


MURDOCK. 


141 


MURFBEE. 


anil  was  professor  of  ancient  languages  in  the 
I  niversity  of  Vermont  from  181.5  until  ISllI, 
when  he  went  to  Andover  Theologieal  Seminary. 
There  he  taught  sacred  rhetoric  anil  (Inircli  his- 
tory until  1S2'J,  and  then  he  removed  to  New 
Haven,  where  he  devoted  his  last  years  to  private 
study.  He  wrote  versions  of  ilunsclier's  Elciiieiils 
(if  LUxjinatic  IJislori/  ( 1830),  of  Mosheim's  Innti- 
tulcs  vf  Ecchsiuslical  History  (1832),  and  of 
Mosheim's  Affairs  of  the  Christians  Before  the 
Time  of  Consiantine  the  Great  (1852),  a  Literal 
'Translation  of  the  Whole  New  Testament  from 
the  Ancient  Sifriac  Version  (18.51),  and  tiketches 
of  Modern   f'liilo.iophy    (1842). 

MtTRDOCK,  William  (1754-1839).  An  Eng- 
lish engineer,  who  was  the  first  to  emjiloy  coal 
gas  as  an  illumiiiant.  He  was  horn  at  I?ellow 
ilill,  in  Ayrshire.  In  1784  he  had  begun  to  ex- 
periment on  a  liigh  pressure  locomotive.  From 
these  unsuccessful  attempts,  about  1702  he  turned 
his  attention  to  lighting  by  coal  gas.  (See  Gas, 
Ii.n  MiXATiNG.)  The  actual  perfection  of  the 
invention  was  probably  two  or  three  years  after- 
wards, and  in  1802  gas  was  used  in  the  illumina- 
tion of  Soho,  after  the  news  of  the  Peace  of 
Amiens,  ilurdock  made  several  improvements 
on  Watt's  steam-engine  and  invented  an  inde- 
pendent or  'ball-crank'  engine  and  various  appa- 
ratus by  which  compressed  air  miglit  be  used. 

MURE,  Sir  William  (1504-1657).  A  Scot- 
tish |HJet,  born  probably  in  Ayrshire,  where  the 
Rowallan  estate,  which  he  inherited,  was  situ- 
ated. In  1043  he  was  a  member  of  Parliament  in 
Edinburgh,  and  he  was  wounded  the  next  year 
at  JIarston  Moor.  His  principal  effort  is  his 
clever  but  somewhat  heavy  True  Crucifixe  for 
True  Catholikes,  which  appeared  in  1(!20.  His 
other  writings  are  a  poetical  translation  (I()28) 
of  Hceatomhe  Christiana,  a  Latin  poem  by  Boyd 
of  Trochrig,  many  miscellaneous  poems,  and  a 
paraphrase  of  the  Psalms    (1630). 

MURE,  mur.  William  (1700-1860).  An  Eng- 
lish classical  scholar,  born  at  Caldwell,  Ayrshire, 
Scotland.  After  studying  at  Westminster  School 
and  at  Edinburgh,  he  spent  several  years  at  the 
University  of  Bonn.  His  chief  work,  A  Critical 
History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of  An- 
cient Greece  (5  vols.,  1850-57).  was  left  unfin- 
ished, but  the  several  portions  of  it  on  the  epic 
and  lyric  poets  and  the  historians  may  be  re- 
garded as  separate  works.  His  attempt  in  the 
first  two  volumes  to  prove  the  essential  unity 
of  the  Iliad  and  Odj/ssey.  and  the  identity  of 
their  authorship,  won  him  a  wide  re]iutation 
among  European  scholars.  In  addition  to  nu- 
merous contributions  to  the  Edinburgh  Jicvieir, 
his  publications  include:  lirief  Remarks  on  the 
Chronology  of  the  Egyptian  Dynasties  (1820); 
A  Dissertation  on  the  Calendar  and  Zodiac  of 
An(^t»nt  Egypt  (1832);  and  his  Journal  of  a 
Tonr  in  Greece  and  the  Ionian  Islands  (1842). 
He  sat  in  Parliament  for  Renfrewshire  in  1846- 
55,  and  was  lord  rector  of  the  University  of 
Glasgow  in  1847-48. 

MURET,  mu'ra'.  or  MURE'TUS,  Marc  An- 
TOINE  (1526-85).  A  French  humanist.  He  was 
born  at  Muret,  became  a  proficient  scholar  in 
Greek  and  T.atin,  and  when  but  eigliteen  lectured 
in  the  College  of  Auch.  At  the  invitation  of 
Cardinal  Ippolito  d'Este,  he  took  \ip  his  resi- 
dence in  Rome,  where  he  won  fame  by  his  lec- 
tures.    He  took  orders  in  1576  and  in   1584  re- 


tired from  his  professoriate.  He  wrote  Ora- 
tioncs  and  Epislola:,  and  his  Variarum  Lee- 
lionum  Libri  XIX  is  still  valuable.  His  repu- 
tation rests  chiefly,  however,  upon  the  classic 
Latinity  of  his  style.  The  best  edition  of  his 
loUeeted  works  is  that  of  Frotscher  and  Koch 
(Leipzig,   1834-41). 

MUREX  (Lat.,  purple-fish).  A  genus  of  trop- 
ical shells,  large,  heavy,  and  variously  armed 
with  stout  spines,  processes,  or  knobs.  These  are 
to  protect  and  strengtlien  the  shells,  for  the  ani- 
mals live  on  exposed  coasts.  One  species  (Murex 
■pomum)  is  found  along  the  American  coast  from 
Cape  Hatteras  to  Texas.  It  is  from  two  to  three 
inches  in  length,  but  not  so  conspicuously  spiny 
as  some  more  tropical  forms.  Allied  to  Murex 
is  the  oyster-drill  (Vrosalpinx  cinerea) ,  which 
bores  into  oyster  shells  by  means  of  its  lingual 
ribbon.  (See  Drill.)  Murex  fortispina  of  Xew 
Caledonia  is  furnished  with  a  powerful  tooth  at 
the  lower  part  of  its  outer  lip.  Us  favorite  food 
is  Area  pilosa.  a  species  of  bivalve  allied  to  tlie 
■Noah's  ark'  (see  Ark  Shell),  which  lives  half 
buried  in  coral  refuse.  Many  of  the  tropical 
species  are  gayly  colored,  and  some  yield,  when 
the  animal  is  crushed,  a  rich  violet-purple  liquid 
which  will  act  as  a  periniinent  stain,  and  which 
furnished  to  the  ancients  their  'royal-purple' 
dyes.  Other  shells  yield  this  or  a  similar  color. 
See  Purple-Shell  ;  also  Colored  Plate  of  CiAS- 

TROPODS. 

MUREX'ID    (from  Lat.   murex,  purple-fish), 

PURPURATE     OF     AMMONIA,     or     RoMAN     PURPLE, 

CsH^NA-NH,  +  H,0.  A  beautiful  coloring  mat- 
ter similar  to  the  "Tyrian  purple  of  the  ancients, 
which  was  made  from  a  species  of  Murex — hence 
its  name.  Murexid  nuiy  be  prepared  from  uric 
acid,  and  as  this  exists  in  abundance  in  guano, 
that  material  lias  been  found  one  of  the  best 
sources  from  which  to  obtain  it.  One  process  used 
to  produce  nuirexid  is  to  dissolve  uric  acid  in  di- 
lute nitric  acid,  and  after  evaporating  for  some 
time  at  a  temperature  a  little  short  of  boiling, 
while  still  hot.  to  add  a  slight  excess  of  ammonia. 
Two  compounds  are  formed  by  this  process,  allox- 
an and  alloxantin,  and  their  reaction  on  each  other 
results  in  the  foiniation  of  the  beautiful  minute 
green  metallic-lustrcd  crystals  of  murexid,  which, 
in  combination  with  some  of  the  compounds  of 
lead  and  mercury,  yield  most  brilliant  red  and 
purple  dyes.  The  use  of  murexid  was  becoming 
extensive  until  the  discovery  of  the  aniline  col- 
ors, the  greater  brilliancy  of  which  has  checked 
its  employment.  The  acid  combined  in  murexid, 
viz.  purpuric  acid,  C^H^NjOoH,  is  not  known  in 
the  free  state.  Its  ammonium  salt,  nuirexid,  was 
first  obtained  in  1830  by  Liebig  and  Wiihler.  See 
Urii'  Aim. 

MURFREE,  mur'fri',  Mary  Noailles  (1850 
— ) .  An  American  authoress,  born  in  Mur- 
freesboro.  Tennessee,  best  known  by  the  pseu- 
donym of  Charles  Egbert  Craddock.  Unable 
because  of  lameness  to  enjoy  the  usual  play  of 
young  people,  she  devoted  herself,  almost  from 
childhood,  to  reading  and  the  study  of  the  native 
types  of  the  Tennessee  mountains,  where  she 
passed  lier  summers.  Her  novels  began  to  appear 
in  1884.  The  chief  titles  are:  In  the  Tennessee 
Mountains  (1884);  The  Prophet  of  the  Great 
^niokii  Mountains  (1885)  ;  In  the  Stranger  Peo- 
ple's Countrii  (1801);  The  Phantoms  of  the 
Foot-Iiridge  (1895)  ;  The  Mystery  of  White-Face 


MTTEFREE. 


142 


MTJRILLO. 


Mountain,  and  Olhrr  filurivs  (1895)  ;  The  Young 
Mountainrcrx  (1S87);  The  Huxhirhackers,  and 
Other  Utories  (18il!));  .1  (Spectre  of  I'ouer 
(1!I03). 

MURTBEESBORO.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  <if  Kutlicrtoid  County,  Tenn.,  '.ii  miles  soiith- 
enst  uf  Xaslivillc:  on  tlie  Xa.slivillc.  Chattanooga 
and  Saint  Louis  Kailroad  (Map:  Tennessee.  E  5). 
It  is  tlie  seat  of  Soule  I'Vniale  Collefre  (Methodist 
Episcopal.  South).  opcMied  in  1852,  and  of  the 
Moone.v  School,  established  in  1901.  The  city  is 
the  centre  of  an  agricultural  region  largely  in- 
terested in  cotton  and  fruit  growing,  and  has 
manufactures  of  tlour.  luniher,  cedar  ware,  leath- 
er, carriages,  cotton  gins,  machine  shop  products, 
etc.  Xear  the  city  is  the  Stone  River  hattlefield 
(see  Stone  Rivkh.  Battle  of),  the  site  of  a  na- 
tional cemetery  with  0150  graves.  2333  of  un- 
known dead.  Murfreeshoro  was  first  settled  in 
1811.  and  was  incorporated  in  1817.  From  1819 
to  1825  it  was  the  State  capital.  Population,  in 
1890,  3739:    in    1900,  3999. 

MTJRFREESBORO,  B.vtti.k  or.     Sec  Stoxe 

RivKH.   Hatti.k  of. 

MURGEB,  mi.ir'zha',  Henri  (I822-G1).  A 
I'rituli  iiiivelist  and  poet,  l)urn  in  Paris.  March 
24,  1822,  who  made  attractive  to  his  readers  the 
irresponsible  life  of  artists  and  students  in  Paris. 
Among  his  worl:s  are:  Seines  de  la  lie  de  lioheme 
(1848)  :  Scenes  de  la  rie  de  jeunesse  (1851)  : 
Les  bureurs  d'eau  (1854);  Madame  Oli/mpe 
(1859):  other  prose  tales;  iind  tlie  poems  Leg 
vuits  d'hirer  (I8(>1).  To  Murger,  if  to  any  one 
writer,  literature  perhaps  owes  the  word  'Bo- 
hemia,' signifying  not  a  geographical  spot,  but  a 
moral  condition.  Murger  left  some  classic  tales 
and  songs  of  dissolute  tliriftlessness  and  literary 
impecuniosity  that  have  deluded  a  generation  into 
looking  hack  with  dreamy  regret  on  the  sordid 
follies  of  their  student  days.  The  first  Romantic 
generation,  that  of  Cautier,  had  real  enthusiasm, 
the  ardor  and  fervor  of  renascence,  for  which 
.Murg<'r'.-<  whiiusical  hysteria  of  merriment  and  his 
vicious  sentimentality  are  but  a  jionr  substitute. 
Murger  was  trained  for  the  law,  became  for  a 
time  secretary  of  Count  Leo  Tolstoy,  but  like  that 
earlier  Bohemian,  ^'iIlon,  he  chose  dissipation 
rather  than  decency.  He  died  in  a  charity  hospi- 
tal in  Paris,  .lanuary  28,  1801.  .V  monument 
was  recently  erected  to  his  memory,  not  without 
protest.  Several  of  Murger's  songs  are  trans- 
lated by  .Andrew  Lang  in  liallads  and  f.iiries  of 
Old  I'liiiiee  (London,  1872).  'Kstimates'  of  Mur- 
ger bv  fellow-Bohemians  may  be  found  in  Les 
vuils'd'hirer  (Paris.  1802). 

MTJRGHAB,  mTmr-giib'.  A  river  of  Central 
Asia,  ri-ing  in  the  Paropamisiis  Mountains,  on 
the  northern  boundary  of  .Afghanistan  (ifap: 
Afghanistan,  .T  3).  It  flows  northwest  into  Rus- 
sian Turkestan,  irrigates  the  'Merv  Oasis,  and 
after  a  course  of  300  miles  is  lost  in  the  sands 
and  marshes  of  the  desert  about  1.50  miles  below 
Aferv. 

MTTRIATIC  ACID.    See  TT-i-nRonii/iRic  Acid. 

MU'RID.a;  ( Neo  T.at.  noni.  id,,  from  Lat. 
niws,  Gk.  /aii,  mi/.s.  niou.se).  The  family  of  rats 
and  mice,  typified  by  the  house-mouse  (Mas 
musculus) .  It  embraces  in  its  seventysiv  genera 
(Thomas)  more  than  a  tln"rd  of  all  the  rodents,  is 
world-wide  in  its  distriliutiiui.  and  includes  many 
Rix-cies  of  great  iniportance  to  man,  as  pests  or 


otherwise.  The  family  has  lieen  most  fully  mono- 
graphed by  O.  Thomas  in  the  I'roeeedings  of  the 
Zoiiloj/ieal  Society  of  London  (1881).  p.  528. 
Consult  also  authorities  cited  under  Rodentia  ; 
and  see  JIousE,  R.\T,  Gerbil,  Hamster,  Wateb- 
Rat.  \'oi.e,  iU'sKB.vr,  and  similar  titles. 

MURILLO,  moo-rel'yd,  B.\RTOLOMf:  Esteban 
(1017-82).  A  Spanish  religious  and  genre  paint- 
er of  the  school  of  Seville.  He  was.  after 
Velazquez,  the  greatest  figure  in  Spanish  art. 
and  unquestionably  the  most  important  religious 
painter  of  S])ain.  He  was  born  in  Seville.  ]iroh- 
ably  ne<eml)cr  31.  1017.  Very  little  is  known 
of  ills  early  life.  When  quite  young  he  was  ap- 
prenticed to  his  uncle.  .Juan  del  Castillo,  from 
whom  he  learned  the  rudiments  of  painting;  but 
upon  the  departiue  of  the  latter  to  Cadiz  in 
1040,  Murillo  was  left  without  means,  and  for 
the  succeeding  two  years  he  supported  himself 
by  painting  rough,  brilliantly  colored  pictures 
for  the  Feria,  a  weekly  market.  His  close  con- 
tact with  the  beggars  and  print-sellers  gave 
him  unusual  opportunity  for  studying  their  char- 
acteristics, and  his  reproductions  of  tliem  upon 
canvas  exhibit  a  sympathy  and  realism  alike 
notable.  These  earlier  works  may  l)e  cited  as 
representing  the  artist's  first  period,  during 
whicli  he  attained  results  intensely  individual- 
ized and  at  the  same  time  expressive  of  tlie  type. 

Tlie  example  of  iloya,  a  fellow  pupil  in  the 
studio  of  Castillo,  made  Murillo  discontented 
with  his  [losition  at  Seville,  and  he  rescdved  to 
visit  Rome,  hut,  not  having  the  means  for  the 
longer  journey,  set  out  on  foot  for  Madrid. 
\"elazquez  gave  him  shelter  in  his  own  house 
and  access  to  the  royal  galleries,  where,  with 
untiring  zeal,  he  copied  Ribera,  Titian,  Ru- 
liens,  Van  Dyck,  Velazquez,  and  other  masters. 
This  course  of  practice,  extending  from  1042  to 
1045.  gave  him  a  much  freer  style  an<l  greater 
control  of  color — the  chief  characteristics  of  his 
second  period.  This  era.  generally  known  as  his 
•warm  [calido]  style.'  was  characterized  by  the 
execution  of  works  exhibiting  es[)ecially  a  mas- 
terly c(mtrol  of  color  contrasts.  The  series  of 
pictures  upon  which  the  painter  was  employed 
from  1045  to  1048  for  the  small  Franciscan  con- 
vent near  Casa  del  .\,\nintamienlo  typify  the 
early  works  of  this  second  period,  and  through 
their  success  he  received  many  commissions. 

In  1048  Murillo  married  a  wealthy  and  noble 
wife,  and  his  house  became  the  resort  for  the 
distinguished  people  of  Seville.  In  1050.  upon 
the  death  of  Pachceo.  he  became  the  acknowl- 
edged head  of  the  Seville  school  and  the  president 
of  the  academy  founded  in  1000.  During  these 
years  he  was  conlimially  improving  in  style, 
becoming  more  idealistic  in  conception  and  in- 
dividual in  technique.  The  result  of  this  transi- 
tional epoch  was  the  third  period  or  last  phase, 
known  as  el  rn/wroxo.  from  a  certain  vaporous 
or  misty  effect  produced.  A  favorite  sulijcct  of 
this  era  was  the  "Immaculate  Conception."  which 
he  painted  no  fewer  than  twenty  times,  the  most 
famous  example  being  in  the  Louvre.  Paris.  It 
was  tJiken  from  Spain  by  Marshal  Soult.  and 
bought  bv  the  French  Government  at  the  Soult 
sale,  in  18.52.  for  580.000  francs. 

Murillo  is  very  pojuilar  with  (he  general  pub- 
lic, but  less  so  with  the  artists,  who.  while 
acknowledging  his  facility  and  charm,  fiml  his 
work  lacking  in  technique,  force,  and  originality. 
His  work  is  highly  subjective;  so  much  so  that 


I 


MURILLO 
'the  immaculate  conception,"  from  the  paintin-^ 


IN   THE   LOUVRE,   PARIS 


i 


MtJRILLO. 


143 


MTJRPHEY. 


the  attention  of  the  beholder  is  attracted  to  tlie 
personality  and  techniciue  of  the  artist  rather 
tlian  to  the  subject  represented.  MuriHo's  eliief 
importance  consists  in  the  wonderful  manner  in 
which  he  employed  the  medium  of  Spanish  real- 
istic forms  to  express  ideal  religious  conceptions. 

>rucli  of  the  work  of  the  artist  was  taken 
from  Spain  during  the  Peninsular  cani])aign,  a 
fact  that  accounts  for  the  number  of  fine  ex- 
amples to  be  found  in  the  galleries  of  Europe; 
the  various  collections  of  London  possess  105  of 
his  paintings,  and  those  of  Paris  21.  Among 
his  principal  works  were  eight  large  pictures 
painted  for  the  Hospital  of  Saint  George  (IGOl- 
74),  of  which  three — viz.  "Moses  Striking  the 
IJock,"  the  "iliracle  of  the  Loaves  and  Fishes," 
and  "San  .Juan  de  Dios  Attending  the  Sick" — 
remain  in  their  original   places. 

The  Cathedral  of  Seville  is  rich  in  his  works, 
among  which  are:  "Saints  Leandcr  and  Isidore;"' 
the  "Vision  of  Saint  Anthony"  (1656)  ;  and  "La 
Purissima"  (1668).  In  the  museum  are  seven- 
teen of  the  twenty-six  pictures  painted  for  the 
Capuchin  monastery  at  Seville,  among  which 
are  four  "Immaculate  Conceptions."  In  the 
Prado  JIuseura  ( Madrid )  are  the  beautiful 
"Children  of  the  Shell"  (the  infants  Jesus  and 
John),  the  "Adoration  of  tlie  Shepherds."  the 
"Education  of  the  Virgin."  and  "Saint  Klizabeth 
of  Hungary  Healing  a  Leper."  Other  famous 
works  are:  "The  Birth  of  Marv"  (1655)  and 
"The  Holy  Family,  with  Saint  Elizabeth"  ( 1670) , 
in  the  Louvre;  "The  Vision  of  Saint  Anthony,''* 
in  the  Berlin  Museum.  The  best  examples  of 
Murillo's  JIadonnas  are  in  the  galleries  of  Dres- 
den, Madrid.  Seville,  Florence  (Pitti  Palace), 
and  Rome  (Corsini  Palace).  Of  his  admir- 
able series  of  genre  subjects  representing 
children  in  the  action  of  eating,  throwing  dice, 
and  selling  fruit  and  flowers,  the  best-known 
examples  are  in  the  national  collections 
of  Munich,  Paris  (Louvre),  London,  and  Saint 
Petersburg,  ilurillo's  last  work  was  the  altar- 
piece  of  Saint  Catharine,  painted  at  Cadiz  for 
the  Church  of  the  Capuchins.  The  picture  was 
never  completed,  owing  to  a  fall,  which  compelled 
his  return  to  Seville,  where  he  died  shortly  after- 
wards, April  3,  1682.  He  was  buried,  by  his  own 
request,  in  the  Cathedral  of  Seville,  before  Pedro 
dc  Campagiia's  picture  of  the  "Deposition  from 
the  Cross."  Consult  the  biographies  of  Murillo 
by  Tubino  (Seville,  1864);  Stromer  (Berlin, 
1879)  ;  Liieke.  in  Dohme.  Kuiist  und.  Kii)istlcr, 
vol.  iii.  (Leipzig,  1880)  ;  Minor,  in  "Great  Artists 
Series"  (London,  1882);  Alfonso  (Barcelona, 
1SS6);  Justi  (Leipzig,  1892);  Knackfuss 
(Bielefeld,  1896).  See,  also,  Curtis,  Vcl(iS(juez 
and  Murillo  (London.  18S3)  ;  Lefort.  Murillo  et 
scs  eUres  (Paris.  1892)  ;  Stirling-JIaxwell,  An- 
nuls of  the  Artists  of  Hpain   (London,  1848). 

MUR'ISON,  Alexander  Falconer  (1847 — ). 
An  English  jurist  and  historian,  born  in  Aber- 
deenshire and  educated  at  the  University  of  Aber- 
deen. In  1883  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Roman  law.  and  in  1901  of  jurisprudence  in 
University  College.  London.  He  was  editor  of 
The  Educational  Times  (1902),  and  wrote:  The 
External  History  of  Roman  Law  (1885).  and.  in 
tile  "Famous  Scots  Series."  >S'tr  William  Wallace 
(1898)  and  King  Robert  the  Bruce  (1899). 

SniRMEL'LIUS.  .TonANNES  (C.14S0.1517). 
A   Dutch   humanist,   born    in   Roermond.   Gehler- 


land.  and  educated  at  Deventer.  at  Cologne,  and 
at  Miinster.  In  the  last  city  he  taught  for  some 
time,  and  then  at  Deventer  and  .Mkniaar.  One 
of  the  foremost  humanists  of  the  day,  he  intro- 
duced the  study  of  (Jreek  almost  single-handed, 
and  published  many  excellent  scliool  books.  His 
Sropurius  in  liurbarici  I'roiniunalorcs  et  Osores 
Humanitatis  (1514)  and  his  defense  of  Keuclilin 
are  important  documents.  Consult  the  biog- 
raphy by  Reiehling  (Freiburg.  1880)  and  the 
selections  from  his  poems,  edited  by  Reichling 
(ib.,  1S81). 

MURNER,  mnr'nOr,  Thomas  (1475-1537) ._  A 
German  priest,  famous  mostly  for  attacking 
Luther  and  the  Reformation.  Murner  taught 
and  preached  in  Freiburg,  Paris.  Cracow,  and 
Strassburg.  After  voyages  to  Italy  and  England 
he  settled  in  Strassburg,  whence  in  1525  he  was 
frightened  away  by  the  Reformation,  ilurner 
was  highly  enough  prized  for  his  religious  poems 
to  be  made  laureate  by  Maximilian  1.  in  1505. 
In  1506  he  took  his  doctorate  in  theology:  in 
1513  he  became  guardian  of  the  Franciscan  clois- 
ter at  Strassburg.  In  1519  he  became  a  doctor 
of  jurisprudence  at  Basel.  After  a  stormy  life 
^Murner  died  at  bis  birthplace.  Oberenhcim.  near 
Strassburg,  in  1537.  In  his  Gduchmatt  and  hi» 
Xarrenbescha-drung,  Murner  shows  some  real- 
istic humor.  He  translated  the  .Tineid  in  1515; 
whether  he  wrote  the  Higli  German  version  of  the 
Enlenspiegel,  a  kind  of  chap-book,  originally  in 
Low  German,  is  not  known.  His  selected  works 
were  published  in  KUrschner's  Deutsche  National- 
litteratur  (Stuttgart,  1890  et  seq.).  Consult: 
Kawerau,  Murner  und  die  Kirche  des  Mittelal- 
ters  (Halle,  1890)  ;  Murner  und  die  deutsche 
Reformation    (Halle,   1891). 

MUROM,  moo'rom.  One  of  the  oldest  towns  of 
Russia,  situated  in  the  Government  of  Vladimir, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oka.  84  miles  southeast 
of  Vladimir  (Map:  Russia,  F  3).  It  has  an  old 
cathedral,  a  gymnasium,  two  monasteries,  and  a 
convent.  The  town  is  noted  for  the  vegetables 
raised  in  the  vicinity.  It  manufactures  tallow 
and  soap,  and  has  trade  in  grain.  Murom  is  be- 
lieved to  have  existed  before  the  time  of  Ruric, 
and  had  rulers  of  its  own,  who  were  subju- 
gated by  the  princes  of  Moscow  at  the  end  of 
the  fourteenth  century.  Population,  in  1897, 
12,589. 

MTJR'PHEY,  Abciiibald  De  Bow  (1777- 
1832).  An  American  jurist,  born  in  Caswell 
County.  N.  C.  He  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  North  Carolina.  He  served  as  a  tutor  and 
then  as  professor  of  ancient  languages  until  1802, 
when  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  From  1812  to 
1818  he  was  a  member  of  the  State  Senate. 
While  in  this  body  he  was  a  member  of  the 
committee  appointed  in  1816  to  consider  the 
establishment  of  a  system  of  public  schools,  and 
at  the  session  of  1817  submitted  an  elaborate 
plan  which,  while  not  adopted,  formed  the 
groundwork  for  the  later  attempts.  In  1818  he 
was  elected  judge  of  the  Superior  Courts  and 
was  designated  to  sit  on  the  Supreme  bench 
during  three  terms  in  1819-20.  He  was  inter- 
ested in  internal  improvements,  and  persuaded 
the  State  to  attempt  an  elaborate  system  of 
canals  a7id  harbor  improvements.  In  1822  he  se- 
cured a  share  of  the  Tennessee  land  warrants  for 
the  University  of  Xorth  Carolina,  and  thus  saved 
that  institution  from  ruin. 


MURPHY. 


MUR'PHY,  Artul'b  (1727-1805).  A  British 
aclor  aud  playwright,  born  at  Clomquin,  Kos- 
foiiimon,  Ireland,  December  27,  1727.  Having 
studied  at  tlie  English  college  at  Saint  Omer 
in  France  (1738-47),  he  became  a  clerk  to  a 
merchant  in  Cork  (1747-49),  and  worked  in  a 
London  banking  house  (1740-.51).  Turning  to 
literature,  lie  started  the  (rray's  Inn  Journal 
(1752-54)  in  imitation  of  Addison's  Spectator. 
In  1754  he  appeared  at  Covent  Garden  as  Othello. 
In  this  and  other  parts' he  was  moderately  suc- 
cessful. Beginning  with  T]ie  Apprentice  (1756), 
he  wrote  many  farces  and  clever  satires,  mostly 
adapted  from  tlie  French,  and  tried  his  hand  at 
several  tragedies.  Among  his  many  miscellaneous 
works  are  an  edition  of  Fielding  with  a  memoir 
(17ti2),  an  essay  on  Dr.  Johnson  (1792),  a 
translation  of  Tacitus  (179.'!),  and  a  Life  of  Gar- 
rick  ( 1801 ) .  lie  died  ,Tune  18,  1805,  at  Kniglits- 
bridge.  His  plays  and  early  essays  were  col- 
lected (8  vols.,  London,  1786),  and  his  life  was 
written  by  J.  Foot  (ib.,  1811). 

MURPHY,  Fhancis  (183G— ).  An  American 
tenipcraiue  evangelist,  born  in  Wexford,  Ireland. 
He  served  in  the  Federal  army  during  the  Civil 
War.  Beginning  in  1870  at  Portland.  Me.,  he 
started  temperance  reform  clubs  throughout  that 
State,  and  was  their  first  president.  His  licad- 
quarters  were  in  Pittsburg.  Pa.,  and  after  his 
first  addresses  tliere  in  1876.  45.000  people  signed 
the  pledge,  a  number  that  was  soon  increased 
to  10.000.000,  as  a  result  of  his  ministrations 
in  diil'erent  parts  of  tlie  I'nited  States.  He 
labored  also  in  England,  and  he  acted  as  chaplain 
in  the  8panisli-.\merican  War. 

MURPHY,  llE.NHY  Cruse  ( 1810-82 |.  An 
.Xmi'rican  politician  and  historian,  born  in  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in 
1830,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
Brooklyn,  where  he  became  city  attorney  and,  in 
1842,  jlayor.  The  next  year  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  Congi'ess.  .\t  the  expiration  of  his  term 
he  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  Xew  York  State 
Constitutional  Convention  of  1846.  In  1847  he 
was  again  sent  to  Congress,  and  in  1852  was  a 
jjrominent  candidate  for  the  Democratic  nomina- 
tion for  President.  In  1857  President  Buchanan 
appointed  him  Minister  to  Holland,  where  he 
remained  until  IH6I.  He  was  for  a  time  an 
editor  of  the  Broohlifti  Eagle,  but  he  is  perhaps 
best  known  for  his  researches  in  the  early 
colonial  history  of  Xew  York,  which  led  to  the 
discovery  and  publication  of  many  interesting 
and  important  documents.  Probably  tlie  most 
valuable  of  these  is  De  Vries's  loi/aiirs  from 
Holland  lo  America,  1633  to  Iti'i'i  (185.'?).  which 
he  translated  from  the  Dutch.  During  his  resi- 
dence at  The  Hague  as  American  Minister  he 
printed  for  private  distribution  two  monographs, 
TJcnri/  Ihiilxon  in  Holland:  Origin  and  Objects 
of  the  Votfafic  ^\'hirh  I,ed  to  the  Di-icorcri/  of 
the  Hudson  Hirer  (1859)  ;  and  Jaeoh  Kleendnm, 
\och  Vasatrr.  A  Memoir  of  the  f'irst  Port  in 
yew  yetlierland.  nilh  ni,i  Poems.  Deseriplire 
of  the  Colonii  (IS61).  The  latter  of  these  was 
reprinted  in  his  Anlholoqi/  of  Xeir  yelherlnnd : 
or.  Translations  from  the  Earhi  Dutch  Poets  of 
Xeir  Yorh.  ir^lh  Memoirs  of  Their  Lircs.  issued 
by  Ibi-  r.iadfnrd  Club  in  1S75. 

MURPHY,  .Tames  C.RArEY  (ISOS-).  An 
Tri-ili  Presliytcrian  cleriij'inan.  born  at  Ballval- 
tikilikan,  County  Down.     He  graduated  at  Trin- 


144 

ity 


MURRAY. 


College,  Dublin,  in  1833,  was  appointed  min- 
ister at  Mllyshanuon  in  1836,  became  classical 
headmaster  at  the  Koyal  Belfast  Academical  In- 
stitution in  1841,  and  professor  of  Hebrew  at  the 
Prcbytorian  College  of  Belfast  in  1841.  He 
published  a  number  of  volumes,  among  them  a 
Latin  Grammar  (1847);  a  Hebrew  llrammar 
(1857):  The  Human  Mind  (1873);  and  com- 
mentaries on  (1864)  Genesis,  (1866)  Exodus, 
(1872)  Leviticus,  (1875)  the  Psalms,  and  (1882) 
Revelation. 

MURPHY,  .John  Francis  (1853—).  An 
American  landscape  painter.  He  was  born  in 
Oswego,  X.  Y.,  studied  art  by  himself,  and  first 
exhibited  in  1876  at  the  Xational  Academy,  of 
which  he  was  elected  an  associate  and  later  an 
Academician,  ilurphy  worked  both  in  oils  and 
water  colors.  Among  his  paintings  are;  "Sultry 
Season"  (1884)  :  ■•The  Yellow  Leaf"  (1885)  ;  and 
"Sundown"  (1886).  Ills  work  is  exceptional  for 
the  beauty  of  its  coloring. 

MURTHYSBORO.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  .Jackson  County,  III..  86  miles  southeast 
of  .Saint  Louis.  Mo.;  on  the  Big  iluddy  River 
and  on  the  Illinois  Central,  the  ilobile  and  Ohio, 
and  the  Saint  Louis  Valley  railroads  (Jlap: 
Illinois,  C  6).  It  is  the  centre  of  a  farming 
district  that  has  considerable  mineral  wealth, 
particularly  deposits  of  coal,  and  carries  on  a 
trade  of  .some  importance.  There  are  manufac- 
tures of  flour,  lumbei',  beer,  foundry  and  ma- 
chiiic-slinp  products,  brick,  etc.  Population,  in 
ISHO,  3SS0;   in   1900,  6463. 

MURRAIN,  mv'ir'rin  (OF.  marine,  from  Lat. 
mori,  Skt.  mar,  to  die).  A  general  term  loosely 
used  to  designate  a,  variety  of  disea.ses  of  domes- 
tic animals,  but  more  correctly  restricted  to  the 
vesicular  ejiizoiitic,  popularly  known  as  foot-and- 
mouth  disease.  'Bloody  murrain'  is  sometimes 
used  referring  to  anthrax,  and  'dry  murrain'  is 
similarly   applied   to  Te.xas   fever. 

MUR'RAY,  Alexander  (1755-1821).  An 
Aiiicricaii  naval  ollicer.  born  at  Chestertown,  Md. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he  received  a 
commission  in  the  navy,  but  while  waiting  for  a 
ship  served,  during  1776-77,  as  lieutenant  and 
captain  in  the  First  Maryland  Regiment,  and 
participated  in  the  operations  around  Xew  Y'^ork. 
In  the  latter  part  of  1777  he  commanded  the 
Herenge  with  letters  of  marque  to  prey  on  Brit- 
ish commerce.  He  was  captured,  but  after  ex- 
change served  on  board  the  Trumhull.  and  was 
again  captured.  When  exchanged  again  he  com- 
manded a  ])riyatcer  and  afterwards  served  on 
the  Alliance.  When  the  na\'y  was  reorganized 
in  1798  he  was  one  of  the  first  six  captains  ap- 
pointed, and  commanded  the  Montezuma  during 
the  troubles  with  France.  He  was  transferred  to 
the  Constellalion  and  saw  some  service  in  the 
Mediterranean  during  the  war  with  Tripoli. 

MURRAY,  Ar,EXAN-nEii  (1775-1813).  A  lin- 
gili-l,  >nii  nf  a  sliepherd.  born  at  Diinkitlerick, 
Kirkcudbrightshire.  Octolier  22.  1775.  Murray 
taught  himself  French.  Latin.  Greek,  and  He- 
brew: made  his  way  through  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity, became  ])arish  minister  of  I'rr  in  his 
native  shire  (180SIK  and  (irofessor  of  Oriental 
languages  in  Edinburgh  Cniversity  (1812).  He 
died  .\pril  15,  1SL1.  Murray  edited  in  a  thor- 
oiiL'b  manner  Bruce's  Trarels  (1805;  new  ed. 
ISl."?)  ;  wrote  for  his  students  Outlines  of  Orien- 


I 


MURRAY. 


145 


MURRAY. 


ial  Philology  (1812);  ami  contributed  to  tlie 
Ed'Dtburyh  Ufcieii;.  After  iiis  deatli  appeared  liis 
chief  \vorl<,  llistonj  of  the  Europenn  Laiiguuycs, 
witli  a  memoir  and  tiie  fragment  of  an  autobiog- 
raphy   ( 2  vols.,  Edinburgh,   1823 ) . 

MURRAY,  Alexander  Stuart  (lS4Mn04). 
A  distinguished  Enfrlisli  arcliaeolnpist.  Iiorn  near 
Arbroath.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Kdiidjurgh  and  in  Berlin.  In  ISO"  lie  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  in  the  department  of  Greek  and 
Koman  antiquities  of  the  liritisli  Museum,  and  in 
1S8G  keeper  of  the  same.  He  published  a 
History  of  Greek  Sculpture  (London.  1890); 
Handbook  of  Greek  Archceology  (London,  1892)  ; 
Designs  from  Greek  Yascs  (London,  1894)  ; 
Terra-Cotta  Sfircophayi  (London,  1898)  ;  and 
edited  many  official  publications  of  the  British 
Museum. 

MURRAY,  D.4.VID  (1830—).  An  American 
educator.  He  was  born  at  Bovina.  Delaware 
County,  N.  Y.,  where  his  parents  had  immigrated 
from  Scotland  in  1810.  He  graduated  from 
Union  College  in  1852.  The  following  year  he 
became  assistant  in  the  Albany  Academy,  and  in 
1857  was  advanced  to  tlie  principalship.  In  1863 
he  accepted  the  chair  of  mathematics  and  physics 
in  Rutgers  College.  Having  assisted  the  Japan- 
ese Embassy  in  1872  in  their  labor  of  investiga- 
ting tlie  educational  systems  of  this  and  other 
countries  and  preparing  statistics  thereon,  he 
was  invited  by  .Japan  to  assume  the  supervision 
of  its  educational  affairs.  He  removed  to  that 
countrj'  and  was  occupied  for  six  years  in  these 
duties.  At  the  time  of  his  return  to  America 
in  1879  he  was  decorated  by  the  Emperor  with 
the  Order  of  the  Rising  Sun.  In  1880  he  be- 
came secretary  of  the  Regents  of  tlie  University 
of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  held  this  post  nine 
years.  He  has  published  several  addresses,  and 
is  the  author  of  Manual  of  Land  Surveying 
(1872)  ;  an  introductory  chapter  to  Outlines  of 
the  History  of  Japanese  Education  (1876)  ;  The 
Htory  of  Japan  (1894);  History  of  Education 
in  New  Jersey  (1899). 

MURRAY,  David  Chrlstie  (1847—).  An 
English  novelist,  born  at  West  Bromwieh.  in  Staf- 
fordsliire,  April  13,  1847.  He  was  educated  at 
a  private  school.  He  began  his  career  as  a 
reporter  on  the  Birmingham  Morning  Xews,  and 
in  1873  went  to  London,  where  he  joined  the 
staffs  of  tlie  Daily  Xews  and  the  World.  In 
1879  he  published  in  Cliambers's  JoUrnal  his  first 
long  novel,  A  Life  of  Atonement.  Other  books  , 
are:  Joseph's  Coat  (1881)  ;  Vol  Strange  (1882)  ; 
Time'.'!,  Revenge  (1893)  ;  Jn  Direst  Peril  (1894)  ; 
.4.  Rogue's  Conseience  (1890):  Tales  in  Prose 
and  Verse  (1898)  ;  A  Race  for  Millions  (1898)  ; 
many  other  novels;  and  the  interesting  essay, 
.1/,!/  Contemporaries  in  Fiction   (1897). 

MURRAY,  Lord  George  (c.1700-60).  A  Scot- 
tjsli  Jacobite  general,  son  of  the  first  Duke 
of  Atliol.  His  father  was  loyal  to  the  House 
of  Hanover,  but  Lord  George  followed  his  elder 
hrotlier,  the  Marquis  of  Tullibardine,  into  the 
.TaPol)ite  uprising  of  1715,  commanded  a  bat- 
talion at  SherifTmuir,  and  made  his  escape  to 
France  the  fidlowing  year.  He  was  living  in 
Scotland  at  tlie  time  of  the  rebellion  of  1745. 
and  was  the  most  capable  of  Prince  Charles's  gen- 
erals. To  Lord  George  Murray's  personal  bravery, 
sound    judgment,    and    skill    in    handling   undis- 


ciplined troops  must  lie  attributed  the  chief 
credit  for  the  .Jacobite  victories  at  Prestonpans 
and  Falkirk,  as  well  as  for  tlie  Highlanders'  safe 
retreat  from  England  after  the  raid  to  Derby. 
Murray  escaped  to  the  Continent  wlien  tlie  cause 
was  lost  and  died  in  Holland. 

MURRAY,  George  Henry  (1861—).  A  Ca- 
nadian statesman  of  Scottish  parentage,  born  at 
Grand  Narrows,  Nova  Scotia.  He  began  his 
education  in  his  native  place,  finished  it  at 
Boston  University,  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1883 
and  practiced  his  profession  at  North  Sydney, 
N.  S.  He  was  elected  to  the  local  House  in  1889, 
and  after  being  a  member  of  the  Nova  Scotia 
Cabinet  (1891)  he  became  Premier  and  Secretary 
for  his  native  province  (1896).  In  1897  he  was 
sent  to  the  Dominion  Parliament  as  Liberal  meni- 
l)er  for  Victoria  County. 

MURRAY,  Gre.nville  (1824-81).  An  Eng- 
lish journalist,  the  illegitimate  son  of  Richard 
Grenville,  second  Duke  of  Buckingham.  After 
studying  at  Magdalen  College.  Oxford,  and  at 
the  Inner  Temple,  he  entered  the  diplomatic 
service,  and  held  various  posts  at  Vienna.  Han- 
over, Constantinople,  and  Odessa.  Returning  to 
England  in  1868,  he  founded  The  Queen's  Mes- 
senger (1869),  the  first  of  the  English  satirical 
society  papers.  Driven  from  England,  he  settled 
in  Paris,  where  he  figured  as  the  Conite  de 
Rethel  d'Aragon,  borrowing  the  title  of  his  Span- 
ish wife.  He  was  one  of  the  iiioneers  in  the 
gossip  and  scandal  of  modern  journalism.  Among 
his  separate  publications  are:  The  Roving  Eng- 
lishman (1854);  Round  About  France  (1878); 
and  Side  Lights  on  English  Society  (1881).  con- 
taining a  mock  dedication  to  the  Queen. 

MURRAY,  Hugh  (1779-1846).  A  Scottish 
geographer,  born  at  North  Berwick.  After  1816, 
when  he  became  a  fellow  of  the  Ro3-al  Society  of 
Edinburgh,  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of 
geography.  He  was  ehiefiy  noted  for  his  share 
in  the  Encyelopcedia  of  Geography  (1834).  He 
also  compiled  historical  or  geographical  works 
upon  The  Southern  Seas  (1826);  Polar  Seas 
(1830);  Africa  (1830);  British  India  (1832); 
China  (1836);  Dritish  America  (1839);  and 
The  United  States  (1844). 

MURRAY,  James  (c.1725-94).  A  Scotch 
soldier,  and  the  fii'st  British  Governor  of  Canada. 
He  was  the  fifth  son  of  Alexander,  fourth  Lord 
Elibank,  and  entered  the  army  about  1740.  In 
1757  he  was  sent  with  his  regiment  to  America, 
where  he  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  siege  of 
Lonisburg  in  1758,  and  led  the  left  wing  of 
Wolfe's  army  in  the  battle  on  the  Heights  of 
Abraham.  September  13.  1759.  The  next  year  he 
successfully  defended  Quebec  against  an  attack 
by  a  superior  French  force  under  De  LSvis,  and 
later  in  the  same  year  assisted  General  Amherst 
in  reducing  Montreal.  He  was  appointed  Gov- 
ernor of  Quebec  in  October,  1760,  and  of  all 
Canada  in  1763.  and  continued  in  that  position 
until  1766.  He  became  Governor  of  Minorca  in 
1774.  was  Iiesieged  in  Fort  Saint  Philip  in  1781 
by  the  French  and  Spanish  under  the  Due  de 
Crillnn,  and  after  a  des]X'rate  defense  was  forced 
in  1782  to  capitulate.  Upon  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  was  tried  by  a  court-martial,  but  was 
acquitted.  He  became  a  full  general  in  1783,  and 
dicil  near  Battle,  in  Sussex.  For  an  account  of 
his  career  in  .America,  consult  Parkman's  Mont- 
calm and  Wolfe  (Boston.  1884;  new  ed.  1898). 


MURRAY. 


146 


MURRAY. 


MURRAY,  .Jamks  Act.i.sTis  Henry  (1837 
— ).  A  ilistinfniished  Enjilish  lexicofriapher, 
born  at  Doiiholiii,  Roxl)iir>rlishire,  .Sootland, 
in  18.37.  After  his  elpnientaiv  studies  at  home 
an<I  in  Edinburgh,  he  eontiiiued  his  work  at 
London  University.  Havins:  taught  at  llawiek, 
he  became  master  of  Mill  llill  School,  near  Lon- 
don, a  position  which  he  retained  for  fifteen 
years  (1870-8.")).  Already  distinfniished  as  a 
scholar,  he  had  been  twice  elected  president  of  the 
Philological  Society  (1878-80,  1882-84).  For  tliat 
society  he  assumed,  in  1870,  the  editorsliip  of  tlie 
yew  English  Dictionary  on  Historical  Principles, 
the  most  exhaustive  work  in  lexicography  ever 
attempted  in  any  language.  In  1885  Dr.  Murray 
moved  from  Mill  Hill  to  Oxford,  wliere  his 
Scriptorium  is  a  notable  feature  of  the  city.  Be- 
fore beginning  this  work,  lie  had  published  many 
valuable  monographs,  and  edited  for  the  Early 
English  Text  Society  the  Minor  Poems  of  .S'l'r 
Darid  Li/ndrsay  (1871)  :  the  Complai/nt  of  «SVo<- 
land  (1874):  and  the  Ilomnnee  and  Proiihecics 
of  Thomas  Erceldounc  (1875).  In  ISS4  ho  re- 
ceived a  civil  list  pension  of  £270.  He  has  also 
been  honored  by  degrees  from  English,  Scotch, 
and  German  universities,  .\  full  account  of  the 
beginning  of  the  dictionary  and  of  its  making  is 
to  be  found  in  Dr.  Miirray's  address  to  the 
Philological  Society  (1870),     See  Dictionary. 

MURRAY,  or  MORAY,  .Tames  Stuart, 
Earl  (if  I  1531  ?-l,")70).  A  Scotch  statesman.  He 
was  the  natural  son  of  James  V..  of  Scotland, 
and  half-brother  of  ^Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  Des- 
tined for  an  ecclesiastical  life,  he  was  educated 
from  1541  to  l.i44  at  Saint  Andrews,  and  early 
received  ecclesiastical  benefices.  He  accompanied 
his  sister  Mary  to  France  in  1548.  returning  the 
following  year  to  gain  as  a  youth  military  ex- 
perience and  renown  by  driving  a  strong  party  of 
English  from  the  coast  with  great  loss.  It  is 
probable  that  he  began  to  sympathize  with  Prot- 
estants as  early  as  15.52.  and  it  is  certain  tliat 
he  was  an  attendant  on  Knox's  lectures  in  1555, 
and  joined  with  others  in  urging  his  return  from 
Geneva  the  following  year.  From  1550  on  he 
was  the  consist<'nt  leader  of  the  Scotch  rcfnrmers, 
and  after  1558  till  his  death  he  was  the  most 
powerful  single  factor  in  Scotch  politics.  He  was 
present  at  Mary's  marriage  to  the  Dauphin  of 
France,  afterwards  Francis  II,,  and  was  sent  to 
France  in  1501  to  invite  the  widowed  Mary, 
after  the  death  of  the  Queen  Kegent. 
to  return  to  Scotland  as  its  Queen,  For 
a  few  years  Lord  .Tames  Stuart,  as  Clary's 
chief  minister  and  adviser,  seemed  to  subordinate 
his  own  ambition  to  the  good  of  S<'(itland,  the 
preservation  of  his  religion,  the  future  union 
of  England  and  Scotland,  and  the  success  of  his 
sister's  reign.  In  1502  Mary  created  him  Earl 
of  Mar.  and  shortly  after  Earl  of  Murray.  When 
it  became  evident  that  she  would  not  be  ac- 
knowledged by  Elizabeth  as  her  successor.  Mary 
turned  to  a  Catholic  alliance,  which  forced  Mur- 
ray to  break  with  his  sister,  and  a  series  of 
intrigues  and  cotinter-intrigues  began,  .\t  first, 
inclined  to  favor  the  marriage  of  Mary  with 
Darnley.  he  soon  saw  that  it  meant  Catholic 
supremacy,  hence  lie  opposed  it  finally  by  an 
appeal  to  arms,  but  was  defeated  and  forced  to 
take  refuge  in  England  (15fi5),  In  1500,  after 
intriguing  with  Hothwell,  professing  at  the 
same    time    friendship    for    Darnley,    and    being 


cognizant,  at  least,  of  the  plan  to  murder 
Kizzio,  Murray  returned  to  Edinlnirgh  to 
regain  his  power.  For  the  moment  out- 
wardly reconciled  to  his  sister,  he  went  to 
France,  but  returned  shortly  at  the  request  of 
the  lords,  who  had  taken  arms,  to  become  Regent 
of  the  Kingdom,  After  Mary's  escape  from 
])rison,  he  defeated  her  forces  at  Langside,  near 
Glasgow,  1508,  and  on  her  flight  to  England 
he  became  one  of  the  commissioners  sent  to  that 
country  to  conduct  the  negotiations  against  her. 
Later,  however,  he  urged  Elizalietli  to  permit 
Mary  to  return  to  Scotland,  but  was  assassinated 
in  1570  by  Hamilton  of  Bothwellhaugh,  before 
his  plans  liad  matured.  He  was  a  cold,  ambitious  ' 
man,  endowed  with  great  abilities,  personally 
moral,  but  in  politics  without  scruples.  Consult 
authorities  cited  under  M.aby  Stuart, 

MURRAY,  .John  (1741-1815).  The  founder 
of  the  I  iiivcrsalist  body  in  America,  He  was  born 
at  Alton,  England,  December  10,  1741,  At  the  age 
of  eleven  his  parents  removed  to  Cork,  Ireland. 
He  became  a  ilethodist  under  the  preaching  of 
Wesley  and  Whitefield,  Having  read  a  book  by 
.Tames  Relly,  a  L'nivcrsalist,  he  was  led  to  adopt 
his  views,  and  for  this  was  excommunicated  at 
\\'hitefie!d's  Tabernacle,  London.  Persecution  for 
oinnion,  ])ecuniary  embarrassment,  and  grief  for 
the  loss  of  his  wife,  caused  him  to  seek  retire- 
ment in  America,  He  preached  his  first  sermon 
in  America  September  30,  1770,  in  a  small 
church,  in  an  obscure  place  in  Xew  .Jersey,  called 
'Good  Jjuck.'  Believing  fully  in  the  doctrine  of 
universal  salvation,  he  gave  himself  to  earnest 
lab(U%  first  in  New  .Jersey  and  Xew  York,  after- 
wards in  Xewport,  Providence.  Boston.  Ports- 
mouth. Xorwich.  and  other  jjlaces  in  Xew  Eng- 
land. In  1774  he  fi.xcd  his  residence  in  Glouces- 
ter, Mass.,  where  he  was  represented  as  a 
Papist,  and  a  secret  emissary  of  Lord  Xorth  in 
the  interest  of  the  English  ilinistry.  He  was 
abused,  and  by  a  vote  ordered  to  leave  the  town, 
but  the  interference  of  powerful  friends  saved 
him.  and  he  was  allowed  to  remain.  In  1775 
he  was  appointed  chaplain  of  a  Rhode  Island 
brigade  encamped  near  Boston,  HI  healtli  com- 
pelled him  to  leave  the  army,  and  he  returned 
to  Gloucester,  where  he  was  settled  over  a  society 
of  I'niversalists.  He  was  instrumental  in  the 
organization  of  a  convention  of  his  sect,  which 
met  at  Oxfmd.  Mass,.  September.  1785.  and  took 
the  name  of  Independent  Christian  Universalists. 
In  17!>3  he  was  instalh'd  pastor  of  a  society 
of  I'niversalists  in  Boston,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death.  September  3.  1815.  He  published 
Leitrrs.  and  i<ketrhcs  of  iScrmons,  3  vols.,  and 
an  autobiography  (1813),  continued  bv  his  wife 
(0th  ed,  by  Deniorest,  1870). 

MURRAY,  originalh  MACMURRAY,  .John 
(17t5.'j:i),  The  first  of  four  great  Kuglisli  pub- 
lishers, ,Tohn  MacMurray,  of  the  stock  of  the 
Murrays  of  Atliol.  was  born  in  Edinliurgh,  Hav- 
ing served  as  lieutenant  of  marine  (1702-08).  he 
relireil  on  half  pay  and  began  to  publish  and 
sell  books  in  London.  .Tohn  MacAIurray  pur- 
chased the  bookselling  business  of  Paul  Sandby, 
op[iosite  Saint  Diuistan's  Church,  London,  and, 
dro])ping  the  Scottish  prefix,  became  a  bookseller 
anil  purchaser  at  '32  Fleet  Street."  lie  lirought 
out  the  Hnolish  Rrririr.  and  j)ublislieil  the  first 
two  volumes  of  the  elder  Disraeli's  Curiosities 
of  Literature,  etc.     He  died  November  16,  1793, 


MURRAY. 


147 


MURRAY. 


and  was  succeeded  in  due  time  by  his  son  John 
(1778-18431.  One  of  the  earliest  hits  of  John 
the  second  was  Mrs.  Eundall's  Domestic  Cookery 
(1808),  which  had  been  through  sixty-live  edi- 
tions by  1S41.  With  the  coiipcration  of  Scott, 
Canning,  and  others,  he  founded  the  Quarterly 
Review,  a  Tory  organ,  in  opposition  to  the 
Whig  i:iliiibur(]'h  Rerieie,  then  at  the  height  of 
its  inlluence.  The  first  number  was  published 
Febnuiry  1.  1800,  under  tlie  editorshi])  of  William 
Gilford.  The  new  periodical  was  completely  suc- 
cessful, and  lirought  Jlurraj-  into  communication 
not  only  with  the  chief  writers,  but  also  with 
the  conservative  statesmen  of  the  time.  A  still 
more  fortunate  acqmiintance  was  that  with  Lord 
Byron,  whose  C'hilde  Harold  (first  two  cantos) 
■was  published  by  ilurray  in  1812.  JIurray  now 
removed  from  Fleet  Street  to  AUiemarle  Street, 
where  the  business  is  still  carried  on.  Almost 
all  the  literary  magnates  of  the  day  were  four 
o'clock  visitors  in  Albemarle  Street.  Murray 
paid  Byron  nearly  £20,000  for  his  works,  and 
his  dealings  with  Crabbe.  Moore,  Campbell,  and 
Irving  were  princely.  The  second  John  Murray 
died  in  1843.  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
John  JlrRR.w  the  third,  who  was  born  in  1808. 
He  was  educated  first  at  the  Charter  House,  and 
afterwards  at  Edinburgh  I'niversity.  JIany 
great  works  in  history,  biography,  travel,  art, 
and  science  were  issued  by  the  third  JIurray. 
Among  his  successes  were  Livingstone's  Trai-els 
and  Last  Journals^;  Smiles's  Life  of  George 
Stephenson  :  and  Darwin's  Orif/in  of  S/teeics  by 
Xatural  Heleetion.  At  his  death  (April  2.  1892) 
he  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  fourth  John 
Murray  (born  in  1851).  Consult  Smiles,  A 
Publisher  and  His  Friends    (London,  1891). 

MURRAY,  Sir  John  (1841—).  An  English 
naturalist  and  oceanographer.  He  was  born  at 
Coburg,  Ontario,  studied  at  Victoria  College  there 
and  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  devoted 
himself  to  natural  science.  In  ISliS  he  went 
through  the  Arctic  regions  on  a  whaler  studying 
fauna  and  flora:  from  1872  to  187G  was  a  natu- 
ralist of  the  Challenger  expedition;  and  after 
six  years'  service  as  assistant  became  editor  of 
the  scientific  reports  of  the  Challenger  voyage. 
He  contributed  to  the  Xarralire  of  the  Cruise  of 
H..1/.-S'.  Challenger  (1882-85)  and  wrote  the  Chal- 
lenger Report  on  Deep-Sea  Deposits,  with  Renard 
(1890).     ilurray  was  knighted  in   1898. 

MURRAY,  John  Clark  (1836—).  A  writer 
on  pliilosophv  and  ethics,  born  at  Paisley,  Scot- 
land. :\larch'l!l,  1830.  He  studied  at  Glasgow, 
Edinburgli.  (iottingen.  and  Heidelberg.  In  1802 
he  became  professor  of  mental  and  moral  philos- 
ophy in  Qvieen's  L'niversity.  Kingston.  Canada, 
and  in  1872  he  was  called  to  a  similar  chair  in 
McGill  University,  Montreal.  He  is  author  of 
An  Outline  of  Hir  William  Hamilton's  I'hilosopliii 
(1870);  the  Ballads  and  Songs  of  Sr(rtl<nid 
(1874)  ;  Memoir  of  David  Murray  (1881)  ;  Hand- 
book of  Psychology  (1885);  Solomon  Mainion, 
an  Autobiography,  translated  from  the  German 
(1SS8I  :  and  an  introduction  to  Ethics  (1891). 

MURRAY,  LiNDLET  (1745-182G).  An  Eng- 
lish grammarian,  born  at  Swatara.  Lancaster 
County.  Pa..  April  22.  1745.  He  was  educated 
at  an  academy  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and.  on 
his  father's  removal  to  New  York,  was  placed 
in  a  co\mting-houBe,  from  which  he  escaped  to  a 
school   in   New   Jersey.     He   afterwards   studied 


law  and  had  a  good  practice  in  New  York.  Dur- 
ing the  Revolutioiuiry  War  he  engaged  in  trade 
with  such  success  as  to  aeciinuilate  a  handsome 
fortune.  His  hejilth  failing,  he  went  to  England 
ami  purchased  an  estate  at  lloldgate,  near  York, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits 
and  botany.  His  garden  rivaled  the  Royal 
Gardens  at  Kew.  In  1787  he  published  his 
J'oaer  of  Religion  on  the  Mind,  which  passed 
through  twenty  editions.  His  Grammar  of  the 
Engli.sh  Language  was  issued  in  1795,  and  was 
followed  by  English  Exercises,  the  Key,  the  Eng- 
lish Reader,  Introdnclion  and  Sequel,  and  a 
Spelling  Hook,  which  went  through  some  fifty 
editions.  Murray  died  February  Ifl.  1826.  Con- 
sult the  Monoir  of  Murraii,  containing  an  auto- 
biography by  Frank  (York,  1826),  and  Life  by 
Egle   (New'i'ork.  1885). 

MURRAY,  or  MORAY,  Sir  Robert  ( ?- 
1073).  A  Scotcli  statesman.  He  was  educated 
at  Saint  Andrews  University,  entered  the  French 
army,  and,  through  the  influence  of  Richelieu, 
rose"  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  was  chosen  secret 
envoy  to  negotiate  a  treaty  between  Scotland  and 
France,  and  while  at  Newcastle  in  December, 
1646,  formed  a  plan  for  the  escape  of  Charles  L, 
which  came  to  nothing  through  the  King's  ir- 
resolution. In  1651  he  was  appointed  justice- 
clerk,  and  soon  afterwards  «as  nuade  a  Privy 
Councilor  and  a  Lord  of  the  Session,  but  never 
took  his  seat  upon  the  bench.  After  the  Restora- 
tion as  Lord  of  Exchequer  and  Deputy  Secretary 
he  was  one  of  the  triumvirate,  the  other  two 
members  of  which  were  Lauderdale  and  the  King, 
that  ruled  Scotland  from  1663  till  1670.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society,  the 
oldest  .scientific  society  in  Great  Britain.  As  a 
chemist  and  musician  he  had  considerable  repu- 
tation in  his  time. 

MURRAY,  WiLLl.\M,  first  Earl  of  Mansfield. 
An  English  jurist.  See  Mansfield,  William 
iluKRAY,  First  Earl  of. 

MURRAY.  William  Henbt  Harrison  (1840- 
1904 ) .  An  American  clergyman,  lecturer,  and 
man  of  business.  He  was  born  at  Guilford.  Conn., 
and  was  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1862. 
From  1868  to  1872  he  was  pastor  of  the  Park 
Street  Church,  Boston,  and  during  his  incum- 
bency he  gave  several  series  of  popular  sermons, 
or  Sunday  evening  lectures,  before  large  audiences 
in  Music  Hall. and  later  published  these  discourses 
in  two  volumes,  Mnsie  Hall  Sermons  (1870-73). 
He  subsequently  withdrew  from  the  ministry,  and 
later  followed  a  varied  career  in  business,  lectur- 
ing, and  writing.  In  addition  to  several  vol- 
umes of  sermons  and  tales,  he  wrote  Adven- 
tures in  the  Wilderne.<is.  or  Camp  Life  in  the 
Adirondack  Mountains  (1868);  The  Perfect 
Horse  (1873);  Adirondack  Tales  (1877);  and 
other  stories. 

MURRAY,  William  Vans  (1762-1803).  An 
American  diplomat,  b(U-n  in  Cambridge.  Somerset 
Co\uity.  ild.  He  received  a  classical  academic 
education  in  America,  and  in  1783  w.ent  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  studied  law  for  two  years  in  the 
Inner  Temple.  Returning  to  Maryland  in  1785, 
lie  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  and  began  the  jirac- 
tice  of  his  profession,  in  which  he  soon  attained 
prominence.  From  1791  to  1797  he  was  a  Fed- 
eralist member  of  Congress.  In  1797  he  W'as 
appointed  by  President  Washington  United  States 
Minister  to  the  Netherlands,  and  in   1799,  with 


MURRAY. 


148 


MURSHIDABAD. 


Oliver  ICllswortli  and  \\'illiam  R.  Davie,  was 
scut  til  Paris  to  negotiate  a  treaty  which  should 
adjust  the  dillieulties  that  had  brought  Krance 
and  the  I,  nited  States  to  the  verge  of  war.  The 
successful  negotiation  of  the  convention  signed  at 
Paris,  September  ;iO,  1800,  was  said  to  l)e  largely 
the  work  of  Jlurray.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
valuable  brief  treatise  ou  The  Constitution  and 
LiiHS  of  tlir  Viiilcd  Stiates. 

MURRAY  BAY,  or  MALBAIE.  A  sum- 
mer report  of  Charlevoix  County,  Quebec,  Canada, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  River, 
'JO  miles  east  of  tjuebec,  with  which  it  has 
steamboat  conununication  (Map:  Quebec,  F  3). 
Picturesquely  situated  on  the  Jlurray  estuary 
which  forms  the  bay,  it  is  the  jjrincipal  watering 
place  on  the  north  shore  of  the  Saint  Lawrence, 
and  is  iiuich  frequented  for  its  romantic  scenery, 
invigorating  air.  bracing  though  cold  batliing, 
its  boating,  and  fishing.  The  town,  of  which  hun- 
lier  mills  constitute  the  chief  industry,  is  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Jlurray  Kiver,  the  dependent  sum- 
mer colonies  being  at  Pointe  i^  Pic  (population, 
in  1001.  537)  and  Cap  a  I'Aigle,  the  extremities 
of  the  bay,  three  miles  distant.  It  was  one  of 
the  stations  for  United  States  prisoners  of  war  in 
I77ti.     Populnti.m,  in   1901,  820. 

MURRAY  RIVER.  The  principal  river  of 
Australia,  draining,  together  with  the  Darling, 
practically  the  whole  southeastern  quarter  of  the 
continent."  It  rises  in  the  Avislralian  Aljis  near 
the  eastern  boundary  of  Victoria,  and  Hows  for 
two-thirds  of  its  course  nortlnvestward.  forming 
the  boundarv  between  Victoria  and  New  South 
Wales  (Map":  Australia,  G  5).  After  entering 
South  .\ustralia,  it  makes  an  abrupt  t\irn  to  the 
south,  and  enters  the  Indian  Ocean  tlirough  En- 
counter Hay,  40  miles  southeast  of  Adelaide.  Its 
length  is  about  loOO  miles.  For  the  lirsl  (iO  miles 
of  its  course  it  passes  between  precipitous  rocky 
cliffs,  in  one  place,  known  as  the  Murray  Gates, 
reaching  an  enormous  height,  while  some  of  the 
highest  peaks  of  the  continent  are  close  to  either 
shore.  After  jjassing  through  the  tJates  the  hills 
become  gradually  lower,  and  fmally  the  river 
enters  the  innneiise  .Vustralian  Plains.  Here  the 
Murray  is  sluggish,  with  numerous  windings,  and 
flanked  by  lagoons.  It  receives  here  scarcely  any 
tributaries  except  a  few  veiy  large  ones  coming 
from  the  mountains.  Among  the.se  are  the  Mur- 
rumbidgee  (q.v.),  which  is  longer  than  the  main 
stream  from  the  i)oinl  of  conlUience,  and  the  Dar- 
ling (q.v.),  whose  length  exceeds  that  of  the 
entire  main  stream.  During  the  drj'  season  the 
river  shrinks  even  in  its  lower  course  to  a  width 
of  less  than  300  fi-et,  but  in  winter  its  volume 
increases  enormously,  and  great  iniuulations  oc- 
cur. In  the  wet  season  it  is  navigable  for  small 
steamers  for  the  greater  part  of  its  course  as  far 
as  .Mbury,  but  its  mouth,  owing  to  sanil  bars, 
is  inaccessible  for  large  vessels.  There  are  n 
number  of  ports  on  its  shores,  whose  total  ship- 
ping probal)ly  amounts  to  more  than  one  and  a 
half  million  tons  annually. 

MUR'RAYSHIRE.  .\  maritime  county  of 
Scotl.ind.      See   KluI.nshirE. 

MURRE  (also  mnrrc.  of  uncertain  etymol- 
ngv  I .     Any  of  several  species  of  guillemot  (q.v.). 

MURRELET,  niflr'let  (diminutive  of  murre). 
Any  of  several  small  nuirre-like  birds  confined  to 
the    Xorth    Pacific    Ocean.      The    Wack-thronted 


murrclet  {Hyii-tliliborhuiniihiis  (intiqitiis)  is  a 
haiulsome  black  and  white  bird,  about  ten  inches 
long.  It  breeds  from  Sitka  northward,  and  is 
found  as  far  south  as  tiregon  in  winter.  A  Jap- 
anese murrclet  is  closely  allied  to  it.  The  re- 
maining four  species  represent  another  genus 
(liruclii/rltamphiix)  chielh'  distinguished  by  a 
more  slender  and  less  compressed  bill.  Two  of 
the  species  are  Arctic  forms,  one  coming  south  to 
southern  California  in  winter,  while  the  other 
two  occur  in  southern  and  Lower  California. 

MUR'RELL,  \ViLLi.\M  (18,53—).  An  Eng- 
lish physician.  He  was  educated  at  University 
College.  London,  where  he  was  scholar  and  dem- 
onstrator (1875-78).  Having  received  the  title 
of  luuri'tit  from  the  French  Medical  Academy  in 
1881,  he  served  as  medical  examiner  at  Edin- 
burgh (1882-87),  and  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians  in  London  (1880-00),  and  became 
jihysician  and  lecturer  at  Westminster  Hospital, 
lie  wrote:  Aiifiinii  Pectoris  (1880;  medal  from 
the  French  Academy):  Hroiichitis  (1800);  Ma- 
teria Medica  (1000)  ;  and  Forensic  Medicine  a/nd  ■ 
Toxieolofiii   (1902). 

MURRUMBIDGEE,  mur'rum-bij'*.  A  river 
of  -New  South  Wales,  the  second  largest  tributary 
of  the  Murray.  It  rises  on  the  northeast  slope 
of  the  Australian  Alps,  in  the  southeastern  cor- 
ner of  the  State,  within  40  miles  of  the  Pacific 
coast  (Map:  Australia,  H  5).  It  flows  first 
noitlnvard  through  a  hilly  country,  then  west- 
ward through  the  great  plains  till  it  enters 
the  Murrav  00  miles,  in  a  straight  line,  southeast 
of  the  moiith  of  the  Darling.  Its  length  is  1350 
miles,  but.  though  it  is  longer  than  the  Murray 
from  the  jioiiit  of  ccmlluence,  it  is  not  of  great 
commercial  importance,  owing  to  its  shallowness. 
During  the  wet  season  it  is  navigable  500  miles 
for  light-draught  steamers.  Its  principal  af- 
fluent is  the  Lachlan   (q.v.). 

MURSA.     The  Roman  name  for  Eszek   (q.v.). 

MURSHIDABAD,  moor'shf-dA-bad'.  The 
capital  of  a  district  of  Bengal.  British  India,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Bhaghirathi.  a  branch  of  the 
(ianges,  115  miles  north  of  Calcutta  (.Ma]):  India, 
E  4) .  .\ziniganj.  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river, 
with  ferry  lonuunnication.  is  usually  reckoned 
part  of  .\lur-hidaliad.  The  town  covers  a  great 
area,  several  miles  in  length  and  breadth.  The 
buildings  are  for  the  most  part  of  nuid,  but  there 
are  several  brick  structures — mos(|ues  and  tombs 
— along  the  river  bank;  and  centrally  situated  is 
the  Xizamat  Kila  or  Xawab's  palace,  a  building 
of  great  beauty,  comi)leted  in  1840.  The  town 
is  on  the  most  frequented  water  route  from  Cal-  ^ 
eutta  to  the  United  Provinces.  Its  trade  was 
fcunierly  of  great  importance.  Its  banking  con-  ■ 
nections  are  still  considerable.  .Tain  merchants 
here  being  among  the  wealthie-^t  in  India.  The' 
rearing  of  silkworms  and  the  weaving  of  silk  are 
the  chief  of  many  indtistries,  which  include  ivory 
carving,  the  nuinufacture  of  gohl  and  silver  lace, 
of  hookah  pipes,  musical  instruments,  etc.  Mur- 
shidabad  was  the  last  Mohanunedan  capital  of 
Bengal,  and  after  the  British  annexation  re- 
mained the  capital  until  1700.  when  the  adminis- 
trative seal  was  settled  at  Calcutta.  Population, 
in  1801.  of  Murshidabad  and  .\zimganj,  35,75fi; 
in  1001,  of  Murshidabad  l.".li!8.  of  Azimganj 
13,383,  total  28.551. 


I 


MURUMURX:  PALM. 


149 


MUSCARDINE. 


MURU'MURU  PALM.      See  Astroc.vryum. 

MURVIEDRO,  moUr-vyri'diu.  A  small  town 
of  Si):uii.  ill  llie  ProviiR-e  of  N'alcneia,  occupy inj; 
the  site  of  tlie  aucieiit  Saguntuin  (fi-V.)  (Map: 
Spain,  E  3).    Population,  in  lilOt).  (i784. 

MTJRZUK,  niGoi-zook'  or  MOTIRZOUK.  The 
caiiilaluf  i''fZ/,an  (q.v.) ,  North  Africa,  situated  in 
an  unhcaltliful  ref,'iou  in  latitude  25^  50'  X.,  and 
longitude  14°  10'  E.  (Map:  Africa,  F  2).  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  ^^■all  and  has  an  extensive  pal- 
ace. The  inhabitants  manufacture  leather  and 
textiles.     The  population  is  estimated  at  G500. 

MTJSACE.a;,  mu-za'se-e  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi., 
from  Miisa,  from  Ar.  maux,  banana-tree).  The 
Banana  Family.  A  natural  order  of  generally 
stemless  monoeotyledonous  plants,  which  resemble 
trees  in  appearance,  and  sometimes  rival  jialms  in 
stateliness.  The  long  sheathing  bases  of  the  leaf- 
stalks combine  to  form  a  false  stem.  From  the 
midrib  to  the  margin  of  the  leaf  blade  are  many 
fine  parallel  veins.  Hence  the  wind  tears  the 
tissue  between  them  and  makes  the  leaves  very 
ragged.  The  flowers  are  borne  on  spadices  in 
cymes  or  racemes  often  with  bright  colored  bracts 
which  are  protected  by  spathes.  The  fruit  is 
either  fleshy  or  a  three-valved  capsule.  The  spe- 
cies (about  00)  are  widely  distributed  in  warm 
climates,  and  are  of  great  value,  the  fruit  of 
some,  particularly  of  the  genus  Musa.  being  much 
XLsed  for  food,  tlie  fibres  of  the  leaves  of  others 
for  cordage  and  for  textile  purposes.  A  very  in- 
teresting species  is  the  traveler's  tree  (q.v.)  of 
Madagascar.  The  principal  genera  are  Musa, 
Strelitzia,  Ravenala,  and  Heliconia.  The  species 
of  the  first  three  are  found  almost  wholly  in  the 
Old  World,  those  of  the  last  named  in  the  New. 
See  Plantain;  Banana;  Hemp,  Manila. 

MXJS.ffi'TJS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Moixraroj,  ilou- 
saios) .  A  legendarj'  Greek  poet,  and  personifiea- 
tion  of  the  powers  of  the  Muses.  His  parents 
were  said  to  be  Eumolpus  or  Antiphemus  and 
Selene,  and  in  story  he  was  closely  connected 
with  Orpheus,  of  whom  he  is  variously  called 
teacher,  son,  and  pupil.  He  is  especially  asso- 
ciated with  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  which  he 
was  said  to  have  founded,  and  many  poems  ap- 
parently connected  with  this  worship,  or  oracu- 
lar, were  attributed  to  him.  He  had  no  existence 
outside  of  legend.  A  later  Musoeus,  who  prob- 
ably flourished  about  the  end  of  the  sixth  century 
of  the  Christian  Era,  was  the  author  of  a  very 
pleasing  amatory  poem,  in  Greek,  entitled  Tln'o 
and  Lcinuhr,  discovered  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
of  which  the  first  edition  was  published  by  Aldus 
Manutius  about  1494;  critical  edition  by  Dilthey 
(Bonn,  1874).     See  Hero. 

MUSA  IBN"  NOSEYR,  moo'sa  Tb"n  mV.sir' 
(c.GGO-71.3).  An  .\iab  governor  of  Northern  .Af- 
rica, who  gave  permission  to  Tarik  (q.v.)  in  711 
to   make    an   expedition    into    Spain,   which    led 


mascus.    Consult  Burke,  History  of  Spain,  vol.  i. 
(London,  1895). 

MTJSAUS,  nu.i-z:"i'ys,  Johann  Karl  August 
(173.")-87).  A  German  writer,  best  known  for 
his  ]  ollcsiimrchcn  der  Deutschtn  ( 1782-80) ,  a  col- 
lection of  tales  blending  genial  humor,  quaint 
fancy,  and  common  sense.  Musiius  was  born  in 
Jena,  March  29,  1735.  He  studied  theologj',  be- 
came in  1763  tutor,  of  pages  at  the  Court  of 
Weimar,  and  in  1770  professor  at  the  Weimar 
Gymnasium.  His  literary  career  began  (1700) 
with  a  successful  parody  of  Richardson's  Graiidi- 
son.  Then,  after  eighteen  years'  silence,  he  satir- 
ized Lavater's  whimsical  theories  in  Pliysiogno- 
mische  Reisen.  His  sprightly  and  genial  b'reund 
Hrins  Erschciiiungen  in  Holheins  Miinicr  (1785) 
are  interesting  because  they  show  the  rising  influ- 
ence of  Wieland.  He  died  at  Weimar,  October 
28,  1787,  before  completing  Straussfedern,  a 
series  of  tales.  In  1788  appeared  the  clever  skits 
iloralische  Kindcrl;lai>t>er.  Other  posthumous 
writings  were  gathered  in  1791  with  a  notice  of 
Musiius  bv  his  pupil  and  relative,  Aug.  von  Kot- 
zebue  (Leipzig,  1791).  There  is  a  Life  by  Miiller 
(.Jena.  1807). 

MUSCffi  VOLITANTES,  mus's*  vol'i-tan'tez 
(Lat.,  flying  flies).  The  term  applied  to  flo.at- 
ing  grayish  spots  before  the  eyes.  Whoever  will 
look  through  a  minute  pin-hole  in  a  card  at  the 
clear  sky  may  see  floating  before  his  sight 
a  number  of  translucent  tubes  or  fibres, 
and  many  little  beads,  of  which  some  are 
separate,  some  attached  to  the  tubes,  and  some 
apparently  within  them.  Some  of  the  tubes  or 
fibres  are" straight,  others  looped  or  twisted,  and 
others  again  forked.  All  these  objects  are  bright 
in  the  middle,  and  bounded  by  fine  black  lines. 
The  doublings  and  crossings  of  the  loops  or  knots 
in  the  twisted  fibres  appear  as  black  points. 
Though  the  eye  be  fixed,  these  bodies  change  their 
position  with  greater  or  less  rapidity.  Now,  in 
ordinary  light  and  vision  these  objects  are  usual- 
ly unobserved,  thougli  some  jiersons  can  easily 
see  them,  especially  when  looking  at  a  bright  sur- 
face. They  are  caused  by  shadows  cast  upon  the 
retina  by  cells  which  occur  normally  in  the 
vitreous  humor.  They  occur  most  often  with 
errors  of  refraction  and  disturbances  of  diges- 
tion. They  are  of  no  importance  whatever.  Af- 
ter a  sudden  movement  of  the  eyes  they  appear  to 
settle  downward.  Fixed  black  spots,  not  moving 
at  all  while  the  eyes  are  motionless,  are  sugges- 
tive of  actual  disease  and  demand  an  ophthalmo- 
scopic examination. 

MTTS''CARDINE  (Fr.  muscardinc,  muscadin. 
It.  inosenrdino.  nioftrndino.  musk  lozenge,  from 
moscaio,  ML.  inusralinn.  musk,  from  Lat.  niiis- 
cns.  musk),  or  Silkworm  Rot  {Botri/tis  bas- 
siana).  A  serious  fungous  disease  of  silkworms. 
It  consists  of  erect  branching  threads,  with  clus- 
ters of  spores  at  the  ends  of  sliort  lateral  branches. 


to  the  Moorish  conquest  of  the  Peninsula.    Musa,     The  spores  germinate  on  healthy  silkworms,  espe 


jealous  of  the  success  of  his  subordinate,  crossed 
himself  in  712  with  an  army  of  eighteen  or 
tweiily  thousand  men.  He  made  conquest  after 
cnncpiest.  Init  was  checked  in  713  by  an  order  of 
the  Caliph  to  repair  at  once  to  Damascus.  He 
left  iniiiiodiately,  his  son  .\bdul  Aziz  taking  com- 
mand. When  ]\rusa  arrived  at  Damascus  he  was 
<Ieprivcd  of  his  command,  disgi-aced.  and  killed, 
while  his  son  met  his  death  in  his  palace  at 
Seville,  at  the  hands  of  a  messenger  from  Da- 


cially  those  in  the  last  stage  before  spinning 
their  cocoons.  They  germinate  also  on  the  cater- 
pillars of  other  lepidopterous  insects,  and  on  tlie 
common  house-fly.  Diseased  worms  die  suddenly, 
become  discolored,  and  are  soon  hard  and  dry. 
Within  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  their 
bodies  may  be  covered  with  a  whitish  powder,  the 
spores  of  the  fungus.  For  the  prevention  of  this 
disease  absolute  cleanliness  in  the  breeding  house 
is  necessarv;  rooms  should  be  cleansed  and  fumi- 


MUSCARDINE. 


150 


MUSCI. 


gated  after  an  oulliieak  tu   [iievent   infection  of 
the  new  brood. 

MUSCAT,  nius-kat'.  An  old  name  for  the 
Arabian  !State  of  Oman  (q.v. ). 

MUSCAT,  MUSKAT,  or  MASKAT,  miis- 
kiit'.  The  cajiital  of  Oman,  in  Southeastern 
Arabia,  situated  on  the  Gulf  of  Oman  (Map: 
Turkey  in  Asia  (Arabia),  T  11).  It  is  fortified 
and  lias  a  good  harbor,  which  makes  it  one  of  the 
most  important  conniiereial  centres  in  Aral)ia, 
and  the  port  for  almost  all  the  trade  of  Oman, 
amounting  to  over  .^.'i.OOd.OOd  annually.  Tliough 
situated  amid  beautiful  surniun<linf.'s,  it  is  poorly 
built  and  unclean,  and  its  climate  is  very  hot  and 
unhealtliful.  The  population  is  estimated  at  40,- 
000.  Mu.scat  is  the  seat  of  a  British  Resident  and 
has  been  declared  to  be  nnder  British  intluence. 
In  the  si.xteenth  century  ^Muscat  was  ca]itured  by 
the  Portuauese,  but  was  restored  to  the  ruler  of 
Onjaii  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

MUS'CATEL  (also  muxciiihl.  OK,  muscadel, 
tiitiscadet,  Fr,  muscadet,  from  ^IL,  muscatdUim, 
muscatel  wine,  diminutive  of  muscat  urn,  musky 
cdor,  from  T-at.  miisciis,  musk).  The  name  given 
to  nuiny  kinds  of  sweet  and  strong  French  and 
Italian  wines,  whether  white  or  red.  Among 
the  finest  are  the  white  Rivesalt  and  red  Bagnol 
wines  from  Roussillon,  the  Luuel  from  the  Pyr- 
enees, and  the  LacrymiE  Christi  and  Carigliano 
of  Xa])les.    See  Wise. 

MUSCATINE,  mns'kA-ten'.  A  city  and  the 
county-seat  of  .Muscatine  County,  Iowa.  210  miles 
west  of  Chicago;  on  the  Mississi])pi  River,  and 
on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pacific,  the 
Burlington,  Cedar  Rapids  and  Xorthern.  and  the 
Iowa  Central  railroads  (Map:  Iowa,  F  3).  It  is 
built  on  high  blufl's  at  a  bend  of  the  river;  and 
among  noteworthy  features  are  the  !Mnsser  Li- 
brary (public),  a  soldiers'  luonmnent,  and  a 
high  hriilge  across  the  river.  The  city  carries  on 
considerable  trade  in  lumber  and  agricultural 
produce,  l)eing  known  especially  for  the  water- 
melons grown  on  Muscatine  Island,  just  below 
the  city.  It  is  an  important  industri;il  centre, 
its  establislnnents  including  th>ur  and  oatmeal 
mills,  jiickle  works,  foimdries  and  machine  shops, 
rolling  mills,  sheet  iron,  boiler,  and  engine  works, 
manufactories  of  varicnis  lumber  products,  lead 
works,  potteries,  button  factories,  box  and  pack- 
ing case  factories,  brick  and  tile  works,  carriage 
and  wagon  shops,  etc.  Settled  in  \HXi,  Musca- 
tine was  incorporated  first  in  IS.'iO.  The  govern- 
ment, under  a  charter  of  18.51,  subse()uently 
amended  by  State  special  charter  laws,  is  vested 
in  a  mayor,  elected  every  two  years,  and  a  uni- 
cameral council,  which  controls  important  powers 
of  confirmation  ami  election  in  administrative 
ofiices.  The  police  judge,  treasurer,  wharf  mas- 
ter, assessor,  and  school  hoard  are  chosen  by 
popular  vote.  The  city  owns  and  operates  the 
water-works.  Population,  in  1800,  11,4.54;  in 
moo,  14,07."?. 

MUSCHELKALK.  mushVl-kalk  (Ger.  shell- 
lime).  Tlie  iiiiddle  member  of  the  Triassic  or 
Xew  Red  Sandstone  period  in  Continental 
Europe.  In  (Jermnny  the  formation  consists 
chiefiy  of  limestones,  which  abound  in  the  re- 
mains of  mollusca;  hence  (he  name  muschelkalk. 
The  beds  are  of  much  economic  importance,  con- 
taining salt,  marl,  and  gypsum. 


MUSCI,  mus'si  ( Lat.,  mosses ) .  The  technical 
name  of  the  group  of  plants  known  as  mosses, 
one  of  the  two  subdivisions  of  bryophytes,  the 
other  being  the  Hepatica>  (liverworts).  Mosses 
are  adapted  to  all  conditions,  from  submerged  to 
very  dry,  and  are  most  abundantly  displayed  in 
temperate  and  Arctic  regions.  They  have  great 
jiower  of  vegetative  multi])lication.  new  leafy 
:>hoots  putting  out  from  old  ones,  thus  forming 
thick  carpets  and  cushions.  Bog  mosses  often 
completely  fill  up  bogs  or  small  ponds  and  lakes 
with  a  dense  growth  which  dies  below  and  con- 
tinues to  grow  above.  These  cjuaking  bogs  or 
'mosses'  furnish  very  treacherous  footing.  In 
their  depths  the  dead  moss  plants  become  slowly 
modified  into  peat. 


Fig.  1.     The  so-called  flower  of  a  moss  in  longitu 
seftion,  showing  antheriiiin  ia).  archeponia  (h),  ftnd  para- 
physesf^).     Outside  all  are  lougitudiual  sections  of  leaves. 

There  are  two  gi"cat  groups  of  mosses,  the 
Sphagnum  forms  (peat  or  bog  mosses)  and 
Bryum  forms    (true  raossesK     The  life  history 


Fm,  2.  1,  pametoiih.vtp.  sliowhi^c  original  spore  (.r), 
protduenm  {p),  buds  (/*)  wliloh  develop  the  leafy  brunchea 
\s).  2.  a  youug  sporophyte  (c)  emerging  from  the  leafy 
plant  («). 

of  a  true  moss  shows  a  distinct  alternation  of 
generations  (q.v.).  When  a  spore  germinates, 
there  is  first  developed  a  small,  green,  thready 


i 


MOSSES  AND  LICHENS 


COPvmSHT.  1902  8Y0CDD.MEAD  6.  COMPAHY 


I  BEARD     MOSS     -      USNEA    BARBATA 

2  SAFFRON-    COLORED      STICTA     -     ST1CTA     CROCATA 

3  CRESTED    CLADONIA     -     CLADONIA     CRISTATELLA 
1  YELLOW     EVERNIA      -       EVERNIA    VULPtNA 


5  FERN      MOSS     -      THUI  DIUM     RECOGNITU  M 

6  TREE       MOSS     -     CLIMACIUM      AMERICANUM 

7  BROOM      MOSS     -     OICRANUM      SCOPARIUM 

a  HAIR   -    CAP      MOSS    -     POLYTRICHUM     COMMUNE 


9     PEAT     MOSS  SPHAGNUM      SQUARROSUM 


% 


MUSCI. 


151    MUSCLE  AND  MUSCULAR  TISSUE. 


body  ( protonenia ) ,  U])on  wliicli  appear  buds  that 
give  ri^o  to  the  (iidinaiy  leafy  iiidss  ])lant.  Upon 
this  h'afy  phint  the  sex  organs  (antheridia  and 
archegonia)  are  borne  (  Fig.  1 ) ,  an<l  lience  it  is  the 
sexual  phase  (gametoph_i-te|  in  llie  alternating 
generations.  The  sex  organs  produce  a  fertilized 
egg.  which  upon  germination  does  not  reproduce 
a  leafy  moss  plant,  but  a  structure  of  totally  dif- 
ferent character,  namely  a  .stalked  spore-case 
(sporogonium) ,  full  of  asexual  spores,  commonly 
called  the  moss  'fruit.'  Since  this  sporogonium 
has  no  sex  organs,  it  is  the  se.xless  phase  (sporo- 
phyte)  in  the  alternation.  When  these  spores 
germinate  they  produce  leafy  moss  plants  (ganie- 
tophytes)  again,  and  so  alternation  continues. 
(See  Fig.  2.)  The  spore-case  (capsule)  of  an  or- 
dinary moss,  generally  pendent  from  a  slender 
stalk  (seta) ,  is  a  very  complicated  structure.  It  is 
usually  somewhat  urn-shaped,  with  a  little  coni- 
cal or  flatfish  lid  (operculum),  which  is  thrown 
off  when  the  spores  are  to  be  discharged.     Often 


quite  common  in  the  Tertiary  rocks  and  esi)ccial- 
ly  so  in  the  amber. 

MUS'CID.a;  (Xeo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat. 
muscii,  tly).  A  family  of  dipterous  insects  com- 
prising the  typical  or  true  Hies.  The  bristle  of 
the  antenn.ne  is  feathery  and  the  abdomen  is 
smooth  except  for  a  certain  number  of  bristles 
near  the  tip.  The  larva?  as  a  rule  feed  upon  de- 
caying animal  or  vegetable  matter,  more  abun- 
dantly upon  the  former.  The  group  comprises 
naany  species,  and  includes  some  of  the  most 
common  and  abundant  forms,  such  as  the  house- 
fly, the  horn-fly,  and  the  stable-fly  (qq.v. ). 

MUSCLE     AND     MUSCULAR      TISSUE. 

While  contractility  is  a.  property  of  all  active, 
living  protoplasm,  it  is  in  nuiscular  tissue  that 
this  property  reaches  its  highest  development, 
the  abilitj'  to  contract  along  certain  definite  lines 
being  the  peculiar  function  of  this  tissue.  Muscle 


Fig.  3.  1,  the  younj?  aporoph.yte  ir)  rupturing  the 
bladder.v  archegoiiium  aud  carr.viufj;  up  the  upper  portion 
(r)  as  a  Iiood  (calyptra).  2,  mature  sporophyte  (sporo- 
gonium), showing  foot  (fi.sota  (.r),  capsule  (f),  and  oper- 
culum (o).     Both  diagrammatic. 

also  the  moutli  of  the  urn  is  guarded  by  Iieautiful 
hair-like  or  tooth-like  structures  which  con- 
verge toward  tlie  centre,  and  are  coUettively 
known  as  the  ^)eristouie  (around  the  mouth). 
Through  the  centre  of  the  ca])sule  there  runs  an 
axis  of  sterile  tissue,  called  the  columella;  while 
capping  the  top  of  the  capsule  like  a  loose  hood 
is  the  calyptra,  which  is  the  dead  and  ruptured 
female  sex  organ  (archegonium)  that  has  been 
carried  up  by  the  elongating  sporogonium  (Fig. 
3 ) .    See  Beyopiiytes. 

Fossil  ilossES.  The  earliest  fossil  mosses, 
^luscites,  allied  to  the  modern  genus  Polytri- 
chum,  are  found  in  the  Carboniferous  rocks  of 
Conimentry,  France.  Throughout  the  Mesozoic 
formations  fossil  mosses  are  rare,  though  their 
existence  during  the  Liassic  is  inferred  from  the 
presence  in  rocks  of  that  age  of  a  beetle  of  the 
genus  Birrhus,  which  at  the  present  time  is 
known  to  live  in  mosses  onlv.     Fossil  mosses  are 


A.   BICEPS  MC8CLE. 

tissue  occurs  in  three  different  forms :  ( 1 ) 
Striated  Voluntary  Muscle.  This  form  of  muscle 
is  found  in  all  those  muscles  which  are  under 
the  control  of  the  will,  in  fact  all  those  which  in 
the  common  use  of  the  term  are  called  'muscles/ 


ISVOLUSTAttV   MUSCLE  IN    LONGITUDINAL    SECTION. 

such,  e.g.  as  the  biceps,  triceps,  etc.  (2)  Xon^ 
striated  Invohintartj  Muscle.  This  form  of  muscle 
occurs  in  the  muscles  which  are  not  under  the 
control  of  the  will,  those  which  carry  on  the  auto- 
matic functions  of  life, 
such  as  the  muscles  of 
the  intestine,  which  con- 
trol its  peristaltic  action, 
or  the  muscles  of  the 
arteries  and  veins,  which 
govern  their  contractil- 
ity. (.3)  .S'fWaffd  Tnvot- 
iintary  Muscle  or  Cardiac 
Muscle.  This  is  a  pecu- 
liar form  of  muscular 
tissue  found  only  in  the 
heart.  It  appears  to  occupy  a  sort  of  interme- 
diate  position    between   the   other  two   forms. 

(1)  Xoii-striated  Involuntary  Muscle.  This 
form  of  muscular  tissue,  while  not  occurring  in 
any  .such  large  masses  as  does  the  voluntary 
muscle,  has  an  extremely  wide  distribution.  It 
forms  the  muscularis  niucosa>  and  muscular  coats 
of  the  gastrointestinal  canal,  the  muscular  walls 


Iir\'OLDNTARY   MUSCLE  IN 
TRA^'SVERSE  SECTION. 

Ar.t..  areolar  tissue. 


MUSCLE  AND  MUSCULAR  TISSUE.      152     MUSCLE  AND  MUSCULAR  TISSUE. 


of  till'  arteries  ami  viiiis.  oi  tlic  liacliea  and 
bronchi,  of  llir  laijicr  duets  of  glands,  and  occurs 
in  the  urinary  tract,  and  in  the  male  and  female 
generative  orjjans.  etc.  It  consists  of  long,  slen- 
der, spindle-siiapcd  cells  from  .075  to  .2.30  niilli- 


VOLrNTARY   MI'SCLE. 

Smooth  muscle  fibres  from  the  sninll  intPxtine  of  a  Jrogr. 

meter  in  length  and  from  .004  to  .010  milli- 
meter broad.  Its  substance  shows  fine  longi- 
tudinal markings.  A  delicate  sheath  or  tell  wall 
has  been  described  and  within  this  is  the  semi- 
tluid  granular  protoplasm  of  the  cell  body.  In  the 
centre  of  the  latter 


3  -nuc. 


lies  a  long  rod- 
shaped  nucleus  to- 
ward each  end  of 
which  a  few  fine 
granules  are  found. 
These  cells  are  ar- 
ranged in  bundles. 
the  individual  cells 
t3n.S:^^         ^^3,  being   held    together 

by  a  cement  sub- 
stance, the  bundles 
being  surrounded  by 
more  or  less  con- 
nective tissue.  Blood- 
voLiNTARY  MUSCLE.  vcsscls      ramifv     in 

one.  nuclei;    t.m.s.,  termlna-    i,  •       „nnn„„fi,,p    tis- 
tlon  of  muscular  substance.  ""*'    connecine    lis 

sue  where  they  break 
up  into  capillaries  which  form  a  network  among 
the  muscle  cells.  Nerves,  mainly  of  the  sympa- 
thetic system,  pass  to  the  individual  muscle 
cells. 

(2)  Striated  Voluntary  Muscle.    This  form  of 
muscular  tissue  constitutes  the  ordinary  volun- 
^^'f-^^ww—^  tary      muscles     of 

p€V      '''''^iTSfs^^^^      the  skeletal  system. 
\  \  ^V^J  Vj'  ^      '^"f'   occurs   in   the 

'\  I  /  l-^  J^-f^i  iliaiihragm.  genera- 
^.  t'Tf  KV^yb  ♦■^••^  organs.^tc.  It 
Vjf  \V  frL  A  -  x-"'  "i-  '*  composed  of  long 
f  V\V^  H  )-<'^')  ;  cylindrical  fibres, 
each  one  of  which 
represents  a  highly 
specialized  devel- 
opment of  a  single 
cell.  The  nniscle 
filvre  consists  of 
the  muscle  sub- 
stance proper,  the 
muscle  nuclei,  and 
an  external  sheath 
or  ^arcolcmnia.  The 
muscle  substance 
of  a  fibre  shows  a 
longifuilinal  stria- 
tion  which  indicates  its  division  into  ullimatc 
fibrillic.  while  transversely  it  consists  of  alter- 
nate light  and  dark  bands  or  disks.  The  light 
disk  is  crossed  by  a  delicate  dark  line,  tlie 
line  or  membrane  of  Krause.  A  light  line 
across  the  dark  disk  (llensen's  line)  has  also 
been    described,    but     is    probably    an    artefact. 


TOLCSTARY       MrwI.K      I.S       TllASS- 
VKftHK   HKCTIIIN. 

w.f.,     mtiHt'If    lUipcf*;     cnit.  cn- 
domysjuin;  per.  pfrlni.vsiuni. 


INJTXTED   TnLfKTARV  MCS- 
CLK. 


The  minute  bit  of  muscular  tissue  scjiarated 
ofl'  by  Krause's  line  at  either  end  and  by  the 
dividing  line  between  the  librillie  on  each  side 
is  known  as  the  'sarcous  element  of  Bowman,' 
while  the  appearance  presented  by  the  cross-cut 
ends  of  the  librilUe  composing  a  single  fibre  is 
called  "(.'ohnheim's  field.'  Each  fibre  is  inclosed 
in  a  transparent,  very 
delicate,  but  tough  and 
elastic  sheath,  which  can- 
not always  be  readily 
seen,  but  often  shows 
distinctly,  stretching  be- 
tween the  separated  frag- 
ments of  a  fibre  which 
has  been  broken  within 
it,  its  toughness  and  elas- 
ticity allowing  it  to  re- 
sist a  force  sulficient  to 
rupture  its  more  brittle 
contents.  This  sheath  is 
known  as  the  sarcolemma 
or  myolcnima.  the  former 
term  being  derived  from 
the  Greek  words  sarx 
(flesh)  and  lemma  (skin  or  husk),  the  latter 
from  the  Greek  words  miui  (muscle)  and  lemma. 
.Tust  beneath  the  sarcolemma,  in  the  muscle 
protoplasm,  lie  the  muscle  nuclei.  They  are 
oval  or  spindle  in  shape,  their  long  axes  cor- 
responding to  those  of  the  fibre.  The  individual 
muscle  fibres  are  held  together  by  a  delicate 
connective  tissue  called  the  en<lomysium.  The 
muscle  fibres  are  bound  together  into  bundles 
or  fascicles  by  a  coarser  connective  tissue,  the 
perimysium,  while  the  entire  muscle  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  connective  tissue  sheath,  the 
epimysiuni.  In  short  muscles  single  fibres  may 
extend  the  entire  length  of  the  nuisde.  In  longer 
muscles  the  single  fibres  do  not  extend  the  en- 
tire length  of  the  muscle,  averaging  2")  to  .50  mil- 
limeters in  length,  ^"ery  long  tilircs.  100  to  120 
millimeters  long,  are  sometimes  found.  The  fibres 
taper  somewhat  at  their  ends  and  terminate,  if 
in  the  middle  of  the  muscle,  by  a  blending  of  the 
sarcolemma  with  the  endomysium  of  the  neigh- 
boring fibres ;  if  in  tendon,  periosteum,  or  peri- 
<'bonilrium.  by  union  of  the  sarcolemma  with  tlie 
connective  tissue.  Striated  muscle  is  extremely 
vascular.  The  larger  vessels  run  in  the  perimy- 
sium, where  they  branch,  and  these  smaller 
branches  give  ofl"  capillaries  which  form  a  rec- 
tangular meshed  network  among  tlie  indiviilual 
fibres.  The  larger  nerve  trunks  run  in  the  pcriniy- 
sium.  where  they  subdivide  and  send  branches  to 
the  muscle  fibres.  Here  they  terminate  in  special 
'end  plates.'    See  Xervoi's  System. 


m.c 


\ 


>^--  '^^■'i  » 


-nuc 


BECTION   OF    CAROIAC  OB   HF.ART   MTfiCLE    (Ptrlrtt^Hl    involllll- 

tory  muM'lp). 
m.c,  muscle  columns;    7.d.£.,  lone  of  let*»  differentiated 
Hnrcoplat*m ;  ouc,  nucleus. 

(3)    Cardiac  or  Heart  Muficlr  (fiirintrd  furol- 
untnnf    }fuscJr).      This    is   a    typo    oi    iniiscniar 


MUSCLE  AND  MUSCULAR  TISSUE.      153 


MUSCLE  SENSE. 


HEART   MUSCLE. 


tissue  jicfuliar  to  the  lieart.  It  resembles  tlie 
sniootli  invdluiUary  niusile  in  being  composed  of 
nucleated  cells.  These  cells  are,  however,  much 
larger  and  broader  than  the  smooth  muscle  cells, 
ar<>  more  or  less  r<'cianf;ular  in 
vha])e,  and  send  olV  lateral  branches 
uhiili  join  similar  branches  of 
neighboring.;  cells,  with  which  they 
are  cunncctcd  by  cement  substance. 
The  cell  protoplasm  shows  both 
longitudinal  and  transverse  stria- 
lions,  but  much  less  marked  than 
in  striated  voluntary  uuiscle.  A 
rross-section  of  a  cell  gives  some- 
what the  a])pearance  of  C'ohn- 
heim's  lield,  but  the  fibrilhe  show 
a  more  or  less  radial  arrangement 
about  the  circumference.  The  nu- 
cleus is  round  or  slightly  oval  in  shape  and  is 
situated  near  the  centre  of  the  cell. 

Development.  JIuscle  is  developed  from  the 
mesoderm  or  middle  layer  of  the  embryo.  Smooth 
nmscle  cells  are  produced  by  a  differentiation  of 
mesodermal  cells.  Voluntary  striated  muscle 
is  developed  by  a  still  further  specialization  of 
these  mesoderuuil  cells,  the  cell  nuclei  prolifer- 
ating and  longitudinal  and  transverse  striations 
appearing  in  the  protoplasm.  In  this  way  the 
cells  become  gradually  transformed  into  the 
fibres  of  voluntary  muscle.  Heart  muscle  has 
the  same  derivation,  and  represents  an  inter- 
mediate stage  of  development  between  the  more 
primitive  smooth  muscle  cells  and  the  more  high- 
ly specialized  striated  muscle  fibres. 

MUSCLE-READING.  The  intuition  of  a 
person's  thought  by  physical  contact.  Every 
complete  mental  process  tends  to  'issue'  or  'ex- 
press itself  in  movement ;  the  psychophysical 
organism  is  essentially  a  motor  organism.  In 
many  cases  these  expressive  or  concomitant 
movements  are  involuntary,  and  unknown  to  their 
performer.  It  is  often  possible,  by  close  attention 
to  them,  to  get  an  inkling  of  the  object  or  direc- 
tion of  the  agent's  thought.  Some  persons,  in- 
deed, have  a  peculiar  aptitude  for  this  'muscle- 
reading,'  or  {as  it  has  been  wrongly  termed) 
'mind-reading,'  so  that  they  are  able,  by  taking 
into  account  all  the  objective  indications  pre- 
sented by  the  agent,  to  reproduce  in  somewhat 
surprising  detail  the  course  of  his  thought. 

JIuscle-reading  was  much  in  vogue  a  few  years 
since  as  a  drawing-room  game.  On  the  stage,  it  is 
cust(miary  for  the  'mind-reader'  to  lay  the  hand  of 
the  subject  upon  his  forehead,  or  to  take  the  sub- 
ject's hand  in  his  own.  By  minute  observation  of 
the  subject's  involuntary  movements,  of  his  trem- 
or or  flush  of  excitement,  etc.,  it  is  possible  for  the 
reader  to  guess,  in  many  instances,  the  number  of 
a  watch,  the  place  and  character  of  a  hidden  object, 
etc. :  the  subject  being  completely  unaware  that 
he  is  giving  any  suggestion,  and  the  suggestions 
themselves  being  imnoticeable  to  the  audience. 
With  the  most  successful  mind-readers  the 
process  of  observation  has  liecome  habitual  and 
therefore  partly  unconscious,  so  that  they  are 
unable  to  explain  their  modus  operandi,  even  if 
they  desire  to  do  so.  Their  extreme  fatigue,  at 
the  conclusion  of  a  performance,  indicates,  how- 
ever, that  their  attention  has  been  under  great 
strain. 

This  appreciation  of  unconscious  movements 
and  of  vasomotor  changes  in  the  subject  is  suffi- 


cient to  explain  all  the  feats  of  mind-reading 
that  are  on  record,  surprising  as  some  of  these 
may  appear.  Consult:  .lastrow,  Fact  and  Fahic 
in  Psyclioloi/ii  ( Xew  York.  1000);  Preyer,  Die 
Kricliirung  drs  Clcdanlienlesms  (  ISSC)  ;  and  Nine- 
tccnlh  Centitri/.  xx.  807;  Forum,  xi.  192;  Popu- 
lar .SViVfici'  Monthly,  x.  459,  .x.xi.  034. 

MUSCLE  SENSE.  A  term  used,  in  a  wider 
signilicalion,  to  mean  "the  sum  total  of  the  sen- 
sations which  inform  us  of  the  condition  of  our 
motor  organs"  (Henri).  This  usage  has  its  root 
in  the  theory  that  our  chief  reliance,  in  per- 
ceptions of  the  movements  of  our  limbs,  is  ujion 
the  sensations  set  up  in  the  voluntary  muscles. 
Goldscheider  has,  however,  conclusively  proved 
that  the  perception  of  movement  is  mediated,  not 
by  sense-organs  in  the  muscles,  but  by  the  sen- 
sory nerve-endings  of  the  joints  (articular  sen- 
sations). Moreover,  the  definition  proposed  by 
Henri  must  include  (or  nuist  tacitly  ignore) 
visual  sensations :  for  we  undoubtedly  derive  a 
good  part  of  our  knowledge  of  movement  by  seeing 
our  limbs  move.  There  seems,  then,  to  be  no 
justification  for  retaining  the  term  'muscle  sense' 
in  the  meaning  indicated.  If  we  wish  to  group 
together  the  sensations  concerned  in  movement, 
to  emphasize  their  functional  conjunction,  we  may 
take  Bastian's  word  'kinsesthetie'  sensations.  The 
kintpsthetic  "group  of  senses  furnishes  us  with 
data  for  the  perception  of  the  positions  and 
motions  of  our  members  and  of  the  body  as  a 
whole,  and  plays  a  leading  part  in  the  perception 
of  space.  It  includes  some  senses  whose  existence 
or  efficiency  is  disputed  (innervation  sense  and 
muscle  sense ) ,  and  others  whose  independence  has 
only  of  late  been  generally  recognized  ( joinl^sense 
and  tendon  sense).  All  are  closely  united  with 
one  another  and  with  pressure  and  contact,  and 
some  are  hardly  ever  dissociated  except  by  dis- 
ease" (Sanfordj. 

The  specific  sensation  of  the  voluntary  muscle, 
'muscular  sensation'  in  the  narrower  sense,  al- 
though it  is  of  little  functional  import  (except, 
perhaps,  as  the  chief  sense-basis  of  the  feeling  of 
muscular  fatigue),  is  easily  isolated  by  labora- 
tory procedure.  If  the  position  of  the  arm  be 
kept  constant,  so  that  there  is  no  change  of 
articular  sensation,  the  cutaneous  sensations 
ruled  out  by  etherization,  and  an  induction  cur- 
rent passed  through  the  body  of  a  muscle,  we 
get  a  dull,  diffuse,  vague  sensation,  which  is 
localized  in  the  substance  of  the  arm.  With  high 
degrees  of  muscular  contraction,  the  sensation 
takes  on  a  dragging  or  grinding  character,  and 
presently  verges  on  pain  (q.v.).  It  is  unques- 
tionably a  specific  sense-quality,  best  described 
as  a  dull,  dead  pressure,  and  most  nearly  akin 
to  (though  by  no  means  identical  with)  the 
pressure  sensations  obtained  by  lightly  pressing 
a  blunt  object  upon  the  cutaneous  surface. 
When  once  known  to  introspection,  it  can  be 
reproduced  by  mechanical  stinuilation  (heavy 
pressure)   as  well  as  by  electric  current. 

There  is  also  a  special  tendinous  sensation, 
mediated  by  the  tendons  which  attach  the  vol- 
untary muscles  to  the  bones.  This  is  the  sen- 
sation of  strain,  which  appears,  e.g.,  when  the 
arm  is  held  out  for  a  considerable  time,  when  the 
fist  is  tightly  clenched,  etc.  It  is  radically  dif- 
ferent in  quality  from  the  dead  pressure  of  the 
muscles,  and  the  .sharp  pressure  (seemingly 
identical   with   cutaneous   pressure)    that   comes 


MUSCLE  SENSE. 


134 


MUSCULAR  FORCE. 


from  the  articular  surfaces.  It  plays  a  large 
part  in  the  perceptions  of  weight,  resistance, 
etc..  enters  into  the  fatigue-complex  of  exhaust- 
ing bodily  cxenise,  and  occurs  in  muscular 
cramp,  its  variations  do  not  necessarily  run 
parallel  to  the  variations  of  the  muscular  sen- 
sation, for  very  ditferent  degrees  of  muscular 
contraction  are.  obviously,  compatible  with  one 
and  the  same  amount  of  pull  upon  the  tendons. 
Consult:  Goldscheiiler.  Gcsamnielte  Abhandlun- 
gen,  vol.  ii.  (Leii)zig.  181)8)  ;  Bastian,  The  Brain 
as  an  Organ  of  ^lind  (London,  1885)  ;  Henri,  in 
Anni'c  psychologiquc,  vol.  v.  (I'aris.  180!)); 
Titchcner,  Experimental  Psychology,  vol.  i.  (Xew 
York.   llMJl). 

MUSCOGEE,  mus-ko'j*.  A  town  of  the  Creek 
Nation.  Indian  Territory.  154  miles  north  by  east 
of  Fort  Worth,  Tex.,  on  the  Missouri,  Kansas 
and  Texas  Railroad  (Jlap:  Indian  Territorv. 
H  3).  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Harry  Kendall  Col- 
lege (Presbyterian),  oi)ened  in  18!)4.  and  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  Inited  States  agent  for  the 
Indians.  The  town  is  the  commercial  centre  for 
extensive  agricultural  and  stock-raising  districts. 
Population,  in   I!)00.  42.)4. 

MUS'COVITE.  A  mineral  aluminum-potas- 
sium silicate  that  crystallizes  in  the  monoclinic 
system,  and  is  the  most  common  nu'ml>er  of  the 
mica  group.  Its  usiuil  color  ranges  from  gray 
to  brouTi.  but  it  also  occurs  in  dill'erent  shades 
of  green,  violet,  yellow,  and  sometimes  rose-red. 
It  has  a  vitreous  lustre  that  is  more  or  less 
pearly  or  silky,  and  its  specific  gravity  is  from 
2.7G  to  .3.  Muscovite  is  one  of  the  essential  con- 
stituents of  granite,  gneiss,  mica-schist,  and  cer- 
tain other  rocks.  It  is  widelydistributcd  in  nature, 
occurring  most  al>uncliuitly  in  Tyrol.  Styria.  on 
the  Saint  (iotthard.  and  eNewhcre  in  Switzer- 
land, as  well  as  at  I'aris.  Me.,  (irafton,  X.  H., 
Chesterfield.  Mass..  an<l  numerous  localities  of 
North  Carolina,  in  the  United  States.  The  fact 
that  it  has  a  cleavage  parallel  to  the  base,  and 
is  easily  separated,  forming  thin  elastic  plates 
which  are  transparent  to  translucent,  led  to  its 
use  as  the  material  for  window])anes  in  Russia, 
whence  its  name  of  Miixcoiy  filasx.  and  to  its 
extensive  and  similar  use  in  stoves  mider  the 
name  of  "isinglass.'  It  is  also  employed  com- 
meriially  in  wall  ])aper,  as  a  filler,  in  electrical 
ma<'hines  as  an  insulator,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
as  a  paint.     See  Mlf.^. 

MUS'COVY.  A  name  formerly  applied  to  Rus- 
sia. «ho>H  capital  down  to  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century  was  Moscow.  The  word  is 
still  used  in  ornate  style. 

MUSCOVY  DUCK  (cnrrupled  from  munk- 
aurl,).  .\  large  South  .American  duck  {Cairina 
moxrhiitd)  in  which  the  male  is  much  larger  than 
the  female,  and  has  lleshy  wattles  on  the  fore- 
head and  lores,  and  a  crest  of  long  feathers. 
This  duck  has  long  been  doniesti<'ated  in  Brazil 
anil  in  Kurope.  where  it  is  especially  in  favor 
in  (Jennany.  In  this  country  they  are  less 
esteemed,  because  of  their  (luarrelsome  nature 
and  ability  to  harm  one  another  or  their  com- 
panions In  the  poultry  yard.  Two  varieties  are 
recognized,  'roloreil'  and  'white.'  which  are  thus 
described  in  Ilowanl's  I'lirwrrs'  Hiillitiii.  .Yo.  (i^, 
of  the  Inited  States  Hepartnient  of  .\griculture 
(Washington.  1S!)7):  The  head  of  the  colored 
nuiseovy  is  glossy  black  and  white:  the  bill  is 
dark-horn    in   color;    eves,   brown;    the   back   in 


i 


color  of  plumage  is  lustrous  IjIuc  black,  which  is   , 
sometimes   broken   with   white;    the   color   of   the 
breast  and  body  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  back,    i 
1  he  wing  coverts  are  rich,  lustrous  green  black,    I 
and   the   tail    feathers   may   be  either   black  or    ( 
white,   the   latter  being   preferred.     The  thighs, 
like   the   tail   feathers,   may   be  either   black  or 
white,   white   being   preferred;    the   shanks,   toes, 
and  webs  vary  in  colm-  from  yellow  to  dark  lead 
or  black.     The  white  muscovy  in  color  of  plum- 
age is  pure  white   throughout:    feathers  of  any 
other    color    will    disqualify    the    bird    for    show 
purposes.     The  eyes  in  the  white  variety  are  of  1 
a   leaden-blue  or  gray  color,  while  those  of  the  ' 
colored  are  brown.     The  shanks,  toes,  and  webs   • 
are  of  a  pale-orange  or  yellow  color.     The  stand-   ' 
ard   weight  of   the  adult  drake   is   ten   pounds;  i 
adult  duck,  eight  pounds.     The  flesh  is  good  and  | 
loses  in  cooking  tlie  uuisky  odor  of  the  living  bird.  1 

MUSCULAR  FORCE,  Origin  of.     This  sub-  ■ 
ject   has  occupied  the  attention   of   physiologists 
for  many  years,  and  numerous  theories  have  been 
offered   to  explain   the   phenomena   of   nuiscular   , 
energy.      The    older    observers,    represented    by  '^ 
Liebig.  held  that  nitrogenous  food  went  to  build  'i 
up    and    maintain     muscular    tifisue     and     that  i 
energy  was  evolved  in  the  splitting  up   (or  oxida- 
tion) of  this  class  of  food,  the  waste  lieing  repre- 
sented in  the  excreted  urea.    The  non-nil rugenous 
foods    (carbohydrates  or  starches,  and  fats),  onTj 
the  other  hand,  were  supposed  to  be  entirely  de-k 
voted  to  the  production  of  heat.     Muscular  work? 
should  therefore  cause  a  distinct  increase  in  the  J 
elimination  of  urea.     But  this  theory  is  invali-  f 
dated  liy  the  fact  that  the  excretion  of  urea  does* 
not   keep   jiace   with    the   production    of   energj'.  \ 
Later  observers   have   taken   the  opposite   view,    ■ 
that  force  is  generated  by  the  oxidation  of  non-  i 
nitrogenous  substances. and  that  the  nitrogen  con- 
stituents of  muscle  are  rather  to  be  looked  upon  4 
as  forming  a  part  of  the  machine  in  which  the ^ 
former    substances    are    burned    than,    as    con-  ■' 
stituting  the  fuel  themselves.  ,' 

It  has  been  suggested  by  Herman  that  nuiscular  i 
activity  depends  upon  the  splitting  up  and  sub-  I 
sequent   re-formaticm   of  a   complex   nitrogenous  I 
body   which    he   calls   inogen.      From   the   deconi-  f 
position  of  this  liody  there  result  carl)on  dioxide, 
sarcolactic  acid,  and  a  gelatino-alliuminous  body. 
Of  these  the  earlion  dioxide  is  carried  away  by  the 
blood,  and  the  acid  and  the  albumincuis  substance,  j 
at  least  in  part,  go  to  rebuild  the  inogen.     The 
other   materials  of  which   the   inogen   is   formed 
are   supplied   by   the   blood.      Of   tliese   materials  f^ 
oxygen  and  some  carbohydrate  substance  form  a  " 
part.      The   decomposition    takes    i>lace    both    in 
resting  and  active   muscle,  but  is  much  greater 
in  the  latter.    This  theory  explains  certain  known 
facts  of  muscular  metabolism;   first,  that  nuiscle 
absorbs  oxygen  and  gives  otf  carlum  dioxi<lc  dur- 
ing both   rest   and  activity,   and   that    increased 
exchange  of  these   gases  takes   place   during   the 
latter  condition:  that  this  process  is  atteiid(>'d  by 
the  i)roduition  of  heat;   and  that  uuiscle  during 
rest     produces     nitrogenous     crystallizable     sub- 
stances such  as  krealin  from  the  nietaboli.sm  go- 
ing on  constantly  during  life. 

For    a    full    discussion    of    this    subject,    see 
Foster,     Tr.Tthoolc     of    I'hy.iiology     (Xew     York, 
lllOD),     and     Kirke.     Uandhook     of     Phgsiology 
(Philadelphia,    11IIJ2).     See    also    article    Physi 
OLOQY. 


\ 


MUSCULAR  SYSTEM. 


155 


MUSCULAR  SYSTEM. 


MUSCULAR  SYSTEM,  Evolition  of.  The 
muscular  systuin  (.■iinipiises  those  tissues  or 
niasses  uf  tissue  which  have  tlie  property  of  con- 
tractility and  whose  function  it  is  to  accomplish 
the  movements  of  the  parts  or  of  the  whole  of  the 
animal  body.  Contractility  is  one  of  the  prop- 
erties of  simple  protoplasm.  Thus,  the  amceha 
progresses  by  the  extension  of  some  portion  and 
the  contraction  of  otlier  parts  of  its  body.  The 
cortical  layer  of  Paranitecium  is  a  specially  con- 
tractile region  in  the  protoplasm.  In  the  Stenlor 
and  the  stalk  of  Vorticella  there  are  protoplasmic 
dill'crentiations  that  resemble  muscle  Kbres. 

Many  of  the  outer-lying  ectoderm  cells  of 
Hydra  show  considerable  dilierentiation ;  they  are 
conical  in  shape  witli  the  broad  surface  outward. 
On  this  external  surface  a  thin,  cuticle-like  layer 
has  been  demonstrated.  Internally  the  cell  ends 
in  a  contractile  basal  portion  or  process  which 
lies  parallel  to  the  long  axis  of  the  body  of  the 
hydra  and  between  the  ectoderm  and  entoderm. 
The  whole  of  these  cells  are  contractile,  but  the 
long  processes  are  specially  so.  These  processes 
■were  formerly  known  as  "neuro-museular,'  but 
with  the  discovery  of  special  nerve  cells,  the  mus- 
cular function  alone  must  be  conceded  to  them. 
Like  the  muscle  cells  of  vertebrates  they  con- 
tract when  properly  stimulated.  Here  then  are 
ectodermic  muscle  cells,  the  entire  protoplasm  of 
which,  like  that  of  the  amoeba,  is  irrital)le  and 
contractile,  but  with  a  portion  of  the  cell  more 
clearly  set  apart  to  perform  the  contractile  func- 
tion than  in  an_y  protozoan.  In  the  jelly-fishes, 
such  as  Aurelia.  a  muscle  cell  is  likewise  com- 
posed of  two  part.s:  a  contractile  portion  (which 
shows  cross  striations),  and,  attached  to  the 
striated  portion,  a  protoplasmic,  non-differen- 
tiated, non-contractile  portion  which  may  bear 
cilia  on  its  external  surface.  This  muscle-bear- 
ing epithelium  is  arranged  in  a  bundle  or  ring 
around  the  edge  of  the  sub-umbrella.  It  is  the 
contraction  of  this  muscular  zone  that  propels 
the  jellyfish  through  the  water.  In  the  tentacles 
and  about  the  lips  unstriated  muscle-fibres  occur. 
The  contraction  and  extension  of  the  body  of  the 
sea-anemone,  as  well  as  of  its  gullet  and  mesen- 
teries, and  its  ability  to  move  slowly  from  the 
point  of  attachment,  are  accomplished  by  means 
of  a  well-developed  muscular  system.  This  con- 
sists of  bands  of  longitudinal  muscle  fibres  which 
run  on  the  mesenteries  from  the  base  to  the  disk; 
of  parietal  muscles  which  pass  obliquely  across 
the  lower  and  outer  angle  of  the  mesentery;  and 
of  a  thin  sheet  of  transverse  muscles.  The  con- 
traction of  the  longitudinal  muscles  draws  the 
animal  toward  the  base,  and  that  of  the  trans- 
yerse  muscles  causes  the  contracted  animal  to 
extend  again.  A  band  of  circular  muscles  at 
the  junction  of  column  and  disk  causes  the  disk 
and  contracted  tentacles  to  be  inclosed  withiii  the 
body  of  the  anemone.  In  addition  to  the  bands 
of  nuiscles.  scattered  fil)res  occur  both  in  the 
body  wall  and  in  the  gullet,  which  consist  partly 
of  spindle-shaped,  nucleated  fibres,  and  partly 
of  such  striated  muscle  processes  as  occur  in 
Hydra.  The  latter  are  mostly  found  in  the 
transverse  muscles  of  the  body  and  tlie  tentacles, 
and  are  of  entodermal  origin,  as  also  ai"e  the 
muscle  bands  of  the  mesenteries.  Other  longi- 
tudinal muscles  are  of  cctodermie  origin.  Some 
of  the  nuiscles.  however,  sink  so  far  down  into  the 
middle  layer  or  niesoglea  as  to  seem  to  belong  to 
it  alone.  This  is  significant  because  all  the 
Vol,  XIV.— 11 


musculature  of  animals  above  the  ccelenterates 
lies  between  the  ectoderm  and  entoderm. 

The  musculature  of  llatworms  falls  under  two 
groups:  (1)  the  dermal  musculature,  and  (2) 
the  dorso-ventral  musculature.  The  dermal  mus- 
culature lies  either  under  the  basal  membrane  of 
the  epidermis  or  under  the  cuticle.  It  is  com- 
posed of  distinct  layers.  In  each  layer  all  the 
fil)res  run  in  one  and  the  same  direction.  There 
are  longitudinal  muscles,  transverse  and  diago- 
luil  nmscles.  The  musculature  is  stronger  on  the 
ventral  creeping  surface.  In  cestodes  the  diago- 
nal layer  is  replaced  by  a  second  eir<'ular  layer. 
The  dorso-ventral  musculature  runs  from  the 
dorsal  to  the  ventral  surface,  and  is  much  dis- 
placed at  sexual  maturity  by  the  male  and  fe- 
male germ-glands.  Below  the  cuticular  layer 
of  roundworms  there  is  a  well-developed  muscu- 
lar layer  in  the  form  of  a  tube,  and  composed  of 
outer  circular  fibres  and  inner  longitudinal  ones. 
This  muscular  tube  effects  the  writhings  and  un- 
dulations of  the  body.  As  in  the  coelenterates, 
the  muscle  element  is  composed  of  a  single  cell, 
made  up  of  a  protoplasmic  (often  glandular) 
portion  and  a  fibrillar  part.  The  (ibrilhc  rarely 
show  any  evidence  of  cross  striation,  the  lateral 
lines  are  free  from  muscle  fibres,  and  the  longi- 
tudinal sheet  is  thus  broken  up  into  bands. 

The  muscular  system  of  mollusks  is  also  well 
developed.  The  muscle  fibres,  both  of  bivalve.? 
and  gastropods,  are  all  of  the  unstriated  sort, 
because  of  the  slow  movements  of  the  animals. 
These  fibres  occur  usually  in  distinct  bands  or 
sheets,  and  frequently  are  combined  for  greater 
power  to  form  very  large  muscles,  such  as  the 
two  abductors  of  Anodonta,  which  close  the 
shell.  Other  important  muscles  are  those  of  the 
foot,  including  two  protractors  and  one  retractor; 
and  in  the  snail  those  that  work  the  radula  of  the 
mouth,  the  retractors  of  the  horns  and  penis, 
and  those  that  pull  the  head  into  the  shell.  The 
muscles  are  fastened  to  the  shell,  upon  which 
they  make  certain  distinct  markings  at  the  points 
of  attachment,  called  'scars.' 

The  musculature  of  segmented  worms,  like  that 
of  the  roundworms,  is  composed  of  a  dermo- 
musculature  tube  which  is  composed  of  an  outer 
circular  and  an  inner  longitudinal  layer  of  fibres. 
The  fibres  are  in  the  form  of  bands.  The  pharjTix, 
mouth,  gut.  para])odia,  and  septa>  have  special 
muscle  fibres.  In  leeches,  in  addition  to  the 
circular  and  longitudinal  bands  of  muscle  fibres, 
there  are  bands  reaching  diagonally  from  the 
dorsal  to  the  ventral  surface  of  the  body. 

Among  arthropods  the  musculature  of  the  Crus- 
tacea is  well  developed  and  very  complex,  but  there 
is  little  evidence  remaining  of  the  dermo-nuiscular 
tube  of  worms.  It  is  assumed  that  the  dorsal 
and  ventral  pair  of  longitudinal  nuiscles  corre- 
spond to  the  four  similarly  situated  bands  of 
muscle  in  the  Polycha'ta.  Perhaps  traces  of  the 
circular  musculature  of  annelids  are  found  in 
the  muscles  that  are  attached  to  the  basal  ])arts 
of  the  appendages  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the 
integument  of  the  body  on  the  other.  Certainly 
the  firmer  exoskeleton  makes  greater  localization 
of  the  nuisculature  possible.  In  the  limb-bearing 
portion  of  the  abdomen  and  the  thora.v  there  are 
paired  dorsal  and  ventral  muscle  bands.  In  the 
limbless  part  of  the  abdomen  there  is  a  thick 
layer  or  tulie  of  longitudinal  muscle  fibres,  inter- 
rupted at  each  septum  by  the  connective  tissue 
tliat  separates  the  myomeres.     Tlius  the  muscle 


MXJSCULAK  SYSTEM. 


156 


MUSCULAK  SYSTEM. 


itself  is  sepaiatod  into  injomeres.  The  abdomen 
is  bent  upward,  downward,  or  sidewise  by  the 
contraction  of  tlie  nninde  fibres  in  the  corre- 
sponilinf;  portion  of  tlie  body.  Tlie  appendajres 
are  moved  by  muscles  that  pass  out  into  them 
from  the  trunk.  The  muscles  are  either  attached 
to  the  cuticular  outer  coverin;;  or  to  inward  pro- 
jecting parts  of  it.  and  often  terminate  in  sinewy 
pieces  that  are  wliite  and  are  composed  of  bundles 
of  cross-striated  libres — the  kind  of  fibre  that 
characterizes  all  rapidly  moving  muscle.  In 
Peripatus.  however,  the  muscles  are  unstripped, 
save  those  which  work  the  jaws.  In  insects,  the 
thorax  and  metathorax,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
grassho])per,  are  crowded  with  leg  and  wing  mus- 
cles. In  the  cockroach,  where  the  wings  are 
little  used,  the  w  ing  muscles  are  poorly  developed. 

The  nuisculature  of  .Vmphioxus.likc  that  of  the 
abdomen  of  Crustacea,  is  divided  into  metaniercs. 
Of  these  muscular  segments  or  myomeres  there 
are  about  si.xty,  V-shaped  on  surface  view,  with 
the  apex  of  the  V  extending  forward.  The  myo- 
meres are  composed  of  striated  muscle  fibres 
which  extend  longitudinally  and  are  attached  to 
the  septsr  immediately  in  front  and  behind  them. 
The  myomeres  of  the  two  sides  alternate.  The 
nuisculature  of  the  dorsal  wall  is  the  thicker. 

In  cydostomes,  as  well  as  in  Amphioxus,  the 
muscles  of  any  myomere  are  attached  to  the 
anterior  and  posterior  myocomata  of  that  seg- 
ment. In  selachians  a  significant  change  has 
occurred — the  first  step  toward  the  complicated 
conditions  of  higher  vertebrates.  Certain  of  the 
ventral  lateral  muscles  on  either  side  of  the 
median  line  become  dillercntiated  from  the 
others,  in  that  their  fibres  move  out  from  the 
general  level  in  correspondence  with  their  greater 
functional  activity.  Thus  wliilc  the  dorsal  trunk 
muscles  retain  their  primitive  character,  the 
ventral  muscles  have  become  sei)arated  into  two 
masses:  a  pair  of  strong  mid-ventral  ones  which 
are  known  together  as  the  rectus  al)dominis,  and 
the  remaining  muscular  nuiss.  We  next  find  that 
in  this  latter  mass  the  direction  of  the  muscle 
fibres,  which  in  .\mphioxus  and  cydostomes  is 
luiriznntal,  has  become  in  selachians  oblitpu*:  so 
that,  from  the  mid-ventral  line,  they  pass  dorso- 
posteriorly.  The  remaining  Ic'^s  difierentiated 
portion  of  the  ventral  musculature  is  known  as 
oblifpius  abdominis,  or  oblicpu-  abdominal  muscle. 
Two  kin<ls  of  changc-s  have  now  occurred  in  the 
vertebrate  nuisculature:  (1)  There  is  the  func- 
tional difTcrentiation  of  parts  of  uuisdcs  by  which 
they  become  cut  nlf  from  the  remainder,  and  (2) 
changes  in  the  direction  of  muscle  fibres  by  which 
originally  axial  muscles  have  become  oblique. 
In  the  lowest  vertebrates  the  anterior  and  pos- 
terior ends  of  nniseles  are  attached  to  the  ad- 
jacent myocomata.  With  the  development  of 
ribs  from  the  fibrous  tissue  of  the  myocomata, 
muscular  attachment  has,  in  |)art.  fallen  upon 
them.  The  derma,  indeed,  is  dillerentiated  from 
the  same  tissue  as  the  myocomata:  hence  it  is 
not  surprising  that,  in  the  migrations  on  the  ends 
of  muscles  to  adajit  themselves  to  the  new  con- 
ditions, we  find  that  some  nniseles  are  attached 
to  the  derma.  Finally,  some  miiMlcs.  whose  end* 
lome  thus  to  lie  outside  of  the  myomeres,  may 
extend  alongside  of  several  somites  without  signs 
of  metamerism.  Thus,  by  these  simple  modifica- 
tions, we  gain  the  complex  musculature  of  the 
higher  vertebrates,  where  there  are  trunk  mus- 
cles of  different  sizes  and  lengths,  often  without 


metamerism  and  attached  to  bony  parts  such  as 
ribs,  or  to  the  skin.  In  Amphioxus  the  myomeres 
are  arranged  with  reference  to  the  sagittal  plane 
frcnn  which  they  extend  obliquely  outward  and 
backward.  In  cydostomes  the  obliquity  is  so 
great  that  the  myomeres  overlap  each  other  like 
the  shingles  on  a  roof,  so  that  a  cross-section 
of  the  body  may  cut  three  or  four  myocomata  on 
each  side.  In  many  fishes  the  free  edge  of  the 
myocomata,  as  it  appears  at  the  surface,  is  not 
merely  boned,  but  is  zigzag. 

The  most  typical  condition  of  the  amphibian 
musculature  is  shown  in  Urodela.  The  dorsal 
lateral  muscles  retain  most  nearly  the  fisli-like 
condition  and  lie  in  nietameres.  When  the  ribs 
and  transverse  processes  of  the  vertebra-  become 
developed  some  of  the  muscles  gain  attachment 
to  them,  and  thus  give  rise  to  the  intercostal  and, 
intertransversal  muscles.  The  ventral  lateral 
muscles  of  fishes  are  disposed  in  two  regions. 
In  Amphibia  tbey  comprise  four  regions,* derived 
from  a  migration  and  splitting  of  the  two  lateral 
muscles  of  fishes.  In  addition,  lying  under  the 
internal  oblique,  there  is  a  muscle  that  prob- 
ably has  no  representative  in  fishes.  It  is  un- 
segmented  and  lies  deeper  than  the  skeleton  and 
immediately  within  the  peritoneal  lining  of  the 
body  cavity.  The  .\nura  diflTer  from  the  Urodela 
chiefly  in  the  absence  of  the  transversal  abdomi- 
nis, and  in  the  diminution  or  disappearance  of 
myocomata  in  the  adult.  i 

In  reptiles,  as  in  Amphibia,  the  dorsal  muscula-  ' 
ture  retains  more  nearly  the  primitive  condition. 
With  the  ossification  of  the  skeletogenous  tissue 
and  the  consequent  attachment  of  the  nuisdes  to 
the  bone,  has  come  about  the  differentiation  of 
the  so-called  interspinales.  senns])inales,  inter- 
transversals,  longissimus  dorsi.  and  otliers.  The 
last-named  muscle  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  part 
of  the  dorsal  musculature  that  has  lost  its  meta- 
merism, and  now  passes  from  the  pelvic  girdle 
to  several  of  the  spines  of  the  thoracic  vertebrsB. 
The  ventral  musculature  has  become  still  more 
complicated,  due.  according  to  Wiedersheim,  to 
the  changed  rhythmic  metliod  of  respiration,  con- 
trolled through  the  more  and  more  greatly  devel- 
oped lungs.  To  meet  the  needs  of  respiration  the 
ribs  must  be  moved.  The  nniseles  which  perform 
this  function  have  become  more  powerful  in  that 
the  ribs  have  become  buried  in  them.  The  muscu- 
lature of  successive  myomeres,  which  ])roject» 
outside  or  inside  the  ribs,  becomes  united  into  a 
single  sheet.  With  the  disappearance  of  the  ribs 
in  the  lumliar  region  of  reptiles  a  modificatiim  of 
the  intercostals  must  take  place.  A  continuous 
muscle  is  developed  between  the  last  rib  and  the 
pelvis. 

Die  phylogeny  of  many  of  the  muscles  of  mam- 
mals is  not  known.  The  more  important  musclea 
resemble  those  of  reptiles. 

Two  kinds  of  muscular  fibres  are  found  in  the 
vertebrate  body.  All  the  quickly  moving  volun- 
tary muscles  are  composed  of  striated  filues.  The 
involuntary  muscles  are  unstriated.  The  muscle 
fibre  of  vertebrate  muscle,  like  that  of  inver- 
tebrates, is  formed  by  the  ditferentiatinn  of  a 
muscle  cell.  Only  in  the  muscle  cell  of  tlie  lower 
invertebrates  a  much  smaller  portion  of  the  cell 
is  transformed  into  fibre  structure  than  is  the 
ease  in  vertebrate  muscle  fibre.  The  differen- 
tiated portion  of  vertebrate  mus<'le  fibri'  is  com- 
posed of  fibrillip  and  forms  the  main  bulk  of  the 
cell.     The   fibrilla'  are   imbedded   in   the   umliffer- 


MUSCULAR  SYSTEM. 


157 


MUSEUM. 


entiated  part,  which  also  siirrounds  tliem  in  the 
form  of  a  sheath  and  contains  the  nuclei. 

KiBLlociBAPHY.  Parker  and  Haswell,  Text- 
Book  of  Zoology  (London,  1897)  ;  A.  Lang.  Text- 
Book  of  Comparatire  Aitalomy,  parts  i.  and  ii. 
(ib.,  1891-96)  ;  Wiedershcini.  Comjxirativi:  Anato- 
vui  of  Vertehratis,  Knglisli  adaptation,  by  W.  N. 
Parker  (ib.,  1897)  ;  Gegenbaur;  Harmer  (ed- 
itor). Cambridge  Xatural  Hislory,  vols.  i.-x.  (ib., 
189.')-1902). 

MUS'CULUS,  Wolfgang  (properly  Muslin) 
(1497-15C3).  A  German  reformer  and  theologian, 
born  at  Dieuze  in  Lorraine.  At  fifteen  he  en- 
tered a  Benedictine  cloister  at  Lixheini.  but  left 
it  fifteen  years  afterwards,  having  been  turned  to 
Protestantism  by  Luther's  writings.  In  1531  he 
became  pastor  at  Augsburg,  and  for  .seventeen 
j-ears  was  prominent  in  that  city,  ilusculus  was 
"long  an  eager  partisan  of  union  between  the 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches  and  took  part 
in  the  Wittenberg  Agreement  (15.36),  and  in  the 
colloquies  of  Worms  and  Ratisbon  (1540-41). 
At  the  time  of  the  Augsburg  Interim  (1548)  he 
went  to  Switzerland,  and  in  1549  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Bern.  His  views  were  more 
strongly  Calvinistic  in  his  later  years,  and  with 
Calvin  and  Vermigli  he  may  be  reckoned  as  a 
leader  of  the  sixteenth-century  Reformation. 
Consult  Grote,  11".  Musculus    (Hamburg,   1855). 

MUSEE  SOCIAL,  m\\'2&'  sft'syal'  (Fr.,  Social 
!Museum),  The.  An  organization  whose  object  is 
to  furnish  the  public  with  infnrniaticm  regard- 
ing movements  having  for  their  aim  the  im- 
provement of  the  moral  and  material  situation 
of  the  laboring  classes.  It  resulted  from  the  in- 
terest in  the  social  science  exhibition  at  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1889,  but  was  not  formally  inaugu- 
rated until  March  25,  1895.  The  Comte  de  Cham- 
brun  has  given  the  institution  an  endowment  of 
over  2,000,000  francs.  Special  collections  of  all 
matters  pertaining  to  labor,  trades  unions,  old- 
age  pensions,  housing  reform,  etc..  are  made 
and  indexed  for  ready  reference.  Studies  of  labor 
conditions  in  various  countries  have  been  under- 
taken, and  the  results  published  in  monographs. 
Although  young,  the  ^Mus^c  has  proved  of  great 
usefulness.  It  was  very  active  in  preparing  the 
excellent  exhibit  of  social  economy  in  the  Ex- 
position of  1900.  The  more  important  publica- 
tions of  the  Musee  are  contained  in  the  Biblio- 
theqiir  du  Musee  fioeial.  It  issues  a  small 
monthly  'cireulaire'  containing  general  matter 
pertaining  to  labor. 

MUSES  (Lat.  Musa,  Gk,  MoCo-a,  Mousa;  con- 
nected with  imvla,  mania,  madness).  In  Greek 
niythologv',  the  inspirers  of  song  and  nmsic.  In 
the  Homeric  epic  their  personality  an<l  nundier 
are  vague,  the  poet  now  invoking  but  one  Muse, 
now  a  number;  only  in  a  very  late  passage  in  the 
Odyssey  are  nine  mentioned.  In  the  Theogony 
of  Hesiod  the  canonical  number,  nine,  and 
names  appear.  Originally  probably  nymphs  of 
fountains  on  !Mount  Olympus,  they  seem  to 
have  been  worshiped  first  in  Pieria.  whence  the 
cult  spread  southward  and  established  itself  on 
Mount  Helicon  at  Ascra,  and  in  Tliespia".  We 
also  hear  of  shrines  at  Del])hi  and  at  Athens,  both 
on  the  Ilissus  and  on  the  ^Museum  Hill,  which 
thus  obtained  its  name.  There  are  grounds  for 
believing  that,  like  the  Charites  and  Hora>.  the 
Muses  were  originally  three,  biit  nine  was  their 
number  on  Helicon,  and  this  became  universally 


accepted,  as  well  as  the  tradition  that  they  were 
the  daughters  of  Zeus  and  Mnemosyne  ( Memory ) . 
In  art  the  Muses  are  frequently  represented.  On 
the  Francois  vase,  an  Attic  work  of  the  early 
sixth  century  B.C.,  they  appear  at  the  marriage 
of  Peleus  and  Thetis,  with  Calliope  playing  on  a 
Pan's  pipe  at  the  head.  Later  artists  used  them 
freely,  especially  in  connection  with  .\pollo,  or 
tlie  mythical  poets  Orpheus  and  Thaniyris.  On  the 
basis 'by  Praxiteles  at  Mantinea  they  are  repre- 
sented as  present  at  the  contest  between  Apollo 
and  Marsyas.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that 
while  there  is  a  tendency  to  develop  definite 
artistic  types  for  some  of  the  figures,  the  division 
of  the  several  branches  of  poetic  art  among  the 
Muses  and  the  adoption  of  fixed  attributes  to  dis- 
tinguish them  is  a  product  of  a  comparatively 
late  period  in  the  Roman  Empire.  Even  the 
Hesiodic  names  did  not  designate  the  functions 
of  the  Muses,  and  in  the  popular  usage  seem  to 
have  been  but  little  employed.  The  functions  of 
the  Hesiodic  Muses  were  thus  assigned  in  the 
later  writers:  Clio,  history;  Calliope,  epic 
poetry;  Polyhymnia,  the  pantomime;  Euterpe, 
music  of  the  flute;  Terpsichore,  nielic  poetry  and 
the  dance;  Erato,  the  choral  lyric;  Melpomene, 
tragedy;  Thalia,  comedy;  Urania,  astronomy. 
Some  variations  in  this  classification  are  found. 
Consult:  Deiters,  Ueber  die  ^'€rek)■ung  der  Musen 
bei  den  Griechen  (Bonn.  IStiS)  ;  Bie,  Die  Musen 
in  der  antiken  Kimst  (Berlin,  1887).  See  also 
the  articles  on  the  individual  Muses. 

MUSES'  LOOKING-GLASS,  The.  A  play 
by  Thomas  Randol]ih  published  in  Poems  ivith 
Muses'  Looking-Olass  and  Ainynlas,  1638.  It  was 
performed  some  time  earlier  at  Cambridge,  and 
is  mentioned  by  Sir  Aston  Cokain  as  the  "Enter- 
tainment." It  consists  of  witty  dialogues  be- 
tween personifications  of  the  vices  and  virtues 
in  the  presence  of  two  Puritans,  and  sliows  the 
infiuence  of  Ben  .Jonson  on  the  author.  An 
altered  version,  entitled  the  Mirrour,  appeared 
in  1758. 

MUSEUM  ( Lat.  m  useum,  from  Gk.  ixovcthv, 
mouseion,  temple  of  the  Muses,  place  for  study, 
museum,  from  MoO<ra,  Jlousa,  Muse).  An  insti- 
tution for  the  preservation,  study,  and  exhibition 
of  objects  of  art  or  those  of  natural  origin.  The 
term  was  originally  applied  to  a  place  or  temple 
sacred  to  the  Muses,  but  a  little  later  was  be- 
stowed on  institutions  for  the  pursuit  of  the 
higher  branches  of  learning,  such  as  art  and 
philosophy,  the  first  recorded  use  of  the  word 
for  this  purpose  being  the  famous  Museum  of 
Ptolemy  Soter  at  Alexandria.  Tlie  application 
of  the  word  to  institutions  for  the  preservation 
and  exhibition  of  works  of  art  or  specimens  of 
natural  history  is  comparatively  recent,  as  are 
the  institutions  themselves,  and  seems  to  have 
come  into  vogue  with  the  systematic  gathering 
of  objects  for  public  exhibition.  Such  collections 
were  originally  known  as  cabinets;  and  while  the 
term  was  to  some  extent  restricted  to  small  pri- 
vate collections,  it  was  also  given  to  many  of 
very  considerable  size,  such  as  the  State  Cabinet 
of  Natural  History  at  Albany,  N.  Y. 

The  germ  of  the  modern  museum  has  been 
thought  by  some  to  lie  in  votive  otTerings  placed 
in  pagan  temples  or  deposited  in  churches,  and 
in  objects  of  sacred  or  historical  interest  pre- 
served in  churches  and  monasteries.  And  it  may 
be  said  that  one  of  the  earliest  references  to  the 
preservation  of  specimens  of  natural  history  is 


MXTSEUM. 


158 


MUSEUM. 


the  account  of  the  skins  of  what  are  now  sup- 
posed to  have  been  gorilhis  brought  home  by 
Hanno  and  presented  by  liini  to  the  Temple  of 
Astartc  iu  Carthage,  iluscunis  of  art  and  of 
natural  history  had  their  origin  in  collections 
made  by  tlie  rich  and  powerful  without  at  first 
a  more"  definite  purpose  than  to  gratify  their 
own  pleasure  or  curiosity.  Somewhat  later  men 
of  science  gatliered  material  to  further  their  owTi 
special  lines  of  research,  and  many  of  these  pri- 
vate collections  eventually  developed  into  public 
museums.  Thus  .some  of  tlie  national  museums 
of  Europe  had  their  beginnings  in  collections 
made  by  former  sovereigns,  while  the  British 
Jluscum  grew  out  of  the  cabinet  and  library  of 
Sir  Hans  Sloane.  The  Ashmolean  Museum,  at 
O.xford.  England,  was  the  result  of  the  labors  of 
Elias  .\shmole,  who  began  collecting  in  1607, 
while  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Sur- 
geons, London,  is  based  on  the  anatomical  ma- 
terial gathered  by  the  famous  surgeon  John 
Hunter,  and  the  llunterian  Museum  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  (ilasgow  was  founded  by  his  brother, 
William  Hunter.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  note 
that  the  exploration  of  America  did  much  to 
promote  the  growth  of  nuiscums  and  that  the 
cabinets  of  Sloane  and  Ashmole,  particularly  the 
latter,  comprised  many  specimens  from  the  New 
World.  Incidentally,  too.  public  houses  may  be 
credited  with  some  slight  share  in  the  develop- 
ment of  museums ;  for.  in  England  at  least,  they 
formed  small  collections  of  curiosities  to  attract 
visitors,  and  Artedi,  in  his  work  on  fishes,  men- 
tions thn'C  taverns  where  he  had  seen  specimens 
of  .\meriean  fishes.  Directly  relate<l  to  these, 
and  representing  another  stage  in  the  develop- 
ment of  nuiseums.  was  the  establishment  of  mis- 
cellaneous collections,  more  or  less  .scientific  in 
their  nature,  to  which  visitors  were  admitted 
ujion  the  payment  of  a  fee.  President  Adams 
miintions  a  collection  of  this  sort  in  Norwalk, 
Conn.,  formed  by  a  ilr.  Arnold  prior  to  the 
Kevohition.  but  the  best  of  the  type  in  this 
country  were  those  of  the  Pealcs  in  Philadelphia 
and  Haltimore.  Two  noteworthy  foreign  collec- 
tions were  those  formed  by  Sir  Ashton  Lever,  at 
Manchester,  in  177").  and  by  William  Bullock 
somewhat  later  at  Liverpool.  These  were  event- 
ually taken  to  London,  where  they  nourished  at 
(litTcrent  |)eri<ids,  and  their  importance  may  be 
inferred  from  the  fact  that  when  these  collections 
were  sold  vario\is  foreign  museums  sent  repre- 
sentatives to  attend  the  sale.  Such  large  private 
establishments  were  the  iiinnediate  precursors  of 
onr  present  State  or  governmental  instit\itions. 
These  represent  the  general  acknowledgment  of 
the  value  of  museums,  and  are  held  to  mark  a 
stage  in  the  progress  of  civilization  beyond  that 
of  the  art  gallery  or  library,  since  the  develop- 
ment of  science  is  far  later  than  that  of  art  or 
literature. 

Great  public  museums  are  of  comparatively 
reeent  date,  for  while  Bacon  in  his  Yrir  Atlantis 
nnllines  such  an  institution,  the  estalilishment  of 
the  British  Museum  in  I7.">3  was  the  first  realiza- 
tion of  this  idea.  In  17Sfl  Krancc  transformed  a 
royal  into  a  national  collection  by  opening  the 
Louvre  to  the  public,  but  the  I'nited  States  did 
not  formally  establish  a  nafiomil  nuiseum  until 
1^7(1.  although  it  practically  came  into  existence 
in  IS4fi.  when  the  .Smithsonian  Institution  was 
made  the  custodian  of  the  national  collections. 
The  intluenec  of  the  many  expositions  held  dur- 


ing the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  on 
museums  has  been  very  gi'cat :  the  construction 
of  a.  building  for  the  United  States  National 
Jluseum  was  a  direct  result  of  the  Centennial 
E.xposition  of  1870,  and  the  Eield  Columbian 
Museum,  Chicago,  owes  its  origin  to  the  exhibi- 
tion of  1893.  The  South  Kensington  Museum  in 
London,  the  Ethnological  iluseum  of  the  Troca- 
dero  in  Paris,  and  the  Glasgow  Art  Gallery  and 
Museum  are  lai'gely  due  to  similar  causes. 

The  development  of  museums  has  not  merely 
been  in  their  size  and  number.  l)ut  in  their  scope 
anil  fiuu-tions  as  well.  Originally  the  s|)eeimen3 
exliihited,  especially  in  museums  of  natural  his- 
tory, comprised  the  greater  or  more  important 
portion  of  the  collections,  and  were  mainly  for 
the  benefit  of  men  of  science.  The  modern  plan 
is  to  restrict  the  number  of  pieces  on  exhibition 
and  to  select  for  this  purpose  those  of  the  great- 
est educational  value:  the  bulk  of  material  J3 
])laced  in  the  reserve  series,  and  is  kept  thus  not 
merel.v  for  study,  but  for  its  better  preservation, 
since  light  is  one  of  the  greatest  enemies  of 
museum  specimens.  The  constantly  increasing 
size  of  collections  has  had  sometliing  to  do  in 
shaping  this  policy,  but  it  is  largely  the  result 
of  a  recognition  of  the  fact  that,  so  far  as  the 
general  public  was  concerned,  the  educational  in- 
liucnce  of  nuiseums  depended  more  on  the  quality 
of  the  things  exhibited  than  on  quantity.  This 
has  led  to  careful  study  of  the  best  methods  of 
arranging  and  labeling  objects  on  exhibition 
anil  so  dis]ilaying  them  that  they  may  at- 
tract and  interest  even  the  casual  visitor.  No 
man  probably  had  more  to  do  with  bringing 
aluiut  this  state  of  atVairs  than  Hie  late  Sir 
William  Flower.  Director  of  the  Museum  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  and  subsequently  of  ; 
the  British  Museum,  while  in  the  United  States 
Dr.  G.  Brown  Goode  (q.v.)  stands  preeminent 
among  those  who  have  been  most  instrumental 
in  making  museums  instructive  to  the  jniblic. 
There  has  been  a  corresponding  evolution  in  the 
publications  issued  by  museums,  in  making  them 
of  interest  to  tlie  general  public  and  not  restrict- 
ing them  to  papers  of  a  technical  nature.  We 
have  seen  that  private  collections  were  formed 
not  only  for  the  preservation  of  material,  but 
for  its  study,  and  this  led  to  tlie  publication  of 
information  thus  acquired.  The  germ  of  museum 
])ublieations.  however,  is  to  be  found  in  the  illus- 
trated descrijitive  catalogue  of  small  private 
'cabinets.'  The  oldest  of  these  works  is  that 
issued  by  Gesiier  in  I'lti.i.  describing  one  of  the 
first  systematic  collections,  that  of  .lohann  Kent- 
mann  of  Dresden.  Public  museums  liavc  followed 
the  same  path  as  private  collectors;  and  while, 
like  individuals,  their  )mblieation  was  at  first 
through  the  medium  of  scientific  societies,  the 
tendency  is  for  museums  to  become  their  own 
])ublishers.  As  the  transfer  of  great  collections 
from  private  to  public  ownersliip  made  them 
accessible  to  a  greater  number  of  students  than 
before,  this  in  turn  has  led  to  Hie  issuing  of 
memoirs  by  other  than  regular  members  of  their 
staff.  Many  museums  also  issue  guidebooks, 
hand-books,  or.  articles  of  a  somewhat  popular 
nature  relating  to  their  collections,  and  in  line  ' 
with  this  are  courses  of  lectures  on  to])ics  illus- 
trated in  the  various  departments  of  the  institu- 
tion. The  steady  trend  of  museum  development 
has  been  in  the  line  of  extending  their  educational 
influence  and  making  them  of  value  to  the  many 


MUSEUM. 


159 


MUSEUM. 


instead  of  to  a  favored  few.  Dr.  Goode  summed 
up  the  objects  of  museums  as  record,  research, 
and  publication;  tlie  preservation  of  material, 
its  study,  and  the  publication  of  information  in 
the  sliaj)e  of  books,  and  the  spread  of  knowledge 
by  the  display  of  specimens.  In  a  broad  way 
nuiseums  may  be  divided  into  nuiseums  of  nat- 
ural history  and  museums  of  anthropologj',  the 
former  including  all  natural  objects,  the  latter 
man  and  his  works.  Following  Dr.  Goode,  they 
may  be  classified  under  the  following  heads: 
museums  of  art,  natural  histor.v,  history,  anthro- 
jiology,  technology,  and  commerce.  Or,  follow- 
ing the  same  authority,  museums  nuiy  be 
classed  according  to  their  purposes  as  national, 
local,  provincial,  or  city;  college,  or  school;  pro- 
fessional, or  class  museums,  and  museums  of 
special  research. 

The  collection  of  art  museums  in  modern  times 
began  in  Italy,  where  in  the  fourteenth  century 
the  rulers  and  the  nobility  began  to  make  collec- 
tions of  coins  and  gems.  Busts  and  statues  were 
added  later,  and  it  was  not  until  the  seventeenth 
century  that  pictures  and  drawings  w-ere  also 
introduced.  The  oldest  important  collections  on 
record  are  those  brought  together  by  Cosmo  de' 
Medici  (1389-1404),  which  form  the' basis  of  the 
present  Florentine  collections,  of  which  the  most 
important  are  the  Uffizi  and  Pitti  galleries,  and 
the  Museo  Nazionale.  The  Vatican  (q.v.)  col- 
lections trace  their  origin  to  Pope  Julius  II. 
(150.3-1.3)  ;  besides  these  the  principal  museimis 
of  Rome  are  the  JIuseo  Nazionale  and  the  Mu- 
seum of  the  Latcran.  Probably  the  equal  of 
these  in  the  wealth  and  diversity  of  its  collec- 
tion is  the  Louvre  (q.v.),  the  National  Museum 
of  France,  situated  in  Paris,  which  also  contains 
the  Musee  de  Cluny.  and  tlie  Luxembourg  (q.v.). 
Tlie  most  important  provincial  cities  of  France 
also  have  museums,  devoted  chieHy  to  painting. 
In  Germany  the  chief  collections  are  the  Royal 
Museums  of  Berlin,  Dresden,  and  Munich,  and 
the  Germanic  JIuseum  at  Nuremberg.  In  Eng- 
land the  British  ^Museum  (q.v.)  is  by  far  of  the 
greatest  importance.  Austria  has  the  Imperial 
museums  of  Vienna.  The  cities  of  Italy, 
notably  Venice,  ililan,  and  Naples,  have  nation- 
al or  municipal  nuiseums  of  importance.  Tlie 
Prado  Museum  in  iladrid  is  the  most  im- 
portant in  Spain,  which  has  some  provincial 
museums,  not.ably  at  Seville.  The  chief  museum 
in  Russia  is  the  flermitage  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
In  the  LTnited  States  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Art,  New  York ;  the  Boston  jluseum  of  Fine 
Arts;  and  the  Corcoran  Gallery.  Wa.shington,  are 
among  the  more  noteworthy.  The  United  States 
is  perhaps  the  only  great  nation  without  a  na- 
tional gallery. 

The  museum  of  natural  history  covers  a  wide 
field  and  includes  many  branches,  any  one  of 
which  is  capable  of  separate  treatment.  Thus 
there  are  museums  of  zoiilogy.  botany,  geology, 
paleontology  and  mineralogy,  or  paleontology 
may  be  included  as  a  part  of  a  zoological,  geo- 
logical, or  anatomical  museum.  The  natural  his- 
tory collections  of  the  British  ^Museum  constitute 
the  largest  and  most  celebrated  iiiuseum  of  nat- 
ural history  in  the  world,  while  other  famous 
eolleetions  are  those  of  the  .Tardin  <les  Plantes, 
Paris,  and  those  of  Vienna,  Leydcn.  and  Berlin. 
The  must  important  museums  of  natural  history 
in  the  I'nited  States,  all  of  which  have  been  ex- 
tended   beyond    the    province    indicated    by    the 


name,  are  the  collections  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution at  Washington,  the  American  Mu.seura 
of  Natural  History  in  New  York,  and  the  Muse- 
um of  Comparative  Zoology  at  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Historical  museums  are  for  the  preservation  of 
objects  illustrating  the  history  of  any  country, 
place,  or  jieriod,  or  the  development  of  some  spe- 
cial subject,  and  here  it  may  trespass  on  the 
province  of  the  niu.seum  of  art  or  of  technology. 
Historical  collections  form  a  branch  of  the 
United  States  National  Museum,  but  there  are 
many  local  collections.  The  National  Museum, 
Munich,  is  an  example  of  a  general  liistorical 
museum ;  the  Cluny  iluseum,  Paris,  is  devoted 
to  a  single  period;  the  Naples  Museum  tells  the 
story  of  Pompeii;  while  the  Guiniet  Museum, 
Paris,  illustrates  the  history  of  religious  cere- 
monial, and  the  Museum  of  Artillerj-,  Paris,  traces 
the  development  of  weapons  from  the  rude  axe 
of  the  Stone  Age  to  the  modern  rapid-fire  gun. 
Anthropological  museums,  in  the  widest  sense, 
treat  of  the  history  of  man  and  his  relations  to 
the  universe  about  him.  This  calls  for  illustra- 
tions of  his  various  activities,  so  that  an  anthro- 
pological museum  may  comprise  art  and  histor- 
ical collections,  although  these  are  usually 
treated  separately.  The  phj'sical  characteristics 
of  man,  his  clothing,  weapons,  ceremonial  objects, 
household  furniture,  methods  of  transportation 
and  of  shelter  are  the  subjects  most  commonly 
illustrated.  Ethnology  is  that  branch  of  anthro- 
pology which  deals  with  the  characteristics,  occu- 
pations, arts,  and  industries  of  the  races  of  men 
as  distinguished  from  one  another.  Archaeology 
treats  of  the  history  of  ancient  man,  and  sections 
of  a  large  museum  or  an  entire  niirseum  may  be 
devoted  to  the  illustration  of  either  of  these  sub- 
jects. The  Department  of  Anthropology  of  the 
United  States  National  Museum  is  very  exten- 
sive, and  so  is  that  of  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History,  New  York.  The  Peabody  !Mii- 
.seum  of  Archa!ology  and  Ethnology,  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  is  particularly  rich  in  American  antiqui- 
ties, and  .so  is  the  Archa>ological  Museum  of  the 
LTniversity  of  Pennsylvania.  Abroad  there  are 
important  anthropological  museums  in  Berlin, 
Dresden,  and  Munich;  the  Trocadero.  Paris;  and 
the  Pitt  Rivers  collection  at  Oxford,  the  latter 
being  specially  arranged  to  illustrate  the  develop- 
ment of  the  arts. 

Technological  museums  deal  with  various 
phases  of  the  industrial  arts.  They  display  speci- 
mens of  the  raw  materials  that  enter  into  the 
composition  of  a  given  product,  trace  the  various 
processes  to  which  these  are  subjected,  show  the 
tools  or  machineri-  by  which  they  are  manipu- 
lated, and  finally  the  finished  object  or  substance. 
The  subjects  for  technological  museums  are  al- 
most endless;  ship-buililing.  spinning  and  weav- 
ing, dyestuffs.  drugs,  foods,  and  electric  appa- 
ratus naturally  suggest  themselves.  The  South 
Kensington  I\Iuseuiii  (now  the  Victoria  and 
Albert).  London,  contains  the  largest  techno- 
logical collections  of  any  institution.  This  is  now 
under  the  charge  of  the  National  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, and  its  influence  is  not  confined  to  London, 
for  a  part  of  its  work  consists  in  lending  care- 
fully selected  collections  to  local  niuseums  and 
technical  schools  in  other  portions  of  Great 
Britain.  In  .America,  the  United  States  National 
^luscnm  and  the  Field  Columbian  Museum, 
Chicago,  have  important  technolocicnl  sections, 
the  former  having  much  material  illustrating  the 


MUSEUM. 


160 


MUSHROOM. 


« 


development  of  electrical  apparatus,  while  tlie 
latter  is  rich  in  objects  sliowiiig  the  growth  of 
methods  of  transportation  hy  rail.  The  Army 
Medical  Museum,  W  asliington.  while  devoted  to 
the  subject  of  the  structure  of  man,  the  eH'ects 
of  injuries  and  diseases,  and  their  treatment,  is  a 
technological  museum  in  .so  far  as  it  traces  the 
development  of  surgical  appliances.  Commercial 
museums  are  devoted  to  advancing  the  interests 
of  trade.  They  e.\hil)it  raw  materials  and  finished 
products,  illustrations  of  metliods  of  packing 
and  modes  of  distribution,  and  gather  and  fur- 
nish information  as  to  prices  and  diaracter  of 
goods  needed  in  and  furnished  by  dilferent  coun- 
tries. Laboratories  for  the  analysis  of  various 
substances  and  the  testing  of  materials  form  part 
of  the  equipmi'iit  of  such  an  institution.  The 
Musee  de  Mille,  Chent,  is  one  of  the  oldest  Euro- 
pean conunercial  nniseums.  Tlie  Connnercial 
jluseum,  Philadelphia,  is  the  sole  institution  of 
its  kind  in  the  L'nited  States. 

lUuLiO(;K.\riiv.  For  general  information  re- 
garding museums,  consult:  Miiller,  Hamlbiich 
dcr  Archiiologic  der  Kunst  (Breslau,  1S48)  : 
Biardot,  J-es  musves  d'Europe  (Paris,  1800); 
Stark,  Hamlhuch  der  Arcluiologie  der  Kunst 
(Leipzig,  1880);  Greenwood,  Muxrums  and  Art 
Galleries  (London,  1888)  ;  Flower,  Kssdi/n  on 
Museums  (London,  1808);  for  special  types  of 
museums,  Le  muD^e  pedapopique,  son  orif/inr,  son 
orffdnisation,  son  ohjet  (Paris,  1884);  Worsaa, 
De  I'organisation  des  niusi^es  historio-areheolo- 
fliques.  trans.  (Copenhagen,  1885)  ;  Blanche!, 
Rapport  sur  les  must'es  et  les  eeoles  d'art  Indus- 
trirls)  dans  les  diffi'rents  po.i/s  d'Europe  (Paris, 
188.T-flO)  ;  Tounelles.  Les  musses  commereinuj' 
d  I'etrantier  (ib.,  1888):  Monroe,  "Educational 
Museums  and  Libraries  of  Europe,"  in  Kduea- 
tional  lieriew  (New  York.  1800)  :  Holmes. 
"Classification  and  .Xrrangenient  of  the  Exhibits 
of  an  Anthropological  Museum."  in  Srirner.  vol. 
xvi.  (ib.,  1002).  For  the  museums  of  France, 
consult:  Clf-ment  de  Ris,  Les  musi^es  en  pro- 
vince (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1871);  Chanipier.  L'an- 
nfe  arlistique  (ib.,  1882)  ;  Carr,  Art  in 
Provincial  France  (London,  1883)  ;  GuOdy,  Mu- 
si'e  de  France  et  colleelinns  parliculi^res  (Paris, 
1888);  Babeau,  Le  Lourre  et  son  hisloire  (ib., 
1805)  :  for  Oermany,  .\ustria,  and  Switzer- 
land, Springer,  Kunslhandbuch  fiir  neutschland, 
Oesterrcich  und  die  f<cluceiz  (Berlin.  1880)  ; 
Blanchet.  Rapport  sur  les  musfes  d'Allemaanc 
et  d'Aulriche  (Paris,  180,3);  Handbuch  der 
Kunstpfleqe  in  Oesterrcich  (2d  ed.,  Vienna,  1803)  ; 
for  England  and  .\merica,  f^dwnrds,  JAres  of  the 
Founders  of  the  Ilritish  Museum  (London, 
1870)  ;  Cowtnn,  Memoirs  of  the  lirilish  Museum 
(ib.,  1871);  "A  Memorial  of  George  Brown 
Goode,"  in  Report  of  Failed  Slates  yational 
Museum  for  IS<I7,  part  ii.  (Washington.  1001)  ; 
Jleyer  (editor),  I'eber  Museen  drs  Ostens  dcr 
Vereinifilen  Slaalen  von  \ord-Amerika  (Berlin, 
1000-01);  I'roeeeilintis  of  I  he  Museum  Associa- 
tion -if  II rial  Itrilain    (London,  1800  et  seq. ). 

MUSEUM  PEST.  Any  one  of  several  species 
of  in>nl~  whiili  feed  up<m  the  prepared  and 
niii\inted  skins  of  birds,  mammals,  reptiles,  and 
upon  <lried  colle<'tions  of  insects  and  other  ani- 
mals preserved  in  nniseiuns.  Perhaps  the  nmst 
nbiuidant  and  injurious  of  the  museum  pests  are 
the  lieetles  of  the  family  IVrmestidir.  (See  Der- 
MESTID   Beetles;    see   also   Bacox   Beetle   and 


Cahpet  Beetle.)  Others  of  these  insects  are  the 
larv«  of  small  moths  of  the  tineine  series. 
.Some  of  the  common  clothes  moths  (q.v.)  are 
nuiscum  pests  which,  possil>ly  originally  feeding 
upon  skins,  have  come  to  feed  u|)on  f;ibrics  made 
from  animal  substances,  such  as  u'chiI  or  hair. 
One  of  the  most  injurious  of  this  group,  is  Tinea 
jiillionella,  which  is  one  of  the  case-making 
clothes  moths.  Other  substances  stored  or  dis- 
played in  museums  are  attacked  by  other  insects: 
the  larva  of  a  little  geometrid  moth,  known  as 
i'arphoxira  ptelearia,  feeds  on  dried  plants  stored 
in  herbaria;  and  the  allied  Aeidalia  herbariata, 
as  its  name  indicates,  has  long  been  known  to 
injure  herbarium  specimens  in  Europe,  but  is 
on  the  whole  more  injurious  in  herbalists'  shops 
than  in  nuiseums.  Some  of  the  dermcstid  beetles 
will  even  injure  the  horns  of  large  mammals,  and 
the  bones  as  well,  provided  they  are  not  thor- 
oughly poisoned.  A  museum  I'oom  once  thor- 
oughly infested  with  these  creatures  can  be  most 
re;idily  freed  from  them  by  fumigation  with 
bi^ul|iliide  of  carbon  or  hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 

MUSH,  moosh.  The  capital  of  a  Sanjak  in  the 
Vilayet  of  Bitlis,  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  eastern 
branch  of  the  Euphrates,  80  miles  south  of 
Erzerum  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  J  3).  It  oc- 
cu])ies  an  elevation  at  the  entrance  to  a  mountain 
ravine  on  the  south  side  of  a  fertile  wheat,  vine, 
and  tobacco  growing  plain.  The  town  is  noted  for 
its  uneleanliness  and  has  few  good  houses.  It  is 
the  see  of  Roman  Catholic  and  (jregoiian  bishops, 
and  has  an  American  mission  with  I'rotestant 
schools.  There  is  an  active  trade  in  the  agri- 
cultural products  of  the  district,  and  embroidered 
caps  are  manufactured.  It  has  historical  remi- 
niscences of  Xcnophon  and  of  ^Moses  of  Khorene, 
the  historian.  In  the  vicinity  at  Sasun  occurred 
a  terrible  massacre  of  Armenians  by  the  Turks 
in  1804.  Population,  about  27,000,  one-half  being 
-Vrmenian  Christians. 

MUSHROOM  (OF.  mouschcrony  mouseron, 
fniin  OF,,  I'"r.  mousse,  moss,  connected  with  AS. 
niros,  (lIKi.  mios,  mos,  (ier.  ..l/iV.>!,  Moos,  OChurch 
Slav,  miichi'i,  Lat.  museus.  moss).  The  popular 
name  of  edible  fungi  of  the  order  ITymenomy- 
ce(;icea',  especially  species  of  .\garicus  and  ^lor- 
ehella.  The  name  toadstool  is  generally  applied 
to  species  which  h;ive  an  umbrella-sha))ed  cap. 
The  common  idea  that  all  such  are  poisonous  is 
erroneous,  because  some  of  the  most  highly  prized 
species  have  this  habit  of  growth,  and  ])erhaps 
most  of  the  others  are  not  injurious.  The 
nnishroom  as  it  is  generally  seen  is  only  the 
fruiting  body  of  (be  fungus,  which  arises  from 
a  more  or  less  matted  mvi-elium.  or  'spawn.'  The 
mycelium  or  veget;itive  ]i:irt  consists  nf  numerous 
slender  white  threads  running  in  every  direction 
Ihnnigh  the  soil.  Ipon  these  threads  small  knots 
develop,  increase  in  size,  and  finally  appear  as 
the  ball-like  or  button-like  yoimg  muslirooms, 
which  consist  of  a  stalk,  terminated  by  a  cap  or 
pileus,  bearing  upon  its  underside  luimerous  thin 
spore-bearing  plates  or  gills  radiating  from  the 
centre  or  attachment  of  the  stalk.  Near  the 
top  of  the  stalk  is  a  more  or  less  perfect  ring 
(annulus),  the  remnant  of  the  delicati'  veil  ( in- 
dusium)  that  covered  the  gills  during  the  button 
stage,  but  ruptured  as  the  iiuishroom  grew. 

The  common  nuishroom  (.Iflorici/.s  campestris) , 
one  of  more  than  1000  species  of  the  genus 
Agarieus,    is    common    in    fields    and    pastures. 


MUSHROOM. 


161 


MUSHBOOM. 


seldom  in  woodlamis  unless  open  and  grassy, 
growing  throughout  the  summer,  but  most 
al)undant  in  the  early  autumn.  It  is  the 
most  commonly  cultivated  species,  is  exten- 
sively grown  for  market,  especially  near  large 
cities,  and  is  about  the  only  species  imported 
and  offered  for  sale  in  American  markets. 
Tliis  species  never  attains  a  very  large  size; 
when  young  the  stalk  and  fleshy  cap  are  white, 
changing  to  light  brown  when  older.  The  stalk 
is  solid  and  tapers  slightly  toward  the  base. 
The  ring  is  usuallj'  conspicuous,  the  gills  pink 
when  young,  changing  to  brownish  purple  in 
older  specimens.  Slushrooms  are  usually  gath- 
ered for  market  when  in  the  ball  or  button  stage 
before  the  veil  has  been  broken.  Tliey  have  a 
plensant  taste  and  smell,  and  when  the  flesh  is 
bruised,  turn  a  reddish  brown.  The  horse  mush- 
room {Agdririis  arix'nsis) ,  a  close  relative,  looks 
very  much  like  the  connnon  mushroom,  but  is 
much  larger  and  the  top  of  the  cap  is  more 
shining  white.  The  stalk  becomes  a  little  hollow 
with  age;  tlie  gills  are  white  at  first,  changing  to 
brownish  purple  when  comparatively  old. 

The  methods  employed  m  cultivating  the  com- 
mon mushroom  do  not  offer  any  great  difficulties. 
They  may  be  grown  out  of  doors  or  where  the 
temperature  is  fairly  constant,  as  in  dry  cellars 
or  in  caves,  abandoned  mines,  and  quarries. 
Beds  are  made  containing  at  the  bottom  a  deep 
layer  of  fresh  stable  manure,  over  which  is  a 
layer  of  well-rotted  manure.  In  this  the  spawn 
is  planted  after  the  temperature  of  the  bed  has 
fallen  to  about  90°  F.  The  commercial  spawn 
comes  in  two  forms,  bricks  and  flakes,  made  of 
horse  manure  impregnated  with  the  mycelium 
of  the  fungus.  \Mien  planted,  both  kinds  are 
broken  up  and  distributed  through  the  bed.  The 
beds,  which  must  be  kept  moist,  but  not  wet, 
are  then  well  covered  with  straw  or  mats  to  keep 
the  surface  moist.  After  a  week  or  ten  days  the 
mulch  is  removed  and  the  beds  covered  with  good 
loam  to  a  depth  of  two  inches.  They  may  be 
again  covered  with  the  mulch^  which  should  be 
removed  when  the  nuishrooms,  which  should  be 
gathered  daily,  begin  to  appear. 

In  addition  to  the  species  of  Agaricus  de- 
scribed above,  there  are  a  great  many  other 
edible  species  of  mushrooms  belonging  to  other 
genera.  Among  them  are  the  horse-tail  or 
nianed  agaric  (Coprinus  comaius) ,  the  ink  caps 
(C'oprimis  atramcntarius) ,  and  the  glistening 
comatus  i Coprinus  micaceus) .  These  have  black 
spores;  the  cap  does  not  expand,  but  remains 
more  like  a  partly  closed  umbrella.  When  old, 
these  species  become  very  watery  and  dissolve, 
forming  a  black,  inky  fluid.  For  eating  they 
should  be  taken  only  while  young.  The  parasol 
fungus  {Lepiota  procrrii)  is  a  white-spored  edible 
mushroom  rather  aliiuidant  in  grassy  places.  It 
is  rather  tall  on  a  slender  stem.  The  cap  is 
whitish  or  light  brown  and  covered  with  coarse 
scales.  The  ring  is  free  and  not  fastened  to  the 
stalk.  Another  highly  prized  species  is  the 
chanterelle  (CantliarcIIiis  ciharius).  an  egg-yel- 
low species  common  in  moist  woods.  The  cap 
lias  an  irregular,  crumpled  margin,  is  more  or 
less  depressed  on  the  upper  surface,  and  has 
shallow,  blunt  gills  prolonged  down  the  stalk. 
The  fairy  ring  fungus  (Mnrasmitis  orendes), 
common  in  lawns  and  meadows,  is  also  edible. 
Tliere  are  some  species  having  the  same  habit 
of  growing  in  circles,  that  are  reputed  poisonous. 


The  edible  ones  are  white-spored,  have  hollow 
stalks,  and  are  seldom  more  than  two  inches 
across  the  pale  yellow  or  drab  cap,  which  is  often 
concave  on  top  and  raised  in  tlie  centre.  One 
class  of  gill-bearing  fungi  exude,  when  broken, 
a  milky  juice.  The  species  of  this  kind  belong 
to  the  genus  Lactarius.  Some  have  a  very  acrid 
juice,  but  one  (Liictariiis  dcliciosus)  is  consid- 
ered verj'  choice  by  mushroom  lovers.  It  grows 
in  damp  woods  in  mountainous  regions,  but  is 
not  common  in  lowlands.  It  cannot  be  mistaken 
for  any  injurious  species,  as  the  milk  exuded  by 
it  is  always  red  with  a  tinge  of  orange,  and 
slowly  changes  color  to  greenish.  The  fungus  is 
a  little  lighter  in  color  than  the  milk  exuded  by 
it. 

Boletus  is  one  of  the'  most  common  genera. 
The  species  are  rather  difficult  of  identification 
and  should  not  be  eaten  by  a  novice.  Some  of  the 
Gasteromj'cetes,  for  example,  the  puffballs  {Ly- 
coperdon  giganteum  and  Lycoperdon  cyathi- 
forinr) ,  are  common  edible  species.  The  former 
attains  a  diameter  of  ten  inches  or  more;  has  a 
smooth,  white,  kid-like  surface  when  young,  with 
a  firm  white  or  pale  yellow  flesh.  The  other  is 
six  inches  in  diameter,  flattened  and  tessellated 
on  top,  and  contracted  at  the  base.  In  color  it 
varies  from  white  to  brown.  The  puffljalls  should 
be  taken  while  young  and  before  the  spores  are 
developed.  One  species  {Scleroderma  vulgare) , 
related  to  the  ones  just  described,  and  suspected 
of  being  injurious,  ma}'  be  recognized  by  its 
tough,  hard,  yellowish-brown,  warty  exterior, 
and  purplish-black  interior  mottled  with  white. 
Among  the  most  highly  prized  of  all  the  edible 
fiuigi  are  the  morels  and  truffles  (Tuber  melano- 
sporiim ) . 

Since  several  species  of  mushrooms  have  not 
yet  been  proved  harmless  and  since  occasional 
cases  of  poisoning  are  still  attributed  to  their 
use  as  food,  the  following  rules,  formulated  by 
Farlow,  are  given  as  guides  for  the  inexperi- 
enced collector;  "Avoid  fungi  when  in  the 
button  or  unexpanded  stage ;  also  those  in 
which  the  flesh  has  begun  to  decay  even  if 
only  slightly.  Avoid  all  fungi  which  have  stalks 
with  a  swollen  base  surrounded  by  a  sac-like  or 
scaly  envelope,  especially  if  the  gills  are  white. 
Avoid  fungi  having  a  milky  juice,  unless  the 
milk  is  reddish."  These  rules  are  not  absolute, 
because  there  are  exceptions  to  them,  but  are 
safe  for  the  novice  to  follow.  See  Fungi,  Edi- 
ble AND  Poisonous. 

IMusnROOMS  AS  Food.  Since  mushrooms  and 
other  edible  fungi  are  often  said  to  be  nutritious 
food,  to  contain  large  quantities  of  protein,  and 
to  rank  close  to  meat  as  sources  of  nitrogenous 
material,  extravagant  statements  have  been  made 
concerning  them.  When  fresh,  mushrooms  have 
the  following  percentage  conijiosition :  Water, 
88.1;  protein,  3.5;  fat,  0.4;  nitrogen-free  extract, 
G.O;  crude  fibre,  0.8;  and  ash,  1.2.  Other  edible 
fungi  closely  resemble  them  so  far  as  analyses 
have  been  reported.  Like  all  green  vegetables, 
mushrooms  have  a  high  water  content  in  propor- 
tion to  their  bulk,  and  as  regards  protein  con- 
tent, they  rank  about  the  same  as  potatoes,  to 
which  they  are  decidedly  inferior  in  food  value, 
since  they  contain  much  less  carbohydrates,  and 
the  nitrogen  present  is  largely  in  the  form  of 
non-albuminoids,  which  are  thought  to  have  little 
food  value.  The  niimerous  studies  which  have 
been  made  show  that  mushrooms  are  not  thor- 


MUSHROOM. 


162 


MUSIC. 


oughly  liigested.  Kcccnt  exiM'riments  show  that 
25  to  5!)  per  cent,  is  indigestible.  See  Plates 
of  Edible  a.\d  Poisonous  Fi;x(ji. 

Biui.iocRAHiiy.  Consult:  Mollvaine,  Oiw  Thou- 
sand Atiicrican  Funyi  (Indianapolis,  1900);  At- 
kinson. •Studies  of  Aiiicricun  Fuiiiji,  Edible  and 
Poisonous    Mushrooms    (Ithaca,    N".    Y.,    1900); 


per  second.  Heat  vibrations  begin  at  134  tril- 
lions per  second;  light  vibrations,  visible  to  the 
eye,  at  483  trillions.  The  gamut  of  the  rainbow 
lias  its  velocity  measurements.  Chemical  vibra- 
tions, "shown  only  by  certain  reactions  in  pre- 
pared photographic  plates,"  are  beyond  our  sense 
perceptions.    Sonorous  vibrations,  then,  are  really 


J?adnian.   Treatise   on    the  Eseulent   Funguses  of     the  slowest  of  all.     Dr.  William  Ramsay  asserta 


Enyhind  (London.  1803);  Cooke.  Edible  atid 
Poisonous  Mushrooms  (London,  1894)  :  Dallas 
and  Burgin,  .4»io»;/  the  Mushrooms  (Philadel- 
phia, 1900)  ;  Falconer,  How  to  Grow  Mushrooms 
(New  York,  1892)  ;  id..  United  States  Dejiart- 
nunt  of  Agrieutlure,  Farmers'  Bulletin  oJ 
(Washington.  1897)  ;  Farlow,  "Some  Edible  and 
Poisonous  Fungi,"  United  .States  Department 
Agrieullural  Yearbook  (Washington,  1894); 
Gibson.  Our  Edible  Toadstools  and  ^iushrooms 
(New  York.  1895)  ;  Palmer,  About  Mushrooms 
(Boston.  1894)  ;  Peck,  Mushrooms  and  Their 
Uses  (Cambridge,  Jlass.,  1897);  Smith.  Mush- 
rooms and  Toadstools  (Ixmdon,  1879);  Robin- 
son, On  Mushroom  Culture  ( ib.,  1870);  Ilussey, 
Illnslrations  of  liritish  Miieoloyij  (ib..  1855); 
Taylor,  student's  Handbook  of  Mushrooms  of 
America    (Washington,   1897). 

MUSHROOM    GNAT.      The   name   given   bv 


in  his  Essay  o)i  Smell,  that  tlie  sense  of  smell    ' 
is  excited  by  vibrations  of  a  lower  period  than 
light  and  heat.     Sounds  of  a  musical  character 
rarely  extend  beyond  a  minimum   of   10  and  a 
maxinmni    of    4138    vibrations,    respectively   the     | 
rates  of  vibration  of  the  lowest  tone  of  an  organ     i 
with  a  pipe  of  thirty-two  feet  and  the  top  note     I 
of  a  piccolo.     The  production  of  sound,  its  trans-     , 
mission,   and    its    aural    perception   may   all   be     : 
demonstrated    with    a    long    piece    of    stretched 
string.      In   its  position  of  equilibrium   it  repre- 
sents a  straight  line;  pluck  it  and  its  elasticity 
will  cause  it  to  return.     This  is  a  simple  vibra-    i 
tion.     But  the  string  also  goes  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  this  is  a  double  vibration.    Like  a 
pendulum,   the  vibrations   of  the   string  are   iso-     • 
ehronous,  each  occupyijig  exactly  the  same  length    ' 
of  time.     By  shortening  the  string  or  increasing    } 
its  tension  we  get  vibrations  of  various  velocities,    ' 
and   the  ear  perceives  various   pitches   from    16 


mushr.Kiin  Lirowcrs  to  any  of  the  fungus-gnats  vil.rations  to  the  second  up  to  4224  vibrations 
of  the  family  .\lycct(.[)hilid;r.  (See  Gnat.)  These  Increase  the  tension  bevond  this  point,  shrillness 
are  small,  niosquito-like  creatures  with  feathered 


point,  shrillness  i 

results,  below  IG  a  dull  unmusical  whirring.   The  '[ 

same  results  acoustically  may  be  produced  with  . 
pipes   of   varying   lengths.     The   vibrations   are, 

as   in   the   ease   with   strings,   isochronous;    they  ) 

vary  in  rapidity  according  to  the  length  of  the  ^ 

pipe:    subdivide   them    and   harmonics   are   pro-  ^i. 

duced.     Nodes   and   vibrating  segments  are   the  (| 

crude  material  of  music;  pitch,  force,  or  loudness,  ; 

and  timbre  or  quality  of  tone.     All  these  quali-  i 

MUSIC   (OF.,  Fr.  jiih-siV/hc.  from  Lat.  musica,     ties  depend  upon  the  rapidity  of  the  vibrations,  f 

from  Uk.    fu)V(TiKi/i,  «iohai7,(",  music,  from    /wvffiKit,     It  is  demonstrated  :  that  the  number  of  vibrations  ll 

nmusikos.    relating   to   the   ]Muses.    from      MoCo-o,     of    strings     is    inversely    proportional    to    their  ^' 

length;  that  the  number  of  vibrations  of  strings  .'' 


antenna\  and  frequent,  as  a  rule,  vegetalile  mat- 
ter or  fungi,  upon  which  their  larva-  feeil.  The 
larviE  are  slender,  white,  wormlike  creatures, 
with  a  distinct  black  head.  The  larva  of  one 
species  of  the  genus  Sciara  is  especially  injurious 
to  mushrooms,  which  it  eats  into  and  ruins.  In 
mushriKjni  cellars,  fumigation  with  tobacco  or 
pyrethruiii  will  kill  the  llies. 


iMousa,  !Muse).  Ohigins.  .Music  is  a  mode  of 
motion.  It  is  a  modification  by  art  of  aerial 
vibrations,  whose  inii>act  upon  the  auditory  nerve 
makes  mental  varying  images.  Sound,  the  raw 
material  from  which  music  is  fashioned,  is  pro- 
duced l)y  motion. 

Matter  is  the  stimulus;  sensation  is  the  result. 
"The  kind  of  motion,  however,  that  goes  to 
produce  sound  is  not  that  of  matter  precisely, 
but  rather  of  the  molecules  or  ultimate  particles 
of  which  iiiiitter  is  composed.  When  tlie  state 
of  equilibrium  of  an  elastic  body  is  disturbed 
by  a  shock  or  by  friction,  it  tends  to  regain  its 
condition  of  equilibrium,  but  does  so  only  after  a 
greater  or  less  number  of  vibrations,  or  oscillat- 
ing movements,  of  the  molecules  of  which  the 
mass  of  the  body  is  composed."  Thus  .T.  A. 
Zahm.  a  profouiKl  investigator  in  acoustics  and 
a  follower  of  the  great  llelinlioltz.  whose  mas- 
terly tonal  researches  are  set  forth  In  his  Die 
Lchre  ron  drn  Tonempfindunyen.  The  nature 
of  sound.  Lord  Bacon  observes,  "in  general  hath 
been    superlicially    observed.     It    is    one    of    the 


!» 


is   in   inverse   ratio   to   their   diameter;    that   ex-    i 
Jierimenting  with   two   wires   at   tension,   but   of    *i 
dilTcrlng  ilensity,  we  get  the  rule  that  the  number    fj 
of  vibrations  of  a  string  is  inversely  proi)ortional    | 
to  the  square   root  of  their   density;    finally,  as? 
Ilelmholtz    shows    by     varying    the     stretching 
weight,  that  the  number  of  vibrations  of  strings  is 
directly  proportional  to  the  square  root  of  their 
stretching    weights.      Thus    the    longer,    thicker, 
heavier  a  string  is.  the  slower  are  its  vibrations; 
the  deeper  is  its  tone.     The  shorter,  finer,  lighter, 
tenser  it  is.  the  more  rapid  are  its  vibrations;  the 
higher  is  its  tone.     Now  the  sound  ]iroduccd  by  a 
string  vibrating  its  entire   length   is   its   funda- 
mental or  natural  tone.     It  can   produce   many 
other  sounds  at  the  same  time,  subdividing  tliera 
as  it  vibrates;   there  are  the  overtones  cjr  har- 
monics,   partial    and   concomitant   sounds.      The 
series  of  harmonics  theoretically  may  be  divided 
inlinitely,    but    iiir    musical    purposes    they    are 
numbered    in    accordance    with    the    number    of 
vibrating  seiiments  or   loops.     The  nodes   exceed 


t} 


siilitilest  pieces  of  Nature."     The  nineteenth  cen-  by  one  in  number  the  loops — taking  the  ends  of 

tury   has  endeavored   to  wipe   away   Bacon's   re-  the  tense  string  as  nodes.     The   fundamental  vi- 

proach.    for    the    studies    and    experimentings   of  brating  with  one  loop  is  the  first  harmonic  of  the 

such     men    as    Helmholtz,     Rudolf     Ki'mig,    and  tone,  and  the  harmonics  on  the  numerical   order 

others  have  lifted  into  light  the  darkest  |)roblems  are   constantly   nearer   and   nearer   together,   the 

of  neouslies.     The  latest  researches  teach  us  that  successive  intervals  being  an  octave,  fifth,  fourth, 

sound  vibrations — vibrations  audible  to  the  ear —  third,  second.     We  arc  at  the  very  beginnings  of 

have  a  rapidity  which  ranges  from  16  to  3ti,.500  the   .scale.     The  clay   is   ready  for  the   musical 


MUSIC. 


163 


Mtrsic. 


sculptor.  Mersenne's  law  is  that  the  loudness 
of  sound  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the 
distance  of  the  sonorous  body  from  the  ear.  So 
the  range  of  audition  is  over  eleven  octaves,  but 
this  is  for  an  exceptional  ear. 

Musical  sounds  ditl'er  from  each  other  in 
loudness,  in  pitcli,  in  quality.  Biot  says  "all 
sonorous  bodies  yield  simultaneously  an  infinite 
nuinoer  of  sounds  of  graduall3'  increasing  in- 
tensity." This  phenonicnon  is  similar  to  that 
which  obtains  for  the  harmonics  of  strings,  but 
the  law  for  the  scries  of  harmonics  is  dill'erent 
for  bodies  of  various  forms,  ilay  it  not  be  this 
dilference  which  produces  the  particular  char- 
acter of  sound,  called  timbre  {Klaiiyfiirhr,  clang- 
tint),  wliich  distinguishes  each  form  of  b(xly,  and 
causes  tile  sound  of  a  string  and  that  of  a  vase 
to  produce  in  us  diti'erent  sensations?  Jlay  it 
not  be  owing  to  the  diminution  of  the  intensity 
in  harmonics  of  each  series  that  we  find  agree- 
able certain  concords  that  would  be  intolerable  if 
produced  by  sounds  equally  loud?  And  maj'  not 
the  quality  of  each  particular  substance — of 
wood  or  metal,  for  instance — be  due  to  the  su- 
perior intensity  of  one  or  another  harmonic? 

We  have  now  some  dim  idea  of  the  luitiiral  laws 
which  give  us  force  or  loudness,  pitch,  and  quality 
in  music.  The  whole  sidiject  in  all  its  fascinating 
range  and  variety  is  admirably  treated  in  Zahm's 
Sound  and  Music.  Therein  may  be  learned  much 
about  the  production  and  transmission  of  sound, 
its  velocity,  reflection,  refraction,  resonance,  and 
interference.  Of  pitch  it  may  be  only  said  here 
that  its  standard  in  music  is  the  A  string  of  the 
violin,  which  gives  the  tvniing  note  for  orchestras. 
It  corresponds  to  A,  above  middle  C  of  the  piano- 
forte. A3  as  a  vibration  number  of  435  was 
chosen  in  1859  as  a  standard  pitch.  This  is  called 
the  French  pitch  and  its  exact  vibrations  are 
really  435.45.  It  is  the  S'tandard  pitch  of  our 
orchestras,  and  since  1802  for  all  pianofortes. 
(See  Pitch.)  All  the  modifications  of  sound  made 
by  the  ingenuity  of  man  in  his  inventions  of  string, 
wood,  lirass,  pipe — as  in  the  organ — and  percus- 
sion instrinnents,  from  the  drum  to  the  piano, 
give  us  variety  in  tonal  timbre  and  are  based 
on  the  human  voice,  which  witli  its  bass,  tenor, 
alto,  and  soprano  served  as  a  model  for  the  viol 
family. 

Hclmholtz  has  considered  the  analogies  of  light 
and  sound,  both  being  modes  of  vibratory  motion. 
In  his  psychological  0])ties,  he  gives  the  follow- 
ing analogies  between  the  notes  of  the  piano  and 
the  colors  of  the  spectrum : 

F,J  End  ot  the  red 
g.    U'mI 

A.  Rpil 
A.J  OrariffP-red 

B,  Oranti-e 
('.    Tel  low 
t'.t  fJreen 
d.    ftrepniRh  bine 
(l.J  Cyanogen  blue 

X'pon  this  laboratory  experiment  some  imagina- 
tive theorists  have  endeavored  to  rear  a  system 
of  musical  a>sthetics,  but  unsuccessfully,  though 
we  have  come  to  speak  naturally  of  color  in 
music.  Tone  and  color,  while  related,  as  are 
all  things  nuuidane,  are  far  asunder  in  terms  of 
art.  As  the  receptive  organ  of  tone  and  its 
transmitter  to  the  brain,  the  ear  plays  as  im- 
portant a  part  as  tone  itself.  Without  it  there 
would  be  no  music,  paradoxical  as  it  may  sound. 


E,    Iniligo  blue 
t,     Violet 
t,|  Violet 
p:,    ntra-violet 
g,J(  ntra-violet 

a.  Ultra-violet 
a,J  T'ltra-violet 

b,  End  of  tjie  solar  spec- 

trum. 


for  it  is  the  eye  that  perceives,  the  ear  that 
hears,  the  hand  that  feels,  which  give  us  our 
picture  of  the  world.  Under  this  h3pothesis 
the  world  then  is  idea,  idealists  and  materialists 
meeting  amicably  on  the  little  strip  of  territory 
called  .sensation.  The  complete  apparatus  (jf  the 
ear,  the  wonderful  iute  of  three  thousand 
strings,'  called  the  cortical  fibres  after  their  dis- 
coverer Corti,  should  be  carefully  investigated  by 
the  student.  We  may  now  truthfully  affirm, 
after  brieHy  studying  the  production  of  sound 
and  its  modifications  by  instruments,  that  music 
is  a  mode  of  motion. 

But  music  as  a  pleasure-evoking  emotion! 
Whence  comes  it,  what  is  its  psjxdiologic  basis? 
It  is  purely  human,  for  not  the  most  fanciful 
of  poets  or  extravagant  of  psychologists  can  tor- 
ture into  formal  lieauty  the  .songs  of  birds,  the 
growling  of  the  tempest,  the  sound  of  the  sea. 
All  these  things  and  many  more  may  furnish  the 
starting  point,  the  spring-board  of  the  composer's 
imaginings,  but  artistic  they  are  not.  There  is 
no  real  music  in  nature.  As  a  play  impulse,  art 
has  Ijeen  considered  and  discussed  by  many  mod- 
ern writers.  Schopenhauer,  whose  intuitions  are 
often  superior  to  other  men's  logic,  calls  art  "a 
momentary  liberation,"  and  Herbert  Spencer  de- 
velops his  idea,  linking  it  with  biological  condi- 
tions. In  his  Principles  of  Psychohjyy  he  says 
that  a  characteristic  of  nerve  processes  is  that 
the  superfluous  integration  of  ganglion  cells 
should  be  accompanied  by  an  inherited  readiness 
to  discharge.  Thus  the  "aimless  activity'  we  call 
play  is  the  result  of  a  force  expended,  a  force 
that  man  as  a  highly  developed  animal  has  more 
of  than  is  needed  for  the  struggle  of  existence. 
In  many  animals  he  finds  imitation  a  factor,  but 
Karl  Groos  in  his  PUnj  of  Man  believes  in  impulse 
and  intuition — "the  inherited  impulse  toward 
prescribed  reactions  in  certain  brain-tracts  seems 
to  be  in  itself  a  sufficient  cause  for  play  without 
the  necessarj'  accompaniment  of  superfluous 
energy."  Schiller  calls  play  a  harmless  expendi- 
ture of  exuberant  strength  \Ahich  is  its  own  ex- 
cuse for  action.  Lazarus  is  the  exponent  of  the 
reaction  theory.  When  we  are  tired  of  natural 
or  physical  labor  we  play,  thus  recreating  our- 
selves. Professor  Groos,  however,  finds  in  both 
the  surplus  expenditure  and  the  recreation 
theories  only  partial  statements  of  the  truth. 
For  him,  play  is  the  im]iulse  toward  repetition, 
and  this  is  a  physiological  reason  for  playing  to 
the  exhaustion  point,  which  we  notice  so  often, 
even  if  we  are  tired  at  the  beginning.  "Let  us 
recall  first,"  he  writes,  "the  tremendous  sigjiifi- 
cance  of  involuntary  rejjetition  to  all  animal  life, 
for  just  as  the  simplest  organisms  in  alt<'rnate 
expansion  and  contraction  and  the  higher  ones 
in  heart-beats  and  breathing  are  pervaded 
by  waves  of  movements,  so  also  in  the 
sphere  of  voluntary  activity  there  is  a  well- 
nigh  irresistible  tendency  to  repletion."  Play, 
too,  furnishes  distraction  from  quotidian  cares. 
It  is  an  educational  factor  of  prime  importance, 
elaborating  immatviro  capacities  and  influencing 
the  evolution  of  hereditary  qualities,  Schiller 
declares  that  man  alternates  between  weak  and 
sensuous  pleasures,  and  his  dictum  that  man  is 
fully  human  only  when  he  plays  has,  as  Professor 
Groos  declares,  "definite  biological  meaning." 
Conrad  Lange  defines  art  "as  the  capacity  pos- 
.sessed  by  men  of  furnishing  themselves  and  others 
with    pleasure   based   on   conscious    self-illusion. 


MTJSIC. 


164 


MTJSIC. 


which  by  widening  ami  ilt-epening  human  percep- 
tion and  emotion  tends  to  preserve  and  improve 
the  race."  This  is  but  an  amplification  of 
Schiller's  remark.  And  Art  is  but  the  play-im- 
pulse immeasurably  elevated,  yet  at  its  roots 
possessing  a  sham  objective  character.  The 
earliest  form  of  musical  art,  the  pantJimimic  dance, 
was  "an  expression  of  muscular  force  simulat- 
ing the  acts  of  life."  It  was  symbolical,  it  ex- 
pressed a  feeling,  a  state  of  mind.  In  its  genesis 
art  was  play  of  a  semi-physiological  character. 
Primitive  dancing  comprised  music  and  poetry 
in  solution;  later  on  they  became  separate  and 
independent  arts.  Rhvthm.  the  father  of  or- 
ganized music,  played  a  big  role,  for  rhytlim  is 
cosmic,  it  is  manifested  in  the  heart  beat — the 
imit  of  measure  for  all  the  temporal  arts — the 
fides  and  the  movements  of  the  bodies  in  the 
interstellar  depths.  Dancing  accompanied  by 
rudimentary  songs — perhaps  of  only  two  or 
tliree  tones — is  tlie  first  step  of  the  musical 
art.  Emotions  were  translated  in  tlie  rough,  yet 
effectively;  the  pantomime  of  tlie  savages  is  al- 
ways clear,  attempting  as  it  does  the  expression 
of  love,  anger,  terror,  hatred,  and  happiness. 
How  much  the  sexual  attributes  play  in  the  be- 
ginnings of  art  we  cannot  say,  but  music  in  the 
light  of  modern  researches  may  no  longer  be 
called  the  Heavenly  Maid.  Far  from  it.  indeed, 
for  as  Havelock  Ellis  truthfully  says:  "In  music 
the  most  indefinite  and  ]irof(nind  mysteries  are 
revealed  and  placed  outside  us  as  a  gracious, 
marvelous  globe;  the  very  secret  of  the  soul  is 
brought  forth  and  set  in  the  audible  world.  That 
is  why  no  other  art  smites  us  with  .so  powerfully 
religious  an  appeal  as  music;  no  other  art  tells 
us  such  old  forgotten  .secrets  about  ourselves. 
It  is  in  the  mightiest  of  all  instincts,  the  primi- 
tive sexual  traditions  of  the  races  before  man 
was,  that  music  is  rooted.  .  .  .  The  sexual 
instinct  is  more  poignant  and  overmastering, 
more  ancient  than  any  as  a  source  of  beauty. 
.  .  .  Beauty  is  the  child  of  love."  Music  is 
an  emotion  become  lesthetic.  Human  beings,  as 
Kibot  says,  began  by  thinking  that  Ijeautiful 
which  resendiled  themselves.  Primitive  art  was 
addressed  to  the  individual  of  our  own  species.  As 
it  became  more  disinterested,  it  exhibited  religious 
qualities,  and  eventually  was  transformed  into 
a  ritual,  a  ceremony  for  the  expression  of  awe 
or  thankfulness  to  the  deity.  It  had  a  specific 
character  and  one  that  had  hut  remote  alhliations 
with  our  modern  conceptions  of  art.  The  natural 
extrusion  of  .sympathy,  the  conquest  of  nature 
by  the  intellect,  has  given  us  two  of  the  most 
modern  arts;  music  and  land.scape  painting. 
Neither  of  these  had  any  real  existence  in  the 
01<l-\Vorld  civilizations;  indeed,  a  feeling  for 
nature  in  poetry  and  painting  may  be  said  to 
date  from  yesterday.  The  jiatient  flowering  of 
savage,  rhythmic  cries  into  the  score  nf  a 
Beethf)ven  symphony  is  only  cimipar.able — to  men- 
tion purely  human  processes — to  the  evolution 
from  a  South  Se.a  Islander's  simple  mud  hut  to 
the  magnificent  complexities  of  a  Gothic  cathe- 
dral. I'rom  the  sheltering  needs  of  the  body 
comes  the  nohle  art  of  architecture;  from  the  so- 
cial needs  of  intercourse,  self-expression,  come 
poetry  and  music.  Roth  were  the  irrepressible 
and  the  irresponsible  exhibition  of  surplus 
energy-,  of  the  play  impulse.  .And  on  this  side 
is  music  purely  sensuous. 

Kant    defines    the    Beautiful    ns    that    which 


"through  the  harmony  of  its  form  with  the  fac- 
ulty of  human  knowledge  awakens  a  disinterested, 
universal,  and  necessary  satisfaction."  We  are 
now  another  remove  fiom  the  utilitarian;  for 
in  a  certain  sense  all  art  is  useless,  inasmuch  as 
it  bestows  no  material  benefits.  Its  beauty  is 
its  excuse  for  being,  and  music  being  the  least 
representative  of  the  arts,  copying  no  material 
forms,  is  therefore  easily  the  most  ideal  of  all 
the  arts  and  the  most  inutile.  Apprehended  in 
time  and  not  in  space,  it  addresses  itself  to  the 
imagination.  And  here  we  are  confronted  by  the 
crux  of  Hanslick  and  other  jesthcticians  of  the 
formal.  "Definite  feelings  and  emotions  are 
unsusceptible  of  being  embodied  in  music,"  he  de- 
clares. JIusic  does  not  express  emotion,  it  ex- 
presses itself.  It  is  sound-play;  it  consists  of 
exquisite  arabesques ;  it  is  a  formal  pattern  of 
tone,  and  all  the  wonderful  things  attributed  to 
it  exist  only  in  the  overlieated  imagination  of  its 
hearers.  Precisely  so,  and  it  is  this  almost  mi- 
raculous suhjectivizing  process  that  proves  the 
weakness  of  Hanslick's  thesis.  No  other  art  at- 
tacks so  powerfully  the  emotions.  "Music  acts 
like  a  burn,  like  cold,  heat,  or  a  caressing  con- 
tact, ilusic  acts  on  the  muscular  system,  on  the 
circulation,  the  respiration  .  .  .  and  is  the 
most  dependent  on  physiological  conditions.  The 
primary  effect  is  a  physical  one."  Beauquier 
says:.  "Musical  vibration  is  only  one  particular 
mode  of  perceiving  the  imivcrsal  viliration. 
^Musical  art  is  the  art  of  sensibility  par 
excellence,  since  it  regulates  the  great  phenomena 
of  vibration  into  which  all  external  perceptions 
resolve  themselves,  and  transfers  it  from  the 
region  of  the  unconscious,  in  which  it  w.as  hidden, 
to  that  of  consciousness."  Again  Ribol :  "While 
certain  arts  at  once  awaken  ideas  which  give  a 
determination  to  the  feelings,  music  acts  inverse- 
ly. It  creates  dispositions  depending  on  the 
organic  state  and  on  nervous  activity,  which  we 
translate  by  the  vague  terms — joy,  tenderness, 
serenity,  tranqxiillity.  uneasiness.  On  this  canvas 
the  intellect  embroiders  its  designs  at  ])leasure, 
varying  according  to  individual  peculiarities." 
Let  us  admit,  then,  with  Hanslick  and  the  for- 
malists that  music  does  not  express  emotion; 
yet  this  does  not  preclude  the  idea  of  an  emotional 
content  in  the  listener,  who  projects  his  per- 
sonality into  the  forms.  In  nuisic  tlie  forms  and 
the  subject  are  identical:  we  cannot  dissociate 
the  pattern  of  the  love  theme  in  Tristan  nnd 
Isolde  from  its  emotional  effect.  The  sound  once 
set  in  motion,  we  are  at  liberty  to  dream,  to 
thrill,  to  weep,  to  sigh  with  all  the  moods  super- 
induced by  a  master.  And  this  playing  upon  our 
nerves,  our  imagination,  is  intentional.  In  mod- 
ern times  music  has  l)ecome  an  instrument  of 
overpowering  emotional  significance.  Eighteenth- 
century  music  with  its  gay  scheme  of  decoration, 
its  pretty  recurring  patterns,  its  play  of  forms, 
and  its  frecdnm  fnim  the  overwrought,  the  in- 
tense, can  well  be  utilized  liy  Iliinslick  as  an  ex- 
ample of  music  for  music's  sake.  It  expressed 
little  in  the  latter-day  connotation  of  the  word; 
so  to  modern  music,  especially  Beethoven,  we 
might  truthfully  give  the  title  of  classic,  as  it 
fulfills  many  of  the  requisites  of  antique  art; 
its  dignity,  symmetry,  grandeur,  and  profound 
emotional  quality.  The  position  of  the  formalist 
school  is  based  on  a  half  truth.  .\  study  of  the 
nature  of  emotions  would  have  cleared  the  groimd 
long  ago  of  inciunbering  verbalisms.     Ribot  de- 


MTTSIC. 


165 


MUSIC. 


fines  the  techniciue  of  an  emotion  thus:  "First 
an  intellectual  state,  then  orjianic  and  motor  dis- 
turbanee-s,  and  tlien  the  conscioiisness  of  these 
disturbances,  whioli  is  the  psychic  state  we  call 
emotion."  This  clear  definition  of  a  very  compli- 
cated process  may  be  applied  to  the  effects  of 
music  upon  a  sympathetic  listener — naturally 
synipatliy  must  be  jrranted.  else  all  nuisic  ad- 
dres>es  itself  to  the  deaf.  A  vast  mirror  of  sub- 
jectivity, music  appeals  to  each  of  us  according 
to  our  temperaments.  It  paints  upon  tlie  back- 
groimd  of  our  consciousness  enlarged  meanings 
of  ourselves.  Composed  of  alternate  souml  and 
silence,  it  reaches  our  very  soul  with  its  rhythmic 
pulsings  and  sensuous  qualities.  It  is  at  once 
the  most  impersonal  and  most  personal  of  all  the 
arts.  It  traverses  the  keyboard  of  our  desires 
and  arouses  noble  ambitions  or  sensual  crises 
as  well.  It  is  an  immoral  art;  it  can  be 
impressed  with  equal  facilitj-  in  the  service  of 
church  or  tavern.  Its  very  plasticity  makes  it 
an  agent  for  evil  and  nevertheless  a  powerful  aid 
to  worship.  It  is  because  of  this  easily  molded 
nature  that  music  has  served  in  every  camp,  has 
gone  to  the  wars,  has  soinided  the  psalms  of 
peace,  has  been  the  bone  of  contention  between 
warring  schools  and  factions,  has  led  the  bride  to 
the  altar,  and  intoned  the  grief  for  the  dead  one. 
ilusic,  in  some  form  or  other,  has  always  ac- 
companied man  on  his  march  through  the  ages, 
tracing  in  spiritual  mimicry  his  evanescent  emo- 
tional gestures.  Captive  to  his  baser  senses,  a 
column  of  smoke  by  day,  this  agile  protean  art 
has  played  the  pillar  of  flame,  a  burning  eloquent 
sign  in  the  darkened  skies  of  revolt,  superstition, 
and  misery.  A  potent  symbol,  'a  mighty  fortress' 
during  the  Jliddle  Ages,  music  served  tlie  Church 
faithfully,  and  when  enfranchised  it  has  as  faith- 
fully recorded  the  great  emotions  of  secular  souls. 
Ariel  and  Caliljan — to  what  purposes  has  this 
versatile  art  not  lieen  put  ?  At  first  man  played 
ui)on  a  reed  to  his  mate:  then  he  grew  in  love 
with  his  tune  for  its  own  sake.  To-day,  after 
putting  the  art  through  all  its  probable  paces,  it 
has  been  harnessed  to  the  Drama,  and,  from  being 
the  exponent  of  pure,  formal  beauty,  it  is  pressed 
into  the  service  of  the  Characteristic.  The  Chi- 
nese, thousands  of  years  ago,  discovered  the 
charm  of  ugliness,  and  it  would  seem  that  mod- 
ern music  is  striving  for  that  goal.  Rosenkranz 
has  written  a  volume  on  .Esthetics  of  the  Vf}ly, 
and  in  the  general  hurly-burly,  topsy-turveying 
of  the  arts,  it  would  not  be  improbable  if  music 
played  the  part  of  devil's  advocate  in  the  new 
O'sthetic  dispensation.  The  line  of  demarcation 
between  the  beautiful  and  the  ugly  is  slight,  for 
beauty  is  a  relative  quality,  and  ugliness  often 
proves  its  capital  foil.  To  show  how  shifting  has 
been  the  standard  of  musical  beauty  one  has  only 
to  consult  history  or  personal  memories.  A 
decade  may  transform  the  musical  map.  depos- 
ing reigning  monarchs  and  elevating  to  the  pur- 
ple the  veriest  newcomer.  Music  is  a  fickle  god- 
dess. 

How  far  symbolism  may  be  pushed  in  music  is 
seen  in  the  attempts  to  pin  down  the  phrase  to 
precise  meanings.  It  is  true  that  there  is  a  key- 
symbolism,  that  not  by  chance  have  the  great 
composers  selected  certain  keys — keys  that,  in 
Wordswfirth's  happy  expression,  are  inevitable. 
Beethoven's  Fifth  Symphony  is  inconceivable  in  C 
sh.nrp  minor  or  E  flat  minor.  C  minor  is  a  por- 
tion  of   its   life.     Berlioz  has   compiled   a  table 


of  key  characteristics  and  a  certain  theorist  does 
not  hesitate  to  call  F  major  rugged;  B  major, 
energetic;  E  major,  radiant,  warm,  joyous;  A 
major,  frank,  sonorous;  D  major,  gay.  brilliant, 
alert:  and  so  on  through  the  list.  Here  again 
temperament  counts,  all  else  is  purelj'  arbitrary. 
JNIusic  has  the  power  of  evoking  moods,  that  is  a 
common  experience;  and  it  has  on  the  formal 
side  analogies  to  architecture,  for  it  is  struc- 
tural, it  is  architectonic,  and  its  subject  is  imi- 
tative of  no  known  model.  This  has  led  Walter 
Pater  to  asseverate  that  all  the  arts  in  common 
aspire  "toward  music,  music  being  the  typical 
or  ideally  consummate  art,  the  object  of  the  great 
Anders-iitrehen — reaching  forward — of  all  art, 
of  all  that  is  artistic  or  partakes  of  artistic  quali- 
ties." It  is  "the  blending  of  the  animative 
thought  and  embodying  vehicle,"  the  absorption 
of  the  matter  into  the  form  of  which  music  is  the 
one  perfect  example  among  the  arts,  that  at- 
tracted Pater.  "All  art  constantly  aspires  to- 
ward the  condition  of  music,"  he  wrote,  and  made 
of  sensual  presentation,  emotional  .suggestion,  and 
technical  perfedtion  the  archetype  for  all  the  arts. 
The  danger  of  this  view  lies  in  the  .slighting  of 
music's  tremendous  evocation  of  our  subliminal 
depths,  of  spiritual  shades.  These  cannot  be 
exorcised  by  technical  loveliness  or  richness  of 
emotional  eloquence.  Beethoven  has  taught  us 
in  his  symphonies  that  from  tone  may  be  wrung 
almost  an  ethical  meaning.  The  Platonic  theory 
of  an  ideal  type  for  all  the  arts  could  not  have 
failed  to  impiess  Pater.  But  it  stops  at  the  outer 
porches  of  the  ear,  the  tone  which  should  pene- 
trate to  the  inner  sanctuary  losing  on  the  way 
some  of  its  grosser  connotations.  His  doctrine 
is  that  art  is  always  striving  to  be  independent 
of  mere  intelligence,  that  the  vaguer  the  subject 
the  greater  the  impact  of  the  thrill  upon  our 
souls.  Gustave  Flaiibert,  who  is  the  creator  of 
both  the  realistic  and  the  symbolistic  school,  had 
some  such  idea ;  for  he  wislied  his  prose  to  be  as 
independent  as  music,  to  float  in  mid-air  by  rea- 
son of  its  euphonj'  and  rhythm.  And  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  it  is  the  perfect  balance  found 
in  Beethoven's  phrases,  both  the  meaning  and  the 
music,  that  makes  of  them  the  greater  type  for 
all  future  symphonists.  Poetry  is  the  usual 
standard  for  painter,  poet,  sculptor,  and  com- 
poser, and,  as  .John  Addington  Symonds  shows, 
this  is  as  much  of  a  heresy  as  Pater's.  F.  \V.  H. 
Myers  writes :  "The  range  of  human  thoughts  and 
emotions  greatly  transcends  the  range  of  such 
symbols  as  man  has  invented  to  express  them ; 
and  it  becomes,  therefore,  the  business  of  art  to 
use  these  symbols  in  a  double  way.  They  must 
be  used  for  the  direct  representation  of  thought 
and  feeling,  but  they  must  also  be  combined  by 
so  subtle  an  imagination  as  to  suggest  much 
which  there  is  no  means  of  directly  expressing. 
This  power  gives  birth  to  the  art  of  the  musician, 
whose  symbols  are  hardly  imitative  at  all.  but 
express  emotions  which,  till  music  suggests  them, 
have  lieen  not  only  unknown,  but  unimaginable." 
To  each  art  its  particular  province.  There  is 
music  in  Milton;  Wagner  is  a  great  painter; 
Bach  an  architect;  and  through  the  marmoreal 
prose  of  Flaubert  rings  the  sound  of  the  sculp- 
tor's chisel.  But  this  'reaching  forward'  is,  as 
Symonds  says,  "at  its  best  a  way  of  expressing 
our  sense  of  something  svibjective  in  the  styles 
of  artists  or  of  epochs,  not  of  something  in  the 
arts   themselves."     The   subjectivity  of   a   critic 


MUSIC. 


166 


MUSIC. 


prompts  him  to  select  a  parlieular  art  as  tlie  type 
for  all.  Wagiier,  in  a  superb  elVurt,  attempted 
to  house  all  tlie  arts  within  the  walls  of  a  mighty 
synthesis.  Music,  however,  won  the  vielory;  it 
is  Wagner  the  composer  who  will  live,  not  Wag- 
ner the  dramatic  poet  or  Wagner  the  scene  paint- 
er. The  intellectualists  are  (juile  as  wrong  in 
their  endeavor  to  force  upon  nuisic  the  oflice  of 
preacher  or  philosopher.  By  reason  of  its  limi- 
tations, nuisic  is  not  well  adapted  for  the  ex- 
pression of  an  intellectual  content.  It  gives  us 
the  nia.\iinum  of  sensuous  etl'ect,  though  we  do 
not  agree  with  Syniunds  that  in  it  is  tlie  mini- 
nuini  a])pcal  to  the  intelligence.  If  this  were  so, 
Bach,  licethoven.  Chopin,  Brahms,  Wagner, 
Kichard  Strauss  would  not  he  in  the  same  cate- 
gory with  Uante,  .Michelangelo,  Milton,  Shake- 
speare. Shelley,  Swinburne,  and  Kodin.  Jiesides, 
has  not  Spencer  said,  "The  emotions  are  the  mas- 
ters, the  intellect  is  the  servant"?  Great  intcl- 
lectiiality,  great  eniotionaT  temperaments  go  to 
the  making  of  great  composers  as  well  as  of 
great  architects,  poets,  dramatists,  painters,  and 
scul|)tors.  Architecture  is  not  emotional  like 
nuisic.  but  it  is  more  concrete,  it  arouses  the 
sense  of  the  sublime — which  nuisic  does,  too.  un- 
der certain  conditions.  Scul))ture  is  impressive 
in  its  symbolism  of  the  human  form  and  its 
evocation  of  harmonious  lines;  of  all  the  arts  it 
is  the  most  unlike  music.  Painting,  with  its 
illusions  of  life  on  a  flat  superficies,  has  certain 
allinities  with  music,  while  music  and  poetry 
have  several  qualities  in  common — the  subtleties 
of  -.ouiid  and  the  power  of  continuous  narration — 
though  here  music  speaks  a  tongue  not  to  be  trans- 
lated into  words.  It  gives  the  sense  of  situation, 
not  action,  the  prism  of  the  arts,  as  Symonds 
phrases  it,  "each  distinct,  but  homogeneous,  and 
tinctured  at  their  edges  with  hues  borrowed  from 
the  sister  arts.  Their  difTercnees  derive  from 
the  several  vehicles  they  are  bound  to  employ. 
Their  unity  is  the  spiritual  substance  which  they 
cx|iress  in  common.  Abstract  beauty  is  one  and 
indivisible.  But  the  concrete  shaiies  which  mani- 
fest this  lieauty  decompose  it.  just  as  the  prism 
analyzes  white  light  inlo  colors." 

We  have  rapidly  survcyeil  music  on  its  acous- 
tical, psychological,  and  irsthetical  sides;  there  re- 
mains the  evolutionary.  From  a  mere  cry  in  the 
submerged,  ])rehistoric  worlil  it  has  passed  into 
the  <laily  life  of  man.  a  magnificent  art  work  in 
which  the  spiritual  and  the  sensuous  are  har- 
moniously blended  or  struggle  for  precedence.  A 
presentative  art.  it  has  nevertheless  been  made 
representative  in  the  acouslic  parellelisms  of 
liichard  Wagner  and  olhers.  Kurnishing  the  mo- 
tive power  for  ballets,  music  is  the  handmaid  of 
religion,  and  by  some  authorities  is  considered 
to  have  therapeutic  powers.  In  history  it  has 
figured  as  a  healer  of  sick  souls,  and  to-day  in 
its  loftier  manifestations  it  is  a  balm  and  a 
stimulant  to  the  weary  in  mind  and  body.  .\nd 
in  the  last  analysis  is  not  music  an  aural  mode 
of  motion? 

Kvoi.iTTON.  The  histor>-  of  musical  art  is  an 
elfort  to  record,  to  systematize  ami  bring  into 
general  harmony  a  vast  mass  of  hopelessly  in- 
tractable m.iterial,  conflicting  facts,  many  Incuntr 
anil  irreconcilable  trails  which  try  the  temper  of 
the  most  anient  historian.  Kvolution  there  has 
been,  and,  despite  pessimistic  rloubts.  genuine 
progress;  but  it  is  an  evolution  that  often  curves 
in  upon  itself,  its  line  of  progress  is  more  fancied 


than  real.  To  draw'  a  straight  line  from  the 
earliest  musical  lispings  to  the  omiiiputent  utter- 
ances of  B(*thovcn,  is  the  ideal  of  the  critic ;  but 
the  task  is  a  dillicult  one.  ilusical  history  is  a 
history  of  suppressions,  evasions,  and  empirical 
classifications.  Like  the  evolutionary  processes 
in  the  physical  world,  progress  is  often  seemingly 
crab-wise.  If  science  aims  at  discovering  law 
and  rea.son  in  nature,  a  notation  of  the  actual, 
the  art  of  music  furnishes  an  example  of  purely 
arbitrary  progress.  The  artist  does  not  create 
in  the  abstract,  but  in  the  concrete,  so  that  two 
art  products  are  independent  and  never  alike.  To 
e.\plain  one  by  the  other  is  at  once  the  cardinal 
fault  of  criticism  and  its  excuse  for  existence. 
Palestrina  and  Wagner  are  poles  asunder,  and  it 
is  a  bold  man  who  claims  precedence  for  either. 
And  yet  nothing  of  Palestrina's  has  been  lost; 
his  harmonic  seeds  are  come  to  a  fiowering.  Has 
Wagner  surpassed  Gluck  in  certain  elementary 
qualities?  Who  since  the  death  of  Beethoven 
has  symphonized  so  marvelously?  Has  the  rush 
and  sweep  of  the  Handelian  chorus  ever  been  re- 
peated, or  who  can  equal  Bach  in  polyphonic 
mastery?  Music  is  the  youngest  of  tlie  arts,  but 
it  behooves  us  to  ask  if  the  nineteenth  century 
is  literally  its  seminal  epoch.  So  there  have  been 
factitious  groupings,  vague  theorizing  by  some 
compilers  of  musical  history,  who.  be  it  said  with  \ 
emphasis,  have  made  much  of  tantalizing,  incom- 
plete records.  To  be  sure,  schools  usually  fol- 
lowed the  strong  men,  and  there  is  a  chain  of 
deveUqinient  during  the  past  few  hundred  years, 
enough  to  furnish  cre<lible  criticism.  Before  that 
the  roots  are  in  the  darkness  of  the  mother 
churches,  or  the  medi;eval  twilight  of  the  clois- 
ters. There  has  been  much  sublime  guessing  to 
build  up  a  fabric  capable  of  withstanding  ad- 
verse comment.  But  it  has  been  accomplished, 
and  in  Xaumann,  Ambros,  Wallaschek.  Row- 
botham,  Grove,  Rockstro,  Parry,  Henderson, 
Finck,  Apthorp,  Hale,  Krehbiel,  Elson,  Krnest 
Newman,  Hadow,  and  others  we  may  catch, 
glimjises  of  a  baffling  whole.  One  fact  is  un-j 
alterably  demonstrated  by  the  researches  of  these 
scholars:  that  so  far  from  music  being  a  uni- 
versal language,  it  is  more  subject  to  geograiihical 
limitations  than  is  speech.  It  is  a  veritable: 
tower  of  Babel  in  its  multitudinous  dialects,  its 
jargons  and  eloquence.  The  divine  stammering 
of  the  men  who  made  ecclesiastical  music  is  olTset 
by  the  heathenish  rhythmic  bowlings  of  the  Bush- 
men; and  the  nu'huicboly  monotony  of  the  Chi- 
nese iientatonic  scale  is  drowned  by  the  full  or- 
chestra of  Tschaikowsky.  Men  of  many  climes 
may  converse  by  mute  signs,  but  set  them  all  to 
music-making,  each  after  their  kind,  and  the  re- 
sult will  be  anarchy.  It  is  one  of  the  pleasing^, 
fancies  of  the  poet,  this  catholicity  of  music. 
Facts,  however,  contradict  the  idea;  just  as* 
surely  as  they  deny  the  assumption  that  vocalj 
music,  i.e.  words  with  song,  is  superior  tol 
absolute  music,  i.e.  music  that  is  self-suflicient, 
that  needs  no  illustration,  no  libretto  to  explain 
its  existence,  .\bsolute  music  then  is  the  highest 
reach  of  the  art,  the  most  ilignificd  and  satisfy- 
ing. Xo  doubt  the  human  larynx  is  the  most 
pei-fi'ct  of  instruments,  and  the  sounil  it  produces 
touches  (lie  heart,  for  it  is  human.  But  poetry 
pure  and  music  absolute  cannot  be  blended  with- 
out a  loss  to  both.  Vocal  tones  preceded  instru- 
mental ones;  inileed,  one  school  asserts  that  sing- 
ing came  before  speech.     Grcll  and  Engel  main- 


MUSIC. 


167 


MUSIC. 


tain  that  speech  is  but  degenerated  singing  and 
tluit  music  with  words  is  the  archetype  of  the  art. 
Mu»ic  and  articulate  speech  are  far  from  resting 
on  a  common  basis,  thougli  both  begin  at  the 
liuman  tiiroat.  Half  the  heresies  of  music  orig- 
inate in  tliis  confounding  of  widely  disparate 
tilings.  It  was  a  stumbling  block  for  Iteethoven, 
Richard  Wagner,  and  for  Schumann  and  Richard 
btrauss.  Even  among  the  savages  the  break  is 
clear  between  impassioned  speech  and  song. 

Rowbothani  ingeniously  groups  prehistoric 
music  under  the  drum,  pipe,  and  Ij-re  types;  in- 
struments of  percussion,  wind,  and  string.  Man 
drunnned  and  thrummed  before  he  piped,  and  he 
piped  before  he  plucked,  and  he  probably  jowled 
to  the  moon  before  the  rhythmic  noises  of  nature, 
drijipiiig  of  waters,  sounds  of  wood  and  wind, 
stimulated  his  phono-motor  centres  to  imitation. 
(See  JIisiCAL  Instruments).  The  rhythmic 
chantings  were  part  of  a  ritual,  the  soul  of 
the  savage  worshiped  its  fetish ;  the  begin- 
nings of  religion  and  art  are  identical.  These 
manifestations  belong  properly  to  culture  study. 
(See  FoLK-ilusiC;  see  also  "the  ilusic  of  Ara- 
bia, China,  Egypt,  India.  .lapan,  Turkey,  Russia, 
Scandinavia,  of  the  Magyars,  Celts,  Negroes, 
Xt)rth  American  Indians,  and  Hebrews,  under 
Abahian  Music;  Chinese  ilusic,  etc.)  The 
earliest  musical  system  of  which  we  possess 
any  authentic  record  was  invented  by  the  Greeks 
or  rather  absorbed  from  Phienician  and  Egj'ptian 
systems.  The  Hebrews  also  borrowed  their  forms 
from  other  nations.  The  invention  of  the  lyre  is 
attributed  to  the  Egj'ptian  god  Thoth  in  the 
pretty  fables.  The  Greek  play  is  the  protot^'pe  of 
modern  opera.  (See  Opera.)  It  was  sung,  though 
the  music  has  not  been  vouchsafed  us.  Two 
thousand  years  ago  Athens  thrilled  at  the  Anti- 
gone of  Sophocles,  yet  not  a  note  of  it  has  been 
preserved.  The  C4reeks.  sensitive  to  all  the  arts, 
made  music  part  of  their  daily  lives.  Its  influ- 
ence upon  them,  as  described  by  poets,  must  have 
been  extraordinary.  Yet  in  the  three  hyi)othetical 
Hymns  of  Apollo.  Nemesis,  and  Calliope,  and  the 
first  Pythian  Ode  to  Pindar,  we  find  little  that 
would  touch  modern  nerves.  Theoretical  writ- 
ings of  Pythagoras.  Aristoxenus,  Euclid,  and 
others  have  come  down  to  us  and  show  that  the 
Greek  knew  the  perfect  intervals  of  the  natural 
scale — the  octave,  fourth,  fifth,  and  greater  tone. 
But  their  system  is  a  highly  artificial,  needlessly 
complicated  one,  and  finally  blossomed  into  the 
modes:  Dorian,  Ionian,  Phi-ygian,  ^^olian, 
Lydian,  Mixolydian,  etc.  (See  Greek  Music; 
MonES.)  The  Romans  derived  their  musical 
knowledge  from  the  Greeks,  but  diil  not  pursue 
its  study  seriously.  The  early  Christians  who 
foim<l  in  the  Imperial  city  a  harbor  of  refuge 
brought  with  them  new  forms,  echoes  of  the 
liturgy  heard  in  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem.  Saint 
Ambrose,  Bishop  of  !Milan,  made  about  the  year 
A.i).  384  a  general  collection  of  these  melodies 
and  at  the  same  time  laid  down  a  code  of  tech- 
nical laws.  Two  centuries  later  Saint  Gregory 
the  Great  is  said  to  have  nuide  a  second  col- 
lection (ciflO  A.D.)  and  based  it  on  a  more 
comprehensive  system.  The  four  modes  or  scales 
bequenthed  l)y  Ambrose  were  increased  to  nine. 
The  combined  melodies  received  in  early  times 
the  names  of  canfiifi  jilniiiis,  plain  chant;  the 
older  being  known  as  the  Ambrosian  Chant  (q.v.) 
— still  sung  in  Milan — the  later  one  as  the  Gre- 
gorian Chant  (q.  v.) .     (See  Plain  Chant.)     From 


these  liturgical  chants  has  sprung  the  noble  music 
of  the  Ronum  Catholic  Church.  Gevaert  doubts 
with  historic  accuracy  the  historic  basis  of  the 
Gregorian  chants;  believing  that  the  Christian 
Church  derived  its  modal  scales  and  its  melodies, 
not  from  the  olil  liel>raic  psalmody,  but  from  the 
secular  Kilhura  song  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
which  comes  from  tlu>  tireek.  These  psalm  tunes, 
whatever  their  origin,  are  the  oldest  ecclesiastical 
music  we  possess.  Later  music  was  treated  as 
arithmetic  by  Boetius  and  the  art  became  a  mere 
mathematical  exercise.  In  the  latter  half  of  the 
ninth  century  Hucbald,  a  monk  of  Saint  Amand 
in  Flanders,  proposed  a  new  division  of  tetra- 
eliords,  and  attempted  the  arrangement  of 
vocal  music  in  parts,  and  invented  a  new  system 
of  notation.  Semiography  or  sign  writing  was 
the  method  of  notation  that  superseded  the  nota- 
tion of  Gregory.  Figures  called  Ncumte  (see 
Neumes)  were  placed  over  the  words  to  which 
the  tunes  were  sung.  Though  the  ascent  and 
descent  of  the  melody  were  not  at  first  shown, 
Hucbald  remedied  that  by  a  series  of  horizontal 
lines  arranged  like  the  modern  stave.  The  Musicn 
ICnchiriadis.  which  was  until  latelv  ascribed  to 
him,  contains  information  al)Out  notation  and 
the  Organum  or  Diaphony.  which  was  the  first 
form  of  harmony,  consisting  chielly  of  consecu- 
tive octaves,  fifths,  or  fourths  added  to  Uie  plain 
song  of  the  church.  (See  Harmony.)  Guido  of 
Arezzo  (c.lOOO-c.1050) ,  another  monk,  distrib- 
uted the  twenty  notes  then  used  into  groups 
of  six,  called  hexachords.  He  invented  solmi- 
zation  (q.v.),  which  is  the  naming  of  the 
notes  of  each  hexaehord  by  the  syllables  Ut,  Re, 
Mi,  Fa,  Sol.  La;  the  origin  of  these  syllables 
being  a  verse  of  a  hynm  to  Saint  .John,  each 
hemistich  of  which  began  with  one  of  them,  and 
was  sung  to  phrases  a  note  higher  each  time.  Ut 
was  supplanted  by  Do,  and  Si  was  added  to  com- 
plete the  necessary  seven  notes  of  the  octave. 
( See  Scale.  )  Franco  of  Cologne  made  the  first 
recorded  attempt  to  measure  the  relative  length 
of  notes  in  his  'cantus  mensurabilis'  or  'measured 
song.'  Four  standards  of  length  were  adopted: 
(1)  maxima,  or  duplex  lonf/u ;  (2)  longa ;  (3) 
brevis;  (4)  semihrevis.  A  time  signature  was 
put  at  the  beginning  of  the  nnisic.  which  showed 
whether  each  long  note  was  to  be  equal  to  two 
or  three  shorter  ones.  (See  Mensurable  Music.) 
Diaphony  merged  into  discant :  the  former  doub- 
ling the  melody  at  the  fifth  or  fourth,  the  latter 
varying  the  monotony  of  the  organum  by  the 
addition  of  ornamental  notes,  passing  notes.  This 
discant  was  usually  extemporaneous,  though  com- 
posers soon  employed  it,  when  it  was  called  'con- 
trapunctus  a  penna,'  in  contradistinction  to  'con- 
trapunctus  a  mente.'  Counterpoint,  or  note 
against  note,  was  born;  motets  were  sung,  rough 
attempts  at  part-singing  lent  it  at  least  a  begin- 
ning.   See  Counterpoint. 

IMuch  of  the  musical  development  of  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries  was  centred  in  Paris.  The 
troubadours,  trouv^res,  jongleurs,  and  minne- 
singers, who  cultivated  poetry  and  music,  play 
no  small  part  in  the  advancement  of  the  art. 
They  developed  epic,  lyric,  and  dramatic  art.  and 
spread  over  France,  Germany,  even  the  sovith  of 
England.  Some  of  the  better-known  were  Thi- 
baut.  icing  of  Navarre,  Count  of  Champagne, 
Adam  de  la  Hale,  who  wrote  Kohin  and  Marion — 
a  play  with  music  and  dialogue  interspersed — and 
later  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide,  Wolfram  von 


Mtrsic. 


168 


MUSIC. 


Eschenbarh,  Frauciilnli.  ami  Hans  Saehs.  En<j- 
laiul  gives  us  tlio  round  ■Sumer  is  icumen  in' 
(siH'  Hondo),  and  tlieic  are  fragments  of  works 
by  Marehault  de  Muris,  Tunatede,  and  De 
Handlo  in  the  fourteeiitli  century  wliich  are  not 
promising  examples.  The  Netherlands  in  the 
early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  sliowed  signs 
of  re-awakening  energy,  the  lirst  representative 
composer  being  Dufay,  in  the  service  of  Philip 
the  Good  of  Burgundy.  His  style  was  crude, 
showing  the  intluenee  of  .John  Dunstable,  an 
Englishman  (e.  1400- 14.^3 ) .  who  at  one  time  was 
regarded  as  the  greatest  eompo-ser  in  Europe. 
After  Paugues,  Caron.  Busncris,  the  next  ligiirc 
of  importance  is  Okeghem,  who  lived  until  1513. 
He,  too,  was  a  Fleming.  He  is  known  to  fame, 
however,  as  the  master  of  .Tosquin  Depr^s  (born 
about  1450),  a  genius.  He  wrote  church  and 
secular  uuisic  with  e()nal  facility  and  was  in'  the 
Papal  choir  from  1471  to  1484.  His  pupils  were 
.Jean  .Mouton  and  Nicholas  (lombert.  Obrecht, 
chapel-master  at  I'trccht.  was  anotluT  man  of 
ability.  The  art  of  printing  from  music  types  was 
first  practiced  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century  (1501).  This  led  to  an  increased  ac- 
tivity among  composers,  and  soon  came  an  inter- 
esting list  of  names,  such  as  Adrian  Willaert 
( 1400-1502),  attached  to  Saint  Mark's  Cathe- 
dral, Venice;  Philip  Verdelot  (about  1500-67), 
composer  of  madrigals,  canzonas;  .Jacques  Area- 
delt  (C.1514-C.1575),  and  others.  Constanzo 
Festa  was  the  lirst  Italian  composer  of  proini- 
nence  (  14!I0-1545I .  B>it  wc'  nuist  not  forget 
other  Netherlanil  men.  .Taciiucs  tlemcns,  Cyprian 
Van  Rove.  Walraent,  Phillipus  del  Monte,  and 
Orlando  di  Lasso  (1520-94),  who  continued  to 
write  good  music  even  after  the  Italian  su- 
premacy. Orlando  di  Lasso  is  famous  for  his 
setting  of  the  Penitential  Psalms,  which  contain 
much  lovely  and  characteristic  uuisic.  Then  for 
a  time  the  Italians,  Zarlino,  the  two  Oabrielis, 
Claudio  Merulo  ( 15:i3-lfi04 ) ,  Marenzio.  a  great 
organist,  and  Palcstrina  held  tlie  field.  The 
latter  was  born  at  the  town  from  which  he 
takes  his  name  about  1514.  He  studied 
Tinder  Claude  (louiliniel.  a  FreniOiman.  The  "Pope 
Marcellus  Mass"  was  written  in  15G5.  and  in  it 
the  clima.K  of  ecclesiastical  music  was  reached. 
Palcstrina  was  the  greatest  master  of  pure  choral 
style;  he  closed  an  epoch  when  he  died  in  1594. 
His  contemporaries  and  pupils  were  Morales,  a 
Spaniard;  Nanini.  Vittoria,  also  a  Spaniard  and 
second  onl.v  to  Palcstrina;  (liovanni  Croce,  and 
.Allcgri.  In  Germanv.  Heinrich  Isaak.  .lohann 
Waltlier — the  friend  of  Luther — (Jalhis.  Stalzer, 
and  Hans  Leo  Hassler  (15(U-l(il2) ,  the  latter 
a  pupil  of  Andrea  (Jabrieli.  passed  on  the  torch 
of  tradition,  keeping  it  aflame  by  their  own  honest 
elforts.  In  England  there  was  a  musical  activity 
that  has  not  been  par.illeled  since  in  the  history 
of  the  nation.  Christopher  Tve.  .Tohn  Merbeck, 
Thomas  Tallis,  his  celebrated  pupil  William 
]!yril.  Edwards,  Whythorne.  Xiiholas  Yonge, 
Thomas  .Morley,  Thomas  Weelkcs,  .lohn  Dowland 
( 15(!21t!2r)) ,  Thomas  Uatesen,  Orlando  Gibbons 
(15831(!25),  .lohn  Bull.  \V.  Forster.  Benjamin 
Cosyria,  .John  Blow,  wrote  wonderfully  sparkling, 
vigorous,  and  original  music.  .Ml  England  sang 
their  catches,  roniidela,vs,  madrigjils,  motets,  and 
the  more  eultivalcd  played  their  virginal  and  lute 
mUHic.  Indeed,  the  beginnings  of  music  for  the 
clavichord,  harpsichord,  and  modern  pianoforte 
may   Ix!   found   in   the   literature  of   Bvrd,   Gib- 


bons, Bull,  and  others.  The  school  culminated  in 
Purccll  (1(J58-95|.  Wliether  because  of  Puritan- 
ical inllucnces  or  the  advent  of  the  Italians  and 
later  Cieorge  Frederick  Handel,  an  overwhelming 
composer,  certainly  England  has  produced  no 
Other  such  original  genius  as  Henry  Purcell. 

The  cuirenls  of  music  now  begin  to  run  swifter, 
opera  and  oratorios  absorbing  the  ears  of  the 
civilized  world  thanks  to  the  work  of  Monteverde, 
Lully.  Purcell,  Alcssandro  Scarlatti.  Lotte.  Du- 
rante. Leo,  Handel,  and  Bach.  (Sec  Ok.\torio,) 
This  article  will  in  the  main  confine  itself  to 
purel,v  instrumental  music  and  its  ])rogress.  The 
crudeness  of  the  viol  family  was  giving  way  to 
the  finished  specimens  of  Italian  violin-makers' 
art,  and  with  improved  instruments  came  music 
of  a  better  quality  and  wider  range,  ( See  Violin,) 
The  organ,  which  aided  the  growth  of  t.vpes  of 
choral  music,  was  now  become  a  more  highly 
diti'erentiated  instrument,  and  music  per  xc  was 
Iieard  from  its  pipes.  (See  Organ,)  The  fore- 
runners of  the  pianoforte  (see  Pianofokte)  were 
engaging  the  attention  of  composers,  and  the 
orchestra  (see  Orchestra),  from  a  simi)le  gatlier- 
ing  of  heterogeneous  instruments,  many  of  them 
obsolete  to-da,v,  was  gradually  approximating 
its  present  size.  Parry  divides  the  liisiory  of  in- 
strumental music  into  three  well-defined  periods: 
the  first  extends  from  the  early  experiments  in 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  up  to  the 
time  of  Bach;  the  second  up  to  Beethoven:  the 
third  to  the  present  dav.  Contrapuntal  methods 
prevailed  during  the  first;  the  second  saw  the 
development  of  pure  harmonic  forms  (jf  the 
sonata  order,  culminating  in  Beetlioven:  the  third 
was  marked  by  modifications  of  the  form  with 
greater  freedom  in  contra])untal  devices,  and  the 
patent  factor  of  orchestration  playing  a  powerful 
part.  There  was  much  graceful,  fantastic  dance- 
music  written  for  the  clavecin  and  harpsichord 
by  Purcell  and  Lully.  while  Cliaml)oni<'^res  and 
Cou])erin  com]ioscd  what  are  now  known  as 
suites,  then  called  ordrcs.  composed  of  lively 
dance  movements  out  of  which  tlic  sonata  grew. 
(See  Sonata.)  Cambert  and  Lully  also  wrote 
ballads  with  overtures.  Both  Conperin  .and 
Rameau  (1683-1704)  contributed  excellent  music 
for  the  clavecin,  and,  being  supple  performers,  did 
much  to  advance  the  purelv  formal  side  of  com- 
])osition,  while  in  their  suggestive  titles  we  see 
the  humble  beginnings  of  iirogramme  music. 
Organ-playing  was  growing  ajiace,  (Jabrieli,  Me- 
rulo. Sweelinck  of  .\msterilam.  Keinken,  Fresco- 
baldi.  Scheldt.  Froberger,  a  pupil  of  Frc-culialdi, 
Kerl.  Pachelbel,  and  Buxtelinde  the  Dane,  all 
helping  to  rear  the  mighty  fabric  of  fugue  and 
sonata  which  culminated  in  Bach.  In  Italy, 
Amati.  Stradivarius,  and  (iuarnerius  stimulated 
the  genius  of  Arcangelo  Corelli  (  1653-1713),  who 
gave  the  world  his  sonatas  and  concertos  for 
stringed  instruments  accompanied  b.v  harpsi- 
chord or  organ.  The  first  set  of  twelve  were 
called  "Sonata  da  Chiesa,"  the  second  set  of 
twelve  "Simata  da  Camera."  The  first,  patterned 
aft<'r  (he  churchly  form,  was  in  four  movements, 
and  is  a  prototype  of  the  modern  sonata  ;  the  sec- 
ond is  a  dance  suite,  consisting  of  Allemande, 
Corrente.  Sarabande,  fJiga  or  Gavotte,  .\nd  the 
music,  as  we  can  testify  to-dav,  is  sweet,  sane, 
and  diumificd.  Then  followed  a  gifted  group  of 
Corclli's  pu])ils,  Somris,  l.ocatelli,  (icniiniani, 
\'cra(ini,  Vivaldi,  and  Tartini.  Being  virtuosi, 
tliey  all  helped  to  solidify  the  technique  of  their 


MUSIC. 


169 


MUSIC. 


instrument  as  well  as  of  musical  forms.  Among 
the  (Jcrnians  of  lliis  jierioil  may  l)C  mentioned 
Von  Biber  (l(i38-!"8).  Handel  (  rti8.5-l Toil) ,  busy 
as  he  was  with  opera,  oratorios,  and  the  fati{;uing 
duties  of  an  impresario  in  London,  found  time 
to  compose  suites  for  tlie  luirpsicliord  as  well  as 
concertos  for  organ,  violin  sonatas,  and  overtures 
for  his  clioral  works.  He  was  hardly  a  path- 
breaker,  for  he  followed  obvious  Italian  models, 
though  he  stamped  everything  he  wrote  with  the 
seal  of  his  vigorous  genius.  Johann  Sebastian 
Bach  (1685-1750)  was  first  and  last  the  ideal 
organist;  into  its  literature  he  poured  the  purest 
treasures  of  his  extraordinary  genius.  A  set 
of  fugues,  concertos,  and  toccatas  (see  Concerto; 
Fl'uLE)  that  have  never  been  equaled,  the  rich- 
ness of  which  is  far  from  being  exliausted,  were 
given  the  world  by  this  modest  cantor  of  Leipzig, 
who  still  found  time  to  compose  the  Well-Tem- 
pered Clavichord,  that  unique  collection  of  forty- 
eight  preludes  and  fugues  for  a  clavier  tuned  in 
equal  temperament,  so  that  all  keys  are  equally 
available  instead  of  some  being  in  particular  tune 
in  order  that  a  few  others  might  be  so.  (See 
Temperament.)  He  also  wrote  the  English  and 
French  suites  and  partitas  for  tlie  clavier,  as 
well  as  the  Italian  concerto  and  those  delightful 
lessons,  two-part  and  three-part  inventions.  On 
Bach's  prodigality  of  utterance,  the  astounding 
variety  and  depth  of  his  music,  its  science,  its 
art,  its  formal  beauty  and  emotional  signficance, 
there  is  little  need  to  dwell  now.  The  great  Pas- 
sions, the  violin  compositions,  and  tlie  clavier 
and  organ  music,  chorales  and  motets  are  a  part 
of  the  world's  m(i>t  precious  art  heritages.  His 
perfection,  his  inaugmration,  form  the  matrix  of 
all  latter-day  music.  He  has  influenced  Bee- 
thoven, Schumann,  Chopin,  Mendelssohn,  Wag- 
ner, Brahms,  and  Richard  Strauss  enormously. 
The  orchestra  of  his  days  was  still  in  an  amor- 
phous condition  and  he  wrote  for  it  as  lie  did 
for  other  instruments,  thorotighly,  and  as  a  me- 
dium for  the  expression  of  his  ideas.  Personality 
in  music  revealed  itself  with  no  uncertainty  in 
Bach's  case.  Some  of  Bach's  predecessors,  Kul- 
nian,  Matthesen,  and  ilufTat,  wrote  sonatas  and 
suites.  Domenico  Scarlatti  ( 1G83-C.1757  ) ,  the  son 
of  .\lessandro,  wrote  operas  and  church  music,  as 
did  his  father,  but  soon  became  the  most  famous 
harpsichordist  of  his  day,  the  Liszt  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  His  compositions  show  the  ex- 
pert virtuoso,  and  are  remarkable  for  being  the 
(irst  works  of  the  kind  in  which  the  fugue  and 
dance  are  not  essential.  The  key-grouping  and 
arrangement  of  the  movements,  with  phrasal 
repetition,  set  his  music  ahead  of  its  time  and 
link  it  with  llozart  and  the  early  sonata  mas- 
ters. Galuppi  and  Paradesi  followed  in  his  foot- 
steps. Slowly  the  contrapuntal  style  gave  way 
to  the  harmonic,  the  Italians  simjdified  the 
scheme  by  writing  luscious  melodies  with  a  slight 
accompaniment,  and  after  Corelli  (1653-1713) 
the  decadence  began.  Tartini.  Viotti.  Rode,  Bail- 
lot,  all  nolde  artists,  continiied  the  Corelli  tradi- 
tion. Bach's  sons,  Karl  Philipp  Emanuel  and 
Johann  Cliristian.  were  worthy  descendants, 
though  without  his  masterful  grip.  The  former 
made  the  model  for  the  sonata  that  Haydn  fol- 
lowed, and  .Tohann  Christian  wrote  sonatas,  sym- 
phonies, and  operas.  Symphonies  (see  Stm- 
PnoNY)  had  been  attempted  by  Abel,  Esser, 
Wagensail,  but  the  form  received  its  first  shap- 
ing by  Haydn  and  Mozart.     Haydn    (1732-1809) 


began  by  studying  the  clavier  sonatas  of  Philipp 
Knuimiel  Bach  and  ended  under  the  intlucnce 
of  his  one-time  pupil  Mozart  (175t)-!)l).  The 
Haydn  string  (juartets  and  some  of  his  sym- 
phonies and  piano  somitas  are  inimitable.  Mrjzart 
])olished  the  sym]>hony  during  his  short,  crowded 
life,  and  left  us  sudi  masterpieces  as  the  E  Hat, 
C  major,  and  G  minor  symphonies.  On  his  way 
to  Paris  in  1777  he  stopped  at  Mannheim,  where 
Stamitz  conducted  the  best  orchestra  in  Europe. 
There  he  learned  the  possibilities  of  instrumenta- 
tion. Jlozart  had  the  real  color-sense,  and  his 
orchestral  writing  shows  a  feeling  for  the  varying 
timbrel,  and  a  balance  of  the  various  choirs 
hitlierto  unsuspected.  His  orchestra  was  a  more 
elastic  and  highly  organized  instrument,  and  it 
lent  itself  to  the  most  complicated  types  of  com- 
])osition.  The  wood  and  brass  choirs  were  in- 
dividualized, and  writing  for  the  string  quartet 
had  reached  a  degree  of  perfection.  The  dexterity 
displayed  by  ilozart  was  not  lost  on  Haydn,  and 
some  of  it  was  rellected  in  the  operatic  com- 
posers who  followed  him,  though  it  may  be  con- 
fessed that  Ciluck  (1714-87),  his  great  contem- 
porary, benefited  little  by  his  novel  researches; 
indeed,  he  possibly  never  went  out  of  his  way  to 
hear  the  D  major  symphony,  which  is  said  to 
have  been  given  in  Paris  while  the  composer  of 
Orfen  was  there.  Xineteenth-century  operatic 
composers  like  Weber,  Berlioz,  Meyerbeer,  Wag- 
ner, and  Verdi  in  his  later  years,  were  the  fir.st 
to  concern  themselves  with  the  possibilities  of 
orchestra  color  enhancing  the  dramatic  situation 
or  contributing  atmosphere. 

.Vfter  Muzio  dementi  (1752-1832),  the  Italian 
pianist,  went  into  pianoforte  manufacturing  and 
presented  to  the  world  a  pianoforte  that  could 
withstand  muscular  attacks,  and  give  out  a 
great  volume  of  tone  because  of  its  hammers  in- 
stead of  jacks,  he  paved  the  way  for  the  Bee- 
thoven pianoforte  sonata.  He  did  more.  He  wrote 
his  (Iradiis  ad  Paniassum,  a  collection  of  studies 
in  style  and  invention  that  are  in  the  curriculum 
of  ever_y  pianist  and  student  to-day.  His  in- 
ventive skill  gave  to  ])ianoforte  technicpie  many 
new  figures,  and  his  was  the  technical  foundation 
for  the  Beethoven  sonatas.  He  is  trutlifully  tlie 
father  of  modern  pianoforte  music,  and  until  the 
appearance  of  Liszt,  his  pupils,  .J.  B.  Cramer,  the 
Irishman :  .John  Field — who  originated  the  Noc- 
turne form — and  others  whose  style  he  infiuenced, 
Dussek.  Pleyel.  Steibelt.  and  Moscheles.  dominated 
the  entire  field  of  pianoforte  playing.  In  Bee- 
thoven (1770-1827)  classical  music  reached  its 
apex,  and  romantic  music — so  called — bad  its 
birth.  The  greatest  of  symphonists.  his  inlluence, 
like  Bach's,  has  permeated  every  department  of 
music.  A  short-time  pupil  of  Haydn,  admired  by 
Mozart,  this  gigantic  genius  seems  to  have  in- 
cluded in  his  mighty  symphonies  and  sonatas 
all  that  had  been.  In  his  early  etTorts  we  see 
Haydn,  in  his  ninth  symphony  and  last  piano 
sonatas  may  be  found  tlie  seeds  that  sprouted 
into  the  luxuriant  forests  of  the  Wagner  music- 
drama,  and  gave  birth  to  the  dream-haunted 
imaginings  of  Chopin.  Schumann,  and  Berlioz. 
Beethoven  has  been  called  the  Homer,  the  Michel- 
angidn.  the  Shakespeare  of  music.  He  has  more 
affinities  with  the  great  Englishman  than  with 
the  Greek  or  Italian.  He  is  intensely  human, 
and  his  temperament,  hugely  passionate  and 
poetic  as  it  is,  is  never  the  ruler  of  his  noble 
intellect.       Nature      dowered      Beethoven      with 


MUSIC. 


170 


MUSIC. 


manifold  gifts;  gifts  not  only  of  originality, 
but  of  oliaractiT.  In  llie  slow  revolution  of 
music,  it  may  be  lemarked  that  the  most  original 
men  are  not  always  the  elect;  their  very  origi- 
nality sometimes  degenerates  into  the  bizarre,  and 
a  splendid  isolation  is  their  fate.  But  Beethoven, 
with  all  his  revolutionary  instincts,  began  in  a 
conservati\e  manner,  building  on  the  foundations 
of  his  |)redeeessors,  kee])ing  in  the  line  of  tradi- 
tion. The  bases  of  his  tonal  palaces  are  dug 
deep,  but  their  towers  pierce  the  very  skies.  His 
thirty-two  sonatas,  concertos,  chamber  music,  and 
nine  symphonies  re])resent  the  simiiiium  boitum 
of  human  musical  elVort  and.  as  Parry  truthfully 
says,  "bear  the  marks  of  a  higher  degree  of  con- 
centration and  a  wider  range  of  design"  than 
those  of  his  forerunners  except  Bach,  "and  the 
sum  of  the  result  is  the  richest  and  most  perfect 
form  of  abstract  instnuuental  music  which  exists 
in  the  whole  range  of  music."  Beethoven  liter- 
ally re-created  the  sonata  form,  adding  to  it 
new  movement,  tilling  it  with  an  incomparable 
emotional  and  intellectual  content.  The  sym- 
phony he  enlarged  and  vivified,  buried  the  old 
tones  of  formalism,  and  gave  it  the  scherzo,  gave 
it  power,  majesty,  tenderness,  and  sujjreme  beau- 
ty. The  orchestra  became  a  new  instrument  in  his 
treatment  of  it,  and  for  the  first  time  each  mem- 
ber of  the  instrumental  army  was  given  lib- 
erty. Color,  grace,  delicacy,  and  elasticity  are 
revealed  in  the  Beethoven  orchestration.  (See 
IxsTRtMENT.\Tlox.)  liiitv  in  variety,  the  highest 
law  in  all  artistic  creation,  is  the  distinguished 
characteristic  of  this  wonderful  man's  work. 
There  is  little  need  to  dwell  ujion  Hummel  ( 17TS- 
1837),  a  ])upil  of  Mozart  and  a  refine<l  pianist; 
or  upon  Ries  and  other  imitators  of  the  Bee- 
thoven style.  Karl  Maria  von  Weber  (17S6- 
1820)  proved  himself  to  In-  a  versatile  composer 
and  one  who  greatly  inlluenced  Wagner.  Dir 
Freischiitz  is  still  played.  In  his  overtures  to  Dcr 
Freischiitx.  Obiron.  Kiiri/anthr,  Weber  revealed  a 
fine  color  sense  and  a  genuine  fantasy.  His 
piano  music  is  brilliant,  ell'eetive,  and  some  of  it 
chivalric.  though  in  formal  sense  he  broke  away 
from  the  classic  and  reveled  in  the  romantic. 
Franz  Schubert  ( 1707-1828) ,  unique  as  a  lied 
composer  (see  Lied),  wrote  many  symphonies, 
two  of  which,  at  least,  are  famous,  many  piano 
sonatas,  minor  pieces,  and  chamber  music.  His 
charm  lies  in  his  rich  melodies,  the  most  fragrant 
and  original  since  Mozarfs.  and  a  personality  of 
rare  attractiveness.  His  very  profusion  enchants. 
With  Louis  Spohr  ( I784-18.V.))  wp  have  little  in 
common  nowadays,  despite  his  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  violin  literature.  His  music  in  the 
larger  choral  and  instrumental  forms  sounds 
antiquated.  Felix  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy  (180!l- 
47  I  wa«  one  of  tlie  best  equipped  musicians  of  the 
century,  a  writer  of  refineil  melodies,  a  master  of 
orchestration  and  a  man  of  delicate  imagination. 
He  wrote  his  Miilxiimnirr  Xirihl'.i  Drram  when  a 
mere  youth,  and  he  never  surpassed  it.  though 
there  is  more  depth  in  the  Hebrides  overttire 
(18.30).  From  an  idol  of  the  mid-Victorian 
reign.  Mendelssohn  has  become  a  man  to-day 
compar.nlively  neglected  and  certainly  under- 
estimated. He  wrote  absolute  music  in  a 
pure  »tylp  and  did  not  attempt  to  transcend 
its  sphere,  or  rather  his  own  limitations. 
He  wan  an  accomplished  organist  and  pianist. 
and  wrote  with  skill  and  ingenuity  for  both 
instruments.      The    Mendelssohn   piano   music — 


not  the  familiar  .s'o»;/,s'  Without  TTorrfs — is  a 
mine  of  good  things — the  Vurintions  s^rieuses, 
for  example.  (See  V.ikiatiox.)  His  oratorios 
Elijah,  .S'oiM<  Paul,  and  the  Reformation  Sym- 
phony, with  its  chorale,  are  built  upon  a  close 
study  of  Bach  and  Handel.  To  Mendelssohn  the 
musical  world  owes  a  debt  of  gratitude  for  his 
labors  in  unearthing  many  Bach  manuscripts. 
Of  the  many  symphonies  ilendelssohn  wrote,  the 
most  frequently  heard  are  the  Scotch  and  the 
Italian.  His  violin  concerto  is  a  model  of  its 
kind. 

Hector  Berlioz  (180.3-C9),  a  Frenchman  of 
colossal  ambition,  elected  to  tread  in  the  foot- 
steps of  Beethoven,  composing  music  in  the  grand 
manner  and  devoting  himself  to  the  development 
of  orchestral  resources,  with  the  result  that  he 
die<l  the  greatest  composer  of  France  and  may  be 
truly  entitled  the  father  of  the  progranuue  school 
in  nuisic.  What  he  did  for  it  was  chiclly  in  a 
loosening  of  formal  knots,  in  rh^llimic  devices 
and  orchestral  color.  The  affixing  of  romantic 
titles,  such  as  King  Lear.  Warerley,  Leg  francs 
juges,  Lelio,  Harold,  and  the  rest,  is  not  an 
original  device,  while  Franz  Liszt,  affected  as  he 
was  by  Berlioz's  original  discoveries  in  instru- 
mentation, is  really  the  intellectual  protagonist 
of  the  movement,  for  he  invented  the  I'oeme  sym- 
phonitjuc,  a  species  of  foreshortened  symphony. 
(See  Symphont.)  Berlioz  had  not  so  nuich  new 
to  say,  but  he  was  an  incomparalde  stylist.  His 
music  is  agitated,  dranuitic.  fantastic,  and  also 
fascinating.  In  his  Te  Deum  he  has  almost  com- 
passed the  sublime,  and  he  forged  a  passport  to 
posterity  in  his  Damnation  of  Faust.  Like  Liszt, 
.Schumann,  and  Wagner.  Berlioz  was  a  man  of 
juonounced  literary  ability.  Frederic  Chopin 
(lSOO-40)  stands  alone  in  an  age  crowded  with 
nuisical  greatness.  The  most  poetic  of  all  com- 
posers, using  poesy  as  sidijcct  matter  rather  than 
the  ordinary  jihraseology  of  music,  he  contrived 
to  write  for  the  pianoforte,  an  instrument  abused 
by  vapid  virtuosi,  a  mass  of  nuisic  as  individual 
as  Bach's  or  Beethoven's.  He  had  no  predilection 
for  the  .sonata  form,  though  he  left  three  solo 
sonatas  and  one  for  piano  and  violoncello;  hut  he 
idealized  various  dance  forms  such  as  the  polo- 
naise, valse.  mazurka,  krakowiak.  composed  most 
original  ballads,  scherzos,  nocturnes,  fantasias, 
impromptus. and  as  a  companion  book  to  the  Well- 
Trill prrril  t'la rirliiird  wrote  twcnty-srven  studies 
and  twenty-five  preludes  which  are  invaluable 
contributions  to  piano  literature,  ilore  than  this, 
Chopin  was  a  melodist  of  rare  quality  and  an 
inventor  of  harmonies  the  most  daring  of  the  cen- 
tury. Fven  Wagner  shows  a  close  study  of 
Chopin  in  his  harmonic  system.  An  apparition 
in  art.  this  Pole  sang  the  sorrows  of  his  native 
laml  in  exquisite  accents,  played  the  pianoforte 
as  no  one  l)efore  or  after  him.  and  literally 
formed  a  new  technical  school.  His  early  music 
shows  traces  of  Hummel  and  .Tohn  Field,  but  his 
native  originality  soon  lifted  him  out  of  the 
track  of  routine.  His  influence  affected  Liszt  and 
the  younger  school,  the  Xeo-Russians.  and  Wag- 
ner. Robert  ."^ehimiann  (18IO-.i())  is  another 
original  composer  quite  as  subjective  as  Chopin, 
but  without  the  bitter's  formal  sense,  a  sense  cul- 
tivated by  devotion  to  Bach's  nui«ic.  Schumann's 
imagination  i<  tropical  and  bis  indirect  influence 
in  modern  nuHic  has  been  a  powerful  one.  Not 
a  great  symphonist.  he  nevertheless  composed 
fotir  charming  symphonies,  and  chamber  music  of  ■ 


MUSIC. 


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MUSIC. 


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MUSIC. 


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MUSIC. 


a  high  character,  notably  the  pianoforte  quintet. 
(See  QiARTET;  Quintet.)  The  concerto  for 
pianoforte  in  A  minor  is  justly  beloved  by  artists 
and  public  alike.  It  contains  passages  of  rare 
romantic  beauty.  But  it  is  in  his  songs  and 
smaller  pieces  for  the  pianoforte  that  the  pecu- 
liarly introspective  nature  of  this  German  mu- 
sician is  seen  at  its  best.  The  Carnanit.  C  major 
Fantasia,  F  sltarp  Minor  f<onata,  the  Htjmphonic 
Studies,  the  Fantasiesl'iicke,  Krcis.lcriana,  Toc- 
cata— most  spiritual  of  technical  studies — Pupil- 
Ions, and  the  rest  are  Schumann's  monuments.  As 
a  song-writer  he  ranks  below  Schubert  and  with 
Robert  Franz  and  Brahms.  Franz  Liszt  (1811- 
86),  after  bewitching  the  world  with  his  won- 
drous pianoforte  playing,  composed  an  incredible 
quantity  of  music,  and  the  twentieth  century  will 
doubtless  give  him  the  laurels  of  the  composer 
he  craved.  His  pianoforte  nuisic  is  in  the  high- 
est degree  stimulating;  his  orchestral  composi- 
tions, Syinplionic  Poems,  and  symphonies  Foiist, 
Dante,  and  the  superb  Graner  }lass  proved  too 
tempting  for  his  son-in-law,  Richard  Wagner, 
who  assimilated  their  melodic  content  and  har- 
monic audacities  in  his  music-dramas.  Liszt's 
is  still  music  of  the  future.  The  exact  antipodes 
of  this  gifted  Hungarian  was  Johannes  Brahms 
1 18.33-97  I ,  who,  finding  the  classic  forms  suffi- 
ciently strong  for  his  new  wine,  poured  it  out 
with  gravity  and  unhurrying  serenity.  His  four 
symphonies  (colored  by  Hungarian  feeling),  his 
.piano  and  chamber  music,  are  the  revelations  of  a 
noble  nature.  Brahms  is  not  dramatic  in  the 
theatric  sense,  but  he  has  epic  breadth  of  utter- 
ance, and  his  music  is  always  noble.  A  romantic 
in  feeling,  his  Teutonic  reserve  checked  extrava- 
gance; and  yet  his  later  piano  music,  with  its 
formal  freedom  and  novel  content,  proclaims 
Brahms  to  be  far  from  the  ascetic  classicist  his 
critics  style  him.  He  is  the  great  symphonist 
since  Beethoven,  and  in  his  chamber  music  is 
second  only  to  the  Bonn  master.  fHs  songs 
prove  him  to  be  a  born  romanticist  and  a  poet 
of  recondite  moods.  Raflf,  Rubinstein,  Henselt. 
Heller,  Bruch,  Hiller.  Rheinberger.  Ciade,  Rein- 
eeke,  Scharwenka.  Moszkowski.  Saint-Saens. 
Grieg,  Svendsen.  Goldmark.  Bruckner,  Dvorak. 
Cfoar  Franck.  Bizet,  d'.\lbert,  Goiuiod,  Cha- 
brier,  Humperdinck,  Massenet,  Godard,  Bun- 
gert,  Debussy,  C.  M.  Loeliler,  d'Indy;  the 
Russians,  Glinka.  Dargomyzhky,  Rubinstein. 
Borodin.  BalakirelT,  Mussorgsky.  Cui,  Rimsky- 
Korsakoff,  GlaziiinofT,  Rachmaninoff,  Scriabine. 
Tschaikowsky ;  the  memorable  army  of  virtuosi 
and  singers.  Paganini,  Bottesini.  Wieniawski, 
Popper.  .Joachim.  Davidoflf.  Wilhelmj,  Kalkbren- 
ner,  Thalberg,  Biilow.  Clara  Schumann,  Karl 
Tausig,  ,7oseffy,  Rosenthal.  EssipofT.  Padercwski, 
Pachmann,  Sophie  Jfenter:  the  singers,  Sontag. 
Malibran.  .\lbani.  Rubini.  Lablnehe.  Mario,  .Tenny 
Lind.  Tamburini,  the  two  Pattis,  the  de  Reszkes, 
and  others  whose  name  is  legion — all  these  are 
derivative  composers  or  interpreters.  Grieg  and 
Dvor-lk  deserve  especial  mention  for  their  nation- 
al characteristics — Xorwegian  and  Bohemian. 
Grieg  is  a  harmonist  of  rare  skill,  and  Dvorfik  a 
master  of  orchestration.  His  sympaUietic  nnisic 
displays  influences  of  Schubert  and  Smetana 
(1824-84),  the  latter  Bohemia's  representative 
musician.  Tschaikowsky  ( 1840-03) ,  Russia's  one 
supreme  composer,  is  treated  at  length  else- 
where, as  is  Richard  Strauss. 
Mus:c  IN  THE  United  States  is  largely  the 


history  of  the  past  (juarter  of  a  century.  Before 
tliat,  Italian  opera  ruled  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
land,  and  previous  to  the  advent  of  Italian  opera 
in  1825 — a  company  that  included  tiarcia  and  his 
daughter,  ilalibran — the  ]).salmody  was  the  sole 
musical  pabulum  of  our  nation.  Struggling  for 
independence,  transfixed  liy  many  wants  and  dan- 
gers, it  is  not  surprising  that  hymn-tunes  of  the 
most  primitive  order  should  prevail.  Our  an- 
cestors were  too  busy  fighting,  or  toiling  for 
daily  food,  to  find  solace  in  the  arts.  And  the 
Puritan  draped  the  country  in  the  deepest  mo- 
rality, so  that  music  with  dilhculty  conquered  a 
place.  Thomas  Hastings,  Lowell  Mason,  and 
Dudley  Buck  have  done  much  to  elevate  church 
music,  though  our  real  musical  culture  began 
not  with  the  numerous  visits  of  Italian  opera, 
but  with  the  formation  of  local  orchestras;  the 
Philharmonic  Society  of  New  York,  the  Boston 
Symphony  Orchestra,  the  Chicago  Symphony 
Orchestra,  the  Pittsburg  and  Philadelphia  or- 
chestras, and  also  the  riiany  choral  societies 
throughout  the  country.  Theodore  Thomas  was 
our  pioneer  in  matters  symphonic,  and,  both 
with  the  Philharmonic  and  Chicago  Symphony 
Orchestra,  his  work  will  never  be  forgotten.  Carl 
Zerrahn,  Carl  Bergmann,  llenschel,  Louis  Maas, 
Leopold  Damroseh,  Asger  Hamerik,  Anton  Seidl 
— who  first  taught  us  the  beauties  of  the  Wagner 
music-drama — Frank  Van  der  Stucken,  Arthur 
Xikisch,  Wilhelm  Gericke,  and  Emil  Paur  have 
all  contributed  their  quota  to  the  general  fund 
of  culture.  Resident  conductors  are  George  Chad- 
wick.  Victor  Herbert,  the  Damroseh  brothers, 
Walter  and  Frank,  Fritz  Seheel,  Arthur  Mees, 
F.  X.  Arens,  B.  .J.  Lang,  E.  Heimendahl,  Jules 
Jordan,  and  many  others,  while  in  the  domain  of 
popular  music  the  names  of  Gilmore  and  Sousa 
have  become  classic.  The  so-called  vein  of  negro 
music,  so  dear  to  folk-lorists,  was  mostly  written 
by  white  men.  John  Howard  Payne  wrote  "Home. 
Sweet  Home,"  to  which  Stephen  C.  Foster's  "Old 
Folks"  is  a  close  second  in  popularity.  But  the 
present  generation  of  composers  contains  men  in 
its  ranks  of  real  worth,  though  their  culture  has 
been  attained  under  European  masters:  .John  K. 
Paine,  William  Mason.  I^ratt,  Gleason,  George 
W.  Chadwick,  W.  W.  Gilchrist,  Arthur  Foote, 
Converse,  Edward  A.  MacDowell,  Horatio  W. 
Parker,  Frank  Van  der  Stucken,  Henry  Holden 
Huss,  Harry  Rowe  Shelley,  Edgar  Stillman  I\:el- 
ley,  Walter  Damroseh,  Arthur  Whiting,  Reginald 
de"  I'ioven,  Rubin  Goldmark,  and  last  but  not 
least  that  most  brilliant  pianist  and  composer  of 
Creole  music,  I^ouis  Moreau  Gottschalk  (1820- 
69),  who  was  long  considered  a  representative 
American  by  Europeans.  ]M\isic  is  now  a  neces- 
sity in  America,  and  the  culture  of  choral  singing 
makes  several  of  the  larger  universities  like  Har- 
vard. Yale,  Columbia.  Pennsylvania,  .\nn  Arbor, 
and  Oberlin.  have  chairs  of  music.  Foreign  artists 
find  in  the  United  States  a  veritable  gold  mine, 
for  singers  draw  higher  salaries  here  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  globe.  So  we  have  enjoyed  the 
great  music-makers  of  the  world,  from  ilalihran 
to  Ternina.  ilany  of  the  famous  virluosi.  Thal- 
berg. Von  Billow,  EssipofT,  Rubinstein.  .Joseffy, 
Rosenthal,  Padercwski.  de  Pachmann,  d'.Albert. 
Fannie  Bloomfield  Zeisler  among  pianists;  and 
Vieuxtemps.  Sivori.  Ole  Bull.  Camilla  Urso. 
Wieniawski.  Sarasate,  Wilhelmj,  Rem^nyi,  Cesar 
Thomson,  and  Y'saye,  violinists,  are  a  few  of  the 
prominent  artists  who  have  earned  applause  and 


MUSIC. 


174 


MTJSIC. 


money  on  these  shores.  Dr.  Antonin  Dvorak 
made  Xew  York  his  home  for  three  years  as  the 
director  of  the  National  Conservatory,  and  com- 
posed here  his  Sew  World  i'iyiiipliony.  American 
singers,  especially  women,  are  bettor  known 
abroad  than  our  native  composers;  Albani,  Clara 
Louise  Kellogf;,  Annie  Louise  Cary,  Minnie  Hauk, 
Emma  Thursby,  Antoinette  Sterling,  Lillian  Xor- 
dica,  Kmma  Nevada,  Emma  Eamcs,  Sibyl  San- 
derson, Lilian  Blauvelt,  Zelie  de  Lussan,  and 
others  have  honored  their  country  with  artistic 
triumphs.  Adelina  Patti  s])ent  the  early  years 
of  her  life  in  New  York,  and,  as  well  as  Chris- 
tine Nilsson,  I'arepa,  Gerster,  ilelba,  Sembrich, 
and  Lilli  Lehmann,  has  been  adored  by  enthusi- 
astic operagoers.  Thus  far  America  has  not 
produced  a  genuinely  rei)resentativc  composer. 

BliiLlOGB.M'iiY.  Sjiccial  articles,  such  as  Oi'EK.v, 
Instki>iknt.\tio.\,  CJkeek  JIlsic,  have  their  own 
separate  bibliographies,  so  the  following  is  mere- 
ly a  list  of  general  reference  books.  Consult: 
Lavignac,  Alusic  and  .Vusicians,  trans.  (New 
York,  1899)  ;  Ritter,  Allgemeine  iUustrii'yte 
Encyklopiidie  dcr  Musikge.ichichte  (Leipzig, 
1902)  ;  Ilehnholtz,  On  the  Sensations  of  Tom; 
as  a  Plii/sioloi/icdl  Uasis  for  the  Theory  of 
Music,  trans.  (London,  IS".*));  Ambros,  ile- 
srhichte  dcr  Mitsik  (Breslau,  1862-82)  ;  Gevaert, 
Histoire  et  thcorir  de  la  iniisiiiue  de  l'anli</uitc 
(Ghent,  1875-81)  ;  Reissmann,  Ziir  Aeslhclilc  der 
Tonkiinst  (Berlin.  1879)  ;  Savard.  Principcs  dc 
la  musique  ct  mi'thode  de  transposition  (Paris, 
1898)  ;  and  for  more  general  works  on  the  history 
and  development  of  music,  consult:  The  Oxford 
History  of  Music  (O.xford.  1001  et.  seq. )  ;  Nan- 
mann.  The  History  of  Music,  trans.  (London, 
1880)  :  Burney.  .1  (leneral  History  of  Music 
(London,  1879)  ;  Hawkins,  ,1  General  History  of 
the  Science  and  Practice  of  Music  (London, 
1876)  ;  Fi'tis,  Histoire  yenerale  de  la  musique 
(Paris,  1860-76)  ;  Schnmann,  Music  and  Musi- 
cians, trans,  (new  ed.,  London,  1902)  ;  Rock- 
stro,  A  General  History  of  Music  from  the  In- 
fancy of  the  Greek  Drama  to  the  Present  Period 
(New  York,  1886)  ;  Parry,  The  Evolution  of  the 
Art  of  Music  lib.,  1806)":  Henderson,  Hon-  .U»- 
sic  Dereloprd  lib..  1808)  :  Wallaschek.  Primilire 
Music  (London,  180.3)  ;  Krehbicl.  Hair  to  Listen 
to  Music  (New  York,  1806)  :  Huncker.  Me::xo- 
tints  in  Modern  Music  (ib..  1899);  Jlatthew, 
The  Literature  of  .Music  (London.  18061  :  Hiind- 
buch  dcr  niusikalischen  Litteratur  (Leipzig, 
1900)  ;  Untersteiner,  .-1  Short  History  of  Music, 
trans.  (New  Y'ork,  1902).  See  Natiox.m, 
HvMN.s;  OvERTi'RE;  Sached  Music ;  Score;  Mi'- 
SIC,  SfllonI,.s  OF  CoMrosiTiox. 

MTJSIC,  Psyriioi.ocY  of.  The  psyeholog\'  of 
music  deals  with  the  mental  processes  which  fur- 
nish both  tlie  motives  for  its  production  and  the 
ground  of  its  appreciation.  It  has  an  individual 
and  a  social  aspect :  for  music  as  an  art  involves 
not  only  the  individual  consciousness,  as  such, 
but  also,  since  it  is  a  means  of  expressi()n  and 
communication,  the  modification  of  one  mind  by 
another. 

The  mental  elements  primarily  iiivrdvcd  in 
music  are  sensations  of  tone.  Of  the  10,000  or 
11,000  tones  which  niav  be  distinguished  in  con- 


sciousness, music  uses  a  comparatively  small 
number.  Our  own  elaborate  musical  system  in- 
cludes only  85  or  90,  ranging  from  about  40  to 
4000  vibrations  per  second;  something  less  than 
seven  octaves.  The  simple  tonal  .sensation  is 
produced  by  an  uncompounded  pendular  vibra- 
tion of  the  air.  The  note  or  simple  clang  is  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  simple  sensations,  called 
partials  or  partial  tones,  one  of  which  (the 
lowest)  is  the  fundamental;  the  others  are  called 
overtones.  The  character  ('timbre,'  'clang-tint,' 
'quality')  of  the  note  is  determined  by  the  num- 
ber and  intensity  of  the  various  partials.  (See 
Clano-Ti.nt,  Explaxatiox  of.)  Every  simple 
tone  has  three  aspects  or  attributes:  quality, 
intensity,  and  duration  (qq.v. ).  Quality  is  pitch 
(high  or  low);  intensity  is  degree  (a  tone  is 
'loud"  or  '.soft,'  strong  or  weak)  ;  duration  is 
temporal  length  (long  or  short).  To  these  some 
psychologists  add  a  fourth  attribute,  extension 
or  voluminousness;  a  tone  is  said  to  be  'big*  or 
'thin,'  'broad'  or  'pointed.'  It  is  a  question 
whether  the  spatial  attribute  is  not  reducible  to 
simple  qualitative  differences  plus  associations 
from  vision  and  pressure.  By  the  combination 
and  variation  of  the  first  three  attriliutes,  all 
classes  and  forms  of  music  are  produced.  There 
is,  first  of  all,  the  combination  of  qualities  and 
intensities  in  the  note,  which  is  the  practical 
basis  of  music.  Above  this  stand  the  alterna- 
tions of  intensities  which  produce  rliytlim,  the 
successive  rise  and  fall  of  pitch  forming  the 
essence  of  melody,  and  the  synchronous  combi- 
nations of  pitches  (see  Fusion)  known  as  har- 
mony. Music  began,  doubtless,  with  the  simplest 
of  these  combinations.  We  find  in  jirimitive 
music  a  small  number  of  qualities  used  over  and 
over,  without  the  finer  shadings  of  intensive  dif- 
ferences, with  little  or  no  appreciation  of  har- 
mony, but  often  with  a  strongly  marked  rhj-thra, 
accentuated  by  various  bodily  movements.  (See 
Art,  Primitive.)  But  the  growth  of  music 
lias  been  marked  not  so  much  by  complica- 
tions in  quality,  intensity,  and  duration — great 
as  these  have  been — as  by  another  factor  in  de- 
velopment which  has  proceeded  pari  passu  with 
the  mental  evolution  of  the  race.  This  factor  is 
the  capacity  to  group  anil  unify  series  of  units, 
the  capacity  to  form  iicrccptions  and  associations 
between  isolated  tones.  A  perception  (q.v.)  is 
always  simietliing  more  than  the  summation  uf  a 
series  of  sensational  elements.  It  is  the  reading 
of  meaning,  of  significance  into  the  scries  taken 
as  a  group  or  whole.  Musical  perception  has  de- 
veloped in  precisely  the  same  iiiamier  as  have 
other  forms  of  perception,  by  the  widening  and 
deepening  of  meaning.  Compare,  e.g.  a  savage's 
perception  of  a  protruding  stratum  of  rock  with 
a  geologist's.  ()ne  is  poor,  simple,  shallow — as 
bare  as  the  rock  itself;  the  other  is  rich,  com- 
plex, dee]i — as  complicated  as  the  condidons  un- 
der which  the  rock  was  formed:  it  contains  group 
after  group,  and  leads  to  complex  trains  of  asso- 
ciations. The  case  is  similar  with  music.  Primi- 
tive man  used  a  simple  musical  alpliabel  and 
spelled  out  simple,  ehilrlisli  phrases.  Take  as  an 
instance  the  fol|r)wing  example  which  the  abo- 
rigines of  Australia  were  accustomed  to  reiterate 
over  and  over  for  hours: 


MTJSIC. 


175 


MUSIC. 


Put  this  beside  Wagner's  "Ring  of  the  Nibe- 
lungs."  The  two  may  Ije  said  to  represent  almost 
the  extremes  of  musical  culture,  the  capacity  to 
combine  tonal  elements  into  signilicant  unitary 
•wholes.  The  monotonous  chant  of  the  Australian, 
no  less  than  the  creations  of  Warner  and  Jiee- 
thoven.  contains  a  design,  an  organization,  a  put- 
ting into  definite  form  of  a  number  of  detached 
elements.  It  is  this  which  distinguishes  nuisic 
from  a  haphazard  arrangement  of  tones  or  the 
isolated  calls  and  cries  of  animals,  however  im- 
portant these  may  have  been  in  the  genesis  of 
music. 

But  if  music  implies  form,  it  also  implies  con- 
tent.    It  is  a  vehicle  of  expression  no  less  than  a 
way  of  arranging  and  organizing  tones.     When 
now  we  come  to  inquire  into  the  processes  which 
lie  behind  musical  production,  we  find  that  they 
are  various  and  highly  complex.     We  shall,  how- 
ever,   get   an    insight    into    their    nature    if    we 
look  upon  music  both  as  a  means  of  conscious 
expression  and  as  a  medium  of  communication. 
Regarded  in  this  light,  music  takes  its  place  be- 
side gesture  speech  and  writing.     It  differs  from 
speech,  however,  in  that  it  gives  voice  to  feelings 
and  emotions  instead  of  to  ideas.     Speech  is  pri- 
marily   a    medium    for    the    conununication    of 
'thought,'  and  when  it  attempts  to  express  emo- 
tion   and    sentiment    borrows    straightway    from 
nuisic — either    rhythm    (in   taking   poetic   form) 
or  melody   (in  constructing  recitative  or  song)  — 
or  it  may  go  back  to  the  conunon  root  of  speech 
and  music,  and  enrich   itself  from  the   language 
of   gesture   and   mimetic    movement.      But    wliile 
music's  ultimate  appeal  is  to  the  sensibilities,  it 
cannot  be  said  to  exist  apart  from  the  intellect 
or    the    will.      Such    absolute    disjunction    could 
only  rest  on  the  fallacy  that  intellect,  feeling,  and 
volition  are  separable  faculties  of  the  mind.     (See 
Faculty.)      Music  arouses  not  only  feeling,  but 
also  thought  and  action.     The  complex   nature 
of  the  'musical  consciousness'  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  it  is  now  called  a  feeling,  now  an  emo- 
tion, now  a  perception,  and  now  a  sentiment.    ( See 
these  words.)      It  is,  indeed,  all  of  these.     The 
pleasurable  feeling  which  music  induces  is  unde- 
niable:   it  arouses  an  emotion  in  the  sense  that 
it   ]>resents  'situations'  which   call   forth   organic 
sensations    squarely    faced   by   the    attention;    it 
includes  the  organization  of  auditory  sensations 
into  unitary  perceptual   wholes;    and,   finally,   it 
involves    sentiment  by   taking  the   form   of   the 
ipsthctic  judgment,  e.g.  'these  elements  combined 
in  this  way   are  beautiful.'     Xor   does   this  ex- 
haust the  contents  of  nuisical  expression.     There 
may  be.  both  in  the  motive  of  the  artist  and  in 
the  consciousness  aroused  in  the  hearer,  imagina- 
tions, retrospections,  moods,  desires,  associations, 
resolves,  and  volitions.     Thus  far  does  the  'mu- 
sical consciousness'  range.     The  key  to  its  com- 
plexity  is   furnished   by   a   review   of  the   large 
number  of  modes  through  which  music  appeals  to 
consciousness.     In  the  first  place,  simple  tones 
have   an   affective   value,   which   is   different   at 
different  parts  of  the  scale.     Secondly,  the  siinple 
clang  or  note  varies  not  only,  as  we  have  seen, 
in  sensational  elements,  but  also  in  pleasantness 
and    unpleasantness,    as    its    clang-tint    changes. 
Tliirdly.     the     same     element     of     fusion     which 
amalgamates    the    partials    iji    the    note    is    also 
present    in    the   chord.      Fourthly,    the    chord    is 
also  niore   or  less   pleasant,   inore  or  less   conso- 
nant or  dissonant.     Other  elementary  factors  are 


the  indefinite  number  of  possible  accentuations, 
of  pitch  sequences,  repetitions,  and  alternations, 
of  similarities  and  contrasts.     Add  to  these  the 
possibilities  of  modulation  from  key  to  key,  the 
host   of   figures    in    each    of    which    there   is   the 
charm  of  the  like  and  the  diverse,  of  symmetry 
and  of  complexity,  and  of  unity  nniintaining  it- 
self in  variety;   add  the  employment  of  various 
instruments,  including  the  human  voice,  and  cen- 
turies of  experience  lending  their  wealth  of  asso- 
ciations, and  the  intricacies  of  nuisical  composi- 
tion and  appreciation  receive  at  least  a  partial 
explanation.      The   explanation   cannot   be   com- 
pleted except  by  a  comprehensive  account  of  the 
genesis  and  development  of  nuisic.    ( See  .Esthet- 
ics; Music.)     There  are  two  or  three  stages  in 
the   evolution   of   music   which   deserve   mention 
here   on   account   of   their   psychological    impor- 
tance.    The  first  is  the  production  of  the  scale. 
It  is  very  difficult  for  us  to  conceive  what  music 
would  be  without  a   definitely  formulated  scale. 
We  have  so  constantly  in  mind  the  scale  which 
has  formed  the  basis  of  Western  music  for  cen- 
turies that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  appreciate 
the   mental    processes    of    people   who    have    had 
music  without  a  definite  scale,  or  even  of  those 
whose    scheme    of    intervals    differs    from    ours. 
And  yet,  it  is  certain  that  a  formulated  scale  fol- 
lows   upon    musical    practice.      The    scale    came 
from  melodic  utterances  as  rhythm  came   from 
the  regular  movements  of  the  dance.     We  find  in 
the  music  of  savages  informal  and  unsystematic 
vocal  expressions  of  feeling  which  are  sometimes 
no  more  tlian  intoned  Avails  or  howls,  sometimes 
haphazard  collections  of  simple  figures  repeated 
with   little  order  or  unity.     When  these  become 
definite  enough  to  be   remembered  and  to  be  re- 
peated from  time  to  time,  material  for  the  for- 
mation of  scales  begins  to  collect;   but  the  scale 
as  an  abstract  arrangement  of  musical  intervals 
appears   only   at   a    comparatively   late   stage   of 
intellectual  progress.     The  nucleus  of  the  scale 
was  probably  at  first  a  single  interval — an  in- 
terval which  was  agreeable  and  expressive.     A 
comparison  of  various  scales.  Eastern  and  West- 
ern, ancient  and  modern,  points  to  the  fifth  and 
the  fourth  as  the  first  intervals  to  be  selected. 
Gradually  other  notes  were  added  and  two  gen- 
eral types  of  scales  were  formed;  the  pentatonic 
(scales  based   on   five  notes),   in  use   in   China, 
Japan,   Java,   and  the   Pacific   Islands,   and  the 
heptatonic   (based  on  seven  notes),  the  scales  of 
India.  Persia,  Arabia,  ancient  Greece,  and  modern 
Europe.      In   all   countries   the   octave   seems  to 
have  been  more  or  less  explicitly  recognized.    The 
fact   that   most   Caucasian    races   have   produced 
seven-note   systems,   and   the   peoples   of  Eastern 
Asia  five-note  systems,  indicates  that  the  general 
structure  of  the   scale   depends   ultimately   upon 
artistic  impulses  which  are  common   to  a   given 
type  of  mind.     The  attempt  to  derive  the  hepta- 
tonic scale  from  an  earlier,  more  primitive  pen- 
tatonic. seems  to  have  failed.     The  two  types  ap- 
pear to  be  equally  primitive.     Instruments  giving 
a   diatonic   scale   date   as   far  back  as   the   Stone 
Age.     Doubtless,   the   choice   of  the   interval   of 
the   semitone   depends    largely   on    the    fact    that 
the  semitone  is  the  smallest  interval  that  the  hu- 
man voice  can  produce  with  ease  and   accuracy. 
Wallaschek,  however,  is  of  the  opinion  that  the 
voice  even  with  the  aid  of  the  ear  would   never 
have  produced  regular  scales  without  help  from 
musical    instruments.      Simplicity    in    construe- 


MUSIC. 


176 


MUSIC. 


tion  and  use  of  instruimnts  Jetcrmincd,  he  be- 
lieves, tlie  lorinatioii  of  the  two  great  types  of 
scales.  Hut  there  is  no  reason  why  vocal  utter- 
ance itself  should  not  have  ])roduoed  intervals 
of  varying  degrees  of  pleasantness  and  unpleas- 
antness which  would  sui)ply  sulTicicnt  motive  for 
the  choice  of  a  definite  scale.  The  modes  of 
Greek  music  furnish  a  good  instance  of  scale 
construction  upon  a  melodic  basis;  while  our 
own  major  and  minor  scales  illustrate  the  effect 
which  harmony  produces  upon  scale-making.  The 
fact  tliat  the  scale,  as  we  have  it  now.  was  a 
tliousand  years  in  tlie  making  gives  evidence  at 
once  of  its  evolutionary  cliaracter  and  of  its  de- 
pendence upon  antecedent  and  contemporary  mu- 
sical practice.  From  a  melodic  system  was  grad- 
ually developed  the  tonal  se(|uence  in  which 
every  note  has  its  artistic  functions  in  relation 
to  every  otiier  note.  This  principle  of  tonality, 
relation  of  tlie  various  parts  of  the  scale  to  the 
tonic,  has  had  a  gradual  development  no  less  than 
the  selection  of  tones.  Ililniholtz  remarks  that 
primitive  music,  since  it  depends  largely  upon 
verbal  expression  to  complete  its  meaning,  has 
little  need  for  tonality.  This  is  true  even  in 
Greek  and  early  Christian  music.  He  argues  that 
tonality  is  a  purely  sesthetic  product,  which  has 
been  increasing  up  to  modern  times.  The  latest 
moditicaticin  of  our  scale  has  been  the  introduc- 
tion of  regular  chromatic  intervals  (represented 
by  the  black  keys  upon  tlie  |)iano).  for  llie  pur- 
poses of  modulation  and  the  assimilation  of  keys. 
It  would  require,  however,  a  great  number  of 
extra  notes  to  produce  the  pure  diatonic  scale 
on  each  note  taken  successively  as  tonic.  Vari- 
ous compromises  have,  therefore,  been  made  by 
tempered  intonation,  in  which  the  pure  intervals 
are  more  or  less  modified.  The  present  method  of 
tuning  in  use  among  Western  iicojiles  is  based 
upon  the  system  of  equal  temiieraiiient,  which  di- 
vides the  scale  into  twelve  equal  parts,  or  semi- 
tones. This  system  allows  no  perfectly  pure 
interval  except  the  octave,  but  is  extremely 
simple  and  afTords  opportunity  for  varied  musical 
expression. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  the  .scale,  it  may 
easily  be  seen  that  its  function  is  to  furnish  a 
stable  basis  for  musical  construction.  It  repre- 
sents the  results  of  a-sthelic  instincts  and  judg- 
ments which  have  been  accumulating  for  cen- 
turies, and  it  is,  at  the  same  time,  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  principle  consciously  or  unconscious- 
ly unilerlying  every  nuisical  composition. 

A  second  factor  of  psychological  importance  In 
the  history  of  music  is  the  growth  of  polyphony 
and  harmony  (qq.v.).  It  has  often  been  said 
that  the  earliest  form  of  musical  expression  was 
melodic.  It  is  certainly  true  that  there  are 
great  racial  as  well  as  temporal  difTcrences  in  the 
apprehension  of  harmonic  relations.  Hottentots, 
e.g.  have  shown  a  keen  native  appreciation  for 
F.uropean  harmonies  which  have  failed  to  move 
the  Chinese  and  other  Orientals.  Hut.  at  the 
same  time,  it  may  be  laid  down  as  probable  that 
the  same  tonal  peculiarities  which  had  led  to 
the  development  of  melody  have  led  also  to  the 
production  of  harmony,  whether  these  peculiari- 
tica  rest,  ultimately,  in  the  fusion  of  simple 
tones  (Stumpf)  or  depend  upon  clangrelation- 
shlp  (HelmholtzK  It  must,  however,  be  admitted 
that  there  are  periods  in  which  either  melody  or 
hamiony  seems  to  have  an  almost  indejM'ndent 
development.      The   history   of   European    music 


furnishes  a  good  illustration.  Western  music 
was  essentially  melodic  in  ancient  Greece.  The 
early  Christians  borrowed  the  melodic  Greek 
modes  in  mutilated  form.  To  these  was  added, 
very  gradually,  a  new  element.  Ecclesiastical 
tunes  were  sung  with  the  intervals  of  the  fifHi 
and  the  fourth,  and  attempts  were  made  to  sing 
dilTerent  tunes  together.  Then  came  a  long  era 
of  development  of  polyphonic  music.  Contra- 
puntal arrangement  reached  a  high  degree  of  per- 
fection in  the  service  of  the  Cliurch.  But  the 
movement  away  from  simple  melody  was  des- 
tined to  extend  much  further  than  the  perfec- 
tion of  counterpoint.  Choral  singing  had  already 
laid  the  basis  for  the  elaborate  system  of  har- 
mony which  now  began  to  be  formulated.  By  the 
end  of  I'lc  sixteenth  century  the  independent  sig- 
nificance of  chords  and  their  artistic  connection, 
apart  from  the  progression  of  "voices,"  came  to  be 
recognized.  This  was  the  real  opening  of  the 
modern  era  of  harmonic  music.  There  are  two 
chief  factors  which  contributed  to  its  estab- 
lishment: (1)  the  Church's  demand  for  intel- 
ligible chorus  and  congregational  singing,  for 
which  the  complicated  jiolyplionic  forms  were  not 
suitable;  and  (2)  the  rise  of  the  opera,  which 
in  its  revival  of  ancient  tragedy  called  for  solo 
singing  with  harmonic  acconqianiment.  The 
wealth  of  liarmony  has  been  greatly  augmented 
by  the  development  of  instrumentation,  which  has 
reached  its  climax  in  the  modern  orchestra. 

In  making  a  survey  of  the  achievements  of 
Western  music,  it  is  important  to  keep  in  mind 
the  fact  that  our  system  is  largely  a  product  of 
taste  and  by  no  means  the  only  possible  way  of 
utilizing  the  tonal  elements  at  man's  disposal. 
Other  races  and  other  epochs  have  solved  their 
musical  problems  in  other  wavs.  These,  if  not 
so  agreeable  to  us  as  our  own,  have  lioen  satisfac- 
tory to  their  inventors.  Neither  can  our  canons 
of  taste  be  regarded  as  more  fixed  than  are 
others.  They  are,  on  the  contrary,  extremely 
variable.  Even  since  mcdiieval  times  so  radical 
a  change  has  been  effected  in  .•esthetic  preference 
as  the  substitution  of  first  the  fifth  and  the 
fourth,  and  later  the  tuajor  third,  for  the  oc- 
tave as  the  most  agreeable  interval.  What 
further  changes  will  take  place  it  is  unsafe  to 
predict. 

BiRi.ioGR.\pnT.  Helmholtz,  Scnsatinns  of  Tone 
(Eng.  trans.,  Xew  York,  1885)  ;  Barry.  Tlir  Art 
of  Miifiic  (ih.,  189.3)  ;  Henderson.  The  Orrhr.itra 
and  Orchestral  Music  (ib..  1800);  Bain,  /v'mo- 
tions  and  Will  (London,  1888);  Wallaschek, 
Primitire  Music  (Eng.  trans..  New  York.  1803)  ; 
Taylor,  .S'oi/nrf  and  Music  (3d  ed.,  ib.,  ISOfi)  ; 
.Tames,  Principles  of  Psiirholnqjt.  ii.  (ib.,  ISOO)  ; 
Stumpf,  "Konsonanz  tmd  Bissonanz,"  in  7?ci. 
trSfie  sur  Aesthetik-  und  MusihiHssensehnfl, 
Ileft  i.  (Leipzig.  1808):  Sully,  flmsation  and 
Intuition  (London.  1880).  And  for  references  to 
articles  treating  the  different  subdivisions  of 
music,  see  Music. 

MUSIC,  CONSEBVATOBY  OF.  A  school  for 
i  11-1  ruction   in  music.     See  Coxservatokv. 

MUSIC.  Schools  of  Composition.  In  order 
to  make  |)ossible  a  general  view  of  the  nuiiierous 
composers  that  have  contributed  to  the  erection 
of  the  structure  of  music,  musical  historians 
have  agreed  to  classify  various  composers  into 
schools.  The  composers  thus  classed  together 
under  a  certain  school  show  common  influences 


MUSIC. 


177 


MUSIC. 


or  tendencies,  but  dividing  lines  between  the  vari- 
ous schools  arc  often  iniperfeetly  marked. 

I.  Thf  Old  French  Nchoot  (c.  1100- 1350)  .—The 
principal  merits  of  this  school  are  the  invention 
of  the  Fauxhourdon  (a  progression  of  voices 
in  sixths  and  thirds)  and  the  Uiscant  (contrary 
motion  of  voices).  This  contrary  motion  led  to 
counterpoint,  and  this  again  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  system  of  notation  in  which  the 
dillercnt  values  of  the  notes  in  regard  to  time 
were  definitely  fixed.  (See  jMensurable  Music.) 
After  a  dixcaiit  was  once  set  in  contrary  motion 
to  a  cunt  us  firinus  composers  soon  conceived 
the  idea  of  adding  a  third  and  even  a  fourth 
\-oice.  But  the  masters  of  the  Old  French  School 
did  not  stop  here;  they  succeeded  also  in  im- 
parting complete  independence  to  the  individual 
voices.  Three  art-forms  were  develo])ed :  the 
motel,  rondellus  (rondeau),  and  conductus  (con- 
duit). In  all  these  forms  are  found  well-defined 
passages  of  writing  which  to-day  we  call  'canon' 
and  'imitation.'  The  prominent  masters  are: 
Leonin.  Perotin,  De  Garlande,  Franko  of  Paris, 
De  Vitrv.  De  ilachault.  De  Muris. 

II.  i'he  Gallo-Bclyic  School  (e.1350-1500).— 
The  masters  of  this  school  began  to  feel  the 
emptiness  of  consecutive  fourths  and  fifths,  and 
so  used  sixths  and  thirds  more  freely.  Greater 
attention  was  given  to  the  leading  of  the  voices, 
and  technique  made  great  strides.  Occasionally 
the  compositions  rise  above  the  level  of  mere 
techniealit}'.  The  principal  masters  are:  De 
Zeelandia,  Faugues,  Dufay,  Binchois,  Busnois, 
Eegis. 

III.  The  School  of  the  Netherlands  (c.l450- 
1000). — This  school  divides  itself  into  four  dis- 
tinct periods:  (A)  Okeghem  developed  the  art 
of  canonic  writing  to  such  an  extent  that  it 
became  merely  ingenious  trickery.  Instead  of 
unified  forms,  the  works  of  this  school  present 
a  conglomeration  of  detached  details.  Okeghem's 
successors  were:  Hobrecht,  Tinctor,  .Jannequin. 
Bruniel,  Compare.  (B)  The  leader  of  the  second 
period  is  Josquin  Depr^s.  a  pupil  of  Okeghem. 
He  and  his  contemporaries  strove  to  make  their 
skill  subservient  to  artistic  purposes  by  em- 
phasizing the  symmetry  of  form  and  by  ))aying 
attention  to  the  development  of  their  themes. 
The  leading  composers  are,  besides  DeprSs,  Agric- 
ola  and  Mouton.  (C)  The  extreme  artificiality  of 
the  two  preceding  periods  led  to  a  reaction  in 
favor  of  a  more  simple  and  natural  style.  The  mas- 
ters started  from  Josquin's  principle  of  symmetry-. 
They  also  developed  the  purity  of  harmonic  writ- 
ing, anil  insisted  upon  definite  melodic  plirases. 
Several  of  them  carried  this  style  to  Italy,  where 
they  became  the  founders  of  new  schools.  These 
composers  were:  Gombert.  Willaert,  Goudirael. 
Arcadelt.  Van  Rore.  (D)  The  fourth  period 
shows  the  influences  which  the  Italian  schools 
had  begiui  to  exert  over  the  mother  school. 
^^^lereas  the  importance  of  the  earlier  schools 
rests  entirely  upon  the  vocal  works,  the  fourth 
period  marks  the  rise  of  instrumental  music 
(organ)  in  the  works  of  Sweelinek,  who  prac- 
tically became  the  founder  of  the  famous  school 
of  the  North  German  organists.  The  whole 
school  of  the  Xetherlands  reached  its  culmina- 
tion in  the  works  of  Orlando  di  Lasso,  a  master 
scarcely  inferior  to  the  great  Palestrina.  The 
great  musicians  of  this  period  are:  Sweelinek. 
Lasso,  Di  Monte,  Pevernafre. 

IV.  The   Old  Eiifflish   School    (c.l22O-inO0)  .— 


(A)  England  possesses  the  oldest  known  speci- 
men of  polyphonic  writing,  the  famous  canon 
"Sumer  is  icunien  in."  As  long  as  the  school 
of  the  Netherlands  was  regarded  as  the  oldest, 
this  manuscript  puzzled  musical  historians. 
Coussemaker  in  1805  proved  the  existence  of 
the  still  older  French  School  ( I. ) ,  and  so  this 
canon  is  now  assigned  to  the  year  1'220.  During 
the  fifteenth  century  a  school  showing  the  same 
general  characteristics  as  the  Old  French  School 
must  have  existed  in  England,  if  we  may  judge 
from  a  few  preserved  compositions  by  John  of 
Dunstable.  (B)  The  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  wit- 
nessed a  considcralde  musical  activity,  but  no 
new  style  was  created.  The  representative  com- 
posers, Bedford,  Johnson,  Jlcrbeeke,  and  Tye, 
show  the  influence  of  the  School  of  the  Nether- 
lands. (C)  These  men  really  prepared  the  way 
for  the  next  generation,  when  the  style  of  the 
School  of  Venice  predominated.  Of  this  period 
ninnerous  large  choral  works  and  madrigals 
have  been  preserved.  The  chief  composers  are: 
Farrant,  Tallis.  Bvrd.  Gibbons. 

V.  The  School 'of  Tchicc  ( 1527-1012)  .—Wil- 
laert brought  the  nuisical  art  of  the  Netherlands 
to  Venice,  where  he  settled  in  1527.  Under  the 
influence  of  the  more  impressionable  Italian 
musicians,  he  gradually  acquired  a  new  style. 
In  the  style  of  the  Netlierlands  each  voice  was 
pi-actically  independent,  and  its  relation  to  a 
definite  chord  was  not  strongly  pronounced.  The 
Venetian  masters  established  the  chord  as  their 
basis,  and,  instead  of  simultaneous  progressions 
of  voices,  we  find,  rather,  progressions  of  chords. 
The  independence  of  the  se|)arate  voices  was 
restricted,  but  not  abolished.  The  custom  of 
writing  for  a  double  chorus  was  introduced, 
the  madrigal  was  perfected,  and  for  the  first 
time  vocal  works  with  instrumental  accompani- 
ment appear.  The  great  composers  of  this  school 
are:  Willaert,  A.  Gabrieli.  Van  Rore,  Zarlino, 
Merulo,  Donati,  G.  Gabrieli, 

VI.  The  School  of  Rome  (15.35-1074)  .—The 
founder  of  this  school  was  Goudimel,  who  settled 
in  Rome  about  1535.  While  the  Venetian  School 
regarded  the  chord  as  a  basis,  and  gained  their 
effects  largely  by  means  of  modulation,  the  Ro- 
man masters  restored  greater  freedom  to  the 
individual  voices,  and  subordinated  technique  to 
art.  The  introduction  of  secular  themes  into 
sacred  works  had  led  to  serious  abuses,  but  the 
Roman  masters,  especially  Palestrina,  proved 
that  the  contrapuntal  style  is  not  antagonistic 
to  the  dignity  proper  to  church  music.  To  the 
Roman  School  also  belongs  the  honor  of  having 
originated  the  oratorio  (Carissimi)  and  a  dis- 
tinct instrumental  style  (Frescobaldi) ,  Merulo 
in  Venice  had  done  much  to  develop  the  toccata, 
but  not  until  Frescobaldi  appeared  did  instru- 
mental music  become  entirely  free  from  the 
influence  of  vocal  music.  The  greatest  masters 
are:  Goudimel,  Festa.  Animuccia,  Palestrina, 
Nanini,  Anerio.  Allcgri,  Frescobaldi.  Carissimi, 

VII.  The  Spanish  School  ( 1540-1008)  .—Spain 
at  no  time  succeeded  in  establishing  an  original 
school.  During  the  sixteenth  century  several 
Spanish  composers  lived  in  Rome,  and  returning 
to  their  native  land,  carried  with  them  the  art 
of  the  Roman  School,  so  that  in  reality  the 
Spanish  School  forms  only  a  part  of  the  Roman 
School.  The  most  prominent  Spanish  masters 
are  Da  Vittoria  and  Morales.  The  Portuguese 
composer   a   Goes   shows   the   influence   of   Gom- 


MTTSIC. 


178 


MUSIC. 


bert,  which  can  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  this  Flemish  musician  spent  some  years  in 
Spain. 

VI II.  The  German  Polyphonic  School  (1500- 
1025). — This  school  divides  itself  into  two 
periods,  the  former  showing  Flemish,  the  latter 
Venetian,  influences,  but  in  the  frequent  and 
bold  use  of  dissonances  the  German  masters  go 
beyond  their  predecessors.  The  chief  composers 
showing  Flemish  inlluenccs  are:  Isaak.  H.  Finck, 
Senlll.  ilermann  Finck.  Those  showing  Italian  in- 
fluences (almost  all  pupils  of  G.  Gabriel!)  are: 
Uallus,  Gumpeltzhainier,  Hasler,  Aichinger,  Prii- 
torius. 

IX.  The  School  of  Protestant  Church  Music 
(1540-1G72). —  (A)  In  Germany,  the  Reformation 
popularized  church  music  by  the  introduction  of 
congregational  singing.  For  untrained  voices 
simple  music  was  needed,  and  tliis  need  gave 
rise  to  the  chorale,  which  originatcil  in  the  sing- 
ing of  sacred  words  to  popular  folksongs.  The 
musicians  whose  importance  rests  chiefly  upon 
their  chorales  are:  Luther,  Waltlier,  Eccard, 
Calvisius,  Franck,  Schein.  (B)  From  the  earliest 
times  it  had  been  customary  in  the  Catholic 
Church  to  recite  during  Holy  Week  tlie  Pas- 
sion of  Our  Lord  according  to  the  Gospels. 
Luther  desired  to  preserve  this  custom  for  tlie 
Reformed  Church.  He  translated  the  text  and 
had  various  composers  furnish  the  nuisic.  Thus 
arose  tlie  "Passion,"  to  the  cultivation  of  which 
many  German  masters  dev(]tcd  tlieir  best 
energies.  Along  this  line  vocal  ])olyplionic  mu- 
sic steadily  developed  until,  in  the  works  of 
Schiitz,  German  music  reached  an  originality 
that  places  it  on  a  level  with  the  famous  Italian 
schools.  The  (Jernian  School  combines  the  beauty 
of  the  Roman  School  with  the  massiveness  of 
the  Venetian.  In  addition,  there  is  a  tenderness 
and  a  subjective,  passionate  element  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  colorless  solemnity  of  the  early 
Italian  music.  The  important  masters  are: 
Schiitz,  J.  C.  Bach,  .f.  M.  Bach. 

X.  The  School  of  German  Organists  (1020- 
1722). —  (A)  While  vocal  music  was  steadily  a<l- 
vancing,  instrumental  music,  although  of  later 
date,  was  not  neglected.  Sweclinck  had  founded 
a  great  school  in  the  Netherlands,  which  trained 
many  (iermans,  who  carried  the  art  into  their 
native  land.  There  the  cities  of  llanilnirg  and 
Liibeck  became  the  centres  of  a  new  instrumental 
school  whose  basis  was  the  chorale.  The  prin- 
cipal forms  cultivated  were  the  toccata,  ciaeonna, 
fugue,  and,  toward  the  end  of  the  period,  the 
sonata.  The  great  North  German  masters  were: 
Scheldt,  Scheidemann,  Reinken,  Buxtehude,  Kuh- 
nan.  (B)  While  the  North  German  masters 
developed  the  style  of  .Sweelinek.  a  group  of 
composers  in  the  miildle  and  south  of  Germany 
worke<l  along  similar  lines,  but  under  the  influ- 
enccH  of  Frescobaldi  and  the  Roman  School.  The 
authority  of  the  Italian  sonata  writers  hail  by 
this  time  e.xtemled  to  fiermany,  and  the  form.s 
of  the  sonata  da  chicta  and  the  sonata  da  ca- 
mera were  cultivated.  Nor  was  the  fugue  neg- 
lected. .AH  the  great  composers  used  the  Italian 
forms,  hut  infused  their  own  individuality  into 
them,  anil  thus  prepared  the  way  for  .T.  S.  Bach, 
who  wrested  the  leadership  in  musical  affairs 
from  Italy  and  transferred  it  to  Germany.  The 
German  masters  who  aided  in  this  great  work 
are:  Kerl.  Frolierger.  Pachclbel,  Muffat,  Biber. 

XI.  The    School    of    Florence    (1594-1676).— 


While  the  earlier  Italian  composers  cultivated 
almost  exclusively  the  polyphonic  style  of  vocal 
music,  a  school  with  \\idely  diffei'ent  tendencies 
sprang  up  in  Florence.  The  revival  of  the  learn- 
ing of  Greece  led  to  an  attempt  to  reconstruct 
the  ancient  drama.  Thus  arose  the  monodio 
style,  in  which  one  voice  sings  while  instruments 
furnish  the  accompaniment.  In  lo'.U  Peri  set 
an  entire  drama,  Dafnc,  to  music  in  this  man- 
ner. Crude  as  the  attempt  was,  it  found  favor, 
and  in  less  than  half  a  century  the  new  style 
had  conquered  all  Kurope.  Its  development  was 
not  contined  to  Florence;  in  fact,  its  greatest 
exponent,  Jlonteverde,  was  a  native  of  Cremona, 
although  he  lived  chiefly  in  JIantua  and  Venice. 
But  as  the  style  originated  in  Florence,  it  seems 
advisable  to  classify  all  composers  identified  with 
its  development  under  the  Florentine  School. 
This  school  first  dispensed  with  the  preparation 
of  dissonances,  and  greatly  developed  the  or- 
chestra, establishing  the  strings  as  its  founda- 
tion. The  works  of  this  school  were  first  desig- 
nated by  the  title  Dramma  per  musica.  About 
1050  we  find  Opera  per  musica,  which  soon  after- 
wards became  simply  Opera.  The  principal 
names  of  this  division  are:  Peri,  Caccini,  Monte- 
verde.  Cavalli.     See  Opera. 

XII.  The  School  of  Saples  (1675-1757).— As 
early  as  1475  a  Flemish  master,  Tinctor,  settled 
in  Naples,  but  not  until  two  hundred  years  later 
did  a  distinct  school  arise.  From  Rome  and 
Venice  the  Neapolitans  adopted  the  polyphonic 
church  style,  from  Rome  the  oratorio,  and  from 
Florence  the  musical  drama.  The  new  school 
paid  more  attention  to  the  melodic  outline  of 
the  highest  voice,  perfected  the  form  of  the  aria 
(q.v. ),  and  introduced  it  into  their  dramatic 
works.  Whereas  the  Florentine  musical  drama 
consisted  of  continuous  recitative  by  a  single 
voice,  the  Nca|)olitans  introduced  not  only  the 
aria,  but  also  choru-^es.  duets,  trios,  etc.  The 
Florentines  had  emjihasized  the  dramatic,  the 
Neapolitans  emphasized  the  »i».sir(i?  element.  They 
also  cultivated  the  form  of  the  concert  overture, 
(See  OvERTrRE. )  Transferring  the  form  of  the 
sonata  da  chiesa  to  compositions  for  the  clavi- 
chord, and  introducing  a  secondary  against  a 
principal  .subject,  they  prepared  the  way  for  the 
modern  sonata.  Tlie  principal  masters  are:  Stra- 
dclla,  A.  Scarlatti,  Durante,  Logroscino,  Leo,  D. 
Scarlatti. 

XIII.  The  Early  School  of  French  Opera 
(104.5-1704).— After  the  Old  French  School  had 
been  sup|danted  by  that  of  the  Netherlands,  we 
have  no  more  records  of  music  in  France  until 
1645,  when  a  work  of  the  Florentine  monodie 
style  was  produced  in  Paris.  The  rise  of  the 
French  drama  through  the  works  of  Corncille, 
Racine,  and  Molifere  turned  the  general  atten- 
tion to  the  stage.  Lully  became  the  founder  of 
a  distinct  school  of  French  opera.  The  charac- 
teristics of  this  -ichool  are  better  dramatic  char- 
acterization and  the  raising  of  the  chorus  to 
an  active  participation  in  the  dramatic  develop- 
ment. The  orchestra  also  is  increased  by  the 
addition  of  kettledrums  and  trumpets,  and  the 
character  of  the  wood-wind  is  recognized.  The 
important  names  arc:  Cambert,  Lully,  Marais, 
Rameau. 

XIV.  The  Later  School  of  Venice  (]r,r,()\7M) . 
— The  German  Protestant  masters  had  intro- 
duced a  subjective  and  emotional  element  into 
their   church    music.     This   became   the   kevnote 


MUSIC. 


179 


MUSIC. 


of  the  later  Venetian  masters.  A  distinctive 
leature  is  the  development  of  some  jiarticular 
theme  which  begins  in  a  lower  register  and 
gradually  rises  higher  and  higher,  leading  to 
an  effective  climax.  The  growth  of  the  orches- 
tra also  gave  the  composers  an  opportunity  to 
heighten  the  efi'ect  of  their  vocal  polyphonic 
works.  The  chief  masters  of  this  school  are: 
Legrenzi.   Lotti,  Caldara,   ilarcello. 

XV.  The  Enijlish  School  of  the  Restoration 
(ltiOO-04). — After  the  death  of  Gibbons  in  1025 
music  declined  rapidly  in  England.  This  decline 
is  due  to  the  unsettled  state  of  affairs  during 
the  reign  of  Charles  I.  and  the  fanaticism  of 
the  Puritans,  who  objected  to  the  cultivation 
of  music,  and  destroyed  many  valuable  manu- 
scripts. When,  at  his  accession  in  lliOO,  C'luules 
II.  attempted  a  restoration  of  music,  practically 
a  new  start  had  to  l>e  made.  In  spite  of  many 
drawbacks,  however,  music  soon  attained  its 
former  importance.  Purcell,  the  greatest  mu- 
sical genius  England  has  ever  produced,  now- 
appeared,  and  imder  his  inspiration  English 
music  rose  to  such  a  height  that  for  a  short 
time  England  boasted  a  national  school  of  opera. 
The  principal  composers  of  the  Restoration  are: 
Humfrev.  Wise,  Blow,  Purcell. 

XVI.'r/ip  School  of  Italian  Sonafists  (1620- 
1800). — Up  to  the  seventeenth  century  the  organ 
was  tlie  great  means  of  developing  instrumental 
music  (toccata,  ricercare,  fugue).  By  the  be- 
ginning of  that  century  the  violin  had  been 
considerably  perfected  and  attracted  a  number 
of  musicians  in  Northern  Italy.  These  composers 
prepared  the  way  for  our  highest  musical  art- 
form,  the  sonata.  About  1050  a  distinction 
began  to  be  made  between  sonata  da  chicsa  and 
sonata  da  camera;  the  former  consisted  of  sev- 
eral movements  of  contrapuntal  writing,  the  lat- 
ter employed  various  dance-forms.  Great  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  thematic  development.  The 
instrumental  concerto  was  introduced  and  the 
concerto  grosso  was  cultivated.  The  principle 
of  musical  dualism,  first  announced  by  Scar- 
latti, was  strongly  emphasize<l.  While  in  the 
eighteenth  century  all  the  art-forms  in  Italy 
declined,  this  school  of  sonata  writers  was  the 
only  one  that  made  progress  in  the  art.  The 
principal  masters  are:  Legrenzi,  Bassani,  Torelli, 
Veracini,  Corelli.  Tartini,  Boccherini. 

XVII.  The    School    of    the    (Icrman    Singspiel 
(c.1030-1800).— (A)     In    the    beginning    of    the 
seventeenth  century  there  arose  in  Germany  the 
so-called    "school   comedy' — dramatic    representa- 
tions Vjy  students.     Each  act  was  preceded  by  a 
short  musical  dialogue  introducing  mythological 
personages.      This    custom    led    to   the   establish- 
ment of  the  German   singspiel    (q.v.),  in  which 
the    acting    personages    were    shepherds,     shep- 
herdesses, nymphs,  etc.     These  singsjiicle  finally 
gave  rise  to  a  national  German  opera   in  Ham- 
burg, but  not  until  Hiller  in  Leipzig  established 
the   singspiel    upon   the    basis    of    the    folksong 
did   this    form    rise   to   an    artistic   level.      The 
composers  of  this   school   are:    Strungk,   Kusser, 
Keiser,    Mattheson,    Handel,    Telemann,    Hiller, 
Dittersdorf.  Schenck,  Weigl.  Winter.      (B)  While 
the  singspiel  was  popular   with   the  masses,  the 
German    princes,    decrying   everything   that    was 
German,   favored   the   Italian   opera.      Especially 
Vienna   and   Dresden   became   strongholds  of  the 
foreign   style.      Many   German    composers    began 
to  write  Italian  operas,  and  thus  aided  the  rapid 


decline  of  dramatic  composition.  Among  these 
composers  we  find:  Ilasse,  Graun,  Doles,  Xau- 
mann.     See  Opera. 

XVIII.  The  Italian  School  of  Decadence 
(c.I750-1810t. — With  the  aria  the  Neapolitan 
School  had  given  to  nmsic  that  form  which  was 
soon  to  bring  about  a  general  decline  of  dramatic 
music.  Dramatic  truth  counted  for  nothing; 
sensuous  charm  of  melody  and  display  of  vocal 
art  were  paramount.  Composers  became  the 
slaves  of  singers.  The  ballet  became  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  opera.  Naturally  com- 
posers did  not  waste  time  in  studying  counter- 
point and  polyphonic  writing  when  success  was 
so  easily  won  by  writing  pretty  melodies  over 
the  plainest  harmonic  accompaniment.  The  prin- 
cipal names  of  this  scliool  are:  Porpora,  Pergo- 
lese,  Jomelli,  Piecinni,  Sacchini.  Paisiello,  Salieri, 
Cimarosa,  Zingarelli,  Righini,  Paer.     See  Opera. 

XIX.  The  Classic  Masters  (c.1700-1827  ) .— As 
the  contributions  to  music  by  our  great  classic 
masters  are  fullj'  treated  under  the  separate 
titles,  mention  is  made  of  them  here  merely 
for  the  sake  of  completeness.  Bach  marks  the 
culmination  of  the  polyphonic  period  of  music 
( see  Polyphony  ) ,  as'  well  as  the  beginning  of 
the  new  homophonic-harmonic  period.  (See  Ho- 
MOPHOXT. )  In  him  the  passion  (q.v.)  and  the 
instrnmental  fugue  reach  their  highest  develop- 
ment. He  brings  equal  temjierament  (q.v.)  into 
universal  use.  Ha.xdel  brings  the  oratorio 
(q.v.)  and  the  vocal  fugue  to  perfection.  Tak- 
ing up  English  music  where  the  premature  death 
of  Purceir  had  left  it,  he  becomes  the  founder 
of  a  new  English  school.  Gfi-UCK  reforms  the 
opera  by  emphasizing  the  dramatic  in  opposition 
to  the  purely  musical  element,  without,  however, 
disturbing  the  forms  of  the  aria,  chorus,  duet, 
ensemble,  etc.  He  greatly  advances  the  art  of 
orchestration.  Haydn  perfects  the  sonata  (q.v.) 
and  establishes  the  modern  form  of  the  sym- 
phony and  string  quartet  (q.v.),  as  well  as  the 
s.ymphony  orchestra,  by  individualizing  the  sepa- 
rate instruments.  He  is  the  'father  of  modern 
instrumental  music."  Mozart  invents  no  new 
forms,  but  fills  those  existing  with  the  contents 
of  his  wonderful  genius.  He  is  a  univcrsalist, 
equally  great  in  all  the  forms  he  handles.  In 
the  works  of  Beethoven  absolute  music 
reaches  a  point  which  would  indicate  the  highest 
possible  development,  Ijcyond  wliich  no  progress 
can  be  imagined.  He  greatly  enlarges  the  forms 
of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  and  replaces  the  minuet 
(q.v.)  of  the  symphony  by  the  sclierzo  (q.v.). 
He  strikes  passionate  accents  never  heard  before 
in  music,  and  discloses  marvelous  depths  of  emo- 
tion. Schubert  creates  the  art-song  (fcurts^- 
lied).  (See  Lied.)  In  the  field  of  instrumental 
music  he  follows  the  path  opened  by  Beethoven, 
but  preserves  his  own  strong  individuality. 

XX.  The  English  School  Since  Ilandrl  (1750- 
18-29).— When  Handel  settled  in  England  in  1718 
the  national  opera  of  Purcell  had  been  entirely 
superseded  by  the  Italian.  Handel's  own  Italian 
operas  exerted  no  u])lifting  influence,  and  have 
shared  the  fate  of  the  works  by  his  contempo- 
raries. But  when  Handel  liegan  to  cultivate  the 
oratorio  he  laid  the  foundation  of  his  fame  as 
well  as  that  of  tlie  Englisli  School.  Unfor- 
tunately, he  remained  the  only  master.  His 
contemporaries  and  immediate  successors  were 
unable  to  carry  on  his  w-ork.  although  they 
made   earnest   efforts.      They,    therefore,    turned 


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180 


MUSIC. 


their  attontion  to  the  opera — not  the  foreign 
Ituliuii  product,  hut  the  national  English  opera. 
They  even  siieteeded  in  establishing  a  style  of 
their  own  dilVerent  from  the  tJerinan  sini/spicl 
or  the  French  ojicra  comique.  The  spoken  dia- 
logue occupied  altogether  too  much  space,  and, 
although  the  musical  numbers  were  not  lacking 
in  a  certain  freshness  and  melodious  charm,  they 
were  utterly  devoid  of  all  dramatic  expression. 
Hence  this  national  opera  died  with  its  authors. 
The  most  prominent  composers  are:  Arnc,  Ar- 
nold. Dihdin.  Storaee,  Hook,  Shield. 

XXI.  Thr  Fniuh  Grand  Opera  (1774-1864).— 
A  peculiarity  of  the  l'"rench  opera  is  the  fact 
that  several  of  the  masters  who  have  contributed 
most  materially  to  its  advancement  were  foreign 
born.  After  the  death  of  Itameau.  Frencli  na- 
tional opera  was  at  a  standstill,  during  which 
time  the  Italian  opera  gained  ground.  Then  a 
German.  Gluck.  appeared  with  his  reforms.  The 
success  of  his  Iphigenie  en  Aulide  in  1774  marks 
the  beginning  of  a  new  era  of  French  opera. 
The  new  style  was  taken  up  by  two  Italians, 
Cherubini  and  Spontini.  who  finally  established 
the  grand  opera.  Then  native  French  composers 
began  to  take  part.  The  characteristics  of  (his 
school  are;  the  prevalence  of  tragic  subjects; 
the  absence  of  spoken  dialogue;  the  great  atten- 
tion paid  to  declamation,  which  very  often 
degenerates  into  empty  rhetoric  and  hollow 
bathos ;  a  hea\y  orchestration,  whose  aim  is  for 
striking  effects;  arid  elaborate  ensembles  and 
finales.  The  introduction  of  a  ballet  after  the 
second  act  is  indispensable.  In  the  choice  of 
subjects  those  taken  from  history  are  specially 
favored.  This  school  may  be  divided  into  two 
periods,  roughly  separateil  by  the  year  1830. 
The  characteristics  just  mentioned  ajiply  more 
strictly  to  the  second  period  (Meyerbeer)  ;  while 
the  works  of  the  first  period,  as  a  rule,  are 
marked  by  a  greater  earnestness  of  jjurpose  as 
far  as  the  purely  nuisical  setting  is  concerned. 
The  principal  composers  are:  Gluck,  Berton, 
Oossec,  Cherubini,  Lesueur,  Spontini,  Aubcr, 
Rossini  (Tell).  Meyerbeer,  Hal^\'y.    See  Oper.\. 

XXII.  The  Freneh  Opera  Comique  (c.l7tiO- 
1870). — This  school  presents  three  sharjily 
marked  i)eriods.  The  productions  of  the  first 
period  somewnat  resemble  the  German  sinfixpiel. 
The  subjects  are  taken  from  everyday  life  or 
fairy  tales.  The  secco-recitative  of  the  Italian 
opera  buffa  gives  place  to  the  spoken  dia- 
logue; for  the  aria  is  substituted  the  Freneh 
chnnxon.  Tlie  works  of  the  second  period  (c.lSOO- 
.SO)  show  the  inllucnce  of  German  romanticism. 
The  purely  comic  subjects  are  replaced  by  a 
mixture  of  comedy  and  romanticism.  The  music 
assumes  a  more  serious  character  and  better 
musical  characterization  is  attained;  the  orches- 
tra becomes  an  important  factor,  and  the  en- 
semble is  strongly  influenced  by  that  of  the 
grand  opi'ra.  In  fact,  some  of  the  masters  of 
the  grand  opera  belong  equally  to  the  opera 
romir/ur  (Cherubini.  .Auber,  Hali'vy).  In  the 
works  of  the  third  period  we  find  very  often 
that  the  only  comical  thing  about  them  is  their 
designation  as  opera  enmiqiie.  Composers  do  not 
hesitate  to  choose  tragic  subjects.  .And  yet  such 
works  are  called  opera  eomiqiie,  because  they 
differ  from  grand  opera  by  the  fact  that  there  is 
spoken  dialogue,  Xothing  can  very  well  be  more 
tracic  than  Bizet's  Carmfn.  But  it  contains 
spoken  dialogue ;  hence  it  Is  op6ra  comique.     In 


op(ra  comique  there  is  generally  a  healthier 
musical  atmosphere,  less  striving  for  mere  efi'ect, 
more  truthful  dramatic  expression,  less  artifi- 
ciality. The  great  masters  of  this  school  are: 
Philidor,  Monsigny,  Gretry,  Cherubini,  Mehul, 
Isouurd,  Auljer,  Boieldieu,  Herold,  Halfivy,  A. 
Thomas,  Bizet,  Delibes. 

XXIII.  The  School  of  Bel  Canto  (181308).— 
We  have  seen  that  the  opera  in  Italy  declined 
rapidly  after  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. With  the  appearance  of  Rossini  a  new 
school  may  be  said  to  begin.  Even  before  him 
singing  was  the  chief  attraction;  but  his  pred- 
ecessors relied  upon  the  technical  skill  of  the 
singers  to  please  the  audience.  Rossini  surpassed 
all  Italian  operatic  composers  before  him  in  the 
]iow('r  of  melcidic  invention.  It  is  this  sensuous 
ch;irm  of  melody  that  distinguishes  the  school  of 
the  Bel  Canto  from  the  school  of  Decadence.  Be- 
sides Rossini,  the  principal  exponents  of  this 
style  are  Donizetti  and  Bellini.  Of  only  second- 
ary importance  are  Gencrali.  ilercadante,  and 
Pacini. 

XXIV.  The  German  Romcmtic  School  (1818- 
80). — The  German  romantic  opera  was  developed 
from  the  singspiel.  Abuul  the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  witches,  gnomes,  ghosts,  and  all 
kinds  of  spirits  were  introduced  into  the  singspiel, 
which  thus  gradually  gave  rise  to  a  new  kind, 
the  Zauberoper  (magic  opera).  Although  the 
texts  of  the.se  productions  were  silly,  and  the  at- 
tention was  distracted  from  the  purely  musical 
element  to  the  .scenic  decorations,  yet  this  Zauber- 
op<r  led  opera  into  the  realm  of  the  tnysterious, 
l)hantastic.  and  wonderful,  where  it  has  scored 
its  greatest  triumphs.  The  real  beginning  of  the 
Romantic  School  is  marked  bv  the  ajipearancc 
of  Weber's  Freisehiilz  (1818)'.  With  the  ap- 
pearance of  romanticisni  music  becomes  more  and 
more  the  individual,  subjective  expression  of 
each  composer,  so  that  it  is  exceedingly  dilTieult 
to  arrange  composers  into  schools.  One  char- 
acteristic of  the  Romantic  School  in  general  is 
the  great  advance  in  orchestral  tone-coloring  over 
the  classic  masters,  and  a  decided  preference  for 
dissonances.  Not  only  (he  different  instruments 
become  so  many  separate  voices,  but  a  distinc- 
tion is  made  even  between  (he  various  registers 
of  (he  sanu^  instrument.  Harmony  becomes  great- 
ly cnriclied  and  is  (he  principal  means  of  emo- 
tion.al  expression,  while  rhythm  assumes  greater 
diversity  and  complexity.  Music  in  general  be- 
comes more  intense  ami  passionate.  The  instru- 
mental composers  at  first  fill  the  classical  forms 
with  romantic  contents,  and  then  originate  new 
forms.  In  the  field  of  dramatic  music  (he  prin- 
cipal composers  are;  \\'eber.  S[)ohr,  ^larscbner, 
T.ort/ing.  Holstein.  Kretschmer.  Goldniark,  G.'itz, 
Xessler,  Briill,  Those  who  devo(ed  their  energies 
to  instrumen(al  and  choral  works  are;  Spolir, 
Schumann,  Mendelssohn.  Tlie  Iat(er  master  has 
much  in  common  wi(h  the  classicists,  and  became 
the  head  of  a  school  whose  principal  representa- 
tives are:  Ililler.  Reinecke,  .ladassohn.  The  in- 
fluence of  Sdunnatm  is  perceptible  in  another 
group  of  masters,  of  whom  the  most  prominent 
are;  Franz.  \'olkmann.  .Tensen,  Huber.  Midway 
between  these  (wo  schools,  and  preservini.'  cbar- 
ac(eristics  of  their  own,  are  Raff  and  Rhein- 
lierL'er, 

XXV.  Wagner  — Linst  —  Iirahms  (1S4307). 
— .Xmons  the  great  German  masters  of  (he  nine- 
teenth century  three  stand  forth  .so  prominently 


1 


HUSIC. 


181 


MUSIC. 


that  it  is  impossible  to  classify  theni.  Wagner 
aiiJ  Liszt  became  founders  of  two  distinct  schools, 
whereas  Brahius  stands  alone,  without  follow- 
ers. W  ajrner  began  as  tlie  successor  of  the  ro- 
mantic opera  of  Weber.  His  refurinatory  work 
is  concerned  not  with  the  opera  in  particular, 
but  with  dramatic  composition  in  general.  He 
emphasizes  the  drama  and  asserts  that  music 
must  only  follow  and  intensify  the  text.  He 
practically  banishes  the  chorus,  ensembles,  etc., 
and  substitutes  the  monologue.  The  voices  de- 
claim in  a  highly  dramatic  kind  of  recitative, 
while  the  development  of  the  musical  ideas  is  as- 
signed to  the  orchestra.  The  unifying  principle 
of  liis  works  is  the  leitmotiv(q.v.) ,  which  consti- 
tutes the  basis  of  the  niiisifiil  drama  (q.v. ).  The 
nmsic-drama  is  a  combination  of  the  dramatic, 
musical,  and  plastic  arts  into  one  new  art-form. 
Wagner  demands  first  of  all  a  drama,  not  a  text 
or  libretto  (q.v.)  ;  all  the  resources  of  music  are 
to  be  employed  toward  a  true  interpretation  of 
this  drama;  and  the  plastic  arts  are  to  combine 
with  music.  The  orchestra  is  enormously  en- 
riched by  new  tone-colors  and  means  of  expres- 
sion. ( See  Melos  :  Opera  ;  Wagner.  )  Liszt  ap- 
plied Wagner's  principle  of  descriptive  music  to 
purely  instrumental  music,  and  became  an  ex- 
ponent of  "programme  music'  (q.v.).  Unable  to 
make  the  classic  form  of  the  s.ymphony  serve  his 
purpose,  he  invented  the  si/inplwn;/  poem.  In  the 
field  of  piano-music  he  becomes  the  originator, 
with  Schumann  and  Chopin,  of  modern  piano- 
forte techniiiue.  Together  with  Wagner  and  Ber- 
lioz he  also  laid  the  foundations  of  a  new  school 
of  conducting  (the  interpretativeconductor) .  (See 
CoN'Di'CTOR :  I-iszT. )  Brahms,  in  an  age  of  musical 
ex<itement  and  innovations,  stands  forth  as  the 
keeper  of  classical  forms.  He  successfully  car- 
ries nn  the  style  of  Beethoven's  third  period, 
faithfully  preserving  the  form,  but  showing  the 
possibility  of  filling  it  with  new  and  original  con- 
tents. Thus  he  proves  that  absolute  music  is  un- 
limited in  its  .scope  and  power  of  expression  ;  that 
its  capabilities  were  not  exhausted  even  by  the 
titanic  Beethoven;  that  any  original  genius  can 
employ  those  forms  for  conveying  his  ideas; 
that  the  polyphonic  art  of  Bach  can  successfully 
be  combined  with  the  homojdionic-harmonic  art 
of  Beethoven  and  with  Romanticism.  See  Braiims. 

XXVI.  Thr  Berlin  Academicians  (1830-1000). 
— While  Brahms  was  not  hostile  to  the  develop- 
ment of  music,  a  number  of  composers  refused  to 
recognize  that  Romanticism  was  an  advance  in  the 
art  of  music.  They  closed  themselves  to  the  new 
influences  and  sought  their  ideals  in  the  past. 
The  .strongholds  of  this  school  were  .several  Ber- 
lin institutions,  notably  the  Siitrjakademie.  (See 
Choral  Societies.)  The  energies  of  these  mas- 
ters were  directed  to  the  cultivation  of  the  poly- 
phonic style  of  the  older  Italian  schools  and 
Bach.  But  some  of  the  later  masters  finally 
adopted  the  principles  of  Romanticism.  The  im- 
portant names  are:  Dehn.  Orell.  Kiel.  Bargiel, 
Blumner,  Becker,  Bruch,  Hofmann,  Herzogenberg, 
Gernsheim. 

XXVII.  The  Xt'o-nermaii  Helwol  (1847—). 
— The  beginning  of  Liszt's  activity  in  Weimar  in 
1847  may  be  regarded  as  the  commencenicnt  of 
this  .school.  Liszt  attracted  a  great  number  of 
young  musicians  who  enthusiastically  devoted 
themselves  to  the  cultivation  of  proirramme 
music,  carrying  out  Liszt's  ideas.  But  the  Xeo- 
Qerman   masters   did   not  devote  their  energies 


entirely  to  the  field  of  instrumental  music.  Wag- 
ner's works  attracted  more  and  more  admirer.i, 
and  composers  began  to  imitate  him.  Up  to  the 
present  day  a  great  many  dramatic  works  con- 
structed upon  Wagner's  principles  have  been 
written.  The  failure  of  all  would  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  one  might  almost  be  justified  in  stating 
that  Wagner's  art-form  is  one  suited  to  his  own 
gigantic  genius,  but  hopeless  for  lesser  masters. 
This  would  seem  to  be  confirmed  by  the  fact 
that  the  new  dramatic  works  that  have  achieved 
success  are  all  by  non-German  composers  who 
adopted  many  of  Wagner's  ideas,  but  not  hia 
form  in.  tolo.  The  Neo-Gcrman  School  has  been 
marked  by  earnest  effort,  but  its  composers  have 
made  no  lasting  impi'ession.  The  only  one  whose 
work  seems  destined  to  outlive  contemjrorary 
criticism  is  Richard  Strauss,  a  man  of  pro- 
nounced originality  and  as  a  master  of  orchestra- 
tion equal  to  Wagner  himself.  The  dramatic 
composers  of  this  school  are:  Cornelius,  Ritter, 
Bungert,  Kistler,  Humperdinck,  Kienzl,  D'Albert, 
Weinglirtner,  Schillings,  S.  Wagner.  The  instru- 
mental composers  are  represented  bj':  Krug, 
Nicode,  Jlahler.  Hausegger. 

XXVIII.  The  Modern  Italian  School  (1851—). 
— Beginning  about  17o0.  the  history  of  Italian 
music  is  practically  the  history  of  the  decline  of 
the  opera.  When  Verdi  scored  his  first  success 
in  1839  no  one  dreamt  that  this  man,  beginning 
in  the  degenerate  style,  would  raise  the  Italian 
opera  to  a  high  level.  In  Iliijoletio  (1851)  there 
is  a  very  perceijtible  eft'ort  for  dramatic  truth 
and  characterization,  which  the  school  of  Bel 
Canto  entirely  ignored.  The  successive  wiu'ks  ad- 
vance along  this  line  until  in  .1  iV/o  ( 1 872 )  we  ha ve 
a  rare  combination  of  exquisite  melody,  dra- 
matic characterization,  and  truth  of  expression. 
Olello  (1887)  and  FaUlnff  (1803)  mark  the 
culmination  of  Italian  opera.  Wagner's  principle 
of  dramatic  truth  is  .strictly  observed.  Neverthe- 
less these  works  are  not  imitations  of  Wagner. 
Verdi  has  retained  all  the  forms  of  the  opera, 
but  has  knit  them  together  into  an  artistic 
whole.  The  principle  of  the  leitmotiv  is  not  used. 
The  orchestration  shows  a  mastery  never  ex- 
hibited by  any  previous  Italian  compo.ser.  The 
influence  of  Verdi  is  noticeable  in  a  number  of 
composers  known  as  the  Veriotic  School  (Mas- 
cagni,  Leoncavallo),  who  for  some  years  at- 
tracted much  attention.  Among  the  many 
operatic  composers,  none  of  whom  can  approach 
Verdi,  the  following  deserve  mention:  Boito, 
Ponchielli,  Marchetti,  Faccio,  Coronaro.  Puccini, 
Smareglia.  The  elevating  influence  Verdi  ex- 
erted upon  dramatic  music  turned  .some  serious 
composers  to  the  field  of  instrumental  and  choral 
music,  which  had  been  sadly  neglected  in  Italy. 
The  principal  instrumental  and  choral  compos- 
ers arc:  Pinelli,  Sgambati.  Cesi,  Grazzini,  Man- 
cinelli,  Martucci,  Franchetti,  Perosi. 

XXIX.  The  Modern  French  School  (1830—). 
— So  far  we  have  spoken  of  musical  development 
in  France  only  in  connection  with  the  theatre. 
Instrumental  music  had  not  been  cultivated  to 
a  very  great  extent.  But  we  cannot  disregard 
the  name  of  the  family  of  Couperin  during  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  Several 
mendicrs  have  become  famous  through  their 
contribution  to  the  perfection  of  the  suite- 
form.  Under  .section  XXII.  the  hi.story  of  dra- 
matic music  up  to  the  death  of  Jleyerbeer  has 
been  gi\en.     Berlioz  first  awakened  a  deeper  in- 


MUSIC. 


182 


MUSIC. 


tere.st  in  instiuiiiental  music.  This  master  was 
led  to  iiK-tiuinental  composition  tiirougli  tlie  in- 
lliieiRC  of  liefthoveii,  but,  uiiiusijiied  by  the 
classic  forms,  he  became  the  originator  of  pro- 
{,'ranime  music  (q.v.).  His  works,  all  conceived 
in  large  forms,  lack  symmetry  of  eonslriiction 
and  have  not  yet  found  universal  recognition. 
15ut  Berlioz  first  aroused  general  interest  in 
J'rauce  for  instrumental  music  and,  independ- 
ently of  Wagner,  did  much  for  the  art  of  orches- 
tration. Soon  other  composers  began  to  culti- 
vate instrumental  nuisic;  and  these  used  the 
classical  forms.  Alter  liirlioz's  ideas  of  pro- 
gramme nuisic  had  been  adopted  by  Liszt,  who 
established  the  symphonic  poem  as  a  recognized 
art-form,  French  comi)osers  accepted  the  idea. 
All  through  the  jiast  century  German  classical 
and  romantic  inlluences  have  been  at  work  in 
France.  The  mingling  of  these  influences  with 
the  individuality  of  the  French  masters  has 
been  productive  of  excellent  results,  and  to-day 
France  can  boast  an  influential  instrumental 
school.  The  principal  masters  are:  David, 
Fianck,  Lalo.  Saint-Saens,  Bizet,  Delibes,  Go- 
dard.  d'Indy,  Chausson.  Chaminade,  Halm.  But 
dramatic  music  did  not  remain  at  a  standstill; 
the  German  romantic  opera  and  lyric  drama  in- 
fluenced French  dramatic  composers.  Although 
the  grand  opera  (the  historic  and  heroic  opera 
of  >Ieyerbeer)  was  in  danger  of  losing  sight  of 
dramatic  truth  in  its  striving  after  mere  efTect, 
the  (iin'ni  coiiiiiiiic  and  tlie  later  lyrical  French 
drama  are  distinguished  for  truth  of  expression 
and  successful  musical  characterization.  Wag- 
ner's works  have  exerted  only  a  wholesome  in- 
fluence, for  French  composers  wisely  did  not 
imitate  his  form,  but  only  followed  the  German 
master  in  the  art  of  orchestration,  as  well  as  in 
a  few  other  principles  which  can  be  safely 
adopted  without  danger  of  losing  individuality. 
The  most  prominent  dramatic  composers  are: 
(Jounod,  Saint-Saens,  Bizet.  JIassenet,  Chabrier, 
(Juiraud,  Kever,  Jlasse,  Bruneau. 

XXX.  The  Polish  School  (1830— ).— The  Sla- 
vic and  Scandinavian  nations  took  no  impor- 
tant part  in  tlie  development  of  music  until  the 
last  century.  (  For  a  comiilcte  account  the  reader 
is  referred  to  the  articles  on  Scanuix.wian 
Music  and  Slavo.nic  Music.)  Polish  music  is 
chiefly  represented  by  the  works  of  Chopin,  who 
18  one  of  the  founders  of  a  new  school  of  piano- 
playing.  His  original  harmonic  combinations 
have  become  a  great  means  in  modern  emotional 
expression.  He  also  showed  how  embellishments 
can  be  made  an  important  factor  of  expression. 
The  other  Polish  masters  show  less  national  char- 
acteristics, and  those  living  at  present  in  Ger- 
many are  more  (Jerinan  than  Polish.  The  prin- 
cipal Polish  masters  are:  Moniuszko.  Kurpinski, 
Dohrzynski,  X.  and  Ph.  Scharwenka.  and  Mosz- 
kowski. 

XXXI.  The  Russian  School  ( 18.S6— 1 .— The 
beginning  of  a  distinct  school  may  be  dated  from 
the  first  performance  of  Glinka's  Life  for  the 
Czar.  At  first  the  national  school  cultivated 
chiefly  dramatic  <'ompo-^ition.  but  soon  composers 
turned  also  to  instrumental  music,  in  which  line 
several  have  achieved  marked  success.  Tlie  char- 
acteristics of  Pussian  music  are  strength  and 
j;reat  variety  of  rhythm,  amounting  almost  to 
irregularity.  The  prominent  masters  are:  Bort- 
nianski,  Verstowski,  Glinka.  Dargomyszki, 
BerolT,    Borodin,    Cui,    Balakircff,    Mussorgski, 


Tschaikowsky,  Rimski-KorsakoU',  Arenski,  Glasu- 
noli',  Kubinstein. 

XXXII.  The  Scandinavian  School  (1S40 — ). — 
Like  the  Russians,  the  Scandinavians  established 
a  distinct  school  by  emphasizing  the  national  ele- 
ment in  music  as  it  was  presented  in  their  folk- 
music.  Denmark  made  the  beginning,  but  Nor- 
way soon  took  the  lead.  The  characteristics  of 
the  school  are  an  artistic  use  of  dis.s(]nances 
and  an  emphasis  of  rhythm,  rather  than  of 
melody.  The  principal  masters  are:  (Denmark) 
Berggreen,  Hartmann,  Gade.  Enna ;  (Sweden) 
Hallstroem.  Sodermann,  Hallen,  Sjiigreii;  (Nor- 
way) Kjerulf,  Svendsen,  Xordraak,  Grieg.  Sind- 
ing.     See  Scaxmxavian  Music. 

XXXIII.  The  Bohemian  School  (18G(i— ).— 
The  attempts  of  Russian  composers  to  establish  a 
national  opera  led  Bohemian  musicians  to  make 
the  same  experiment  in  their  own  country.  A 
distinct  Bohemian  school  may  be  said  to  begin 
with  Smetana's  The  Bartered  Bride  (180G). 
Smetana  also  was  the  first  notable  instrumental 
master.  He,  and  still  more  DvorSk,  have  made 
the  Bohemian  school  famous,  but  the  merit  of  the 
instrumental  works  overbalances  that  of  the 
dramatic  compositions.  The  forms  cultivated 
are  those  of  the  German  classic  and  romantic 
masters.  The  principal  composers  are:  Si-hraup, 
Skuhersky,  Schebor,  Rozkosny,  Smetana,  Dvorak, 
Fibich.    iSee  Sl.vvomc  Music. 

XXXIV.  The  Modern  School  of  the  'Sether- 
lands  (c.lSOO — ). — Although  after  the  time  of 
the  great  contrapuntal  schools  of  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries  we  meet  no  distinct 
school  in  the  Xetliorlands,  music  was  not  neg- 
lected in  those  countries.  But  the  inlluences  of 
the  neighboring  countries,  France,  and  es]iccially 
Germany,  always  predominated,  thus  preventing 
the  rise  of  a  national  school.  Both  Belgium  and 
Holland  have  produced  a  number  of  excellent 
composers.  But  the  importance  of  the  Nether- 
lands during  the  nineteenth  century  rests  more 
U|)on  the  contributions  to  musical  history.  In 
this  line  Belgian  writers  are  second  to  none  in 
tlie  world.  Without  the  labors  of  Fetis,  Cousse- 
maker,  and  Gevaert  our  knowledge  of  the  musical 
past  would  be  very  incomplete.  Besides,  Belgium 
has  produced  some  of  the  greatest  instrumental 
performers  (De  Beriot.  Vieuxtemps,  Vonard, 
Servais).  The  more  prominent  of  the  composers 
are:  (Belgium)  .Janssens.  Benoit.  Mcrtcns, 
Wouters.  van  den  Keden,  Tinel,  Mathieu.  Gilsonj 
(Holland)  Verhulst,  Koning,  Coenen.  Silas,  Hoi, 
Thooft.  de  Hartog. 

XXX\".  The  Modern  ICnfilish  School  (18.30— ). 
— The  iircdominaiice  of  spoken  dialogue  had 
caused  the  downfall  of  the  English  opera.  About 
1S.30  some  English  comjiosers  attempted  to  writs 
national  oixras  with  a  moderate  amoiint  of 
dialogue.  The  works  of  Weber  assisted  them  in 
their  efforts,  but  as  these  earlier  works  were  of  a 
lighter  character  English  opera  soon  assumed  tho 
character  of  operetta.  The  apiiearance  of  Sulli- 
van established  this  form  U]i(in  a  firm  basis.  In 
the  field  of  grand  opera  England  has  as  yet  pro- 
duced no  successful  work.  The  cultivation  of 
instrumental  music,  through  the  intbicnce  of 
Beethoven,  has  yielded  more  satisfactory  results, 
but  the  best  work  has  been  acconiplistwd  in  the 
field  of  choral  music.  The  modern  Knglisli  com- 
posers have  not  succeeded  in  developing  a  char- 
acteristic style,  but  their  works  show  solid  work- 
manship and  mastery  of  form.     The  weak  point 


1 


MUSIC. 


183 


MUSICAL  FESTIVAL. 


is  thematic  invention;  the  themes  lack  spon- 
taneity. The  list  of  English  composers  is  a  very 
long  one.  The  following  deserve  special  men- 
tion: (Dramatic  music)  Bishop,  Balfe,  Barnett, 
Jlacfarren,  Wallace,  Benedict,  Sullivan,  Stan- 
ford; (Instrumental  and  choral  nuisic)  Costa, 
Beiuictt,  Barnby,  Stainer,  Parry,  Cowen,  Mac- 
kenzie. Coleridge-Tavlor. 

XXXVi.  The  American  School  (1880— ).— We 
have  seen  that  the  English  sch(j(d  of  the  Restora- 
tion (XV.)  was  obliged  to  rebuild  what  the  Puri- 
tans had  destroyed,  ilusic  beginning  in  America 
witli  the  Puritan  psalm-tunes  and  under  Puritan 
inlluence  naturally  could  not  develop.  Its  growth 
came  only  with  foreign  inllucnces ;  and  even  then 
considerable  time  had  to  elapse  before  any  works 
by  .\nierican  composers  appeared.  Even  at  this 
present  day  there  is  no  American  school  showing 
distinctive  traits;  the  best  works  show  German 
influences.  The  use  of  American  themes  (negro 
or  Indian  melodies)  adds  perhaps  local  color, 
but  is  not  sufficient  to  create  a  school.  It  is  a 
significant  fact  that  the  best  works  in  which  na- 
tional themes  are  employed  were  written  by  a 
Bohemian,  Dvorfik.  Among  the  composers  who 
have  produced  works  of  sterling  merit  are:  Gil- 
christ, Poote.  Chadwick,  Bird,  Horatio  Parker, 
van  der  Stucken.  Klein.  MacDowell. 

For  further  information  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  separate  articles  on  FoLK-ilu.sic ;  Mrsic; 
Opera;  Oratorio,  and  on  the  various  important 
composers,  forms  of  music,  and  musical  instru- 
ments. Consult  also:  J.  Hawkins,  A  General 
History  of  Music  (London,  1875);  Oxford  His- 
tor;i  of  Music  (Oxford,  1901  et  seq.)  ;  W'.  S. 
RocUstro,  General  History  of  Mtisic  (London, 
n.  d.)  ;  A.  W.  Ambros,  Geschichte  der  Musik 
(Leipzig.  1887-91):  W.  Langhans,  Geschichte 
der  Musilc  im  17.,  IS.,  10.  Jahrhunderl  (Leipzig, 
1884-87)  ;  A.  Svoboda,  Illiistrierte  Musikge- 
schichte  (Stuttgart,  1892)  ;  E.  Naumann,  Miisik- 
geschiclitc  (Berlin,  1885),  translated  also  into 
English  by  F.  Praeger  (London,  n.  d.)  ;  A. 
Souliies,  Bi.sloirc  dc  hi  mtisiijue    (Paris,   1900). 

MUSICAL  ART  SOCIETY.  See  Choral 
Societies. 

MUSICAL  DICTATION.  A  branch  of  musi- 
cal training  of  very  recent  date.  Tlie  instructor 
sings  or  plays  short  musical  selections  or  phrases 
which  the  pupil  is  required  to  fix  in  musical  no- 
tation on  paper.  Tlie  object  of  musical  dictation 
is  not  only  to  train  the  ear,  but  chiefly  to  de- 
velop the  power  of  quickly  grasping  and  fixing 
musical  ideas.  The  beginning  is  made  of  course 
with  simple  melodies  progressing  in  simple  in- 
tervals. Gradually  melodies  with  more  difficult 
intervals  are  introduced.  The  next  step  is  to 
melodies  witli  a  simple  harmonic  basis.  A  class 
for  musical  dictation  was  established  at  the 
Conservatory  in  Paris  in  1871.  Some  of  the 
German  conservatories  soon  followed  (Hamburg, 
Dresden,  Karlsruhe,  etc.).  An  elaborate  treatise 
on  the  subject  was  published  by  A.  Lavignac, 
Coiirs  complet  dc  dictfe  musicale  (Paris,  1882). 
Smaller  works  are:  Gotze,  Miixikalischc  I'fehreih- 
iihunqen  (Breslau.  1882);  and  Muaicnl  Dicta- 
li'm  (London,  1880)  by  Dr.  Ritter  (in  Novellos 
series  nf  Music   Primers). 

MUSICAL  DRAMA,  or  Mu.sikdrama.  A 
term  now  generally  employed  to  distinguish  the 
later  works  of  Wagner  (Tristan  mid  Isolde.  Die 
Meistersinger,    Die    yibelungen,    Parsifal)     from 


his  earlier  ones,  or  operas  {liienzi,  Der  fliegende 
Hollander,  Tannhuuser,  Lohengrin) .  Of  a  musico- 
dramalic  work  Wagner  demands  that  the  literary 
drama  be  the  first  and  music  the  second  consid- 
eration; whereas  in  the  opera  the  music  was 
almost  the  sole  consideration.  In  his  introduc- 
tion to  Oi)er  iind  Drama  U'agner  declares  em- 
pluitically:  "The  error  in  the  art-form  of  the 
Opera  consisted  in  the  fact  that  a  means  of  ex- 
pression (music)  was  made  the  end;  the  end 
of  expression  (the  drama)  a  means."  After 
Lohengrin  Wagner  wrote  chiefly  theoretical 
works  dealing  with  the  method  to  be  followed  by 
the  poet  and  composer  in  the  production  of  a 
new  form  of  art,  which  was  to  take  the  place  of 
the  opera.  Several  years  elapsed  before  be  began 
the  composition  of  Die  Xibelungen,  according  to 
his  new  artistic  convictions.  In  the  nuisical 
drama  the  fundamental  material  from  which  tlie 
music  is  constructed  is  the  leading  motire.  (See 
LEIT-MOTIV.)  By  this  means  artistic  unity  is  ob- 
tained, whereas  in  the  opera  the  difl'erent  ii»m- 
hers  may  be  artistic  wholes,  but  can  never  be 
welded  intimately  together  into  the  higher  unity 
of  the  entire  drama.  Wagner's  musical  dramas 
have  exerted  a  powerful  and  lasting  influence 
upon  all  dramatic  composers.  For  full  informa- 
tion, the  reader  is  referred  to  Wagner's  Oper  nnd 
Drama,  vols,  iii.-iv.  of  his  Gesammelte  Sehriften 
iind  Dichtungen.  (Leipzig,  1887)  ;  Das  Kunstwcrk 
der  Zukiinft.  vol.  iii.  of  same  ed. :  Eine  Mittei- 
lung  an  meine  Frcunde,  vol.  iv. ;  Ziikntiftsmnsik, 
vol.  vii.  See  also  articles  JIelos  :  Opera;  Wag- 
ner. 

MUSICAL  FESTIVAL.  The  performance  of 
some  large  choral  or  orchestral  work  witli  a 
very  large  chorus  or  orchestra.  The  real  era  of 
musical  festivals  begins  with  the  festival  perform- 
ances of  the  great  Handel  Commemoration  held 
from  1784  to  17S7  and  again  in  1791.  It  is  true 
that  previous  to  this  time  regular  musical  festi- 
vals \;ere  held  in  England :  but  they  were  prac- 
tically unknown  on  the  Continent.  In  England 
choral  singing  had  always  been  more  extensively 
cultivated  than  in  any  other  European  country, 
and  the  efficiency  of  English  choirs  led  Handel 
to  turn  his  attention  in  the  direction  of  writing 
for  large  choral  bodies  in  his  oratorios.  Since 
the  first  performance  of  the  .Uessio/i  in  1749  it 
has  remained  a  custom  in  London  to  perform  that 
work  with  greatly  augumented  chorus  and  orchest  ra 
everj'  j'ear  at  Christmas.  These  performances 
on  a  grand  scale  in  the  English  capital  roused 
a  feeling  of  national  pride  in  the  Germans,  who 
felt  that  the  great  master  belonged  to  tliem  by 
birth.  Festival  perfcuniances  of  Handel's  ora- 
torios were  first  given  in  Berlin  on  the  London 
plan  and  were  imitated  in  other  German  cities. 
Soon  the  works  of  other  composers  were  per- 
formed in  a  similar  manner.  And  as  on  such 
occasions  there  was  always  a  large  orchestra,  it 
was  but  natural  that  this  body  of  instrumental- 
ists was  utilized  in  the  performance  of  large 
orchestral  works.  Thus  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  centuiy  several  organizations  devoting 
their  energies  to  the  ju-oduction  of  any  great 
work,  whether  choral  or  purely  instrumental, 
sprang  into  existence  in  various  parts  of  Ger- 
many. Among  these  tlie  oldest  and  even  to-day 
mast  famous  are  the  Grsellsehnft  der  Miisik- 
frcunde  in  Vienna  and  the  yiederrhrinische  Mu- 
sikfcste,  which  take  place  yearly  in  some  city  of 


MUSICAL  FESTIVAL. 


184 


MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 


tli£  Lower  Kliiiu-  l)i:-tiiit.  Ilic  Lnitcd  States 
luis  not  been  lidiiiid  in  follmvinj,'  tlie  example  of 
England  and  Ueruiany,  and  many  festivals  are 
held  almost  yearly  in  several  of  the  larj^er  cities. 
On  such  occasions  it  is  nothing  unusual  to  find  a 
chorus  nunil>ering  from  one  to  two  thousand  voices 
and  an  orchestra  of  from  one  to  two  hundred  per- 
formers. These  musical  festivals  have  also  ])ow- 
erfully  afTected  the  mode  of  conducting  and  have 
done  very  much  toward  estahlishing  the  universal 
custom  of  conducting  hy  means  of  the  baton. 
Whereas  formerly  the  conductor  always  presided 
at  the  piano,  the  handling  of  large  bodies  of  sing- 
ers and  players  necessitated  the  undivided  atten- 
tion of  the  conductor  upon  those  whom  he  di- 
rected; and  the  singers,  in  turn,  became  likewise 
more  dependent  upon  signs  and  gestures  from  the 
conductor.  (See  CoXDfOTOR. )  For  an  account 
of  the  principal  nnisical  festivals,  see  BAYRErxii 
MfsiCAL  Festiv.\l;  Bethlehem  Musical  Fes- 
tival: Cl.NCIXNATI  ,  illSKAL  Fe.stival;  Oe- 
sellschaft  deb  Ostebreichischen  JIusik- 
frel'nde:  gew,\nnhau.scoxcerte;  leeds  musi- 
CAL Festival:  Loweb  Rhenish  Musical  Fes- 
tival: Sacred  Harmonic  Society;  Salzburg 
Festival:  Soci^Tf:  des  Concerts  du  Conserva- 
toire: Sons  of  the  Clergy;  Tonkunstleb-So- 
ciET.vT;  Musical  Society  of  London;  Three 
Choirs  Festival;  Worcester  Festival. 

MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS.  The  origin  of 
many  musical  instruments  dates  back  to  the 
earliest  times.  Not  a  few  of  these  ancient  in- 
struments arc  the  prototypes  of  some  of  our 
modern  ones.  Jlonuments  recently  unearthed  at 
Thebes  and  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Nile  con- 
tain representations  of  harjis  and  flutes:  and 
the  relation  of  our  modern  instruments  to  the 
old  Egyptian  models  is  not  diHicnlt  to  jierccive. 
In  the  case  of  other  instnunents  the  rehitinnship 
is  not  so  easy  to  trace,  owing  to  the  considerable 
modifications  which  they  underwent  in  the  course 
of  centuries  and  in  passing  from  one  nation  to 
another.  Even  so  recent  an  instnuncnt  as  our 
grand  pianoforte  can  be  traced  through  its  many 
and  vital  changes  to  the  dulcimer  (q.v.)  known 
to  the  .\rabs  and  Persians.  Hand  in  band  with 
the  evolution  of  the  art  of  music  went  the  inven- 
tion and  perfection  of  nmsical  instruments. 
Jlany  of  these  were  extensively  used  and  admired 
in  their  day,  but  soon  were  superseded,  so  that 
to-day  our  nuiseimis  arc  filled  with  various  in- 
struments of  all  times  and  nations  preserved 
only  as  curiosities.  Thus  the  large  family  of 
lutes  is  now  entirely  obsolete:  and  yet  at  one 
time  these  instruments  enjoyed  the  same  popu- 
larity as  the  pianoforte  does  today,  and  no 
orchestra  was  complete  without  them.  If  we 
except  the  stringed  instruments,  it  may  safely 
be  asserted  that  no  insfrumcnt  found  in  the 
modern  orchestra  is  the  same  as  it  was  a 
century  ago.  .Ml  the  instruments  of  the  wood- 
wind family  have  been  vastly  improved:  the 
natural  horns  and  trumpets  have  given  way  to 
the  improved  valve  horns  and  trumpets;  the 
serpents  and  ophiclcides  have  been  entirely  su- 
perseded by  the  trombones  and  tubas.  It  may 
he  said  that  the  modern  orchestra  comprises 
the  best  and  most  ciricient  instruments  now 
known,  and  the  test  for  admi-sion  into  this 
select  family  is  sonority  and  beauty  of  soimd. 
-Musical  instruments  are  generally  divided  into 
four   large  groups,   according  to   tlie   manner   in 


which  the  sound  is  produced,  viz.:  (1)  stringed 
instruments,  (2)  wind  instruments,  (3)  instru- 
ments of  percussion,  (4)  keyed  instruments. 
This  latter  group  embraces  the  organ  and  iiiano- 
forte,  the  former  being  really  a  wind,  the  latter 
a  stringed  instrument.  Both  differ  from  the 
other  instruments  of  those  groups  in  the  use 
of  a  keyboard. 

Stringed  Instruments.  Stringed  instruments 
are  divided  into  two  principal  classes:  (A) 
Those  in  which  the  tone  is  produced  by  drawing 
a  bow  made  of  horse-hair  across  the  strings. 
(B)  Those  in  which  the  tone  is  |)roduced  by 
plucking  the  string  either  with  the  fingers  or 
a  small  instrument  called  pled  rum.  The  instru- 
ments of  class  A  have  but  few  strings  (gen- 
erally four),  and  depend  for  the  i)roduction  of 
their  complete  range  upon  stopping,  i.e.  short- 
ening the  vibrating  portion  of  the  string  by 
means  of  the  fingers.  To  this  class  belong  (1) 
the  violin.  (2)  the  viola,  (31  the  violoncello, 
(4)  the  double  bass.  (See  the  separate  articles.) 
Some  of  the  instruments  of  class  B  have  few 
strings  like  those  of  class  A :  others  have  a 
.«:eparate  string  for  each  note.  Those  having  few 
strings  are:  (1)  the  mandolin,  (2)  the  guitar. 
(3)  the  banjo.  Those  having  many  separate 
strings:  (1)  the  zither,  (2)  the  harp.  (Seethe 
separate  articles.)  Formerly  there  were  in  use 
instruments  that  were  played  with  a  bow,  which 
also  had  additional  strings  to  be  plucked  with 
the  fingers.  (See  Theorbo. )  Among  the  stringed 
instruments  by  far  the  most  important  are  those 
constituting  the  viol  family  (class  A).  The 
present  perfection  of  these  instruments  is  the 
result  of  a  slow  evolution  of  possibly  a  thousand 
years.  But  so  far  we  have  no  evidence  whatever 
that  any  instruments  of  the  viol  family  were 
known  in  antiquity.  Because  Arabic  authors  of 
the  fourteenth  century  mention  stringcil  instru- 
ments, it  was  supposed  for  some  time  tliat  viols 
originated  in  tlic  Orient.  This  has  been  dis|)roved 
by  Gerbert.  who  in  the  second  volume  of  his  Ma- 
sica  (SVicTO  published  a  representation  of  a  Euro- 
pean stringed  li/ra  of  the  ninth  century  very  sim- 
ilar in  shape  to  the  later  'ligu.  Even  earlier, 
however,  the  crowd  (q.v.)  was  known  in  Wales. 
For  several  centuries  viols  were  built  in  two 
shapes,  either  with  a  flat  body  like  the  vi(din  or 
with  a  pear-shaped  body  like  file  mandolin. 
During  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries 
stringed  instruments  of  all  possible  varieties  of 
shapes  were  built.  These,  however,  were  nil 
superseded  in  the  course  of  the  fidlowing  two 
centuries,  when  the  art  of  violin-making  reached 
its  height.  After  the  violin  had  been  perfected 
the  same  attention  was  also  bestowed  >ipon  the 
instruments  of  lower  pitch  of  this  family,  such 
as  the  bratsche.  viola  da  gamba,  viola  d'amore, 
etc.  (See  Violin;  Violoncello.)  A  full  ac- 
count of  how  the  viol  family  came  to  be  the 
foiuidation  of  the  modern  orchestra  will  be  found 
\uider  Orchestra. 

Wind  Instru.ments.  Under  this  heading  are 
included  all  instruments  on  which  the  tone  is 
produced  by  setting  a  eolunni  of  air  in  motion. 
.\ccording  to  the  material  from  which  they  are 
made,  they  are  subdivided  into:  (A)  Wood- 
wind instruments.  (B)  brass  instruments.  Many 
of  the  wind  class  are  transposini;  instruments, 
i.e.  the  tones  actually  produccil  upon  them  are 
not  the  same  as  those  written  for  thcin.  Let  U8 
take   the   clarinet   family   as   an   cxaiiiple.     The 


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MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 


185 


MUSICAL  NOTATION. 


compass  of  the  clarinet  in  C  is  from  e  to  e'. 
It  is  possible  to  obtain  notes  below  and  above 
this  range  by  building  clarinets  in  dill'erent  keys. 
Thus  the  clarinet  in  A  produces  the  same  series 
of  tones  a  minor  third  lower,  so  that  tlie  lowest 
tone  is  cS  and  the  highest  a^  The  clarinet  in 
Eb  produces  the  tones  a  minor  third  higher,  so 
that  its  lowest  tone  is  g  and  its  highest  eb". 
Hence  the  music  for  any  transposing  instrument 
nuist  be  written  in  a  key  above  or  beluio  the 
key  of  the  composition  by  the  same  interval  as 
tlie  key  of  the  instrument  is  b(ioti>  or  above  C. 
For  instance,  a  piece  is  written  in  A|j  major 
and  the  composer  desires  to  employ  the  Eb 
clarinet.  Since  every  tone  sounds  a  minor  third 
higlier  than  the  written  note,  it  is  necessary  to 
write  this  particular  clarinet  part  in  a  key  lying 
a  minor  third  below  Ab,  i.e.  in  F.  See  Trans- 
posing Instruments. 

A.  The  Wood-aiiid. — The  instruments  belong- 
ing to  this  class  are  generally  made  of  wood, 
but  ivory  is  also  used,  and  quite  recently  flutes 
have  been  made  of  silver.  The  .instruments  of 
the  wood-wind  family  are:  (1)  the  Hute;  (2) 
the  piccolo  (a  small  llute  with  very  shrill  tones)  ; 
(3)  the  oboe;  (4)  the  English  horn;  (5)  the 
clarinet;  (0)  the  bassoon;  (7)  the  double  or 
contra  bassoon;  (8)  the  flageolet.  (See  the 
separate  articles.)  This  last  instrument  was 
extensively  employed  by  GInck  and  Jlozart,  but 
is  now  obsolete.  Of  the  wood-wind  instruments 
the  English  horn  and  the  clarinet  are  trans- 
posing instruments,  as  was  also  the  flageolet. 
All  tlie  wood-wind  instruments  have  a  rich,  mel- 
low tone  approaching  that  of  the  human  voice 
more  closely  than  any  other  instruments. 

B.  The  Brass. — Tlie  members  of  this  class 
consist  of  ( 1 )  the  horn  ;  ( 2 )  the  cornet ;  ( 3 ) 
the  trumpet;  (4)  the  trombone;  (5)  the  tuba; 
( fi )  the  ophicleide ;  ( 7  )  the  serpent.  ( See  the 
separate  articles.)  The  two  last  named  are  ob- 
solete. \Yith  the  exception  of  the  trombone,  all 
these  instruments  are  transposing  instruments. 
The  tones  produced  by  brass  instruments  are 
distinguished  as  nahiral  and  harmonie  tones. 
Tlie  former  are  produced  upon  the  o])en  tube 
by  regulating  the  force  of  the  air-current  by 
means  of  the  lips;  the  successive  tones  produced 
are  the  harmonics  or  overtones  of  the  funda- 
mental. ( See  Harmonics.  )  All  tones  produced 
by  the  aid  of  the  valves  are  called  harmonie 
tones.  In  the  case  of  the  trombone  the  length  of 
the  vibrating  air-column  is  not  regulated  by 
valves,  but  by  a  slide.  Formerly  the  horns  and 
trumpets  had  no  valves,  and  these  instruments 
are  to-day  called  natural  horns  and  trumpets. 
To  produce  a  complete  scale  on  them  it  was 
necessary  to  insert  the  left  hand  in  the  opening. 
They  have  now  been  entirely  superseded  by  the 
valve-horns  and  trumpets.  The  trumpets  must 
have  undergone  considerable  change  since  the 
days  of  Bach  and  Handel,  for  in  the  works  of 
these  masters  we  find  passages  written  for 
trumpets  which  no  one  can  execute  to-day.  All 
the  brass  instruments  are  built  in  many  keys. 
so  that  it  is  easily  possilde  to  write  four-part 
harmony  for  only  one  group  of  brass  instruments. 
For  instance,  in  the  case  of  trombones  there 
are  four  varieties:  the  alto,  tenor,  bass,  and 
double-bass  trombone.  The  latest  additions  to 
the  family  of  brass  instruments  are  the  tubas, 
which  Wagner  had  constructed  especially  for  his 
liing  der  Nibeliingen.    See  Tuba. 


Instruments  of  Percussion.  The  instru- 
ments of  percussion  may  be  divided  into  two 
principal  classes:  (A)  Those  which  have  definite 
pitch;  (B)  those  which  have  not.  The  former 
class  comprises  (I)  the  kettle-drums;  (2)  the 
glockenspiel;  (3)  the  .xylophone.  The  latter  class 
includes:  (1)  the  bass  drum;  (2)  the  small 
drums;  (3)  the  tambourine;  (4)  the  tamtam; 
( 5 )  the  cymbals ;  ( C )  the  triangle  ;  ( 7 )  the 
castanets.  {See  the  .separate  articles.)  The 
chief  use  of  instruments  of  percussion  is  for 
marking  the  rhythm.  Those  instruments  that 
are  devoid  of  definite  |)itcli  are  capable  only  of 
rhythmic  figures;  whereas  the  glockenspiel  and 
xylophone  can  play  melodic  figures  as  well.  Of 
all  the  instruments  of  percussion  the  kettle- 
drums are  the  most  important  and  most  generally 
used. 

For  description  of  the  keyed  instruments 
{pianoforte  and  organ),  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  extensive  special  articles. 

I'nder  the  above  headings  the  instruments  at 
present  in  use  in  the  orchestra  have  been  de- 
scribed in  their  general  features  and  especially 
in  their  relation  to  other  members  of  the  same 
family.  Besides  the  instruments  mentioned. 
many  others  have  been  in  use  in  former  times. 
There  are  still  others  in  actual  use,  but  as  they 
are  not  employed  for  music  of  a  high  cliaracter, 
they  have  not  been  discussed.  Then  there  is  still 
another  class  of  instruments  recently  invented, 
which,  however,  have  not  yet  come  into  general 
use,  as  the  saxophone  (q.v. ).  The  following  is 
a  list  of  instruments  of  these  classes:  alpenhorn, 
bagpipe,  basset-horn,  bugle,  cembal  d'amore, 
chimes,  clavichord,  concertina,  crowd,  dulcimer, 
fliigelhorn,  glasschord.  harpsichord,  hurdy-gurdy, 
jews-harp,  kazoo,  krummhorn,  lur,  lute,  lyre, 
ocarina,  psaltery,  sarrusophone,  saxophone, 
.shawm,  spinet,  theorbo,  viol,  virginal.  Instru- 
ments of  the  nations  of  antiquity  and  of  Oriental 
nations  are  treated  in  the  special  articles  on  the 
music  of  those  nations. 

Besides  the  instruments  employed  in  musical 
performances,  there  are  a  few  that  are  built 
solely  for  the  purpose  of  acoustic  experiments. 
These  are  (1)  the  monochord;  (2)  the  siren; 
(3)   the  tuning-fork   (qq.v. ). 

Among  the  most  valuable  works  on  the  history 
of  musical  instruments  may  be  mentioned:  W,a- 
sielewski,  Geschiclite  der  Jnstrunirnlahniisil^.  im 
XVI.  Jahrhundert  (Berlin,  1878)  ;  Comettant, //O 
musique,  les  musiciens  et  les  instruments  de 
musique  ehez  les  diff (rents  peuples  du  monde 
(Paris,  1869)  ;  Vidal,  Lest  instruments  d  archet 
(ib.,  1878);  Sehletterer,  Die  Ahnen  moderner 
M usikinstrumente  (Leipzig,  1882)  ;  Hofmann, 
Katechismus  der  Musikinstrumente  (ib.,  1890); 
.lohn  Hawkins.  General  History  of  the  Hcience 
and  I'raetiee  of  Musie  (originally  published  in 
five  volumes  in  177(3,  reprinted  in  two  volumes, 
London,  187.5).  This  latter  work  is  particularly 
valuable  for  its  many  cuts  of  now  obsolete  instru- 
ments. 

MUSICAL  NOTATION.  The  art  of  express- 
ing musical  compn^itions  in  writing  by  means 
of  certain  conventional  signs  called  notes.  The 
oldest  system  of  notation  of  which  we  have  any 
knowledge  is  the  aljihabetieal  notation  of  the 
Greeks.  The  detailed  descriptions  of  this  system 
left  to  us  enable  us  to  decipher  without  much 
diiliculty   the   few   remnants   of   Greek   music   re- 


MTJSICAX  NOTATION. 


186 


MUSICAL  NOTATION. 


cently  discovered.  The  Greeks  employed  uncial 
letters  wliicli  appeared  in  a  great  variety  of 
positions — inverted,  sideways,  divided  in  halves, 
etc.  Thus  no  less  than  120  ditlereut  combina- 
tions were  obtained. 

Example  1. 

ABFAEZH9I 

Long  after  the  downfall  of  Greece  this  system 
of  notation  remained  in  use,  especially  in  the 
writings  of  the  theorists.  During  the  sixth  cen- 
tury A.D.  Roman  letters  were  first  used. 
Boethius  employed  the  first  fifteen  letters  of 
the  alphaljot.  But  these  were  later  reduced  to 
seven  and  "applied  to  the  degrees  of  the  scale. 
These  letters — as  the  Greek  letters  had  also  been 
— were  placed  in  a  straight  line  above  the  syl- 
lables of  the  words.  Although  in  themselves 
sufficiently  definite,  the  letters  did  not  present 
to  the  eye  the  rising  or  falling  of  the  melody,  as 
does  our  mcidern  notation.  This  need  gave  rise, 
in  the  eighth  century,  to  a  series  of  dots,  hooks, 
curves,  and  peculiar  figures  which  were  placed 
above  the  syllables  of  the  text  at  distances  pro- 
portionate to  the  musical  pitch  of  the  note. 
These  characters  are  known  as  yeumes.  (See 
Nei'mes.)  From  a  combination  of  the  signs  of 
these  Neumes  and  the  alphabetical  notation 
arose  our  modern  system.  But  its  progress  was 
slow,  and  the  complex  system  of  nicnsurahle 
music  (q.v.)  had  first  to  outlive  itself  before  the 
present  simpler  system  was  established. 

The  Stave.  The  introducticm  of  lines  we  owe 
to  the  Neumes.  In  the  tenth  century  Hucbald 
took  up  the  idea  of  using  lines.  He  wrote  the 
syllables  between  the  lines,  and  at  the  beginning 
he  indicated  by  the  letters  T  and  S  whether  the 
voice  was  to  proceed  by  tones  or  semitones. 

Example  2 


■1'                                                    M 

T                                                        Ji" 

■1'           K.-,                       .Is-ra. 

s                  -(■.•.             ,«             'tl.- 

T                       'vc-re« 

This,  in  modern  notation,  reads 
Example  3 

Ec  -  ce      ve  -  re      is  -  ra  -   e   •    II  -   ta. 

By  increasing  the  number  of  lines  Hucbald 
was  enabled  to  write  even  four-part  compositions 
in  this  manner.  Soon  after  his  time  dots  were 
u.sed  OH  tlir  lines,  leaving  the  spaces  vacant,  and 
the  degree  of  the  scale  was  indicated  by  a  Greek 
letter  placed  at  the  beginning  of  each  line.  But 
the  great  number  of  lines  necessary  rendered  the 
reading  of  this  manner  of  notation  difficult,  and 
it  was  soon  abandoned.  Guido  of  Arezzo  in 
the  eleventh  century  added  two  black  lines  to 
the  red  and  yellow  lines  of  the  Xeumes.  in  such 
a  manni-r  that  the  upper  black  line  nbnve  the 
yellow  represented  E,  and  the  second  black  line, 
drawn  between  the  vellow  and  red  lines,  A, 


E 

Example  i. 

hiack 

C 

vellow 

A 

black 

F 

' 

red 

lines  and  spaces.  The  advantages  of  this  system 
were  so  obvious  that  this  stave  was  soon  adopted 
in  every  country  of  Europe.  As  long  as  music 
was  homophonous,  i.e.  consisted  of  only  a  single 
melody,  this  stave  answered  all  purposes.  But 
the  growth  of  polyphony  soon  rendered  a  greater 
number  of  lines  and  spaces  an  absolute  neces- 
sity. No  one  seems  to  have  thought  of  the 
simple  idea  of  writing  each  voice  on  a  separate 
stave.  Instead  the  four  lines  were  extended  to 
six,  eight,  twelve,  and  even  mine.  In  the  Paris 
Library  there  is  a  score,  dating  from  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  in  which  all  the  voices 
are  written  on  a  single  stave.  The  difliculty  of 
reading  scores  written  in  this  manner  led  mu- 
sicians to  adopt  a  uniform  stave  of  nine  lines 
arranged  in  two  groups,  each  containing  four 
black  lines.  The  two  groups  were  se])aiatcd  by 
a  red  line.  In  the  fifteenth  century  we  find 
three  staves  employed  for  different  kinds  of 
music.  Plain  chant  melodies  were  written  on  a 
stave  of  four  lines;  all  other  vocal  music  on 
a  stave  of  five  lines;  and  a  stave  of  six  lines 
was  used  for  all  compositions  written  for  the 
organ  and  virginal.  After  the  invention  of  nuisie- 
printing  the  five-line  stave  became  the  universal 
standard  of  all  music,  except  the  i)lain  chant 
melodies,  which  to  this  day  are  written  on  a 
stave  of  four  lines. 

The  FoK^^  of  the  Notes.  As  long  as  music 
had  no  distinctive  rhythm  of  its  own  and  the 
musical  accents  were  determined  only  l)y  the 
word-accent,  Guido's  system  of  using  simple  dots 
answered  all  purposes.  But  it  was  not  long  be- 
fore the  need  of  notes  having  a  fi.xed  time-value 
made  itself  felt.  Franco  of  Cologne,  in  the 
twelfth  century,  replaced  the  dots  by  notes  of 
various  shapes  to  indicate  their  relative  dura- 
tion. He  also  indicated  the  time-value  of  pauses 
or  rests  by  a  .scries  of  signs  corrcs])i]ndiiig  in 
duration  to  the  different  notes.  A  full  account 
of  this  elaborate  and  difficult  system  will  be 
found  under  ilEX.suRABLE  JIusiC.  This  system 
has  become  the  foundation  of  our  modern  system 
of  notation.  The  notes  of  larger  value,  the  large, 
hinfi,  and  breve,  have  disappeared,  the  .semi!;  re  re 
having  become  our  standard  of  vahie  or  irhole 
note.  The  development  of  instrumental  music 
during  the  eighteenth  century  brought  with  it  a 
great  advance  in  the  tcchnicpic  of  the  instru- 
ments, and  this  led  composers  to  write  ])assagcs 
requiring  more  rapidity  of  execution  than  is 
possible  to  olitain  from  choral  masses.  Round 
notes  were  substituted  for  the  scpuirc  ones,  be- 
cause the  former  can  be  written  more  easily  and 
rapidly.  Another  im[)ortant  innovation,  and  one 
which  greatly  facilitated  the  reading  of  scores, 
was  the  joining  of  all  notes  having  hooks  into 
groups  readily  recognized  by  the  eye.  Thus  a 
passage  which  formerly  was  written 

Example  6. 
Became  __^ 


Whereas    before    his    time    only    the    spaces    or 
the  lines  had  been  used,  Guido  made  use  of  both 


Whereas  formerly  the  scmifusa  (corresponding 
to  our  sixteenth)  was  the  note  of  smallest  value, 
the   increased  rapidity  rendered  possible  by  in- 


MUSICAL  NOTATION. 


187 


MUSICAL  NOTATION. 


I- 


strumontal  teoliiiique  led  to  a  subdivision  of  six- 
tceiitlis  into  thirty-seconds,  and  of  these  latter 
even  into  sixty-fourths.  The  si<rns  denotinj;  the 
rests  in  mensurable  music  have  been  adopted 
into  the  modern  system  without  moditieation. 

The  C'lEFS.  The  oldest  of  the  clefs  is  the 
F  clef,  which  in  its  original  form  as  a  red  line 
dates  back  to  the  tenth  century.  Almost  as 
old  is  the  C  clef,  which  originally  was  a  yellow 
line.  These  colored  lines  were  used  without  a 
clef  signature,  as  it  was  understood  that  every 
note  upon  the  red  line  represented  F,  and  every 
note  upon  the  yellow  line  C.  Later  on  the 
colored  lines  disappeared,  black  ones  being  sub- 
stituted and  the  letter  F  or  C  placed  at  the 
beginning.  (See  Neitmes.)  The  modern  forms 
of  these  clefs  are  the  result  of  a  series  of 
modifications  of  the  plain  letters. 

The  G  clef  is  more  recent  than  the  other  two, 
but  its  present  form  is  the  result  of  similar 
changes  of  the  letter  G. 

Example  6. 

(C) C  c  t:  ^  I   r  K- 

(F)  ^/;^)i[^:^J  •:  Ci^  15]  j.-^:  a:  ?i: 

(Gl^ 6^6  (9  &64  ^ 

Originally  the  difTcrent  clefs  had  no  fixed  posi- 
tion as  they  have  to-day.  In  order  to  avoid 
the  use  of  ledger-lines  ( which,  in  fact,  were 
unknown ) ,  the  position  of  the  clefs  was  con- 
stantly shifted,  so  as  to  bring  the  range  of  every 
voice  within  the  limits  of  the  stave.  In  old 
manuscripts  we  find  eA'ery  clef,  at  various  times, 
on  even-  line  of  the  stave.  Even  within  the 
same  melody  the  clef  changes  frequently.  This 
arbitrary  use  of  the  clefs  continued  until  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  establishment  of  opera 
(q.v. )  brought  with  it  the  introduction  of  many 
new  instruments.  To  bring  the  range  of  all  these 
instruments  within  the  limits  of  the  stave  could 
not  be  accomplished  any  longer  by  the  trans- 
position of  clefs.  Previously  some  polyphonic 
writers  of  the  sixteenth  century  had  on  very  rare 
occasions  resorted  to  the  use  of  a  single  ledger- 
line  above  or  below  the  stave.  This  idea  was 
taken  up  by  the  operatic  composers,  and  thus 
ledger-lines  became  a  fixture  in  music.  Xow 
that  there  was  no  longer  any  need  for  tlic  con- 
stant transposition  of  clefs,  the  positions  of  those 
that  remained  in  use  became  definitely  fixed. 
Each  voice-part  had  its  own  clef,  as  also  the 
violin: 

Example  7. 

C  f  g' 


Soprano.     Alto. 


jHMaMi^ 


Tenor.       Bass.       Violin. 


In  this  form  the  classic  masters  have  used  the 
clefs.  For  the  pianoforte  the  G  and  F  clefs  are 
used;  the  higher  pitched  orchestral  instruments 
play  with  the  G  clef,  those  of  lower  pitch  the  F 
clef.  The  viola  is  the  only  one  for  which  the  alto 
clef  (C)  is  retained.  During  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  C  clefs  have  been  superseded  even  in 
vocal  music  by  the  G  clef. 

TiME-SiGNATURES.  Before  the  introduction  of 
mensurable  music  there  was  no  need  of  time  sig- 
natures. The  signatures  used  in  mensurable 
music  will  be  found  in  the  special  article  on 
Vol.  XIV.— 13. 


SIe.vsubable  ilusic.  Wlien,  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  the  bar  was  introduced,  composers  soon 
saw  an  opportunity  for  reducing  the  very  com- 
plicated and  cumbrous  time-signatures  of  men- 
surable music.  The  underlying  principle  of 
rhythmic  division  into  binary  and  ternary  forms 
still  remained  the  basis.  ISut,  whereas  in  the 
older  system  ternary  division  (perfect)  was  the 
principal  consideration  and  binary  division  (im- 
perfect )  only  secondary,  the  new  system  inverted 
these  relations  by  recognizing  only  binary  di- 
vision as  natural.  Ternary  division  was  retained, 
but  Avas  regarded  only  as  a  modification  of  the 
natural  binary  division  and  obtained  by  the  use 
of  a  dot  which  increased  the  value  of  the  note 
by  one-half.  Moreover,  all  notes  were  referred  to 
the  whole  note  (the  semibreve  of  mensurable  mu- 
sic) as  the  standard  of  value.  Thus  the  whole 
note  was  divided  into  two  half  notes,  each  half 
note  into  two  quarters,  etc.  The  time-signatures 
of  this  new  system  were  expressed  by  fractions, 
the  denominators  indicating  the  subdivision  of 
the  standard  whole  note,  and  the  numerators  the 
number  of  subdivided  notes  to  be  allotted  to  each 
measure.  The  only  signs  still  retained  from 
mensurable  music  are  the  semicircle  for  common 
time  (four  quarters  in  a  measure)  and  the  semi- 
circle with  a  line  (alia  breve),  where  the  line 
still  has  the  meaning  of  reducing  the  notes  to 
half  their  duration. 

The  B.\r.  The  earliest  example  of  the  use  of 
vertical  bars  is  found  in  Agricola's  Miisica  In- 
strumcittaUs,  which  was  published  in  1528.  The 
object  of  these  bars,  however,  was  only  to  keep 
the  notes  of  the  difl'erent  voices  one  under 
the  other,  rather  than  to  indicate  rhythmic  di- 
visions. A  few  original  drafts  of  older  com- 
positions give  evidence  that  composers  during 
actual  composition  did  use  bars  to  indicate  the 
rhythm,  although  all  the  part-books  up  to  the 
seventeenth  century  were  printed  without  bars. 
The  general  use  of  bars  we  owe  to  the  early  com- 
posers of  operas.  Peri,  in  1600,  published  the 
score  of  his  Eurt/dice  exactly  as  he  had  written 
it.  In  order  to  indicate  clearly  the  connection 
between  the  different  notes  in  the  voices  and 
accompanying  instruments  he  drew  vertical  lines 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  stave.  Caccini 
and  Jlonteverde  adopted  this  plan.  The  great 
facility  of  reading  music  printed  in  this  way 
immediately  led  to  its  universal  adoption.  The 
new  system  of  music,  having  established  new  sig- 
natures for  time,  allotted  a  certain  number  of 
beats  to  each  bar,  and  in  this  way  the  bar  be- 
came what  it  is  to-day. 

AcciDEXT.\l.s.  In  spite  of  the  strict  laws  gov- 
erning plain  chant  and  the  use  of  the  old  Church 
modes,  tlie  human  ear  from  the  earliest  times  felt 
the  need  of  a  'leading  tone.'  The  tone  of  the 
scale  that  was  subject  to  this  modification  was  B. 
Thus  at  a  very  early  time  this  letter  was  written 
in  round  ({j)  and  later  sqiuaro  (b)  form  to  indi- 
cate whether  the  lower  or  higher  tone  was  to  be 
sung.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  from  these  two  forms 
arose  our  flat  and  natural  (bt^).  Toward  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  sign  ts  "iis  care- 
lessly written  5,  and  being  applied  to  other  tones 
than  B,  denoted  the  higher  of  the  tones  on  the 
same  degree.  Thus,  FJf  denoted  the  modern  FJt, 
but  Fb  was  the  same  as  our  F  natural,  just  as 
Bb  was  regarded  as  the  natural  tone  and  Bf 
(our  B)  a  chromatic  alteration  of  Bb-    As  a  key- 


MUSICAL  NOTATION. 


188 


MtrSIN. 


signature  llie  siyii  9  appears  lirst  in  the  Church 
nioiles,  but  denoted  ouly  a  transposition  of  the 
original  mode.  (See  -Modes.)  Kvcu  iu  the  eigh- 
teenth lentury  a  b  "as  used  as  a  sign  of  resolu- 
tion for  a  note  having  a  5  or  l^  (these  two  signs 


a  German  termiuolog\-  for  the  Italian.  But  tbo 
Italian  terms  are  more  detinite.  Iieeausc  two 
centuries  of  constant  use  have  familiarized  them 
to  musicians  of  every  nationality. 

Another  system  of  musical  notation  used  for- 


were  identical)  ;  and  vice  %-ersa  a  5  or  l^ served  to     merly,  especially  for  the  lute,  is  discussed  under 
resolve  a  b-     i'he  signs  of  the  double  sharp  and     '"   " " 


double  Hat  (X,  bb)  cannot  be  traced  further 
back  than  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. The  sign  X  arose  from  writing  the  older 
;  in  this  position  3?.  Before  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  century  accidental  sharps,  llats, 
or  signs  of  resolution  appeared  very  seUioni  in 
writing.  The  singer  was  supposed  to  introiluce 
the  necessary  chromatic  alterations  during  the 
actual  performance.  As  long  as  the  Church 
modes  reigned  supreme  no  use  was  made  of  regu- 
lar key-signatures.  A  flat  or  sharp  placed  at 
the  beginning  of  a  piece  denoted  only  transposi- 
tion. But  as  soon  as  the  modern  major  and 
minor  scales  displaced  the  modes  the  necessity  of 
key-signatures  arose,  in  order  to  avoid  the  great 
number  of  accidentals. 


Tablatlre.  For  the  new  system  of  de 
nating  chords  by  figures,  used  in  theoretical 
treatises,  see  Numerical  Notation.  A  complete 
history  of  musical  notation  was  written  by 
Kiemann:  Studienzur  (Jeachichtc  der  yulensclirift 
(Leipzig.  1878)  :  an  abridgment  of  this  is  the 
same  author's  Die  Entiriclclunij  un»crcr  Sotcn- 
svlirift  (ib.,  1881);  Riemann.  (Icschichtc  der 
Miisih-thcorie  im  /A'.-A7A'.  Jahrltiindcrt  (ib., 
18'JS). 

MUSICAL  SAND.  There  are  a  large  ninnber 
of  iK'aches,  uftcntimcs,  however,  of  very  small 
extent,  whose  sand  has  the  peculiar  property  of 
giving  out  a  distinct  musical  tone  when  stepped 
upon.  The  musical  note  appears  to  depend  upon 
the  fact  that  the  grains  of  sand  are  of  such  very 
uniform  size  that  as  they  slip  past  each  (jther 


KXPRES.S10.N   Marks.     Toward  the  end  of  the     under  pressure  the  vibrations  of  the  particles  re 


eighth  century  we  find  in  one  old  manuscript 
written  in  ntiimcs  small  letters  inters|)ersed  with 
the  characters  of  the  iwiimcs.  These  letters  refer 
to  the  expression.  We  find  a  small  f  ((ragor), 
h  t  or  t  {bene  teiieaUiror  tcneatur),  c  (celeriter) , 
etc.  This  manuscript  is  the  famous  Antipbnnary 
of  Saint  Gall.  The  works  of  the  great  poly- 
phonic masters  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries  are  utterly  devoid  of  any  marks  of  ex- 
pression, nor  are  any  evidences  of  expression 
marks  to  l)e  found  in  works  written  between  the 
eighth  and  fifteenth  centuries.  There  really  was 
no  pressing  need  for  such  marks,  for  all  music 
was  vocal,  and  the  text  gave  a  sufficient  clew  to 
the  singers,  who  were  all  thoroughly  trained 
musicians.  But  the  development  of  instrumental 
nuisic  gave  rise  to  various  marks  of  expression. 
Hand  in  hand  with  the  development  of  instru- 
mental music  went  the  perfection  of  the  musical 
instruments.  Many  new  effects  were  discovered, 
and  to  express  tliese  composers  were  obliged 
to  use  words.  Monteverde  in  his  opera  Orfeo 
(IfiOS)  demands  that  the  trumjiets  ])lay  with 
unites,  and  this  is  indicated  in  the  .-.core  by  the 
words  e<in  sordini.  The  same  composer  intro- 
duced a  number  of  new  eflVcts  in  his  Tnnrrrdi  e 
Clorindn  (lfi24),  among  which  were  the  tremolo 
and  the  pizziento  for  strings.  Such  efTects  were 
called  for  by  the  actual  words  placed  in  the 
score.  These  are  the  earliest  instances  of  ex- 
pression-marks. Operatic  composers  immediate- 
ly followed  the  practice  established  by  ^Innte- 
verde.  .Xmong  the  earliest  of  purely  instrumen- 
tal masters  who  employed  words  to  help  the  per- 
formers was  Frcscobaidi  ( l.iS.I- 1(144 1 .  He  was 
]iartiinlarly  careful  to  indicate  the  tempo.  One 
of  his  favorite  marks  is  ndnijio.  Soon  the  words 
all<!ir<>.  Inrfio,  firure.  moderatn  came  into  gen- 
eral use.  In  the  course  of  the  eighteenth  century 
nearly  nil  the  important  marks  of  expressi<m  and 
time  were  in  use.  The  nineteenth  century  s\ihsti- 
futed  convenient  signs  for  some  of  the  most  fre- 
quently recurring  marks,  such  as  crcKerndo  <=::^, 

diminurndo  "^^^^  ^  sfncrato Jetjato     ■ — v, 

Mfnrzando  /\  etc..  and  increased  the  vneabularj- 
of  musical  expression  cimsiderably.  Some  of 
the  German  masters  of  the  last  century,  notably 
Schumann  and  Wagner,  attempted  to  substitute 


pcctively  reenforce  each  other  so  that  sounds 
which  would  otherwise  be  inaudible  become  dis- 
tinct, and  the  crunching  noise  which  is  heard 
when  the  foot  presses  down  upon  snow  or  ordi- 
nary :sand  becomes  a  clear  musical  note. 

MUSICAL    SOCIETY    OF    LONDON.       A 

famous  Engli.~h  nuisical  society  organized  at 
London  in  1083.  At  this  period  the  study  of 
choral  music  in  England  had  assumed  dimensions 
and  a  degree  of  artistic  importance  far  greater 
than  obtained  in  any  other  country.  The  success 
which  had  attended  the  work  of  'The  Corporation 
of  the  Sons  of  Clergy.'  established  in  \(\5'y  and 
incor])orated  by  charter  of  Charles  II.,  in  1078, 
led  to  the  founding  of  the  Musical  Society,  the 
principal  function  of  which  organization  was  the 
celclir.ition  of  Saint  Cecilia's  Day.  Among  the 
poets  who  wrote  odes  for  the  society  were  Dry- 
dcn  and  Congreve,  and  among  the  composers 
Purcell  and  Blow.  At  the  last  regular  Cecilian 
festival  held  in  London  in  170.3  the  chorus  num- 
bered about  thirty  boys  and  as  man.v  men,  and 
the  orchestra  about  twenty-five  persons.  The 
societv  still  occupies  an  important  position  in 
English   musical   life. 

MUSIC  BOX.  A  ease  containing  mechanism 
constructed  in  such  a  manner  that  music  can  be 
produced  automatically.  Machines  for  making 
mechanical  nuisic  have  been  known  since  the  in- 
vention of  clocks;  but  real  music  boxes  were  not 
introduced  till  after  17.")fl.  They  have  been  great- 
ly improved  since  then,  and  some  modern  musical 
boxes  can  play  over  100  tunes.  The  mechanism 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  liarrel-organ.  The  prin- 
cipal parts  are  the  comb,  the  cylinder,  and  the 
regulator.  Uclls,  drums,  and  castanets  are  fre- 
quently added  to  produce  musical  efTects,  and 
there  are  occasionally  combinations  of  reeds  and 
pipes.  The  musical  boxes  of  Prague,  Sainte 
Lusanne  in  France,  and  Geneva,  Switzerland,  are 
especially  famous. 

MUSIC-DRAMA.     See  Musical  Drama. 

MUSIC  RECORDER.     See  Melourai'h. 

MU'SIMON.      See  MofKi.ox. 

MUSIN.  mu'zi^iN'.  OvinE  (18.54—).  A  Bel- 
gian violinist,  liorn  at  Nandrin,  near  Li6ge.     He 


MUSIN. 


189 


MUSKHOGEAN  STOCK. 


studied  at  the  Conseivatoiy  of  that  city  under 
Heyuberg  and  Lounaid,  luUowcd  the  hitter  to 
the  Paris  Conservatory,  where,  in  1808,  he  won 
a  goUl  medal,  and  taught  for  a  year  before  leav- 
ing on  his  Eurojx'an  and  American  concert  tours 
that  ultimately  led  him  round  tlic  world.  In 
ISOS  he  became  violin  professor  at  the  Li6ge  Con- 
servatory, but  continued  to  spend  much  time  in 
the  United  States. 

MUSK,  or  MTJSK  DEER  (OF.,  Fr.  muse, 
from  Lat.  iiiuscus,  from  Gk.  /iio-xos,  moschos, 
from  .\r.,  Pers.  musk,  music,  from  Skt.  musica, 
testicle,  mouse,  from  )"»•«,  to  steal).  An  aber- 
rant deer  of  the  subfamily  iloschiniF,  which  dif- 
fers from  ordinary  deer  in  the  lack  of  antlers;  in 
tlie  possession  by  the  male  of  long  upper  canines, 
wliich  project  downward  outside  the  lips;  and  in 
certain  anatomical  features.  Hence  there  has 
been  nuich  discussion  whether  the  animal  should 
be  included  in  the  Cervidae.  There  is  only  one  spe- 
cies, Moschus  moschiferus,  of  the  high  Hima- 
layas, Tibet,  and  Eastern  Siberia — a  small  ani- 
mal, which  stands  about  20  inches  high  and  has 
a  clumsy  form.  Its  favorite  haunts  are  the  tops 
of  pine-covered  mountains,  but  its  summer  range 
extends  far  above  the  region  of  ])ines.  Its  habits 
are  nocturnal  and  solitary,  and  it  is  extremely 
timid.  It  is  much  pursued  by  liunters  on  ac- 
count of  its  odoriferous  secretion,  which  has 
been  known  in  Europe  since  tlie  eighth  century, 
and  is  much  valued  as  a  perfume. 

JIuSK.  This  secretion  is  produced  in  a  glandu- 
lar pouch  situated  on  the  hinder  part  of  the 
abdomen  of  the  males,  and  its  natural  use  seems 
to  be  that  of  increasing  sexual  attractiveness. 
The  musk-bag.  or  'pod,'  is  formed  by  an  infolding 
of  a  portion  of  the  skin  of  the  belly,  witliin  which 
a  numljer  of  membranes  are  contained,  and  be- 
tween these  membranes  are  glands  by  whicli  the 
musk  is  secreted.  When  newly  taken  from  the 
animal,  musk  is  soft  and  almost  resembles  an 
ointment ;  it  is  reddish-brown,  and  has  an  excess- 
ively powerful  odor.  Very  little  of  it  reaches 
Europe  unadulterated,  ilusk  is  usually  imported 
eitlier  in  the  form  of  'grain-mtisk.'  that  is.  the 
musk  which  has  been  collected  chiefly  from 
stones  upon  which  it  has  been  deposited  by  the 
animal,  in  which  state  it  is  a  coarse  powder  of 
a  dark-brown  color;  or  in  the  'pod.'  dried  with 
the  musk  inside.  Of  both  kinds  the  annual  im- 
jiortations  to  the  United  States  are  about  15,000 
ounces,  chiefly  from  China  and  India.  Small 
ipiantities  are  used  in  medicine,  but  the  greater 
Iiart  is  employed  by  perfiuners.  The  kinds  gen- 
erally known  in  trade  are  the  Tonquin  or  Chinese, 
and  tlie  Carbardine,  Kabardine,  or  Siberian, 
wliich  is  inferior.  Genuine  musk  has  the  valuable 
property  of  adding  to  the  permanency  of  other 
odors.  On  account  of  its  properties  as  a  stimu- 
lant and  antispasmodic,  it  is  also  tised  to  some 
extent   in  medicine.     See  Perfi'mkry. 

Bibliography.  Lydekker.  Den-  of  AU  Lands 
(London,  1S98)  :  Flower,  a  monograph  in  Pro- 
crrrJiiifls  of  the  Zofilofiiral  ^ocieti/  of  London, 
1S7.").     See  Plate  of  Fallow*  Deeb,  MrsK.  etc. 

MtrSKAT,  mus-kat'.    A  town  of  .\rabia.     See 

MrsCAT. 

MTISK  DUCK.  (DA  very  large  Australian 
sea-duck  iBi:iiira  lobnln).  whicli  has  a  musky 
odor.  The  male  is  decidedly  bigger  than  tlie 
female  and  has  a  lobe  of  skin  depending  from 
its  chin.     (2)  The  Muscovy  duck. 


MUSKEGON,  mus-ke'gOn.  A  city  and  the 
county-seal  uf  .Muskegon  County,  Mich.,  40  miles 
nortlnvest  of  Grand  liapids;  on  Muskegon  Lake, 
which  is  connected  with  Lake  Michigan  by  a 
channel  200  feet  wide  and  of  ample  depth  for 
large  vessels,  and  on  three  branclics  of  the  Pere 
Marquette,  the  Grand  Kapids  and  Indiana,  and 
the  Toledo,  Saginaw  and  -Muskegon  railroads 
(Jlap:  Michigan,  Go).  Through  the  liberality 
of  one  of  its  citizens  the  city  enjoys  numerous 
gifts — a  manual  training  scliool,  a  public  library, 
a  gj'mnasium,  a  square,  which  is  the  site  of  a 
handsome  soldiers'  moiiinuent  and  of  several 
bronze  statues,  and  a  liosiiital — for  the  mainte- 
nance of  which  also  the  donor  lias  made  ample 
provision,  iluskegon  has  one  of  the  linest  har- 
bors on  Lake  Jlichigan,  open  the  entire  year, 
which  is  in  daily  steamboat  communication  with 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  other  lake  ports.  It 
carries  on  a  large  trade  in  lumber,  fruit,  celery, 
and  other  garden  truck,  and  in  the  principal 
manufactures  of  the  place,  which  include  flour, 
paper,  knit  goods,  furniture,  refrigerators,  cur- 
tain rollers,  pianos,  chemical  engines,  electric 
cranes,  beer,  and  iron  and  tinplate  products.  The 
government  is  administered,  under  a  charter  of 
1897,  by  a  mayor,  annually  elected,  a  unicameral 
council,  and  subordinate  municipal  oliicers, 
chosen  by  the  people.  The  city  owns  and  operates 
the  water-works.  Though  a  trading  post  was  here 
established  in  1812,  Muskegon  was  not  perma- 
nently settled  until  1834.  In  1861  it  was  incor- 
porated as  a  village,  and  eight  years  later  was 
chartered  as  a  citv.  Population,  in  1890,  22,702; 
in  1900,  20.818. 

MUSKELLUNGE,  miis'ke-lunj.  A  common 
variant  of  maskinonge   (q.v. ). 

MUSKET.     See  Small  Arms. 

MUSKHOGEAN  (mus-ko'gj-du)  STOCK.  A 
North  American  Indian  stock  which  derives  its 
name  from  Muscogee,  the  principal  tribe  of  the 
Creek  confederacy.  ( See  CreeivS.  )  This  is  one  of 
the  most  important  linguistic  stocks  of  the  United 
States.  It  formerly  occupied  the  greater  portion 
of  the  territory  of  the  Gulf  States  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  comprised  the  Creek,  Choctaw- 
Chickasaw,  Seminole,  Apalachee.  and  a  number 
of  smaller  tribes  and  bands,  speaking  perhaps 
five  distinct  languages,  with  several  minor  dia- 
lects. The  difference  was  greatest  between  the 
Muscogee  and  the  Choctaw  proper,  of  which  the 
Chickasaw  was  a  dialectic  form.  The  Seminole 
is  a  mixed  dialect,  based  cliiefly  upon  Hichitee, 
the  prevailing  language  of  the  "Lower  Creeks,' 
formerly  residing  on  the  Chattahoochee  River. 
The  old  Mohilian  trade  language  (q.v.)  was 
based  upon  Choctaw. 

According  to  their  traditions  the  !Muskhogean 
tribes  came  from  the  West  and  Northwest,  and 
those  who  formerly  resided  nearest  the  Missis- 
sippi, as  the  Choctaw  and  Chickasaw,  have  a 
clear  tradition  of  having  crossed  that  stream 
to  enter  their  later  territory.  The  migration 
must  have  occurred  at  a  very  early  period,  and 
they  appear  to  have  found  the  country  occupied 
by  other  tribes  whom  tlicv  conqiiered  and  ab- 
sorbed. Their  authentic  history  begins  with  the 
first  landing  of  the  Spaniards  on  the  Gulf  coast 
under  Narvaez  in  \ry27.  Thirteen  years  later  De 
Soto  traversed  their  eounlry  from  east  to  west, 
finding  the  various  tribes  in  practically  the  same 
positions  which  they  occupied  up  to  the  period 


MTJSKHOGEAN  STOCK. 


190 


MUSKOKA. 


of  their  final   removal  to  the  Indian  Territory. 
For  three  centuries  their  history  is  closely  inter- 
woven   wilh    that    of   colonization    and    conquest 
by   the   ^jianiards.   French,  and   Kn'ilish   in   the 
Southern  States.    Each  tribe  or  village  made  such 
alliances    as    suited    its    purpose,    with    the   ex- 
ception of  the  Chickasaw,  who.  like  the  Iroquois 
in  the  North,  remained  the  steady  allies  of  the 
English,  and  by  their  command  of  the  waterway 
of  the  ilississippi,  were  able  to  check  the  advance 
of  French  colonization  by  cuttinjj;  off  communica- 
tion between  Louisiana  and   the   Illinois  settle- 
ments.   The  Apalachee  of  Florida  were  Christian- 
ized at  an  early  ])eriod  by  the  Spanish  Francis- 
cans,  but   the  entire  tribe   was  exterminated   by 
the  English  and  tlieir  Indian  allies  about    1702, 
and  the  country  left  an  uninhabited  wilderness 
until  it  was  gradually  occupied  by  vagrant  bands 
from  the  Creek  confederacy,  later  known  as  Semi- 
nole, or  'runaways.'    The  Vamasi  of  South  Caro- 
lina were  driven  from  their  homes  in  1715  as  a 
result   of  a   war   with   the   English   and   retired 
to  Florida.     The  Muskhogean  tribes  pLayed  little 
part   in   the   French   and   Indian   War.   but   the 
Creeks  took  a  particularly  active  part  with  the 
English   against  the  Americans   in   the   Revolu- 
tion.   This  warlike  confederacy  again  rose  against 
the    neighboring    American    settlements    in    the 
War  of   1812,  and  by  the  opening  massacre  at 
Fort  ilims  and  the  desperate  encounters  at  Tal- 
ladega and  Horseshoe  Bend  made  the  Creek  War 
one  "of  the  bloodiest  pages  in  American  history. 
The  two  Seminole  wars,  which  cost  the  CJovern- 
ment  vears  of  effort  and  over  $40,000,000,  further 
illustrated    the    fighting    temper    of    the    Creek 
tribes.      By    these    wars    and    successive    treaty 
sales   the  Muskhogean  tribes  were   rapidly   dis- 
possessed until  by'the  year  18.3.5  practically  the 
whole  body  had  been  removed  to  the  west  of  the 
Mississipp'i.     Here  the  four  principal  tribes,  the 
Creek,  Choctaw,  Chickasaw,  and  Seminole,  rees- 
tablished themselves  as  'nations'  under  organized 
governmental    forms    in    the    Indian    Territory, 
where  they  now  reside,  with  a  combined  ])opula- 
tion    of    pure    and    mixed    blood,    exclusive    of 
adopted  aliens,  of  perhaps  33.000  persons,  besides 
some  -iOOl)  more   in  detached  bands  in   Florida, 
Jlississiijpi.  Lo\iisiana,  and  Texas. 

All  the  .Muskhogean  tribes  were  sedentary  and 
agricultural,  residing  in  compact  and  regular 
towns  and  villages,  frcqvicntly  i)alisadcd.  and  al- 
ways with  a  central  'town  house'  for  councils  and 
other  public  ceremonies,  fronting  upon  a  plaza 
or  public  square  for  outdoor  gatherings.  Their 
social  organization  was  complex  and  exact,  the 
rank  and  dutv  of  each  clan  being  specilically  fi.xed 
in  the  tribe."  They  were  a  virile  race  and  have 
maintained  their  population  and  tribal  organiza- 
tion against  all  the  wasting  effect  of  contact 
with  white  civilization.  Much  study  has  been 
given  to  their  language,  particularly  the  Musco- 
gee and  Choctaw,  of  which  there  is  a  considerable 
bodv  of  native  literature.  The  best  summaries 
of  their  characteristics  and  history  are:  Adair, 
Hisloni  of  the  Amiricnn  Indians  (London, 
1775)  :'  Hawkins.  Sketch  of  the  Creek  Couiilrn : 
and  f!at*chet.  Minrntion  Leijnid  of  the  Creek 
InilinuH    (riiiladclpbia.   1884-88). 

MUSK  HYACINTH.     A  bulbous  plant.     See 

GRATK    llYAflNTII. 

MUSKINGUM,  mfls-kln'gi'ini.     The  principal 
river    of   e:i-t<rn    Ohio.        It   is    formed    at    Co- 


shocton by  the  junction  of  the  Walhonding  and 
Tuscarawas  rivers,  and  Hows  southeastward  112 
miles  through  a  rich  agricultural  region,  enter- 
ing the  Ohio  River  at  Marietta  (Map:  Ohio, 
G  G).  The  Ohio  and  Erie  Canal  follows  its 
course  as  far  as  Zanesville,  and  slackwater  navi- 
gation has  been  secured  to  Dresden,  92  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

MUSK  MALLOW.     A  tropical   plant.      See 
iL\LLow;  Hibiscus. 

MUSKMELON    (so  called  from   its  peculiar 
aromatic    flavor),    Vucumis    Melo.      An    annual 
herbaceous    vine    of    the    natural    order    Cucur- 
bitacce,  a  native  of  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia 
and  now  cultivated  in  both  beniispheres  for  the 
sake  of  its  rounded  or  ovate  fruit,  which,  in  its 
numerous  varieties,  varies  from  a  few  inches  to 
more  than  a   foot  in  diameter.     Some  varieties 
are  distinguished  by  a  thick,  warty  rind,  some 
by  a  rind  cracked  iii  a  net-like  manner,  some  by 
ribs  and  furrows,  and  some  by  a  perfectly  smooth 
and   thin   rind.     The   tlesh   may   be   white,    red, 
green,  yellow,  or  of  intermediate  colors.    There 
are  also  varieties  that  ripen  early  and  late,  and 
one  group  of  varieties  little  grown  in  the  United 
States,   which   keep  well   into  tlie  winter.     They 
require  a  warm,  quick  soil.     In  field  culture  they 
are  planted — 0  to  10  seeds — in  hills  4  to  6  feet 
apart   either   way.      To   hasten   growth    and   on 
poor  soils  two  or  three  shovelfuls  of  well-rotted 
manure  are  placed  tmder  each  hill.    In  the  Xorth, 
commercial  growers  start  the  plants  under  glass, 
preferably  in  a  hot  bed,  and  transplant  them  to 
the  ojjen"  field  when  the  weather  becomes  warm 
enough.      The   seedlings    are    transplanted    with 
ditliculty   and   are   therefore    usually   grown    on 
inverted    sods    or   in   Jiots.      Some    subspecies    of 
Cueumis  Melo  arc:  Var.  saccharinus  or  pineapple 
melon,  a   sweet-tleshed  variety;   var.  flexosus  or 
snake  melon,  2  to  3  feet  long  and  I  to  3  inches 
in  diameter,  sometimes  grown  for  preserves,  but 
more  often  as  an  oddity;  var.  chiti),  also  called 
orange   melon,   vegetable   orange,    garden   lemon, 
vine  peach,  etc.,  and  used  for  pickles  and   pre- 
serves; var.  inodorus.  a  long  keeix'r  of  ])0or  qvial- 
ity;    var.   Pudrtim,  or   jjomegranate.   dudaim.   or 
Queen  .\nne's  jiocket  melon,  a  highly  perfumed, 
but  incdilile  sort.   See  Plate  of  Ci'crMBER  Allies. 
The  striped  beetle  and  flea  beetle  are  serious 
pests  of  nui>kmelons.    Spraying  with  Paris  green 
or  dusting  with  tobacco  dust,  air-slaked  lime,  or 
road  dust  when  the  plants  are  moist,  heliis  to 
keep   the   insects   under   control.      Land   plaster 
mi.vcd   with   kerosene   or   turpentine   is   used    for 
the  same  purpose.     The  downy  mildew  and   Iciif 
spot  diseases  which  attack  the  plant  are  held  in 
check    by    applications    of     Bordeaux     mixture, 
iluskmeions  are  commonly  called  cantaloupes  in 
the  Initi'd  States.     S«-e  FrNGIClDE. 

MUSKOKA,  mus-kfi'kA.  A  lake  region  of 
Ontario.  Canada,  bounded  on  the  north  and 
northeast  by  Lake  Xipissing  and  the  Ottawa 
River,  on  the  south  by  Lake  Simcoe.  and  on  the 
west  bv  Georgian  Bay  (Map:  Ontario.  D  3). 
The  region  covers  an  area  of  about  10,000  square 
miles.  800  feet  above  the  sea  and  200  feet  above 
Lake  Huron.  Besides  a  lake,  river,  ami  coimty 
of  the  same  name,  it  includes  extensive  forests, 
several  rivers,  and  from  800  to  1000  lakes  and 
smaller  she<.ts  of  water.  Fine  waterfalls  also 
occur,  of  which  the  most  important  are  the  I'ri^al 
Veil  Falls  on  the  Shadow  River,  and  the  High 


MUSKOKA. 


191 


MUSKKAT. 


Falls  and  the  South  Falls  with  a  ilcsccnt  of  130 
feel,  on  the  iMiiskoka,  near  liracoljiitlge  (popula- 
tion, in  ISni,  Ul'J;  in  lUOl,- 247tM ,  the  county 
capital.  The  chief  lakes,  Muskoka,  20  miles  long 
by  2  to  8  miles  broad,  Rosseau,  12  miles  long 
and  1  to  0  miles  wide,  and  Joseph,  arc  connected 
and  have  regular  steamer  navigation  service  in 
summer,  in  connection  with  tlic  Grand  Trunk, 
the  Canadian  Atlantic,  and  the  Canadian  Pacific 
railways,  which  traverse  the  region.  The  forests 
abound  in  game,  and  the  lakes  with  fish,  and  the 
district  has  become  popular  for  its  hunting, 
angling,  boating,  and  bathing. 

MTJSK  OX.  The  musk  ox  ('Ovihofi  mosclia- 
tiis) ,  although  approaching  cattle  in  size,  is  really 
quite  as  closely  allied  to  the  sheep.  It  undoubt- 
edly belongs  in  the  family  Bovida-  and  is  jjerhaps 
entitled  to  have  a  subfamily  division  to  itself.  The 
genus  contains  only  the  single  species,  at  present 
confined  to  Arctic  America,  but  formerly  ranging 
over  the  Xorthern  United  States  as  far  south  as 
Kentucky  and  over  Northern  Asia  and  Europe 
also,  as  is  shown  by  the  bones  found  in  the 
Pleistocene  deposits  of  those  regions.  Its  sotith- 
ern  limit  is  gradually  retreating  northward,  and 
tliere  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  number  of 
musk  oxen  is  steadily  declining.  Tlie  name  'musk 
ox'  or  'musk  sheep'  refers  to  a  peculiar  musky 
odor,  the  origin  of  which  seems  to  be  in  doubt ; 
apjiarently,  however,  there  is  no  special  gland  as 
in  the  musk  deer  and  other  musky  mammals. 
The  legs  are  short  and  stout,  so  that  the  animal 
is  somewhat  lower  than  a  small  ox,  which  it 
otherwise  resembles  in  size  and  shape.  The  hair 
is  amber  brown,  woolly  and  long;  thick,  matted 
and  curly  on  the  shoulders,  giving  the  appearance 
there  of  a  hump:  elsewhere  it  is  straight  and 
hangs  down  .so  as  to  conceal  the  .short  tail  and 
upper  half  of  the  legs.  The  wool  has  been  spun 
into  fabrics  said  to  be  extremely  soft.  The  hoofs 
are  remarkable  in  being  asymmetrical,  the  outer 
half  being  rounded  while  the  inner  is  pointed  ;  the 
sole  of  the  foot  is  hairy.  The  head  is  inclined 
to  be  massive,  especially  in  old  males,  where  the 
horns  have  extremely  broad  bases.  The  latter 
are  elegantly  curved,  first  obliquely  downward 
and  backward  by  the  side  of  the  head  and  then 
upward  and  forward.  The  ears  are  so  small  as 
to  be  concealed  by  the  hair,  and  the  muffle  is 
hairy  as  in  sheeji  and  goats.  The  flesh  is  coarse 
grained,  but  of  variable  quality,  some  individuals 
being  tender  and  of  good  flavor,  while  others  are 
tough  and  so  nmsky  as  to  be  uneatable.  Curious- 
ly enough,  the  difference  in  flavor  is  apparently 
not  a  matter  of  age  or  sex.  Musk  oxen  are 
gregarious,  going  in  flocks  of  20  or  30,  or  rarely 
as  many  as  80  or  100.  and  are  said  to  be  very 
sheep-like  in  their  habits.  Although  the  legs  are 
80  short,  they  nm  with  S]ieed.  and  can  climb 
steep  slopes  and  clamber  over  rocks  with  remark- 
able agility.  The  young  are  produced,  one  at  a 
time,  at  the  end  of  May  or  early  in  .Jtme,  and 
the  rutting  season  is  in  September.  The  food  of 
the  musk  ox  is  grass,  moss,  lichens,  and  tender 
shoots  of  willow  and  pine.  They  are  themselves 
an  important  item  in  the  larder  of  the  Eskimos 
and  of  Arctic  explorers.  The  writings  of  these 
explorers  contain  the  best  accounts  of  the  ani- 
mal, whose  young  have  now  and  then  been 
brought  alive  to  Europe,  and  have  survived  for 
a  time  in  zoological  gardens.  See  Plate  of 
Wild  Sheep  and  Musk  Ox  with  Sheep. 


MUSK  PLANT,  iMusK  KooT,  Musk  Tree, 
Musk  Wood.  Various  plants  possessed  of  a 
musky  odor.  Among  these  are  the  common  mtisk 
plant  (iliiHuliis  muschutus)  ;  the  musk  tree 
(Olcaria  aryoi)lii/ll(i)  of  Tasmania;  the  musk 
okra  {llihiscus  iiitischeutus)  ;  the  musk  tree  of 
.lamaica  {Trichilia  moschata)  ;  and  the  West 
Indian  musk  w'ood  {(luarca  grandifolia) ,  used  in 
perfumery.  The  drug  called  musk  root  or  Sam- 
bul,  brought  from  Asia  principally  through  Rus- 
sia and  Persia,  is  the  starchj'  root  of  Eunjan- 
tjium  Stintbul,  which  has  a  pure  musky  odor, 
and  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  musk. 

MtrSKRAT  (so  called  from  its  musky  odor), 
or  MusyiASH.  The  muskrat  {Fiber  zihethicus) 
is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  and  best 
known  of  North  American  quadrupeds,  and  it 
is  peculiar  to  this  continent.  It  makes  its  home 
in  the  banks  or  water  of  streams,  ponds,  and 
lakes.  It  is  the  largest  known  species  of  the 
subfamily  Arvicolina;  (see  Vole)  of  the  family 
Murida>,  and  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  an  aquatic 
life,  although  there  are  other  species  of  the  sub- 
family which  are  also  amphibious.  Its  body  is 
about  12  inches  in  length,  and  its  tail  about  8 
inches.  The  body  is  rather  stout  and  thickset, 
the  head  is  rounded,  and  the  ears  are  small  and 
close.  The  front  feet  are  rather  small,  with 
four  digits  and  a  rudimentary  thumb,  while  the 
hind  feet  are  stout,  with  five  partially  webbed 
toes,  and  so  attached  to  the  leg  that  they  are 
well  fitted  for  swimming,  yet  the  sculling  move- 
ment of  the  much  compressed  tail  is  the  principal 
means  of  progress  in  the  water.  As  with  other 
aquatic  mammals,  the  pelage  consists  of  an 
undercoat  of  dense,  soft  fur  and  an  outer  coat, 
on  the  back  and  sides,  chiefly  of  long,  shining, 
smooth  hairs.  So  much  air  is  held  by  these  outer 
hairs  that  in  ordinary  excursions  the  under  fur 
is  hardly  wetted.  The  color  above  is  dark  umber 
brown,  darkest  on  the  middle  of  the  back  and 
on  the  tail,  while  beneath  the  prevailing  shade 
is  gray. 

The  musky  odor  from  which  the  animal  gets 
its  name  is  due  to  the  secretion  of  a  large  gland 
in  the  inguinal  region,  which  is  present  in  both 
sexes.  The  muskrat  is  omnivorous,  eating  roots 
(especially  of  the  pond  lily),  fruits,  vegetables, 
insects,  worms,  mollusks.  etc.,  but  it  is  especially 
fond  of  apples,  in  search  of  which  it  often  wan- 
ders far  from  its  home,  and  thus  finds  its  way 
occasionally  into  barns  and  cellars.  In  some  lo- 
calities fresh-water  mussels  are  a  favorite  ar- 
ticle of  food,  and  large  heaps  of  the  empty  shells 
are  sometimes  found  near  muskrat  burrows,  dtie 
to  their  preference  for  dining  day  after  day  in 
the  same  place.  Although  so  widely  distributed 
and  abundant,  the  muskrat  is  not  often  seen,  as 
it  is  mainly  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  and  during 
the  day  remains  in  its  burrow  or  house.  The 
home  of  this  animal  is  either  built  of  sticks, 
mud,  and  grass,  and  forms  a  heap  the  size  and 
appearance  of  a  small  haycock,  or  else  is  dug  out 
of  the  bank  of  a  stream  or  pond  and  then  forms 
a  burrow  of  indefinite  length,  the  entrance  to 
which  is  under  water.  The  character  of  the 
home  seems  to  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the 
cotmtry;  where  there  is  an  extensive  swamp,  or 
stretch  of  shallow  water,  so  that  the  houses  will 
not  he  ordinarily  exposed  to  wandering  enemies, 
muskrats  seem  to  prefer  these  homes;  but 
where  they  live  in  or  about  a  narrow  stream, 


MUSKRAT. 


192 


MUSSEL. 


■with  little  swamp,  the  burrow  in  the  bank  is 
the  more  usual  shelter.  Tlie  houses  are 
alwavs  entered  from  water  deep  enoufjli  so  that 
the  5)assagewav  shall  not  freeze  up  in  winter. 
Tlie  llcsh  of  the  muskrat  is  j;ood  eatmji.and  was 
formerly  mueh  used  by  the  Indians.  The  fur  is 
used  quite  extensiyely,  so  tliat  the  skins  are  an 
artiele  of  commcree.  For  this  reason,  muskrats 
are  e\tensiyely  trapped  and  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands are  killed  annually.  Their  numbers  never- 
theless do  not  decrease,  partly  because  their  nat- 
ural enemies  are  fewer.  l>ut  chiclly  because  of 
the  fact  that  the  making  of  slackwater  spaces 
by  damming  rivers,  and  the  digging  of  canals 
("whose  banks  they  seriously  damage),  have 
greatly  extended  \vaters  suitable  for  them  in 
various  parts  of  the  country.  Trapping  is  done, 
chiellv  in  the  ^vinter,  by  setting  small  steel  traps 
at  the  entrance  to  their  houses  or  burrows  or  in 
runways  where  they  come  ashore. 

Thename  muskrat  is  applied  to  a  number  of 
other  more  or  less  rat-like  animals,  on  account 
of  their  strong  odor.  In  Europe  it  is  frefpiently 
given  to  the  desman  (q.v.),  wliile  in  India  it  is 
associated  with  a  shrew  {frocidura  ca'rtilca) 
whicli  has  well-developed  musk  glands  on  the 
belly  and  flanks.  In  South  Africa  the  genet 
(Geiictia  fclhia),  a  viverrine,  carnivorous  mam- 
•    mal,  is  sometimes  so  called. 

Consult  the  \yorks  of  Audubon,  Richardson, 
Godinan.  Kennieott.  and  other  early  ^vrlters•,  ami 
of  C.  C.  Abbott,  H.  D.  Thoreau,  J.  Burroughs,  D. 
L.  Sharp.  R.  Robinson,  A.  L.  Adams,  \V.  Cram, 
J.  A.  Allen.  E.  S.  Mearns,  and  other  recent  nat- 
uralists; especially  :Merriam.  .)/fi.mw-//.s-  of  the 
Adiromlnclcs  (Xew  York,  IS'J.t)  ;  Ilerrick,  1/am- 
mols  of  Minnesota  CMinneapolis,  18!)2)  ;  Butler, 
"Observations  on  the  iluskral,"  in  .l»icric«)i  .Anf- 
■uralht.  vol.  XV.  (Philadelphia,  188.5)  :  f'rf "  »"^1 
Stone.  Amciirrni  Animiils  (Xew  \ork.  1.)0l). 
Sec   rlatc   of    liE.WT.R,  COYPU,  AND  lilUSKU.VT. 

MUSK  SHEEP.  A  musk  ox  (q.v.). 
MUSK  SHREW.  One  of  a  large  group  of  Old 
World  sbie»>^.  of  which  about  eighty  species  of 
the  genus  Crocidura  are  known.  They  are  noted 
for  Their  muskv  odor,  range  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean to  Norliiern  India,  and  are  of  terrestrial 
habits  One  of  these  shrews  (Crocidura  carulca) 
is  the  largest  of  its  race  (see  SniiEW),  and  as 
large  as  a  rat.  It  is  gray,  and  is  known  to 
An"lo-Indians  as  the  'muskrat.'  It  enters  houses 
ancFat  night  runs  about,  catching  insect  vermin: 
but  counterbalances  this  bencricial  service  by 
leaving  behind  a  musky  odor,  sometimes  unpleas- 
antly strong. 

MUSK  TORTOISE,  MisK  Tirti.e,  or  Stink- 
pot One  of  llie  mud  or  'Imx'  turtles  iCinostcr- 
num  odwatum)  of  the  eastern  half  of  the 
Vnited  States,  well  known  for  its  strong,  musky 
odor,  which  exudes  from  plamls  in  the  arm-pits. 
It  has  a  disproportionately  large  head,  a  long 
and  slender  neck,  with  two  yellow  stripes  on 
each  side,  and  a  dusky  shell,  clouded  and  some- 
times spollcil.     It  is  eilible. 

MUSKWAKI,  musk-wU'k*.  An  Algonquian 
tribe.     Sii.  Fox. 

MUSLIN  (Fr.  »iot(.9.<!p/iiie,  from  It.  mussoUno, 
muslin,  made  of  muslin,  from  mtissoln.  niiislin 
from  ML.  Mossiihi.  from  Syr.  Mosul,  a  city  of 
.Afesopotamia  on  the  Tigris,  whence  the  fabric 
originally  came).     A   cotton  fabric  of  Oriental 


origin.  No  such  trade  now  exists  in  the  Orient; 
and  for  muslins  of  the  common  kinds  at  least  the 
Indian  market  depends  upon  the  manufactures 
of  England  and  France,  iluslin  is  much  less 
compact  in  its  texture  than  calico — indeed, it  niorc 
nearly  resembles  gauze  in  appearance ;  but  it  is 
woven  plain,  without  any  twisting  of  the  filling 
threads  with  those  of  the  warp.  The  mamifac- 
ture  of  muslins  is  very  extensive,  especially 
printed  muslins,  in  which  the  patterns  are  pro 
duced  by  the  same  processes  as  in  ealico-]iriiitiiig. 
The  terin  muslin  is  also  applied  to  a  coarser  and 
heavier,  but  jilainly  woven  cotton  cloth,  suitable 
for  slicets  and  pillow-cases.     See  We.wing. 

MUS'PRATT,  James  Sheridan  (18-21-71). 
An  emim-nt  Irish  chemist.  He  studied  under 
Liebig.  at  Giessen,  184.'5-45,  and  there  took  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  with  a  thesis 
tracing  the  resemblance  bet\veen  the  carbonates 
and  suliihitcs.  In  1847  he  produced  a  numl>er  of 
interesting  organic  substances  from  the  sulpbo- 
cvanates  of  ethyl  and  methyl.  On  his  return  to 
England  in  1848  he  established  and  became  super- 
intendent of  a  college  of  chemistry  at  Liveriiool. 
From  1S.')4  to  18(iO  he  was  engaged  on  his  well- 
known  dictionary  of  chemistry.  The  latest  Ger- 
man edition  of"  this  important  work  m.ay  be 
found  mentioned  in  the  bibliographic  section  of 
the  article  Chemistry.  His  Outlines  of  Quanti- 
tative Analtisis  for  Students  has  had  a  consider- 
able circulation. 

MUS'QUASH.  The  name  among  the  Indians 
of  the  (  niKidian  N(uthwest  for  the  muskrat 
(q.v.).  'Talking  musquash'  is  a  phrase  in  the 
Hudson  Bav  region  for  the  gossip  of  trappers  or 
fur  tradersalioiit  peltries,  of  which  the  fur  of  the 
muskrat  forms  a  constant  and  important  item. 

MUSSAFIA,  nu.is-sil'fe-a,  Adolf  (1835—). 
An  .\u-tiinii  Koinance  |)hilologist.  born  at  Spa- 
lato.  He  studied  medicine,  but  in  1S,')5  Ix'canie 
instructor  of  Italian  at  the  University  of  Vienna, 
and  in  ISUO  piofes.sor  of  Romance  philology".  Ho 
contributed  valual>le  pai)ers  on  Italian  dialects  to 
the  ])roceedings  of  the  Vienna  .Vcademy .  and  wrote : 
Altfrantijsifiehn  (lediehlc  aus  renexianischen  Hand- 
schriflen  (18(;4);  an  edition  of  Fra  Pacdino's 
ne  Uefiimine  pectoris  (18GS);  Ilandschriftlwhe 
t<tudien  (1802-70)  ;  Uebcr  die  spanischc  Version 
der  Uistoria  Troiana  (1871);  Die  catnlnmsche 
Version  der  siehen  weisen  Meister  (1870):  and 
studies  of  the  legends  of  the  Madonna   (1884-91). 

MUSSEL  (.\S.  mtixle.  mucxie.  from  Lat.  mus- 
culus,  small  fish,  sea-mussel,  diminutive  of  nius, 
mouse).  The  word  mussel  is  one  of  those  pop- 
ular names  of  such  uncertain  limits  that  to  at- 
tempt to  define  it  is  a  dilhcult  matter.  At  the 
present  time  it  is  applied  to  two  totally  distinct 
groups  of  biyalved  inollusks,  one  marine  ami  the 
other  fresh-water.  The  first  group  includes  the 
shellfish  of  the  family  :Mylilidn'.  especially  the 
genera  :\Iytilus.  Modiola.  and  Modiolaria.  This 
family  is 'characterized  by  the  presence  of  a  well- 
deveU'iped  byssus,  two  adductor  muscles,  a 
fringed  vestige  of  a  siphon,  and  an  equivalve 
but  ^inequilateral  shell,  with  a  thick  epidermis, 
but  with  a  weak  and  usually  toothless  hinge.  The 
'common'  mussel  IMiiHlus  edulis)  of  all  north- 
ern coasts  is  in  the  Old  World  much  raised  for 
food,  but  its  greatest  importance  in  the  T'nited 
States  lies  in  its  usefulness  as  bait  for  fisher- 
men and  as  manure  for  farmers  near  the  coast. 


I 


MUSSEL. 


193 


MTJSSET. 


It  is  gregarious  and  occurs  in  masses,  closely 
crowded  together,  adiieriug  to  rocks,  sand,  and 
each  otlier,  l)y  the  very  tough  byssus,  the  whole 
'beds'  being  thus  lu'aetieally  s|)un  together.  These 
beds  are  generally  in  shallow  water,  less  than 
tliirty  fathoms,  and  are  often  exposed  at  low 
tide.  The  shell  is  oblong  with  a  terminal  um- 
bone,  and  generally  about  three  inches  long  by 
an  inch  and  a  lialf  wide ;  but  under  favorable 
conditions  they  may  become  six  inches  or  even 
more  in  length.  The  outside  of  the  shell  is  black, 
but  inside  it  is  pearly  blue.    When  young,  mu:r- 


,  AMERICAN   MAltl.NE   MUSSELS. 

.1,  common  edible  mussel  iMytilus  edulis) :  b,  horse  or 
meadow  mussel  (Modiola  modiolus) ;  c,  ribbed  mussel  (Mo- 
dioli plicatula). 

sels  move  about,  but  they  soon  anelior  themselves 
by  the  byssus,  and  unless  artilicially  disturbed 
■will  I'emain  fixed  throughout  life.  So  strong  are 
the  byssus-threads  that  these  moUusks  have  been 
utilized  as  an  aid  in  the  strengthening  of  break- 
waters, tlie  young  mussels  being  planted  on  the 
rocks  in  myriads  aud  thus  assisting  in  uniting 
the  separate  pieces  into  a  rigid  whole.  The  horse- 
mus.sels  (q.v.)  belong  to  the  genus  Modiola, 
which  does  not  have  the  umbone  terminal.  They 
are  more  elongated  than  Mytilus  and  some  spe- 
cies reach  a  much  larger  size.  See  Colored  Plate  of 

CI.AM.S  AXD  EdIP.LE  MuSSELS. 

The  other  group  to  which  the  name  mussel  is 
given  is  the  family  Unionida',  which  are  fresh- 
water mollusks  of  very  wide  distribution.  The 
family  is  characterized  by  the  possession  of  two 
adductor  muscles  and  regular  shells,  with  thick 
epidermis  and  thin  nacreous  layer,  prominent 
external  ligament,  and  a  variable  hinge.  Up- 
ward of  a  thousand  s])ecies  have  been  named,  a 
very  large  proportion  of  wliich  occur  in  the 
United  States,  where  the  family  is  very  abundant 
and  widely  distributed.  It  is  still  an  open 
question  as  to  what  constitutes  a  valid  species 
or  even  a  genus  in  this  family,  though  several 
genera,  as  Unio,  Anodon,  and  Margaritana,  are 
recognized.  These  fresh-water  nmssels  occur  in 
lakes,  ponds,  and  streams,  generally  in  large  num- 
bers together,  and  are  sometimes  eight  inches  or 
more  in  length,  by  four  in  breadth,  but  they  are 
tisnally  smaller  and  narrower.  They  are  some- 
times used  for  food,  but  are  tough  and  not  very 
palatable.  Their  cliief  im|inrtance  lies  in  the 
fact  that  they  frequently  pro<lucc  jiearls,  and  are 
indeed  the  only  basis  of  th<'  fresh-water  pearl  in- 
dustry. As  high  as  $25,000  has  been  paid  for  a 
single  mussel-pearl.  (See  Pe.\rl).  All  of  the 
Unionida"  have  a  remarkable  life-history,  for  the 
eggs  when  laid  find  their  way  into  the  mother's 
gills,  where  they  remain  until  the  young  arc 
hatched.  Although  these  young  have  a  bivalve 
•shell,  they  are  totally  different  from  the  adults 
and  have  a  very  simple  structure.    At  this  stage 


of  development  they  are  called  'glochidia'  larviE. 
After  leaving  the  maternal  gills  they  attach 
themselves  to  the  skin  of  a  fish,  where  they  give 
rise  to  an  excrescence  whieli  gradually  swells 
luitil  it  is  a  capsule  big  enough  to  see  with  the 
naked  eye.  These  capsules  are  almost  black  and 
are  usually  seen  on  or  near  the  fins  of  the  host 
fish;  they  are  often  very  numerous  on  a  single 
lish.  Within  the  capsule  the  glochidium  lives 
until  it  finally  assumes  the  adult  form,  when  it 
breaks  through  the  outer  wall  of  the  capsule  and 
settles  to  the  bottom  as  a  miniature  mussel. 
The  distribution  of  the  species  is  therefore  mainly 
dependent  on  the  activity  of  the  fishes  which 
serve  as  hosts. 

Fossil  mussels  are  found  in  most  geological 
formations  from  those  of  Ordovician  age  to 
those  of  recent  time.  The3'  comprise  the  super- 
family  Jlytilacea,  containing  the  families  Modio- 
lo])sida'.  ilytilida>,  and  Dreissensiidie.  The  first, 
now  entirely  extinct,  are  essentially  ancestral 
forms  of  the  Mytilida',  which  range  through  De- 
vonian to  recent  formations.  The  Paleozoic 
species  of  this  family  belong  mostly  to  the  genus 
Modiola,  which  began  in  Devonian,  was  abundant 
in  Jurassic  and  Tertiary  time,  and  still  persists 
as  a  common  shell  of  the  littoral  zone  of  all  seas. 
Mytilus  began  in  the  Triassic.  Lithophagus  or 
Lithodomus.  the  nuissel  which  bores  cavities  in 
limestone  rock,  has  been  recognized  in  Jlesozoic 
and  Tertiary  formations.  The  Dreissensiid*  are 
of  later  origin,  appearing  first  in  the  Tertiary. 
They  are  essentially  fresh-water  and  estuarine 
mussels,  and  have  probably  evolved  from  Mytihis 
or  a  closely  allied  genus  of  the  littoral  zone  in 
late  Mesozoie  or  early  Tertiary  time.  See  Plate 
of  Abalone,  etc.,   and  illustration  under  MoL- 

LUSK. 

MUSSELBURGH,  mus'sd-bilr-6.  A  small 
seajiort  town  and  Parliamentar}'  burgh  in  the 
covmty  of  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Esk,  314  miles  north  by  east  of  Dalkeith 
(Map:  Scotland.  F  4).  Tanning,  leather-dress- 
ing, and  the  manufacture  of  sail-cloths,  nets,  and 
.salt  are  carried  on.  The  harbor  at  Fisherrow 
is  frequented  by  coasting  craft,  and  by  small 
vessels  from  Holland  and  the  Baltic.  There  are 
famous  golf-links  here.  In  the  vicinity  are  in- 
teresting antiquities.  Population,  in  1891,  8888; 
in  1001,"  11,704. 

MUSSEL-DIGGER.  A  popular  name  for  the 
California  gray  whale. 

MUSSEL  SCALE.  A  diaspine  scale  insect  of 
the  genus  Mytilaspis,  all  of  the  species  of  which 
bear  scales  shaped  like  a  mussel  shell  or  the  shell 
of  an  oyster.  Several  species  are  very  injurious 
to  vegetation.  The  so-called  'oyster-shell  bark- 
louse'  of  the  apple  ( Mi/tilnspis  pomorum)  is  a 
cosmopolitan  enemy  of  apples  and  pears;  and  the 
long  scale  and  the  purple  scale  of  the  orange 
arc  pernicious  examples. 

MUSSET.  my'sA',  Ali-ked  de  (1810-57).  A 
noted  French  poet,  dramatist,  and  novelist, 
born  in  Paris,  November  11,  1810.  His 
father  was  a  man  of  letters,  and  Alfred  grew  up 
in  a  literary  atmos])here,  was  graduated  with 
honors  at  the  Coll&ge  Henri  Quatre.  and  published 
at  twenty  his  first  verses,  Contes  d'Espafiiie  et 
d'ltalie  '(1830).  This,  with  Poesies  d'irer.^s 
( 1831 )  .and  Le  spectacle  dans  mi  fauteuil  ( 1832) , 
established   his    fame.      The   latter    contained   a 


MtrSSET. 


194 


MUSTAPHA. 


poem,  yamouna,  and  two  short  plays  in  a  manner 
peculiarly  his  own.  La  coupe  ct  tcs  livics  and 
A.  giioi  revciil  les  jcuncs  fillcs.  He  had  already 
produced  on  the  stage  a  comedy.  La  niiit  vciii- 
iieniic  (1830),  a  failure.  In  1833  he  followed 
the  dramatic  vein  in  two  tra^'i-coinedies,  Andre 
del  tiarto  and  Les  ctiprices  dc  Mariuniie,  possibly 
his  best.  Holla,  too,  belongs  to  this  year,  and 
was  once  thought  the  French  Childe  Harold, 
though  now  less  admired.  This  sudden  flowering 
of  JIusset's  genius  was  internijited  by  a  reckless 
passion  for  George  Sand  Iq.v. ),  whom  he  first 
met  in  the  summer  of  1833,  and  accompanied  in 
1834  to  Italy  as  her  'secretary.'  He  suircred 
acutely  in  this  new  relation  from  disillusidniiient 
and  self-deception.  He  "was  a  child  all  his  life 
and  a  .spoiled  child,"  never  more  so  than  in  the 
inevitable  estrangement  (1835)  that  cost  (icorge 
Sand  few  pangs,  but  marks  a  cardinal  point  in 
Musset's  career.  He  returned  sick,  experienced 
another  unhappy  love  and  a  series  of  sordid  en- 
tanglements, and  worked  intensely  and  admir- 
ably, at  intervals  interspersed  with  periods  of  ile- 
pression.  Through  the  patronage  of  the  Due  d'(  )r- 
iCans  he  received  a  position  as  librarian  in  1S3S. 
Musset's  work  after  tlie  sei)aration  from  George 
Sand  (Les  niiitx.  Ode  a  la  Malihran.  Lettre  a  La- 
martine.  Espoir  en  Dieu)  shows  at  its  best  a  sad, 
yet  in  the  main  sober,  resignation.  But  during 
this  period  he  was  more  occupied  with  drama 
and  with  prose  iietion.  Of  the  ComMies  et 
proverbes,  Fanlnsio  and  On  ne  hndine  pas  avec 
I'amoiir  belong  to  1831,  Le  chandelier  to  183.5,  II 
ne  fauf  jiirer  de  ricn  to  1830.  Lorenzaccin,  an 
historical  drama  (1834),  had  no  success.  These, 
as  Lcmaitre  points  out  in  his  preface  to 
Jouaust's  Theatre  d'Alfred  de  Mussel,  show  the 
most  genuine  and  original  dramatic  talent  of  all 
the  Romantic  School.  Tragedy  mingles  here  with 
comedy,  not  as  with  Hugo  by  juxtaposition,  but  by 
interpenetration,  for  JIusset  had  too  true  a  taste 
to  yield  to  the  extravagances  of  Ihinias  or  Hugo. 
In  an  essay  />o  traiiedie  (1838)  he  refuses  allegi- 
ance alike  to  French  romantic  or  classic  prin- 
ciples, but  he  combines  the  outward  appearance 
of  restraint  with  the  new  liberty  to  associate 
the  weird  and  terrible  in  Iniman  life  with  its 
higher  comic  aspects.  Tluis  he  succeeded  in  pre- 
senting complex  characters  better  than  any  of  his 
contemporaries  or  predecessors  in  French  drama. 
His  wit  in  dialogue  had  not  been  equaled  since 
Beaumarchais.  None  of  these  plays  was  acted 
in  France  before  1848,  and  their  influence  is 
hardly  noticeable  before  18fi.>.  but  they  contain 
the  quintessence  of  romantic  imaginative  art. 
They  sliow  most  and  best  the  imcliecked  freedom 
of  fancy  that  joined  with  the  spirit  of  realistic 
comedy  in  Ponsard.  Dmnas.  and  .\ugier  to  pro- 
duce the  modern  French  drama.  Jlusset's  prose 
fiction  begins  with  Les  ccjnfessions  d'un  en- 
fant du  siicle  (1836),  which  in  spirit  at  least 
is  autobiographic.  This  was  followed  by  nine 
C'ontcs  ( 1837-44),  of  which  Vroisilles  is  best,  and 
a  tenth.  La  mouche  (18.')1),  one  of  the  last  llick- 
erings  of  his  genius.  These  are  interesting  chielly 
in  exhibiting  the  progress  of  ethical  disinti'^rra- 
tion.  Marijiil  and  Lc  merle  hianc  have  aumblo- 
graphic  elements.  So  perhaps  has  Minii  I'insun, 
a  "proH!  de  grisette'  (  1S4.">).  In  this  story  .Mus- 
set  antiiipales  liv  some  six  years  a  type  of  llie 
French  working  girl  portrayed  by  Henri  Murger. 
Jlinii  has  few  eiothes,  but  she  looks  as  tidy 
as   »he   can,   and   has   the   pretty   manners,   the 


recklessness  as  to  the  future,  and  the  easy  moral- 
ity of  the  ffrisclte.  ^lusset's  critical  essays  are 
also  worthy  of  remark,  especially  the  witty  Let- 
tres  dc  Dupuis  et  Votonet,  satirizing  modern 
marriage,  journalists,  novelists,  and,  above  all, 
the  critics  of  thoroughbred  Komanticism.  Mus- 
set's closing  years  were  marked  by  dejection  and 
by  comparative  inactivity.  In  1841  he  Hung  at 
the  Germans  his  fierj'  war  song,  Le  lihhi  alle- 
mand.  In  1845  appeared  11  faut  qu'une  porte 
soit  ouverte  ou  fermee,  a  prurerbe.  In  1847 
L'n  caprice  (1837),  a  little  tragedy  with  a  cho- 
rus to  utter  platitiules  in  Greek  style,  was  ])er- 
f(irmed  at  the  Theatre  Francais.  Between  1848 
and  1851  liettine  was  played,  and  Caruwsine  was 
written,  but  they  are  scarcely  worthy  of  their 
author. 

Musset  died  of  an  affection  of  the  heart.  May  2, 
1857.  His  works  were  pviblished  in  ten  volumes 
in  1865. 

Consult:  Sainte-Beuve,  Portraits  contctnpo- 
rains,  vol.  ii.,  and  also  his  Vauserics  du  lundi, 
vols,  i.,  xiii.:  George  Sand,  L'llc  et  lui  (Paris, 
1859)  :  Paul  de  Jlussct,  Lui  et  die  (ib.,  1800)  ; 
id.,  Biographic  d'Alfred  de  Musset  (ib.,  1877); 
.Taubert,  Sourenir»  (ib.,  1881);  Faguet,  Etudes 
litleraires  sur  le  XlXeme  siecle  (ib.,  1887)  :  Le- 
maitre.  Introduction  au  theatre  de  Musset  (ib., 
1885-89);  Palgrave,  Oxford  Fssaiis  (Oxford, 
1855)  :  Lindau,  Alfred  de  Musset  (Berlin,  187")  ; 
Spoelbergh  de  Lovenjoul,  Etude  critique  et  hibli- 
Cfiraphique  sur  les  orui-rcs  d'Alfred  de  Musset 
(Paris,  1867);  Barine,  Alfred  de  Musset  (ib., 
1803). 

MUS'SEY,  Reuben  DiMOND  (1780-1860).  An 
American  surgeon,  born  at  Pelhani,  N.  H.  He 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1803,  and  received  the 
degree  of  M.D.  from  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1800.  He  held  me<lical  professorships 
at  Dartmouth,  Cincinnati,  and  Jliami  Medical 
College,  and  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  bold 
and  skillful  operator.  He  was  the  first  to  tie 
both  carotid  arteries,  and  the  first  to  remove 
completely  the  shoulder  blade  (1837)  ;  and  was 
unusually  succcssfiil  in  lithotomy  and  operations 
for  strangulated  hernia.  He  wrote  Bealth:  Its 
Friends  iind  Its  Furs    (1802). 

MUS'SULMAN.     See  Moslkm. 
MUSTAGH    (miTT.-stag')    MOUNTAINS.     A 
miiinitain    range   in    Kashmir.      Sif    KahakoRI'M 

Mdl  .XTAINS. 

MUSTAPHA,  moo'sta-fii.  Tlie  name  of  four 
Ottoman  sultans.  The  first  (1501-1030),  a  son 
of  Mohanime<l  III.,  succeeded  .Xchnict  I.  in  1017, 
was  deposed  after  three  months,  came  to  the 
throne  again  in  1022,  and  was  again  deposed 
(1023).  He  was  feeble-minded. — Mf.sTAriiA  II. 
(1004-1704)  came  to  the  throne  in  1005,  and  at 
the  Peace  of  Carlowitz  signed  away  the  ^lorca, 
the  Ukraine,  Hungary  between  the  Danube  and 
Theiss,  and  .\s;ov.  He  was  deposed  by  a  rising  of 
the  .Janizaries  in  1703. — ^IrsTAi'iiA  111.  (1717- 
741  ruled  from  1757  mitil  his  death.  He  ijuar- 
reled  with  Knssia  and  Poland  and  involved  the 
icMMitrv  in  war  which  lasted  through  his  reign. 
His  internal  reforms  were  no  more  succe-jsful 
than  his  foreign  policy. — MfSTAPiiA  IV.  (1770- 
1808)  Avas  made  Sultan  by  the  .Tanizjiries.  who 
rclx'lled  against  Selim  III.  in  1807.  and  was  de- 
posed and  killed  in  the  next  year. 

MUSTAPHA,  Kara.  kJi'rA.  A  Turkish  grand 
vizier.     .See  Kara  Mustapiia. 


I 


MUSTARD. 


19" 


MUT. 


MUSTARD  (OF.  moit/ilarde,  Fr.  moutardc, 
frciiii  OF.  iiKiKsl,  Iroin  Lilt,  xiustum,  must,  neu. 
of  muslKS,  fresh),  lirussica.  A  goinis  of  pliints 
of  the  natural  onltT  Crucifcrse,  having  yellow 
flowejs,  and  linear  or  oblong  pod.s,  which  ter- 
minate in  a  s\vord-sha]ie(l,  compressed,  or  four- 
cornered  beak,  and  contain  one  row  of  seeds.  The 
black  mustard  {Brassica  nigra)  is  an  annual, 
which  grows  wild  in  fields  and  by  waysides  in 
the  middle  and  south  of  Europe.  Its  pods  are 
bluntly  four-angled,  smooth,  erect,  and  lie  close 
to  the  .stem,  their  valves  one-nerved;  the  leaves 
are  smooth,  the  lower  ones  lyrate,  the  upper 
linear-lanceolate;  the  seeds  are  broAvnish  black. 
White  mustard  (Brassica  alba),  also  a  native 
of  most  parts  of  Europe,  is  an  annual  having 
divergent  pods  covered  with  stiff  hairs,  the  valves 
five-neiTe(l,  the  seeds  yellowish,  the  leaves  pinna- 
tifid.  Both  these  species  are  cultivated  in  Europe 
and  to  a  limited  extent  in  America,  for  their  seeds, 
which  are  ground  into  powder  to  make  the  well- 
known  condiment  called  nuistard.  The  mustard 
of  commerce  is  freiiuently  mixed  with  flour  and 
commonl.v  colored  witli  turmeric.  The  powder  of 
the  seeds  is  also  much  used  in  medicine  as  a 
rubefacient.  Mustard  seeds  depend  for  their 
pungency  on  a  principle  which,  when  water  is 
added  to  black  mustard,  forms  volatile  oil  of 
nuistard.  There  is  also  in  the  seeds  a  bland 
fixed  oil,  oil  of  mustard,  which  is  obtained  from 
them  by  expression,  and  constitutes  about  28  per 
cent,  of  their  weight.  White  mustard  is  often 
sown  in  gardens  and  forced  in  hot-houses  for  use 
as  a  salad.  It  is  also  sometimes  sown  as  a  green 
niaiuire  crop  and  for  feeding  sheep,  when  turnip 
or  rape  has  failed.  Wild  mustard,  or  charlock 
{BraKsica  arrciisis,  or  Sinapistnim  of  some 
botanists),  which  is  distinguished  b_v  turgid  and 
knotty  pods  with  many  angles  and  longer  than 
the  two-edged  beak,  is  a  troublesome  annual  weed 
in  both  Europe  and  America.  It  is  controlled  by 
spraying  with  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  copper  sul- 
phate or  12  to  15  per  cent,  iron  sulphate  at  the 
rate  of  50  to  70  gallons  per  acre.  (See  Herbi- 
cide.) Indian  mustard  (Brnsnica.  ramosa)  is 
extensively  cultivated  in  India  for  its  seeds, 
which  are  used  as  a  condiment,  as  are  those  of 
Brassica  dicltoioma  and  Brassica:  gJauca  (re- 
garded by  some  botanists  as  forms  of  Brassica 
arvensis) ,  also  cultivated  in  India.  Other  species 
are  Brassica  japoitira.  used  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent in  the  United  States  for  greens;  a  turnip- 
rooted  Chinese  form  (Brassica  napiformis) .  and 
riiiiic^e  mustard  (/?m.«.5i>fi  juncea).  See  illus- 
tration of  C'ABB,\GE  .iXD  Allies. 

MUSTARD  FAMILY.  A  natural  order  of 
plants.     See  rRiciFER.E. 

MUSTARD  OIL,  or  Oil  of  JIustard.  chemi- 
cally known  as  alli/l  isd-sitlphoci/aiiatc,  C'.;H-N('S. 
A  volatile  oil  obtained  from  black  mustard, 
the  seeds  of  the  Brassica  nigra,  growing  in 
Asia  and  in  Southern  Europe.  The  seeds  con- 
tain a  bland  fixed  oil  which  may  be  removed  by 
expression,  but  thev  do  not  contain  the  volatile  oil 
ready-formed.  The  latter  is  produced  by  the 
action  of  a  soluble  ferment  (myrosin)  upon  the 
potassium  salt  of  myronie  acid  (a  glucoside),  in 
the  presence  of  water.  Tiotli  myrosin  and  potas- 
sium myronate  are  contained  in  bliick  mustard 
seeds.  If,  therefore,  after  the  fixed  oil  has  been 
removed,  the  crushed  seeds  are  treated  with 
water  and  distilled,  the  volatile  oil  is  obtained, 
in  much  the   same  way  as   the  volatile  oil   of 


almonds  is  obtained  from  bitter  almonds.  (See 
Almond.s,  VoL.vriLE  Oil  of.)  Mustard  oil  is  a 
very  volatile  colorless  liquid,  having  a  painfully 
pungent  odor  and  an  acrid  taste;  when  ai)plicd 
to  the  skin  it  speedily  raises  blisters;  it  is  in- 
soluble in  water,  and.  if  pure,  boils  at  151°  C.  Its 
formation  from  potassium  myronate  takes  place 
according  to  the  following  chemical  equation : 
KC,„H,sNS,0,„  =  CHjNCS  +  C„H,,0,  +  IvHSO. 
Potaspiura  Mustard  Gluco.se  Acid 

niyronat«  oil  potassium 

sulphate 

The  pungency  of  ordinary  mustard  as  a  condi- 
ment is  due  to  the  formation  of  the  volatile  oil 
on  addition  of  water.  The  allyl  iso-sulphoeyan- 
ate  prepared  by  an  artificial  ])rocess  in  the  chem- 
ical laboratory,  is  identical  with  the  volatile  oil 
obtained  from  mustard  seeds. 

The  term  iiiiislard  oils  is  often  applied  to 
organic  iso-sulpliocyanates  in  general. 

MUSTEL'ID.a;  (Xeo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat. 
iniislclo,  Aveasel,  from  miis,  mouse).  The  family 
of  small  carnivores,  represented  by  the  weasel, 
and  embracing  the  more  highly  valued  fur-bearing 
animals.  They  are  related  to  the  arctoid  Carniv- 
ora,  especially  the  bears,  and  the  family  includes 
three  groups,  as  follows:  (1)  Melinje  (the  Old 
World  badgers)  ;  (2)  Mustelin;B  (grison,  marten, 
sable,  wolverine,  polecat,  weasels,  ratel,  American 
badger,  and  skunks )  ;  ( 3 )  Lutrimne.  ( otters ) .  Con- 
sult authorities  cited  under  IIammalia,  espe- 
cially Beddard.     See  Fur-Bearinq  Animals. 

MUSTER  (from  OF.  mostre,  monstre,  Fr. 
montrc,  show,  from  Lat.  monstrare,  to  show, 
from  monstrnin,  portent,  monster,  fi'om  monere, 
to  warn).  When  used  in  its  military  sense,  this 
term  applies  particularly  to  the  as.sembling  of 
troops  for  the  verification  of  membership.  In 
the  United  States  the  troops  are  mustered  for 
pay  on  the  last  day  of  each  month,  each  stated 
muster  being  preceded  by  a  minute  inspection. 
In  the  British  Army  there  is  a  special  muster 
parade  once  each  year,  when  every  individual 
of  each  command  must  respond  in  person  to  the 
regimental  muster  roll.  In  the  navy  the  crews 
are  frequently  assembled  or  mustered  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  if  all  are  on  board  or  for 
drill  or  instruction  or  reading  general  oi'ders. 
Once  a  month  (on  the  first  Sunday  occurring  in 
the  month)  the  officers  and  crew  of  the  vessels  of 
the  United  States  Navy  are  called  to  'general 
muster.'  The  presence  of  the  officers  is  ascer- 
tained by  inspection:  but  the  names  of  the  crew 
are  called  by  the  paymaster  or  his  clerk,  and  each 
man  in  turn,  except  petty  officers,  as  his  name  is 
reached,  passes  across  the  deck,  before  the  cap- 
tain. It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  muster  the 
crew  aft  and  read  the  Articles  for  the  Better 
(lorcrnmrnt  of  the  A"ai.'//,  and  then  call  the  mus- 
ter roll  of  the  erew.  The  two  performances  now 
take  place  on  difl'erent  Sundays. 

MUT,  moot.  An  Egyptian  goddess,  the  wife 
of  Amnion  (q.v.)  of  Thebes,  and  the  mother  of 
Chons  (q.v.).  Her  name  signifies  'mother,'  and 
in  the  inscriptions  she  is  entitled  'the  lady  of 
heaven,  the  queen  of  (he  earth.'  The  chief  temple 
of  the  go<ldess  was  at  Karnak :  it  was  connected 
with  the  great  Temple  of  Anuuon  by  a  long  avenue 
of  sphinxes,  and  was  partly  surrounded  by  the 
sacred  lake  Asher.  From  the  latter  circumstance 
l\Iut  is  often  called  'the  lady  of  Asher.'  She  is 
frequently  represented  as  a  lion-headed  goddess 
wearing  upon   her   head  the   solar  disk,  but  in 


MUT. 


196 


MTJTATION  THEORY. 


mural  docoiiilioiis  she  is  more  commonly  (hpitlpil 
ill  liuman  form  wearing  the  vulture  head-dress 
and  other  sjmljols  of  a  queen  of  Egypt.  Consult: 
W  iedeniaiin.  Riiiijion  of  the  Ancient  Kiiyiitiuns 
(Xew  York,  1897)  ;  Benson  and  GourUiy,  The 
Temiilc  (if  Mi'il  in  Asher   (London,  1898). 

MUTANABBI,  nioo'td-nii'bii  (Ar.  Ahii  al- 
Taijyib  Aliinnil  ihn  ul-Jlundin  al-M iitannhbi  (90.5- 
SMi.j).  One  of  the  most  noted  of  the  Arahie  poets 
of  the  period  of  decline.  He  was  born  in  f^yria,  the 
son  of  a  water-carrier,  and  spent  several  years  in 
the  desert  alSaniuica  (Meso])otamia  ) .  lie  was  not 
a  fervid  Moslem,  and  at  one  time  even  juit  him- 
self forward  as  a  propliet  (whence  liis  name, 
Mtitdnabbi,  'the  one  claiming  to  be  a  propliet"). 
He  was  taken  prisoner  by  Lulu,  the  Iklisliid  Kiiiir 
of  Einesa.  After  being  set  at  lil)erty  he  lived  ill 
great  poverty  and  neglect,  but  in  94S  became 
attached  to  the  Court  of  Saif  al-Dawlah  at 
Aleppo,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his  raids,  and 
whose  praises  he  sang.  He  left  Saif  al-Dawlah 
in  957,  going  over  to  his  enemy  the  Ikhshid 
Kafur  of  Egypt.  In  961  he  went  to  Bagdad,  and 
at  last  to  Shiraz,  where  the  Hujide  Adud  al- 
Dnwlah  became  his  patron.  He  was  murdered  in 
91J.5  on  the  road  from  Sliiraz  to  Kufa.  His 
Diiiiin,  containing  281)  poems,  has  been  very 
widely  read  in  the  East,  wliere  he  is  considered 
the  last  great  Arabic  poet,  perliaps  because  of  his 
intense  national  feeling.  Xo  less  than  forty 
commentaries  have  Ijeen  written  on  his  Diaiin. 
Mutanabbi  is  the  type  of  the  Court  singer,  his 
theme  the  battle  and  the  heroic  deeds  of  his 
patrons.  His  songs  lack  the  fire  of  the  earlier 
Bedouin  poetry  and  are  artificial,  but  their  tech- 
nical excellence  cannot  be  denied.  They  have 
been  edited  by  Dieterici,  with  the  coiiimeiilarv  of 
(il-M'i-iliiili  (Berlin,  lStil),and  published  at  Bulak 
(ISIini  and  Cairo  (1870  and  1890)  with  that  of 
al--Vhb(iii.  Other  editions  are:  Calcutta  (1S1.5), 
Beirut  ( 1800) ,  Bombay  (1892).  The /Jnr.iii  has 
been  completely  translated  by  Hammer-Purg- 
stall.  Molrnrbbi  drr  r/rosste  nriibiftrhr  Dirhler 
(Vienna.  1S24)  :  extracts  may  be  found  in  Kiick- 
ert's  llamn.ia  (Stuttgart.  1840),  and  in  Ouseley, 
The  Oriental  Collection,  vol.  i.  (London.  1797). 
Consult:  Bohlen,  Commentntio  dr  Miitrinabbio, 
(Bonn,  1824)  :  Dieterici,  Mutanabbi  und  Seifud- 
dnnhi    (T>eipzig,   1847). 

MUTATION.     See  r>rL.UT. 

MUTATION  THEORY  (Lat.  miitatio, 
change,  from  niiitnrc,  to  change,  for  moiitare, 
frei|iientative  of  moierr,  to  move,  Skt.  mil-,  to 
push).  The  hypothesis  that  evcdution  (c|.v.) 
takes  place  by  means  of  sudilcn  clmngi's  rather 
than  through  slow  and  almost  imperceptible 
transformations.  This  idea,  though  not  new.  has 
been  called  into  great  prominence  by  the  publica- 
tion in  1901  of  Die  Mutntinnxtheoric  by  Prof. 
Hugo  de  N'ries,  professor  of  botany  at  Amster- 
dam. Darwin  himself,  os|)ecinlly  in  his  earlier 
works,  recognized  that  'single  variations'  or 
sports  are  to  he  reckoned  willi  as  well  as  natural 
selection.  Through  the  influence  of  Wallace  and 
others,  natural  selection  had  eome  to  be  the  rul- 
ing tlicorv,  and  it  is  only  in  recent  years  that 
the  significance  of  sports  in  evolution  has  had 
much  place.  However,  as  long  ago  as  lSfi4 
Kiilliker  made  nn  appeal  for  heterogenesis  (which 
is  identical  with  the  mutation  of  De  Vries)  as 
a  factor  in  the  evolution  of  species.  Professor 
Scott  of  Princeton  has  used  the  word  mutation 


for  gradual  modifications.  Still  other  writers 
have  referred  to  the  sudden  origin  of  species  as 
saltatory  evcdution.  But  De  Vries  is  the  tirst 
autlior  who  has  performed  ex])eriiiu'nts  and 
worked  out  a  theory  to  fit  the  facts  which  they 
have  yielded. 

Before  taking  up  the  experiments  it  may  be 
said  tliat  mutation  involves  no  necessary  aban- 
donment of  natural  .selection,  except  in  .so  far 
as  it  may  have  been  held  to  account  for  the 
actual  origination  of  new  characters.  Darwin 
recognized  tliat  natural  selection  improves  but 
cannot  originate  anything  new;  mutation,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  a  means  for  the  devclopiiieiit  of 
new  characters,  and  even  a  new  assemblage  of 
characters,  i.e.  a  new  species.  It  should  he  stated, 
however,  that  DeVries  gives  but  little  place  to 
natural  selection,  even  as  a  means  of  imjiroving 
something  already  present.  His  experiments 
show  that  there  is  a  definite  and  rather  narrow 
limit  to  individual  variation,  and  the  full  ad- 
vantage of  artificial  scdection  along  any  given 
line  can  usually  l)e  olitained  within  a  few  genera- 
tions, as  in  the  parsnip  or  carrot.  He  claims  also 
that  natural  selection  never  fixes  a  character, 
but  tliat  reversion  to  the  original  may  occur 
after  many  generations.  Mutation,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  believed  to  bring  into  existence  some- 
thing wholly  new,  without  any  transitions  or  con- 
necting links.  The  new  form.  i.e.  the  mutant, 
remains  (axed  from  the  outset,  and  if  it  is  fit,  it 
will   remain   as   a   new  species. 

In  ISSO  De  \'ries  observed  a  colony  of  evening 
primrose  {Oenothera  Laniarekiana)  in  which  were 
two  forms  difl'cring  strikingly  from  the  com- 
mon type.  Feeling  that  these  aberrant  forms 
doubtless  came  from  the  same  parentage  as  the 
more  common  forms,  he  made  artificial  cultures 
to  see  if  further  aberrant  forms  would  develop. 
He  found  such  to  be  the  case  to  an  asfonisliing 
degree.  Out  of  .'iO.OOO  seedlings  of  (Knolhfra 
Lamarelciana  in  the  various  years  of  study,  800. 
or  about  l..!  |)er  cent.,  were  mutants,  wliile  98. 5 
per  cent,  came  true  to  seed,  ilore  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  SOO  mutants  were  of  one  type,  which 
De  Vries  named  (Knolhern  lata,  i.e.  this  form 
appeared  anew  in  cultures  more  than  200  times. 
A  form  which  he  called  fEnothera  r]i(tas  a|)pcared 
but  once.  When  cultures  are  made  from  these 
new  forms  they  are  found  to  come  true  to  seed 
except  for  occasional  mutations;  nor  was  any 
tendency  to  reversion  observed.  To  these  new 
forms,  as  to  the  two  aberrant  types  observed  in 
1880.  De  Vries  has  given  names  which  imply 
that  these  forms  arc  actually  new  species.  They 
have,  he  says,  all  the  characteristics  of  species, 
differing  not  in  one.  but  in  several  characters, 
and  rcnniining  cimstant  in  all  cultures.  He  shows 
that  they  are  as  much  entitled  to  be  considered 
separate  species  as  are  the  various  members  of 
tlie  natural  group  to  which  the  parent  (F.nothera 
T.iimarehiana  belongs.  Indeed,  it  is  possilile  to 
identify  most  of  the  new  species  even  while  yet 
seedlings.  There  are  no  transitions  between 
])arcnt  and  ofTsiu-ing.  or  between  one  new  s)iccie9 
and  another.  There  is  no  slow  and  gradual  fixa- 
tion of  characters  by  natural  selection.  Imt  the 
new  species  is  complete  from  the  outset.  ^lost 
of  these  new  forms  would  doubtless  disappear  in 
a  natural  state,  for  they  would  be  obliged  to  en- 
gage in  a  keen  stnmsle  with  species  already  pres- 
ent, or  would  giadually  suffer  the  loss  of  their 
specific  characters  through  hybridization.    How- 


MUTATION  THEORY. 


197 


MUTINY. 


ever,  some  new  species,  especially  if  stronger 
than  the  pureut  form,  might  survive  and  extend 
tlicir  area;  the  two  aberrant  types  lirst  observed 
in  a  tield  in  ISSG  are  still  to  be  seen  there  and  in 
greater  numbers.  Thus  it  may  be  said  that  De 
Vries  has  seen  the  birth  of  new  species,  a  phenom- 
enon which  all  evolutionists  have  wislied  to  sec. 

It  is  of  interest  to  observe  that  independently 
and  almost  simultaneously  with  De  Vries,  Kor- 
sehinsUy  has  brought  together  a  vast  mass  of 
data  under  the  title  "Heterogenesis  and  Evolu- 
tion." From  the  records  of  gardeners  and  horti- 
culturists he  has  concluded  that  most  cultivated 
'varieties'  of  plants  have  arisen  suddenly  as 
sports,  i.e.  through  heterogenesis  or  nuitation. 

liiiiLlOGRAPlll'.  De  Vries,  Die  ilutationslhe- 
orie.  vol.  i.  (Leipzig,  1901)  ;  Korschinsky,  Flora 
( 11(01 )  ;  White,  .S'ciV/ice,  vol.  xiv.  ( 1901 )  :  'Bulletin 
of  Torrey  Botanical  Club  {.\ugust,  1902)  ;  Moll, 
Biuloffis'cltes  Ccntralblatt  (1901-02);  De  Vries, 
Revue  Qcnerale  Botaiiiquc,  vol.  xiii.  (1901); 
Science,  vol.  xv.    (1902). 

MUTAZILITES  (  At.  il u'tazilah,  from  'uzala, 
to  seyiarate).  .V  iloiiammedan  sect  founded  by 
W'asil  ilm  .\ta  (e.74.5)  and  his  disciple  Abu  al- 
lludliail  al-Allaf  (died  e..S45 ) .  They  had  ra- 
tionalistic tendencies,  illustrated,  e.g.  by  tlie 
teaching  of  Abu  al-Hudhail,  that  man  knows 
right  and  wrong  by  reason,  independent  of  super- 
natural revelation.  Later  teachers  developed 
several  subdivisions  of  the  sect.  See  JIoiiam- 
jiED.w  Sects. 

MUTE  (from  Lat.  mutus,  dumb;  connected 
with  SUt.  miika,  dumb).  A  small  instrument 
used  to  modify  the  sound  of  any  of  the  string 
instruments.  It  is  made  of  hard  wood,  ivory, 
or  brass,  and  is  attached  to  the  bridge  by  means 
of  a  slit,  a  leg  of  it  being  interjected  between 
every  two  strings.  The  use  of  the  mute  both 
softens  the  tone  and  imparts  to  it  a  peculiar 
nuilllcd  and  tremulous  quality,  which  is  some- 
tinics  very  effective.  It  is  much  used  in  dra- 
matic music  to  give  color  in  dream-like  or  mystic 
stituations.  Its  application  is  indicated  by  the 
letters  c.  s.,  or  eoji  sordini,  and  its  discontinu- 
ance by  s.  s.,  or  senza  sordini.  Mutes  for  brass 
instruments  are  wooden  cones  with  a  hole  bored 
through  them  so  as  to  allow  the  passage  of  the 
air.  They  are  inserted  into  the  bell  of  the  instru- 
ment. But.  as  their  insertion  affects  the  pitch  of 
the  instrument,  these  mutes  must  be  used  with 
the  utmost  care.  Recently  attempts  have  been 
made  to  construct  complicated  mutes  for  brass 
instruments  that  shall  not  affect  the  pitch.  In 
the  case  of  horns  and  trumpets  the  left  hand  is 
used  as  a  mute.  Mutes  are  also  used  for  drums. 
On  snare-drums  a  piece  of  cloth  or  felt  is  in- 
serted on  the  lower  side  between  the  membrane 
and  the  snares.  Kettle-drums  arc  covered  with 
a  chilh  or  the  membrane  is  lightly  touched  with 
the  left  liand.  On  the  piano  the  soft  pedal  is  fre- 
quently called  mute. 

MUTES.  A  term  applied  in  phonetics  (q.v.) 
to  articulate  sounds,  also  called  occlusives,  pro- 
duced by  a  momentary  closure,  followed  by  a 
reopening  of  some  portion  of  the  oral  passage. 
The  mutes  are  either  voiced  (sonant,  breathed) 
if  the  breath-stream  makes  the  glottal  chords 
vibrate,  or  unvoiced  (surd,  unbreathed)  if  the 
glottal  chords  are  at  rest,  as  h,  p:  d.  t:  jh,  eh. 
With  respect  to  the  point  of  occlusion  mutes  are 
classified   as  gutturals,   h,   kh,   g,   gh ;   palatals, 


r,  cli,  j,  jh;  cerebrals  (Unguals,  cacuminals), 
/,  lli,  <l,  dh;  dentals,  t.  III.  </,  dh;  and  labials, 
l>,  iih,  b,  bh.  The  essential  physiological  condition 
lor  the  mutes  lies  not  in  the  closure,  but  in  the 
reopening  of  the  oral  pas.sage,  while  their  quality 
is  determined  by  the  presence  or  absence  of 
breath,  and  by  the  point  of  the  occlusion. 

MUTIA'NUS,  CoXRADUS  RuFUS  (1471- 
1520).  A  LJernian  hunumist,  whose  name  in  the 
vernacular  was  Konrad  Mut.  He  was  born  at 
llomberg;  studied  under  Hegius  at  Dcventer, 
then  at  Erfurt,  and  for  six  or  seven  years 
in  Italy.  Thence  he  brought  to  Germany  the 
idea  of  a  humanistic  association  or  academy, 
and  by  his  letters  from  Got  ha  became  the  centre 
of  the  Mutianisehc  Bund,  which  included  Justus 
Jonas  and  Camerarius.  .\U hough  he  did  not 
make  common  cause  with  Luther,  Mutianus  and 
his  followers  boldly  attacked  the  abuses  of  the 
Church,  and  it  seems  certain  that  the  Epistolw 
Obscurorum  Virorum  owed  their  authorshii)  to 
this  circle.  Consult  Gillert,  Der  Briefwechsel  des 
CuHiadus  Mutianus   (Halle,  1890), 

MUTINY  (from  OF.,  Fr.  mut  in.  mutinous, 
from  mcute,  sedition,  from  ML,  mota,  revolt, 
inuia,  change,  from  Lat.  mutare,  to  change), 
Jlutiny  at  military  law  is  unlawful  opposition  or 
resistance  to  lawful  military  authority  with  in- 
tent to  subvert  the  same  or  to  nvillify  or  to  neu- 
tralize it  for  the  time.  (Winthrop,  Military 
Lair.  p.  892.)  The  acts  constituting  mutiny  are 
exciting,  causing,  or  joining  in  any  mutiny  or 
sedition  in  any  troop,  battery,  company,  party, 
post  detachment,  or  guard,  and  are  punishable 
with  death  or  such  other  punishment  as  a  court- 
martial  may  direct.  (Twenty-second  Article  of 
War,)  The  punishment  of  death  or  such  other 
punishment  as  a  court-martial  may  adjudge  may 
l)e  inflicted  on  any  person  in  the  naval  service 
who  commits  any  of  the  acts  which  constitute 
mutiny.  (Revised  Statutes,  Sec.  1024.)  In  Eng- 
land an  annual  act  of  Parliament  passes  to  pun- 
ish mutiny  in  the  army  and  na^-v'.  (See  Mutiny 
Act.)  Under  the  British  articles  "every  one 
commits  felony,  and  is  liable  upon  conviction 
thereof  to  penal  servitude  for  life  as  a  maximum 
punishment,  the  maximum  alternative  term  of 
imprisonment  being  three  years,  who  malicious- 
ly and  advisedly  endeavors  (a)  to  seduce  any 
person  serving  in  His  Majesty's  forces  by  sea 
or  land  from  his  duty  and  allegiance  to  His  Ma- 
jesty; or  (b)'  to  incite  or  stir  up  any  such  person 
to  commit  any  act  of  mutiny,  or  to  make  <n-  en- 
deavor to  make  any  mutinous  assembly,  or  to  com- 
mit any  traitorous  or  mutinous  practice  whatever." 

Wliile  mutiny  is.  in  general,  a  concerted  ])ro- 
cceding,  a  single  officer  or  soldier  may  commit 
the  offense.  It  is  an  offense  punishable  with 
death  for  a  soldier  or  officer  being  present  at  a 
mutinj'  not  to  use  his  utmost  endeavor  to  sup- 
press it,  or  having  come  to  the  knowledge  of  a 
nuitiny  (or  intended  mutiny) ,  not  to  give  in- 
formation of  it  to  his  commanding  officer.  (Brit- 
ish and  American  .\rlicles  of  War.) 

.^cts  not  characterized  by  an  intent  to  subvert 
lawful  authority,  while  they  do  not  come  within 
the  legal  definition  of  mutiny,  may  be  regarded 
and  punished  as  conduct  tending  to  mutiny,  but 
clear  of  the  completion  or  commission  of  the 
offense.  The  law  makes  a  distinction  between 
mutiny  and  mutinous  conduct,  the  latter  being 
charged,  and  tried  bv  court-martial,  not  under 


MUTINY. 


198 


MTJTTJLE. 


the  mutiny  articles,  but  as  conduct  to  the  preju- 
dice of  t'OuJ  order  and  military  discipline. 

.\lLTi.Ny  AT  Maritime  Law  is  coniniilted  when 
there  is  a  usurpation  of  tlie  aiithurily  and  com- 
mand of  a  ship  and  an  overthrow  of  that  of  the 
master  or  commanding  officer.  Any  consjiiracy 
to  accomplish  such  an  object,  or  to  resist  a  law- 
ful command  of  the  master  for  such  purpose;  any 
endeavor  to  stir  up  others  of  the  crew  to  such 
resistance,  is  an  endeavor  to  commit  a  revolt 
within  the  meaning  of  the  statute  of  1790. 
(1.  .Stat.  L.,  113;  Abbolfs  Sational  Digest,  3. 
Mutiny.)  The  offense  of  making  a  revolt  or 
mutiny  on  a  ship  is  no  longer  punishable  as  a 
capital  offense.     (Act  of  March  3.  183.5.) 

For  United  States  law  on  the  subject  of  mutiny, 
see  Revised  Statutes,  Sec.  13-24,  Arts.  22  and  23 ; 
Sec.  I(i24.  Arts.  4  and  8;  Sees.  4956,  53.59,  5360. 
MUTINY  ACT.  An  act  of  the  British  Tar- 
liamenl  ])asse<l  from  year  to  year,  investing  the 
Crown  with  powers  to  regulate  the  government 
of  the  armv  and  na^-y,  and  to  frame  the  articles 
of  war.  By  the  Bill  of  Rights,  tlie  maintenance 
of  a  standing  army  in  time  of  peace,  unless  by 
consent  of  Parliament,  was  declared  illegal,  and 
from  that  time  the  number  of  troops  to  be  main- 
tained, and  the  cost  of  the  different  branches  of 
the  service,  have  been  regulated  by  an  annual 
vote.  But  Parliament  possesses  a  further  and 
verv  important  source  of  control  over  the  army. 
Soldiers,  in  time  of  war  or  rebellion,  being  siib- 
jcct  to  martial  law,  may  be  punished  for  mutiny 
or  desertion;  but  the  occurrence  of  a  mutiny  in 
a  Scotch  regiment  soon  after  the  Revolution  of 
1688,  raised  the  question  whether  military  dis- 
cipline could  be  maintained  in  time  of  peace; 
and  it  was  decided  by  the  courts  of  law.  that,  in 
the  absence  of  any  statute  to  enforce  discipline 
and  punish  military-  offenses,  a  soldier  was  only 
amenable  to  the  common  law  of  the  country.  The 
authority  of  the  legislature  thus  bivame  indis- 
pensable' to  the  maintenance  of  military  disci- 
pline, and  Parliament,  since  1689.  .-it  the  begin- 
nin"  of  every  session,  conferred  this  and  other 
powers  in  an  act  called  the  Mutiny  Act,  limited 
in  its  duration  to  a  year.  In  .July,  1879,  the 
Mutiny  Act  and  the  Articles  of  War  were  con- 
solidated with  a  few  changes  into  a  complete 
military  code  called  the  Army  Act,  passed  an- 
nually  as  before. 

MTJTSXTHITO,  mnt'snhe'tA  or  mu-t'-se't6 
(1S,")2 — ).  Tlie  name  of  the  i>resen"t  Eniiicror  of 
.Japan,  but  little  used  and  iniknown  to  the  vast 
majoritv  of  his  subjects.  The  common  ])eo|)Ie  call 
him  Tninhi  .SV/hki,  'August  Son  of  Heaven.'  and 
educated  folks  say  ffhii-jo.  'Supreme  Jlaster.'  He 
succeeded  to  the  "throne  February  3.  1867.  Still 
a  youth,  he  exercised  little  control  during  the 
earlier  part  of  his  reign,  while  .Ia|ian  was  being 
transforuieil  into  a  modern  nation,  and  opinions 
dilTer  as  to  his  activity  in  Inter  years.  He  ac- 
leptcd  the  part  of  a  constitutional  ruler,  and  his 
inlluince  on  the  Government  became  less  appar- 
ent tlian  that  of  the  least  self-assertive  Euro- 
pean monarch.  No  hostile  criticism  has  lieen 
directed  against  him  and  his  character  has  Wn 
considered  blameless.  His  histoi-j'  is  merged  in 
the  liistory  nf  the  F.mpirc.  He  married  the 
dau-rblcr  of  a  noble  on  February  9.  1809. 
MUTTON-BIRD.  See  Shkarwater. 
MUTTON-FISH.  fl)  A  fish  of  the  large. 
wide-pr<ad   group   of  eel-pouts,  the  eel-pout   or 


mother-of-eels  {Zoarccs  (nujuillaiis)  of  the  North 
Atlantic  coasts.  It  feeds  upon  shellfish,  may  be 
caught  with  a  hook  in  the  bays  north  of  Cape 
Cod,  and  reaches  a  weight  of  six  to  seven  pounds. 
It  spawns  in  late  sunnner  and  produces  a  few 
large  eggs.  (2)  One  of  the  snappers  (.Ycoiiienis 
amilis)  of  the  West  Indies.  (3)  One  of  the 
mojarras  {Gerres  olisthostomus),  also  called 
•Irish  pompano.' 

MUT'TRA,  The  capital  of  a  district  in  the 
United  Provinces,  Britisli  India,  23  miles  north- 
east of  Bhartpur,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  .lunma 
(Map:  India,  C  3).  The  city  extends  in  crescent 
form  for  about  P^i  miles  along  the  riglit  bank  of 
the  river,  to  which  access  is  facilitated  from  a 
paved  street  by  numerous  ghats  and  chatburahs, 
ornamented  with  pavilions  and  temples.  The  de- 
votional ablutionary  exercises  of  the  mixed 
crowds  morning  and  evening  constitute  one  of  the 
characteristic  sights  of  the  city.  Ravines  inter- 
sect the  town,  and  the  streets  are  narrow,  dark, 
and  steep.  The  Hardinge,  or  Holi  entrance  gate, 
is  a  notable  monument,  and  the  houses  of  some 
of  the  wealthier  native  class  are  adorned  with  fine 
sculi)turos.  There  are  numerous  mosques  and 
temples,  of  which  the  .hunma  ilusjid. dating  from 
1660,  is  tlie  chief.  Among  interesting  remains 
are  the  ruins  of  Akbar's  fort,  centrally  situated 
on  the  river  bank,  and  the  obsei-vatory  built  by 
the  celebrated  astronomer  Jey  Singh,  who  became 
Prince  of  Amber  in  1603,  still  containing  several 
astronomical  instruments.  Modern  features  are 
the  museum,  botanical  gardens,  the  European 
churches,  and  the  extensive  military  cantonments 
to  the  south  of  the  city.  As  early  as  the  fourth 
eenturv,  Muttra  is  mentioned  as  a  centre  of 
Buddhism.  As  the  reputed  birthplace  of  Krishna 
and  his  brother  Balarama.  it  is  annually  visited 
by  thousands  of  pilgrims  on  the  occasions  of  its 
religious  festivals.  The  river  abounds  witli  tur- 
tlesT  and  the  streets  swarm  with  monkeys,  pea- 
cocks, paroquets,  and  sacred  bulls,  which  are 
permitted  to  roam  at  large,  protected  and  fed  by 
the  peojile.  ^Muttra  anciently  was  of  great  im- 
portance, and  its  splendor  and  wealth  made  it 
an  object  of  attack  to  the  first  Afghan  invaders; 
Mahn'iud  of  (Jhazni  in  1017  plundered  and  burned 
the  city  and  carried  off  idols  of  gold,  silver,  and 
precious  stones,  valued  at  $1,500,000.  In  1.500, 
1636,  1669.  and  1736,  it  again  suirered  ca)itiire 
and  spoliation.  Since  the  British  occupation  in 
1803.  it  has  regained  some  of  its  former  im- 
portance. During  the  Indian  Mutiny  of  1857,  the 
Sepoys  here  murdered  their  British  officers  and 
joined  the  insurgents  at  Delhi.  Population,  in 
1891,  61.195:   in   1901,  00,042. 

MUTUALISM  (from  mutual,  from  OF.  mutu, 
from  l.at.  mutuux.  reciprocal,  from  mulnrr.  to 
change).  That  type  of  symbiosis  (q.v.)  in  which 
eacirsvinbiont  is'believed  to  gain  by  the  presence 
of  the"  other.  It  has  not  been  absolutely  proved 
that  a  case  of  complete  mutualism  exists,  though 
in  the  root  tubercles  (q.v.)  of  the  LeguiiiinosiB 
tlie  evidence  for  mutualism  is  very  strong. 

MUTTULE  (T.at.  mutulux.  mutulc.  modillion). 
A  rectangular  block  under  the  corona  of  the  cor- 
nice of  the  Doric  order.  One  is  regularly  placed 
over  each  triglyph  and  metope.  On  each  mutule 
are  worked  three  rows  of  six  ituttrr  or  drops. 
They  probablv  represent  the  heads  of  the  naila 
bv  which  the'  wooden  block  was  'fastened  in  the 


MUTTTLE. 


199 


MYCEN^. 


primitive  brick  and  wood  style  from  wliicli  tlie 
boric-  order  developed. 

MUTtJTJM  (Lat.,  loan).  A  loan  of  any  ar- 
ticle or  commodity  for  consumption  by  the  bor- 
rower, who  agrees  to  return  tlie  articles  in  hind. 
The  term  and  the  rules  governing  such  contracts 
originated  in  the  Konian  law,  and  were  adopted 
into  tlie  English  and  Scotch  law  at  an  early 
period  and  became  a  part  of  the  common  law.  It 
is  not  a  true  bailment,  as  the  article  itself  is  not 
to  be  returned,  and  it  does  not  create  a  debt,  as 
no  money  payment  is  to  be  made.  The  title  to 
the  commodity  lent  passes  to  the  borrower, 
and,  therefore,  it  seems  like  a  contradiction  in 
terms  to  employ  the  terminologj'  of  bailments  to 
such  contracts.  It  has  been  held  in  a  few  States 
that  the  delivery  of  grain  to  a  miller  for  grind- 
ing is  a  contract  of  mutuum,  and  that  the  miller 
is  only  bound  to  return  flour  of  the  same  quality 
that  the  grain  delivered  would  have  produced. 
The  important  effect  of  this  doctrine  on  such  a 
state  of  facts  would  lie  that  the  miller  would  still 
be  bound  to  deliver  the  flour  if  the  grain  were 
destroyed.  Consult  Story,  Baihnents ;  id.,  Fun- 
gihlrs. 

MXJYSCA,  mvi-e'ska.  A  confederacy  of  South 
American   Indians.     See  ClIIBCHA. 

MUZAFFAR-ED-DIN^  nio3-zil'fer-ed-den' 
(1S.>3 — ).  Shah  of  Persia,  the  second  son  of 
Xasr-ed-Din  (q.v. ).  He  was  born  at  Teheran, 
March  2.5,  1853.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of 
the  Province  of  Azerbaijan,  but  was  recalled  for 
failing  to  suppress  an  uprising  of  the  Kurds. 
.\lreaily  declared  heir  apparent  during  his  father's 
lifetime.  iIuzafTar-ed-I)in  became  Shah  .June  8. 
ISflfl,  after  Xasr-ed-Din's  assassination  by  a  Babi 
(see  Babism)  on  May  1.  In  early  life  an  almost 
fanatical  ilohammedan,  he  showed  great  toler- 
ance as  Shah,  particularly  in  his  repression  of  an 
outbreak  against  the  Christian  Armenians  at 
Kazoni  in  1890.  He  further  relieved  his  subjects 
at  his  accession  of  the  taxes  on  meat  and  bread, 
and  likewise  abolished  the  system  of  pureliasc  of 
civil  and  military  positions.  Of  this  change  from 
his  earlier  character  the  European  inlluenee,  es- 
pecially that  of  the  French,  under  which  he  eanie 
in  Teheran,  is  the  main  cause.  He  twice  visited 
Europe,  first  at  the  time  of  the  Paris  Exposition 
in  1000.  when  an  unsuccessful  attem])t  to  assassi- 
nate him  was  made  by  an  anarchist  named  Sal- 
son,  and  again   in   1002. 

MUZAFFARPUB.,  muz'af-er-poor'.  The  cap- 
ital of  a  district  in  Bengal,  British  India,  on  the 
right  liank  of  the  Little  Gandak  River,  37  miles 
northeast  of  Patna  (Map:  India,  E  3).  It  is  a 
well-built  town  with  a  numerously  attended  high 
school  and  a  German  mission.  Saltpetre  is 
largely  mined  in  the  district,  and  there  is  a  con- 
siderable trade,  esiieciallv  in  indigo  and  saltpetre. 
Population,  in  1807,  40,i02;  in  1001.  45,617. 

MTJZAKOVA,  mu'zha-k6'vii,  JonANA  (1830 
— ).  A  Bohemian  novelist,,  known  by  her  pseu- 
donym, Karolina  Svetla.  She  was  born  at  Prag\ie 
and  her  name  was  Rott  before  she  married  Pro- 
fessor Muzak.  After  1858,  when  her  first  novel. 
Double  Airtikeninf),  was  published,  she  pro<luced 
more  than  fifty  works  of  fiction,  such  as:  Li}i>ka 
I-  hiiRnikovi  ('-Poet's  Love,"  18(50)  :  Prnri  CesL-a 
(18(il);  Tesnicl'i/  roman  ("Village  Romance." 
ISfiO)  :  FTOnfnm'(1870)  :  Kriz  n  jmtnkn  ("The 
Cross  Beside  the  Stream,"  1871)  :  and  Bnrhara 
(1S73),  besides  essays,  memoirs,  and  songs. 


MTJZIANO,  mijotsC-u'no.  Girolamo  (1528- 
02  I .  \n  Italian  painter  of  the  Mannerist  School. 
He  was  born  at  Aipiafredila,  near  Brescia,  whence 
he  was  also  called  Brcs-ancj.  His  first  master  was 
tlie  painter  Girolamo  l!oiiianino,and  he  afterwards 
studied  in  Venice  under  Titian.  Proceeding  to 
Rome,  he  adopted  the  manner  of  Michelangelo, 
whose  favor  he  gained  by  his  first  painting  of  im- 
])ortance,  "The  Resurrection  of  Lazarus,"  now  in 
the  Quirinal  Palace.  He  is  best  known  for  his 
improvement  of  mosaics  and  the  foundation  of  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke,  which  was  largely  due  to 
his  efforts  and  endowment.  He  was  also  celebrated 
among  contemporaries  for  his  landscapes.  Jlost  of 
his  jiictures  are  in  the  palaces  and  churches  of 
Rome.  Among  the  best  are:  "Ucscent  from  the 
Cross,"  Borghese  Gallery;  "Christ  Giving  the 
Keys  to  Peter,"  his  masterpiece ;  and  a  "Flagel- 
lation," in  the  Vatican.  His  principal  surviving 
frescoes  are  in  the  Vatican  and  at  Foligno. 
Though  an  imitator  of  Jlichelangelo,  he  preserved 
the  excellencies  of  Venetian  coloring.  He  died 
in  Rome.  April  27,  1502. 

MY'ALI'NA  (Neo-Lat.,  diminutive  of  Lat. 
mya,  from  Gk.  /i«'o|,  mi/ax,  sea-mussel,  from 
iws,  myi,  muscle,  mussel,  mouse).  A  fossil  pel- 
eeypod  somewhat  resembling  in  shape  a  mussel 
(Mytilus),  that  is  very  common  in  the  Carbonif- 
erous and  Permian  rocks,  and  hence  an  inde.K  fos- 
sil of  those  periods.  The  genus  is  of  interest 
also  as  possibly  representing  an  intermediate 
stage  between  the  Aviculidte  and  Mytilidte,  with 
both  of  which  families  it  has  characters  in  com- 
mon. 

MYC'ALE  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Mi-icdXT;.  ih/kale). 
The  ancient  name  of  a  mountain,  now  called  Sam- 
sun,  in  the  south  of  Ionia  in  Asia  Minor.  It  ter- 
minates in  the  promontory  of  Cape  Santa  ilaria. 
opposite  the  island  of  Sanios.  To  the  shore  of 
this  promontory  the  fleet  and  army  of  Xerxes  with- 
drew in  B.C.  479  on  the  news  of  the  approach  of 
a  Greek  fleet.  The  Greeks  under  the  Spartan 
King  Leotyehides  and  the  Athenian  Xanthippus. 
father  of  Pericles,  followed  them,  landed,  and 
after  a  severe  struggle  stormed  the  Persian  camp 
and  burned  the  ships. 

MYCE'LIUM  (Xeo-Lat„  from  Gk.  ^fe,,?, 
nn/kfs.  fungus  -|-  ijXos,  hclos,  nail,  wart).  A 
collection  of  fungal  filaments  (hypha?)  making 
up  the  plant  body.     See  Fungi. 

M:YCE'N.ffi  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Uvktjvm,  Mykc- 
luii).  An  ancient  city  of  Greece,  situated  on  a 
steep  hill  in  the  northeastern  corner  of  the  .\rgolic 
Plain,  commanding  the  passes  toward  Corinth. 
It  was  said  to  have  lieen  founded  by  Perseus  and 
to  have  been  rilled  by  his  descendants  until  they 
were  superseded  by  Pelops.  It  is  celebrated  in 
legend  as  the  capital  of  .\gamemnon.  Here  was 
laid  the  scene  of  the  terrible  story  of  the  house  of 
Atreus,  and  here  was  stored  the  wealth  of  Aga- 
memnon. After  the  epic  period,  the  city  seems  to 
have  been  completely  overshadowed  by  the  power 
of  Argos,  but  it  still  preserved  a  quasi-inde- 
pcndenee,  for  during  the  Persian  wars,  when 
Argos  was  friendly  to  Persia,  we  hear  of  eighty 
Mycena'ans  at  Thermopyla>,  and  along  with 
Tiryns  it  sent  two  hundred  men  to  Plata'a. 
Later  !MyeeniT>  joined  the  Spartan  league,  hut 
when  the  Spartans  were  occupied  by  the  re- 
volt of  the  Helots,  in  B.C.  40."!.  the  Argives  be- 
sieged the  city  and  expelled  the  inhabit-ants. 
From  that  time  the  place  was  the  seat  of  a  small 


MYCENiE. 


200 


MYCORRHIZA. 


village  comniunity,  who  in  tlie  time  of  rausanins 
showed  visitors  the  graves  of  Agamemnuii  and 
bis  liousehold.  The  destruction  of  the  city  by 
the  Arrives  did  not  greatly  injure  the  massive 
C'ycloi)ean  wall;  and  this  fortilication.  with  the 
■Lion  Gate,'  so  called  from  the  reliefs  on  the 
triangular  slab  over  the  lintel,  and  the  domed 
tomb  outside,  commonly  called  the  'Treasury  of 
Atreus,'  had  attracted  the  attention  of  archaeolo- 
gists long  before  Heiurich  Schliemann  in  1870 
began  his  excavations.  These  opened  an  entirely 
new  field  in  Greek  archa-ologv'  by  the  discovery 
just  inside  the  Lion  Gate  of  a  carefully  inclosed 
circle,  Avithin  which  at  a  considerable  dei)th  wore 
live  graves,  hewn  in  the  rock,  and  containing  a 
number  of  bodies  with  an  extraordinary  mass 
of  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  swords,  and  vases. 
Since  that  time  the  Greek  Arch,Tological  Society 
has  continued  the  excavations,  for  the  most  part 
through  Dr.  Tsountas,  whose  accurate  and  care- 
ful methods  have  proved  highly  successful.  Be- 
sides the  'Treasury  of  Atreus,'  eight  other  domed 
tombs  and  a  very  large  number  of  smaller  rock- 
out  chambers  for  burial  have  been  opened.  With- 
in the  wall  a  sixth  grave  was  discovered  near  the 
others,  the  foundation  walls  of  smaller  houses 
were  laid  bare,  while  near  the  summit  of  the 
Acropolis  were  f(nmd  the  ruins  of  a  palace  show- 
ing great  similarity  to  that  at  Tiryns.  The 
discoveries  at  this  site  first  brought  into  jiromi- 
nenee  that  special  period  of  .Egean  civilization 
which  preceded  the  historic  Hellenic  culture,  and 
hence  the  name  ilycen.Tan  has  been  given  to  this 
age  and  civilization.  Kvery  year  brings  to  light 
fresh  material  from  this  period,  but  until  the 
recent  discoveries  in  Crete  no  single  site  has 
yielded  so  large  a  variety  of  objects,  or  so  com- 
jilete  a  series  of  vases.  For  the  general  character- 
istics of  Mycenaean  art  and  for  illustrations,  see 
Arch.eoloov.  Consult:  Schliemann,  Miiceinc 
(London,  1878)  :  Schuchhardt,  f^chlicmann'/i  Ex- 
cavations, trans,  by  E.  Sellers  (London,  1891)  ; 
Tsountas  and  ilanatt.  The  ]tiicciia'a)i  Age  (Bos- 
ton, 1897)  :  Ri<lgewav,  The  Karlii  Age  of  fheece, 
vol.  i.  (Cambridge,"  1901)  :  Hall,  The  Oldest 
Civilization  of  Orecce  (Philadelphia,  1901). 

MYCERI'NUS,  An  Kg>ptian  king,  the  sixth 
of  the  Fmnth  Dynasty.  His  name,  written  by 
Herodotus  as  alinve,  and  by  Piodorus,  'Meelieri- 
nus,'  is,  following  the  Kgyjitian  form.  "Men- 
kaura.'  ?Ie  built  a  pyramid  so\ithwest  of  Gizeh. 
the  third  in  size  and  the  first  in  point  of 
preservation.  In  it  in  18.'!7  were  found  his  stone 
sarcophagus  (afterwards  lost  at  sea)  and  frag- 
ments of  his  wooden  coflin.  Myoerinus  was  famed 
for  his  piety.  He  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the 
early  poenis  of  ^latthew  Arnold. 

MY'CETOZO'A  (XeoLat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Gk. 
fii/Kiji,  iiuil.i'f:.  fungus  +  {"((Jov.  zSoii.  animal). 
.V  -mall  cla-s  of  terrestrial   Protozoa    (q.v.). 

MYCO'NIUS,  Frikdhich  (149M.14fi).  A 
German  theologian  of  the  Reformation.  He  was 
born  at  Liehtenfels  in  Tjiper  Franconia.  of  a 
family  named  Mekum.  and  assumed  the  Latinized 
name  Myeonius.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  en- 
tered a  Franciscan  cloister  at  .\nnnberg,  and  in 
I.Mr,  became  a  monk.  In  the  following  year  My- 
eonius  embraced  Lutlier's  teachings,  and  about 
l.i'24.  ns  pastor  of  a  elnirch  at  Got  ha,  became  one 
of  the  leailers  of  the  lieformalion.  He  rendered 
especially  valuable  service  in  Thuringia  ami, 
after  15.30,  in  Leipzig,  by  reviving  the  primitive 


custom  of  episcopal  visits  to  the  difTercnt 
churches.  He  attended  several  of  the  conferences 
of  the  Reformation  period  and  in  1538  was  sent 
on  a  mission  to  England,  ilyeonius's  Uistoria 
Refonnationia,  which  contains  much  autobio- 
graphic matter,  was  published  in  1710.  Consult: 
Ledderhosc,  t'ricdrieh  Miicmiiiis  (Gotha,  1854), 
and  the  biography  by  Meurer  in  his  Altviiter  der 
liitherischeii  Kirehe  (Leipzig,  1804), 

MYCONIUS,  Oswald  ( 1488-155-2) .  A  Swiss 
refiirmer  and  Irieud  of  Zwingli.  His  real  name 
was  Oswald  Geishusler.  He  was  born  at  Lu- 
cerne, studied  and  taught  at  Basel;  then  lived 
for  three  years  (151()-19)  at  Zurich.  After 
teaching  at  Lucerne  and  Finsiedeln  he  returned  to 
Zurich.  About  1532  ilyconius  liccame  pastor  at 
Basel,  and  was  soon  elected  to  succeed  (Kcolam- 
padius  as  antistes  of  the  district  and  professor 
of  theology,  a  choice  which  met  with  Erasmus's 
disapproval.  His  great  labor  was  the  reform 
of  the  Swiss  schools.  In  theologj'  he  mediated 
the  views  of  Luther  and  Zwingli  on  the  na- 
ture of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  linally  came  to 
a  mystic  interpretation  of  it.  He  wrote  a  Life 
of  Zwingli  (1532)  and  a  conuncntary  on  Mark's 
(iospel  (1538).  Consult  Hagenbach,  OckoUimpiid 
und  Oairnld  Ui/conius,  die  licfonnatoren  Jiascli 
(Elberfeld.   18.59). 

MY'CORRHI'ZA  (XeoLat..  from  Gk.  mwijs, 
mid^i's-  fungus  -f  p,'fa,  rhi:ii.  root).  The  whole 
structure  formed  bv  the  intimate  association  of 


MYCORRniZA. 

a.  Root  and  rootleta  of  C:irplnu8  Itetulus,  showing:  th© 
coralloM  e!inrftct4T  «>f  inycorrlilza. 

h.  End  "if  rnot  of  tlip  hppch  ifuiriis  sylvniira),  nhowing 
mat  of  fiiiijuruH  ttiivudH  :  more  LiiK^ily  iimgnlflpd  than  a. 


MYCORRHIZA. 


201 


MYERS. 


certain  fungi  with  tlie  roots  of  higher  pUmts. 
Tlie  fungi  oitiuT  grow  inside  the  cells  of  the 
cortex  (eiidolrupliio  niyeorrhiza)  or  invest  the 
voung  alisorliing  portions  of  the  roots  with  a 
jaeket  of  interwoven  hyphie  (eototrophic  niy- 
I'orrhiza.  Fig.  b. ).  Recent  investigations  have 
shown  that  niycorrhizal  fungi  are  very  wide- 
spread and  that  they  are  associated  witli  per- 
haps more  than  half  of  the  higher  plants. 
They  are  particularly  abundant  in  luimus,  and 
the  conclusion  has  lieen  reached  that  a  large 
number  of  hunnis  plants  are  very  much  benelited 
by  their  iirescnce,  and  further,  that  some  ])lants, 
su<li  as  tlie  Indian  pipe,  certain  orchids,  and 
even  the  beech  tree,  are  unable  to  comj^lete 
their  normal  life  cycle  in  sterilized  soil.  The 
relation  between  the  fungus  and  the  higher  plants 
is  not  fully  known,  but  it  is  believed  that  the 
finigus  by  its  digestive  powers  secures  and  pre- 
pares certain  foodstuft's,  especially  those  contain- 
ing nitrogen,  for  the  roots.  Whether  or  not  the 
fungus  gains  benefit  from  the  higher  plants  is 
not  altogether  clear,  although  it  is  probable  that 
it  lives  in  part  as  a  parasite,  getting  certain 
carbohydrate  foods.     See  Stjibiosis. 

MYELAT,  rae'i'i-lat  (Bur.,  unoccupied  coun- 
try). A  division  of  Burma,  India,  comprising 
sixteen  of  the  Southern  .Shan  States,  the  largest 
having  an  area  of  1000  sqiiare  miles,  and  the 
smallest  4  square  miles.  Total  area.  3723  square 
miles.  The  region  is  sparsely  populated,  the  few 
inhabitants  being  chiefly  occupied  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  rice  and  sugar-cane. 

MYELITIS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  iiveUs, 
mi/chs.  marrow).  An  inflammation  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  spinal  cord  which  may  be  limited  to 
the  white  or  the  gi"ay  matter  and  involve  the 
whole  cord  or  isolated  jiortions  of  it.  \Yhen  the 
white  matter  is  inflamed  with  the  meninges  it 
is  called  'cortical  myelitis;'  when  the  gray  mat- 
ter only  is  affected  it  is  known  as  'central  myeli- 
tis.' The  disease  may  extend  transversely,  or 
may  proceed  in  an  upward  or  downward  direc- 
tion. The  catises  are,  in  general,  injuries  of  va- 
rious kinds,  exposure,  and  overexertion;  the  infec- 
tious diseases,  such  as  measles,  typhus  fever,  and 
smallpox;  and  caries  or  tumors  of  the  spine  or 
the  cord  itself.  The  symptoms  depend  upon  the 
extent  and  location  of  the  inflammatory  process. 
A  transverse  myelitis,  for  instance,  produces  com- 
plete paralysis  of  all  the  voluntary  muscles  whose 
nerve  fibres  arise  from  nuclei  below  the  seat  of 
the  lesion.  In  children  the  disease  attacks  the 
anterior  horns  of  the  gray  matter  (when  it  is 
called  polionnielHisi  or  'infantile  spinal  paraly- 
sis"), and  results  in  rapid  loss  of  power  and  atro- 
phy of  certain  groups  of  muscles. 

MY'ER,  Albert  .Tames  (18-27-80).  An  Ameri- 
can meteorologist,  born  at  Newburg.  N.  Y.  He 
graduated  at  Hobart  College,  and  took  his  degree 
in  medicine  at  tlie  University  of  Buffalo  in  18.51. 
In  1854  he  was  appointed  assistant  surgeon  in 
the  United  States  .\rmy.  and  was  assigned  to 
Texas,  where  he  first  developed  his  celebrated 
signal  system  of  flags  by  day  and  torches  by 
night,  which  afterwards  came  into  general  use. 
In  ISflO  he  was  commissioned  major  and  made 
chief  signal  officer  of  the  army.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  he  was  made  signal  officer  on 
the  staff  of  General  Butler,  and  afterwards  on 
that  of  General  JlcClellan.  and  was  successively 
brevetted   lieutenant-colonel,  colonel,   and  briga- 


dier-general, his  last  promotion  being  for  distin- 
guished services  in  organizing,  instructing,  and 
commanding  the  signal  corps  of  the  army,  and 
for  especial  service  on  October  5,  lS(i4,  at  Al- 
latoona,  Ga.,  where  his  -signal  system  enabled  the 
apparently  doomed  garrison  to  summon  assist- 
ance from  the  main  army.  On  July  28,  1866, 
he  was  made  colonel  in  the  Regular  Army  and 
chief  signal  ollicer.  In  1870  he  commenced  his 
work  of  observing  and  giving  notice  by  telegraph 
of  the  approach  and  force  of  storms  on  the  north- 
ern lakes  and  seacoast.  at  the  military  posts  in 
the  interior,  and  at  other  [loints  in  the  States 
and  Territories.  He  published  A  Miintiul  of  Hiy- 
luils  for  the  United  Htutcs  Army  and  yary 
(1808).  A  short  time  before  his  death  he  was 
promoted  to  the  full  rank  of  brigadier-general  of 
the  United  States  Army. 

MYER,  Fort,     See  Fort  ilvER. 

MY'ERS,  Frederic  William  Henry  ( 1843- 
1001).  An  English  poet  and  essayist,  born  Feb- 
ruary 6,  1843,  at  Keswick,  where  his  father  was 
incumbent  of  Saint  .John's  Church.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Cheltenham,  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  graduating  with  distinction,  and 
gaining  a  fellowship  in  his  college  (1805).  His 
taste  for  poetry  was  shown  in  his  boyhood.  He 
delighted  in  Homer,  .ISschylus,  Lucretius,  in  frag- 
ments of  Sappho,  and  in  Pindar.  Before  quit- 
ting school  he  had  learned  all  Vergil  by  heart. 
He  was  for  many  years  inspector  of  schools. 
In  1882  he  took  an  active  part  in  founding  the 
Society  for  Psychical  Research,  of  which  he 
became  president.  He  died  in  Rome,  January 
17,  1001.  The  verse  of  Myers,  which  belongs 
mostly  to  an  early  period,  comprises  Habit  Paul 
(1865):  Poems  "(1870);  and  the  Reneiral  of 
Youth  (1882).  In  these  collections  are  pieces 
of  rare  beauty,  which  give  the  author  one  of  the 
first  places  among  the  lesser  poets.  Myers  un- 
doubtedly wrote  some  of  the  finest  essays  of  his 
time  in  Essays  Modern  and  Classical  (1885),  and 
in  Science  and  a  Future  Life  (1893).  He  also 
prepared  for  the  "English  Jlen  of  Letters  Series" 
an  admirable  Life  of  Wordsworth  (1880).  His 
work  in  psychical  research  is  represented  by  his 
contributions  to  the  Pliantasms  of  the  Liviny 
(1886).  After  his  death  appeared  a  remarkable 
book  on  the  evidences  of  immortality  entitled 
Human  Personality  and  Its  Siirriral  of  Bodily 
Death,  ed.  by  R.  Hodgson  and  A.  Johnson  (Lon- 
don, 1903).  Consult  the  London  Athenwum  for 
January  26.  1901. 

MYERS,  Peter  Hamilton  (1812-78).  An 
American  author,  born  at  Herkimer,  N".  Y.  He 
practiced  law  in  Brooklyn,  and  wrote  a  number 
of  novels  dealing  with  the  early  settlers  of  New 
York  State,  among  which  are:  The  First  of  the 
K,ucl;erhockers:  A  Talc  of  1673  (1848):  The 
You)ifi  Patroon.  or  (Viristmns  in  1()90  (1849); 
The  Kinri  of  the  Huronf!  (1849).  republished  in 
England  under  the  title  Blanche  Montaigne 
(1850)  :  and  The  Prisoner  of  the  Border:  A  Tale 
of  IS3fi  (1857). 

MYERS,  Philip  Van  Ness  (1846—).  An 
American  educator  and  author,  born  at  Tribes' 
Hill,  N.  Y.  He  graduated  at  Williams  College 
in  1871,  studied  law  for  a  year,  and  then  went 
to  South  America  on  a  scientific  mission.  After 
two  years  in  Europe  he  returned  to  the  United 
States  and  became  president  of  Farmers'  College, 
Ohio,  in  1879.     In  1390  he  was  appointed  profes- 


MYERS. 


202 


MYOSOTIS. 


sor  of  liislory  and  {julilical  economy  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cinc-iimati,  where  five  years  hilor  he 
was  chosen  dean  of  the  academic  faculty.  His 
publications  include:  Life  and  Mature  Under 
the  Tropics  (1871);  Remains  of  Lost  Empires 
(  IST.i)  :  and  A'oHie;  Its  Rise  and  Fall  (18'J0). 

MYIASIS,  mi-ya'sis  (Xeo-Lat.,  from  Gk./xma, 
myia.  tly).    A  medical  term  for  the  state  of  being 
infested"  with  the  larviE  of  dipterous  insects.     A 
rather  large  number  of  Hies  may  infest  human 
beings  in  this  way,  and  the  disease  has  lieen  di- 
vided according  as  the   larva"  are  found   in  the 
skin,  in  the  ear,  in  the  conjunctiva,  in  the  in- 
testines, in  the  mucous  membranes,  in  the  nose, 
or  in   wounds.     The  most   common   form   is  the 
presence  of  the  larv.-e  of  Hcsh-tlies,  or  blow-flies, 
in  open  and  neglected  wounds.     In  certain  por- 
tions of  the  United  States,  the  screw-worm  Hy 
(Litcilia  macellaria)    deposits  its  eggs  or  larviE 
not  only  in  open  sores  upon  the  bodies  of  men  and 
womeni  but  many  cases  are  on  record  whore  the 
eggs  have  been  deposited  in  the  nostrils  of  per- 
sons sleejiing  exposed  in  the  daytime.     Tliese  ilies 
are  especially  apt  to  be  attracted  by  an  ofTensive 
catarrhal    condition.      Scores    of    maggots    have 
been  taken  from  the  nasal  passages  of  such  in- 
dividuals, and  a  complete  destruction  of  the  soft 
palate  has  been  brought  about  in  this  way.     The 
European  llesh-lly  known  a^  Sarcophila  \Volilfarti 
has  been  reared  from  larv;r  found  in  numbers  in 
the  nasal  cavities  and  in  the  ear  of  man.     Lu- 
cilia.  nobilis  of  Europe  has  also  been  reared  from 
the  ear  of  a   man,   causing  extensive   discharges 
and  much  putrefaction.    The  bluebottle  lly   (C'aJ- 
liphorit    romilori(i)    sometimes   causes   nasal   my- 
iasis, and  the  common  llesh-Hy   [Sarcapliaga  car- 
■naria)   has  been  reared  from  larva-  found  in  the 
nasal  passages.     There  are  also  cases  of  myiasis 
of    the    vagina.      In    all    of    these    instances    the 
flies  are  either  Sarcophagida>  or  Musciihe.  and  the 
adults  were  attracted  to  putrid  or  septic  wounds, 
or  to  an  offensive  or  purulent  discharge  from  the 
body,  depositing  their  eggs  or  larv;r  therein.     In- 
ternal  mviasis   is  nearly  always   caused   by  the 
larva>  or  Hies  of  the  family  Anthomyiida-.     These 
flies    deposit    their    eggs  "in    spoiled    vegetables, 
which  are  afterwards  eaten  in  the  raw  slate,  as 
in  salads.    The  larv;e  of  several  species  have  been 
passed  while  still  alive,  and  frequently  cause  in- 
testinal  disturbances  of  a  more  or  less  serious 
character.    Homalomiiia  caniculnris.  for  example, 
has  several  times  been  reared  in  this  way.     In 
the  family  SepsidiP.  the  common  cheese  maggot 
(larva  nf'i'iophiln  cnsei) .  taken  into  the  stomach 
with  old  cheese,  has  been  found  alive  in  excreta. 
having    passed    through    the    entire    alimentary 
canal.      Cutaneous   myiasis,  aside   from   that  of 
open    wounds,    is    produced    by    several    of    the 
bot-tlies    of    the    family    ffistrida;.      In    tropical 
regions   there   arc   one   or   more    species   of   the 
genus    Dermatobia,    which    may    lay    their   eggs 
upon   the   skin   of   human   beings,   the   resulting 
maggot   forming  a  pus-sac  Im-Iow  the  surface  of 
the   skin,   and.   if   undisturbed,   reaching   its   full 
growth  in  this  sit\iation.     Such  cases  as  this  are 
not  uncommon  among  the  unclothed  inhabitants 
of  tropical  countries,  and  persons  while  bathing 
occasionally  become  infested.    The  best  known  of 
these  human  botflies  is  Drrmntnhia  ciianeircniris. 
oonniinn  in  South  .\merica. 

MYLIT'TA.     A  word  long  believed  to  he  the 
name  of  a  Babylonian  deity,  on  the  authority  of 


Herodotus,  who  describes  the  cult  of  Mylitta  in 
Babylonia.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  Mylitta  is  a 
corruption  of  the  Babylonian  helit{\ady) .  used  as 
a  title  of  the  goddess,"who  is  more  i)roperly  known 
as  Ishtar  (q.v.).  She  originally  represented  the 
fcmali'  portion  of  the  twofold  principles  through 
which  all  creation  burst  into  existence,  and 
which,  by  their  united  active  and  passive  powers, 
uphold  it.  Ishtar,  however,  develo])ed  other 
qualities  besides  those  typical  of  i)rocreation. 
She  is  a  goddess  of  war,  who,  armed  with  sword, 
arrows,  and  spear,  marches  at  the  head  of  the 
Assyrian  armies.  Consult  Jastrow.  Religion  of 
Bahylonia  and  Assifria   (Boston,  1808). 

MY'LODON  { Xeo-Lat.,  from  :iIGk.  liuUSoyt, 
myludoiis,  molar,  from  Gk.  /ttJXTj,  mijlr.  mill,  mill- 
stone -f  oduus,  odoiis.  tooth).  A  gigantic  extinct 
edentate  mammal,  allied  to  Megatherium  and 
Megalonvx,  found  in  the  Pleistocene  deposits  of 
North  and  South  America.    See  MKt;.\THERiVil. 

MY'NA-BIRD,  or  MINA-BIRD  (Hind. 
miiiiiil.  stavlingl.  A  starling  (Sturnia  religiosa) 
of  the  Kast  Indies,  deep  velvety  black  in  color, 
with  a  white  mark  on  the  base  of  tlie  quillfeath- 
ers  of  the  wings,  yellow  bill  and  feet,  and  two 
large  brisht  yellow  wattles  at  the  back  of  the 
head.  It" is  very  lively  and  intelligent,  and  pos- 
sesses a  power  of  imitating  human  speech  ex- 
celled by  none  of  the  parrots.  It  has  sometimes 
been  trained  to  rejieat  sentences  of  considerable 
length.  It  is  therefore  in  great  request,  and  is 
often  brought  to  Europe  and  America,  while 
in  India  it  is  one  of  the  most  familiar  and  in- 
teresting of  village  birds,  and  is  regarded  by  the 
Hindus  as  sacred  to  Ram  Deo. 

MY  NOVEL;  OR  VARIETIES  IN  ENG- 
XISH  LIFE.  .\  novel  by  E.  I'.ulwcr-Eytton 
(185.3).  The  story,  told  by  P.  Caxton,  is  partly 
of  Hazeldean  and  "partly  of  London.  The  princi- 
pal hero  is  Harley  L'Estrange,  witty  and  bril- 
liant, the  friend  "of  Squire  Hazeldean.  He  at 
first  fancies  Helen  Bigby,  who  marries  Leonard, 
the  son  of  Colonel  Egerton.  by  an  early,  secret 
marriage,  and  finally  marries  Viola,  daughter  of 
an  Italian  gentleman,  who  with  his  friends  forms 
a  secondary  story.  The  plot  is  involved,  but  the 
novel  is  one  of  Bulwer's  finest  productions. 

MYOCARDITIS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  myocar- 
dium, from  (ik.  ^LSs,  niys.  muscle,  mouse  -f- 
KapSla,hiirdi(i.  heart).  An  inflammatory  atVection 
of  the  wall  of  the  heart.  It  is  a  term  first  used 
by  Soberiiheim  in  1837.  Myocarditis  is  considered 
as  an  inllannnation  due  to  infection.  It  is  a 
disease  .secondary  to  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria, 
scarlet  fever,  cerebrospinal  meningitis,  variola, 
ervsipelas,  malaria,  rheumatism,  influenza,  or 
septica-mia.     See  Heart,  Diseases  of.    _ 

MYOMANCY.     See  Supekstitiox. 

MYOPIA  (Xeo-Lat..  from  Lat.  mijops,  from 
Gk.  fiiuj'fr.  short-sighted,  from  /xi5«i',  mi/rin,  to 
close  -r  ii'f/,  ops,  eve).  Short  sight.  A  form  of 
ametropia  due  to  "the  fact  that  the  antero-pos- 
lerior  axis  of  the  eyeball  is  too  long:  and  hence 
its  refracting  media  are  not  proportionately 
diminished  in  power.  Parallel  rays  of  light, 
therefore,  are  not  brought  to  a  focus  on  the 
retina,  but  in  front  of  it.  forming  circles  of  dif- 
fu-i..n  on  the  retina.    See  Sight.  Defects  op. 

MY'OSIN.     See  GioBtT-ixs. 

MYOSOTIS.     See  Fobget-me-not. 


MYBIAPODA. 


203 


MYBIAPODA. 


FORMS   OF   MYR1AP0D8. 

1.    Oeopliilas.      2.    Polydesmus. 
3.  Julus. 


MYB'IAP'ODA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
JIGk.  ixvpilmovi,  ini/riopous,  having  ten  thousand 
feet,  from  Gk.  fivptoi,  ini/iioi,  ten  tlionsand  + 
irous,  pous,  foot).  A  ch\s3  of  artliropoils  resem- 
bling annelids  in  their  lengthened  form,  and  in 
the  great  number  of  equal,  or  nearly  equal,  seg- 
ments of  whieh  the 
body  is  composed ; 
but  in  most  of  their 
other  characters 
more  nearly  agree- 
ing with  insects, 
among  which  they 
were  ranked  by  the 
earlier  naturalists. 
They  differ  from 
insects  and  all 
other  arthropods  in 
tlie  fact  that  the 
posterior  segments 
of  the  body  bear 
jointed  locomotor  appendages.  In  addition  to  their 
affinities  with  insects,  myriapods  are  worm-like 
and  some  of  them  suggest  relations  with  the  thy- 
sanurans.  They  have  a  distinct  head,  but  there 
is  no  distinction  of  the  other  segments,  as  in 
insects,  into  thorax  and  abdomen.  They  have 
simple  or  compound  eyes ;  a  few  are  destitute  of 
eyes.  They  have  antenna;  like  those  of  insects. 
The  mouth  is  furnished  with  a  complex  masticat- 
ing apparatus,  in  some  resembling  that  of  some 
insects  in  a  lan'al  state,  in  others  similar  to 
that  of  crustaceans.  Kespiration  is  carried  on 
through  minute  pores  or  spiracles,  placed  on  eacli 
side  along  the  entire  length  of  tlie  body,  the 
air  being  distributed  bj^  innumerable  ramifying 
air-tubes  to  all  parts.  In  most  parts  of  tlieir 
internal  organization  the  myriapods  rcsemlile 
insects,  although  a  decided  inferiority  is  exhib- 
ited, particularly  in  the  less  perfect  concentra- 
tion of  the  nervous  system.  The  resemblance  is 
greater  to  insects  in  their  larval  than  in  their 
perfect  state.  The  body  of  the  myriapods  is  pro- 
tected by  a  hard  chitinous  covering.  The  number 
of  segments  is  various,  seldom  fewer  than  24, 
although  in  some  of  the  genera  they  are  con- 
solidated together  in  pairs,  so  that  each  pair, 
unless  closely  examined,  might  be  considered  as 
one  segment  bearing  two  pairs  of  feet.  The  legs 
of  some  of  the  lower  kinds,  as  Julus,  are  very 
numerous,  and  may  be  regarded  as  intermediate 
between  the  bristle-like  appendages  wdiich  serve 
many  annelids  as  organs  of  locomotion  and  the 
distinctly  articulated  legs  of  inscct.s.  In  the 
higher  myriapods,  as  Scolopendra,  the  legs  are 
much  fewer,  and  articulated  like  those  of  insects. 
Some  of  them  feed  on  decaying  organic  nuitter, 
chiefly  vegetable;  those  of  higher  organization 
are  carnivorous.  Tlie  myriapods  do  not  luidergo 
marked  metamorphoses,  Init  the  yoinig  greatlv 
resemble  the  adults,  although  some  of  them  are 
at  first  quite  destitute  of  feet:  and,  contrary  to 
what  takes  place  in  insects,  the  body  becomes 
more  elongated  as  maturity  is  approached — the 
nmnber  of  segments  and  of  feet  increase, 

Myriapods  are  widely  distributed,  and  are  rep- 
n-^ented  in  almost  every  ])art  of  the  earth.  They 
flourish  in  moist  and  dry.  hot  and  cold  climates. 
Like  other  widely  distributed  animals,  they  show 
great  variation  in  size  and  color,  ranging  from 
microscopic  size  to  a  length  of  more  than  six 
inches.  Some  of  the  .Julid:^  and  PolydesmidiP  of 
the  tropics  are  beautifully  and  brilliantlj'  col- 
VOL.  XIV.— n. 


ored.  Some  of  the  species  of  Geophilus  are  phos- 
phorescent. Most  myriapods  inhabit  dark  and 
obscure  places.  Some  of  the  cave-inhabiting 
species  from  Wyandotte  and  Bradford  caves  in 
Indiana  are  described  by  Packard  as  light  in 
color,  and  those  from  the  latter  cave  have  rudi- 
mentary eyes.  The  organs  of  defense  throughout 
the  class  vary  greatly.  In  the  centipedes  the 
large  claws,  supplied  with  poison  from  a  gland, 
are  weapons  of  offense  and  defense.  The  milli- 
pedes, on  the  other  hand,  rely  for  defense  on  an 
acid  secretion  from  certain  glands.  Other  forms 
are  hairy  or  bristly.  Hairiness  was  the  most 
common  mode  of  defense  among  fossil  myriapods. 

A  fossil  bristled  myriapod  has  been  found  in 
America  in  Paleozoic  strata,  and  two  species 
have  been  found  in  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  of  Scot- 
land. The  highest  vertebrates  in  tliis  deposit  are 
fishes,  and  the  highest  plants  are  conifers.  The 
Paleozoic  species,  about  forty  in  number,  all  be- 
long to  an  extinct  order  ( Archipolypoda)  and 
most  of  them  were  of  gigantic  size.  Later 
fossil  m3'riapods,  contemporaneous  with  giant 
fossil  Amphibia,  occur  in  the  coal  measures.  One 
of  these  forms  from  Illinois  approaches  very 
closely  the  Julida;  of  to-day.  Only  one  species 
has  been  found  in  the  chalk  layers,  but  in  Ter- 
tiary and  recent  times  plentiful  remains  have 
been  found.  The  majority  of  these  belong  to  the 
Chilognatha  and  Chilojjoda,  They  have  been 
found  in  the  gypsum  of  France,  in  the  broMn  coal 
of  Germany,  and  in  the  Green  River  formation 
of  North  America,  Amber  has  also  yielded  sev- 
eral species. 

Classification.  The  class  Myriapoda  is  now 
divided  into  five  orders,  the  Chilognatha  or  Dip- 
lopoda,  the  Chilopoda  or  Syngnatha,  the  Sehizo- 
tarsia,  the  Symphyla,  and  tlie  Pauro[)oda,  To  the 
Chilopoda  belong  the  common  thousand-legs  of 
the  family  .Julid.-e,  as  well  as  the  representatives 
of  seven  other  families,  all  of  which  bear  two 
pairs  of  legs  to  each  of  the  body  segments  except 
the  first  three,  Verloef  states  that  the  males  of 
some  of  the  Julid;T  undergo  certain  seasonal 
changes.  In  the  spring  and  autumn  the  form  of 
the  legs  and  other  organs  changes.  These  sea- 
sonal changes  are  correlated  with  the  sexual 
condition  of  the  .Julus  just  as  the  males  of  cer- 
tain birds  and  fishes  show  a  brighter  coloration 
and  other  changes  at  the  breeding  season,  .Julus 
will  feed  freely  in  captivity  if  tlie  earth  is  kept 
at  the  proper  moisture  and  iiroper  food  is  fur- 
nished plentifully.  They  will  thrive  on  grass, 
leaves,  and  bits  of  apple  and  pear.  The  eggs  are 
numerous,  from  GO  to  100  being  deposited  at  a 
laying.  The  female  forms  a  receptacle  for  the 
eggs  some  distance  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  It  is  in  the  shape  of  a  hollow  sphere, 
and  is  composed  of  little  pellets  of  mud.  which 
are  molded  by  her  jaws  and  front  legs.  The 
nest  is  perfectly  smooth  within,  but  the  outside 
is  rough  and  shows  the  pellet  composition.  In 
the  top  of  the  sphere  a  small  0])ening  is  left  until 
the  eggs  are  laid.  Tlie  hole  is  then  plugged  up 
with  earth  and  the  eggs  are  left  to  chance.  The 
chilopods  have  many-jointed  antenna>  and  only 
one  pair  of  legs  to  each  joint.  To  this  group  be- 
long the  large  tropical  centipedes  of  the  family 
Scolopendrida>  and  the  long  slender  Geo|iliilid:c, 
as  well  as  the  Lithobilidse  and  Notophilid^. 

The  order  Schizotarsia  contains  but  a  single 
family,  the  Scutigeridn>.  of  which  the  common 
household  centipede  of  the  L'nited  States  {Scuti- 


MYKIAPODA. 


204 


MYRRH. 


gera  forrcps)  is  a  familiar  oxaiiiple.  This  crea- 
ture, although  viewed  with  horror  by  careful 
housekeepers,  preys  upon  house-tlies  and  small 
cockroaches,  and  is  by  no  means  an  entirely  un- 
desirable denizen  of  households.  It  is  prevalent 
in  the  Southern  States,  and  extends  as  far  north 
as  the  Hudson  River  Valley.  The  order  Sym- 
phyla  contains  the  single  family  Scolopendrel- 
lidse,  which  have  a  great  resemblance  to  certain 
of  the  Thysanura  among  the  insects.  The  order 
Pauropoda  consists  of  the  single  family  Pauro- 
podidiE,  which  contains  only  three  genera.  The 
type-genus,  Pauropus,  a  curious  crustacean-like 
form,  was  first  discovered  by  Lord  Aveburv  (Sir 
John  Lubbock)  in  his  kitchen  garden  in  1866. 

Consult  Sinclair,  Cambridge  yatural  Eistory, 
vol.  V.  (London.  1895);  Scudder,  "Systematic 
Review  of  Our  Present  Knowledge  of  Fossil  In- 
sects. Including  Myriapods  and  Arachnids,"  in 
Bulletin  of  the  fiiitett  States  Geological  Survey, 
No.  .'il   (Washington,  1880). 

MYRICA.     An  Asiatic  and  North  American 

Shruli.      Sir   C.\.Vr)LEBERRY. 

MYRISTIC  ACID  (from  Neo-Lat.  ilyristica, 
from  (ik.  livpuTTiKds,  iiiyrisiilcos,  suitable  for 
anointing,  from  fivpi^em,  myrizcin,  to  anoint, 
from  pLiJpop,  myron.  unguent),  CjjH-^.COOH.  A 
crystalline  fatty  acid,  found  in  nutmeg,  the  seed 
of  Myristica  frayianf:.  growing  on  the  Molucca 
Islands,  and  cultivated  in  tropical  countries.  It 
occurs  in  the  form  of  a  glyceride  in  the  fat  of 
the  nutmeg,  or  nutmeg  butter.  It  has  also  been 
found  in  small  quantity  among  the  products  of 
the  saponification  of  spermaceti,  and  of  the  fatty 
matter  of  milk:  and  hence  this  organic  acid  is 
one  of  tlio^e  which  are  common  to  both  the  ani- 
mal and  vcgctal)le  kingdoms. 

MYRMECOPHILY.       See    JIyrmecophytes. 

MYRME'COPHYTES  (from  Gk.  m'^PM')!, 
myniifr.  ant  +  /pvTSu,  phylon,  plant),  or  JlyR- 
MECOiMiii.ot's  Plants.  Plants  in  which  there  are 
symbiotic  relations  between  the  plants  and  ants. 
Typical  myrmccophytes  ;ire  most  fonmionly  found 
in  the  tropics,  and  present  peculiarities  that  are 
hard  to  explain  in  a  purely  scientific  way.  In 
some  cases  ants  cut  off  leaves,  take  them  to  their 
nests,  and  raise  crops  of  fungi  that  serve  them  as 
food.  In  other  ca.ses.  as  in  the  famous  South  Amer- 
ican Cecropia.  ants  live  in  peculiar  chambers  with- 
in the  plant,  and  feed  upon  products  that  appear 
to  be  useless  so  far  as  any  other  purpose  is  con- 
cerne<l.  They  appear,  on  the  other  hand,  to  de- 
fend the  plants  in  which  they  dwell  against  leaf- 
cutting  ants  and  other  enemies.  The  relation 
here  outlined  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
known  types  of  symbiosis.  The  terms  myrme- 
eophily  and  mynnecophilous  should  be  discarded 
for  myrmecophj'tism  and  myrmecophytic.  Sec 
SvMniosis. 

MYRMID'ONES  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  MvpfiMnt). 
In  the  lli'iil.  tlic  Aclueans  of  Plithiotis,  in  the 
south  of  'I'hessaly,  ruled  by  King  I'eleus.  and  led 
to  the  Trojan  \Var  by  his  son  Achilles.  Later 
writers  discovered  an  eponynums  hero  Myrnii<lon, 
son  of  Zeus,  and  father  of  .\ctor,  the  husband  of 
JEp'wa.  daughter  of  Asopus.  who  was  by  Zeus  the 
mother  of  .Eacus.  For  him  Zeus  changed  the 
ants  ( ^.ipfiiiKet,  rnyrmekrs)  on  the  island  of 
/Egina  to  men,  and  this  race  later  wandcreil  to 
Thessuly.  The  story  is  evidently  due  to  the 
resemblance  which  the  Greeks  saw  between  Myr- 
midones  and  mvrniekes. 


MYROB'ALAN  (Lat.  myrohalanum,  from 
Gk.  juiipo/SdXai'os,  iiiyrohalanos,  from  nvpov,  iiiyrun, 
unguent  +  /3d\ai/os,  ialaiws.  acorn).  The  as- 
tringent fruit  of  certain  s])ecies  of  Terminalia 
(natural  order  C'ombretacea") .  natives  of  the 
mountains  of  India.  Terminalia  bellerica  and 
Terminalia  chebula  produce  most  of  the  myro- 
balans  of  commerce,  but  the  fruits  of  other  spe- 
cies often  appear.  Formerly  myrobalans  were 
credited  with  tonic  propeities ;  now  they  are 
rarely  used  medicinally.  They  are  largely  ex- 
ported for  tanners'  and  dyers'  use,  since  they 
give  a  durable  yellow  with  alum  and  an  excellent 
black  with  iron.  A  number  of  species  are  valu- 
able for  timber,  the  best  known  of  which.  Ter- 
minalia catappa,  is  a  large  deciduous  tree  planted 
in  many  tropical  countries.  It  is  a  popular 
shade  tree  in  Honolulu,  where  it  is  called  Mexi- 
can almond  from  the  almond-like  flavor  of  the 
nuts. 

MY'RON  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Mi'.pwv).  An  Athe- 
nian sculptor,  who  flourished  about  the  middle 
of  the  fittli  century  B.C.  He  was  a  native  of 
ElcutheriP,  near  the  Boeotian  frontier  of  Attica, 
and  is  called  a  pupil  of  Hagelaidas  of  Argos.  In 
his  style  he  belongs  in  the  period  of  transition 
just  before  Phidias,  but  his  works  show  also  a 
remarkable  power  of  obsenation  and  great  tech- 
nical skill.  He  seems  to  have  taken  special  pleas- 
ure in  representing  vigorous  action,  and  to  have 
indicated  emotion  rather  by  gesture  and  position 
than  by  expression.  He  was  a  worker  in  bronze, 
and  also  skilled  in  the  engraving  of  plate.  Xo 
original  work  has  survived,  but  late  copies  of 
some  of  his  statues  are  extant.  Of  these  the 
most  famous  is  the  Discobolus  (q.v.).  or  discus- 
thrower,  of  which  there  are  specimens  in  the 
\'atican  and  the  British  Museum,  though  the 
best  copy  is  in  the  Palazzo  Lancellotti  in  Rome. 
(See  illustration  tinder  Greek  Art.)  Another 
work  was  a  group  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens  of 
Marsyas  preparing  to  pick  up  the  flutes  thrown 
away  by  Atliena.  but  starting  back  at  the  ap- 
proach of  the  goddess.  A  co])y  of  the  Marsyas 
is  in  the  Lateran  Museum  in  Home.  In  antiquity 
a  bronze  cow  on  the  Acropolis  was  especially 
famed  for  its  truth  to  nature,  ilany  epigrams 
on  the  statue  of  the  runner  Ladas  have  also  come 
down  to  us.  Consult,  in  addition  to  the  histories 
of  Greek  art.  Furtwilngler.  Maxtcrpieees  of  Greek 
Seulplure.  Eng.  trans,  bv  E.  Sellers  (London  and 
New   York.   1895). 

MYRRH.  An  umbelliferous  plant.  See  Cic- 
ely. 

MYRRH  (AS.  myrre.  myrra.  from  Lat. 
myrrhn,  niurrhn,  murra,  from  Gk,  fiippa,  myrrha, 
myrrh,  from  Aramaic  muru.  Heb.  mUr,  Ar.  murr, 
myrrh,  from  Aramaic  niilrr,  Heb.  mfirar.  Ar. 
inarra,  to  he  bitter).  A  gum  resin  produced  by 
Balsamodendron  myrrha.  a  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Amyridaccir.  growing  in  Arabia  and  in 
Eastern  Africa.  The  myrrh  tree  is  small  and 
-crubby.  spiny,  with  whitish-gray  bark,  thinly 
scattered  small  leaves,  consisting  of  three  obo- 
vate  obtusely  toothleted  leaflets,  and  the  fruit 
a  smooth  brown  ovate  drupe,  somewhat  larger 
than  a  pea.  Myrrh  exudes  from  the  bark  in  oily 
yellowish  drops,  which  gradually  thicken  and 
finally  become  hard,  the  color  at  the  same  time 
becoming  darker.  Myrrh  appears  in  conunerce 
either  in  tears  and  grains,  or  in  pieces  of  irregu- 
lar form  and  various  sizes,  yellow,  red,  or  red- 


MYERH. 


205 


MYSORE. 


dish  brown.  It  is  brittle.  .Tiid  has  a  waxy  frac- 
ture, often  exhibiting  whitisli  veins.  Its  smell  is 
balsamic,  its  taste  aromatic  and  bitter.  It  is 
used  in  medicine  as  a  tonic  and  stimulant,  in 
disorders  of  the  digestive  organs,  excessive  secre- 
tions from  the  mucous  membranes,  etc.,  also  to 
cleanse  foul  ulcers  and  j)romote  their  healing, 
and  as  a  mouth -wash  and  gargle,  particularly  in 
a  spongy  or  ulcerated  condition  of  the  gums.  The 
best  myrrh  is  known  as  Turkey  myrrh,  being 
brought  from  Turkish  ports,  ilost  of  the  myrrh 
of  connnerce,  however,  passes  either  through 
Aden  or  through  Bombay.  The  chief  constituents 
of  myrrh  are:  A  resin  known  as  mjTrhin;  a 
gum:  a  volatile  oil  known  as  myrrhol  and  hav- 
ing the  composition  C,„H,40,  and  a  bitter  prin- 
ciple. An  excellent  mouth-wash  for  sore  gums 
may  be  prepared  by  mixing  1  part  of  myrrh,  16 
parts  of  eau  de  cologne,  1  part  of  borax,  3  parts 
of  water,  and  3  parts  of  syrup. 

M;YRTA'CE.ffi  (Xeo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat. 
myriiis.  Gk.  //I'/iros.  myrtos,  myrtle,  from  Pers. 
mihd.  myrtle),  or  Mybtle  Family.  A  natural 
order  of  dicotyledonous  trees  and  shrubs.  Even  as 
restricted  by  some  botanists,  who  exclude  various 
groups  as  orders  which  other  botanists  consider 
as  suborders  of  the  Myrtacea'.  this  order  contains 
about  70  genera  and  over  2000  species,  chiefly  na- 
tives of  warm  countries,  but  represented  in  tem- 
perate climates.  Some  of  the  sijecies  are  gigantic 
trees,  as  the  Eucalyptus  or  gum  trees  of  Austra- 
lia, and  certain  species  of  Jletrosideros.  The  tim- 
ber is  generally  compact.  Astringency  seems  to  be 
characteristic  of  the  order,  and  the  leaves  or  other 
parts  of  some  species  are  used  in  medicine  for  this 
proi)erty.  A  fragrant  or  pungent  volatile  oil  is 
often  present  in  considerable  quantity,  of  which  oil 
of  cajeput  and  oil  of  cloves  are  examples.  Cloves 
and  pimento  are  among  tlie  best  known  products 
of  this  order.  The  berries  of  several  species  are 
occasionally  used  as  spices.  A  considerable 
number  yield  edible  fruits,  among  which  are  the 
guava,  species  of  the  genus  Eugenia,  and  some 
species  of  Myrtus.  The  pomegranate  (Punica 
Qranatum) .  which  some  botanists  place  in  this 
order,  Engler  makes  the 
type  of  tlie  order  Pu- 
nicaceie.  Bentham  and 
Hooker  place  it  in  the 
order  Lythraceae.  Tlie 
chief  genera  of  the  or- 
der as  limited  by  Engler 
are  Myrtus,  Psidium 
(the  guava),  Pimenta 
(allspice),  Eugenia 
( cloves ) ,  Jletrosideros, 
Eucalyptus,  Melaleuca, 
and  Darwinia. 

MYRTLE  (Myrtus). 
A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Myrtaeeie. 
The  common  myrtle 
(Myrtus  communis)  is 
well  known  as  a  beauti- 
ful evergreen  shrub,  or 
a  tree  of  moderate  size, 
with  white  llowers.  It 
is  a  native  of  the  Jledi- 
terranean  region  and  of 
the  temperate  parts  of  Asia.  The  leaves  are 
astringent  and  aromatic,  contain  a  volatile  oil, 
and  were  used  as  a  stimulant  by  the  ancients. 
The  .berries    are    also    aromatic,    and    are    used 


COMMON    MVRTLE    ^^fy^tUS 

commuDis). 


in  medicine  in  Greece  and  India.  A  myrtle 
wine,  called  myrtidanum,  is  made  in  Tuscany, 
ilyrtle  bark  is  used  for  tanning  in  many  parts 
of  the  south  of  Europe.  Among  the  ancient 
Greeks  the  myrtle  was  sacred  to  Venus  as  the 
symbol  of  youth  and  beauty,  and  was  much 
used  in  the  festivals.  It  is  often  mentioned  in 
poetry.  The  small-leaved  myrtle  (Myrtus  micro- 
phylla)  of  Peru  has  red  berries  of  the  size  of  a 
pea,  of  a  pleasant  flavor  and  sugary  sweetness. 
Those  of  the  luma  (Myrtus  Luma)  are  also  pala- 
table, and  are  eaten  in  Chile,  as  are  those  of 
ilyrtus  Ugni,  the  Chilean  guava,  which  is  said 
to  become  a  large  tree  with  very  hard  and  use- 
ful wood.  These  species  have  all  been  success- 
fully grown  in  California  as  outdoor  ornamental 
shrubs. 

MYRTLE-BIRD.  The  American  yellow- 
rumped  warbler  ( Dcndroica  coronata) .  It  is 
about  .5^4  inches  long,  bluish  ash  above,  streaked 
with  black;  white  below,  with  a  black  patch  on 
the  breast:  crown,  rump,  and  sides  bright  yellow, 
and  the  throat  white.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
numerous  and  earliest  of  spring  migrants  in  the 
United  States,  and  scatters  all  over  the  country, 
but  passes  on  to  the  north,  and  few  breed  south 
of  the  latitude  of  Lake  Ontario.  The  name 
refers  to  the  prevalence  of  this  warbler  in  the 
Southern  States  in  winter,  where  they  feed  on  ber- 
ries, especially  those  of  the  wax-myrtle  (Myrica 
cerifera) .  From  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the 
Pacific  Coast  a  very  similar  species  (difl'ering 
mainly  in  having  the  throat  yellow)  takes  the 
place  of  the  Eastern  form :  it  is  known  as  Au- 
dubon's warbler  (Dendroica  Auduboni) . 

MYRTLE  FAMILY.  A  popular  name  for 
the  natural  order  Myrtaceae    (q.v.  1. 

MY'SIA  (Lat..  from  Gk.  Jlixrfa).  In  ancient 
geography,  a  district  in  the  northwest  of  Asia 
Minor,  bounded  on  the  north  by  tlie  Hellespont 
and  Propontis,  on  the  east  by  Bithynia  and 
Phrygia,  on  the  south  by  Lydia.  and  on  the  west 
by  the  .Egean.  In  a  stricter  sense,  Mysia  was 
only  the  southeastern  part  of  this  district.  The 
principal  rivers  were  tlie  Granicus,  Scamander, 
Caicus,  .Esepus,  and  Ehyndacus.  The  surface  is 
mountainous  in  the  interior,  and  in  part  table- 
land, among  the  mountains  being  Ida  in  the 
west  and  01\-mpus  in  the  east.  The  inhabitants 
were  thought  by  some  ancient  writers  to  be  of 
Thracian,  and  by  others  of  Lydian  descent ;  prob- 
ably there  were  immigrations  from  both  coun- 
tries. Mysia  was  subject  to  the  Lydian  mon- 
archy, and  under  the  Persian  dominion  formed, 
together  with  Lydia,  one  of  the  satrapies  created 
by  Darius.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great  it  shared  in  the  vicissitudes  of  Asia  Minor 
during  the  wars  of  his  successors  and  the  Gallic 
invasion,  but  first  assumed  prominence  in  history 
with  the  rise  in  the  third  century  B.C.  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Pergamum.  Among  its  principal 
towns  were  Abydos,  Cyzicus.  Prusa,  Lampsacus, 
Adramyttium.  Alexandria  Troas.  and  Pergamum. 

MYSLOWITZ,  mis'16-vits.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Silesia.  Prussia,  on  the  Przemsa.  110 
miles  southeast  of  Breslau  (Map:  Prussia.  H  3). 
Coalmining,  zinc-refining,  flax-spinning,  and 
brick-making  are  its  principal  industries.  Popu- 
lation, in  1900.  13.365. 

MYSORE,  mi-sor'.  or  MAISUR,  mi-sTior'.  A 
native  State  of  Southern  India,  bounded  on  the 
east,  south,  and  west  by  Madras,  on  the  south- 


MYSORE. 


206 


MYSTERIES. 


■west  also  by  Coorg,  and  on  the  north  by  Bom-  Residency,  the  ilohan  .Nkilial  or  pleasure  palace, 

bav    and    Jladras     (Map:     India,    C    0).      Area,  the  .summer  palace,  and  the  European  eliurches. 

27.030  square  miles.     The  country  consists  of  a  Modern  metliods  liave  greatly  improved  the  sani- 

plateau  from  2000  to  3000  feet  above  the  sea,  in-  tation  of  the  town.    The  manufacture  of  carpets 

closed  in  tlie  angle  between  the  Kastern  and  West-  is  the  leading  industry,  and  there   is  an  active 

ern  Ohats.    Its  surface  is  undulating,  somewhat  trade  in  the  products  of  the  State.     Jlysore  was 

level  in  the  east,  but  rugged  and  mountainous  in  tributary   to  Seringapatam  until   its  ruler  cap- 

the  west,  where  it  is  heavily  forested  and  sparse-  turcd  that  city  in   llilO,  and  hence^forth  it  was 

ly    populated.      It    consists    mainly    of    primi-  the  capital  of  the  .State  and  the  seat  of  the  Raja, 

tive    rocks,    and    basaltic    trap    formations    are  During  the  period  of  Knglisli  rule  { 1831-81 ).  the 

common:    the   drugs,    jirecipitous    rocky   masses  capital  was  removed  to  B;ingalore.     population, 
rising    more    than     1000    feet    above    the    pla- 
teau,  are   characteristic    features   of   the    State. 
The      rivers     are     all     unnavigable     mountain 


streams;    most   of   them    How   toward   tlie    Bay 
of   Bengal,  and   are  largely  utilized   for  irriga- 


in  ISiU.  74.048:  in  1901.  08,111. 

MYSTAGrOGUE,    mis'ta-gog    (Lat.    mystago-  1 
(JUS.  from  t;k.  ^iffTo7«76s,  one  who  introduces  into  1 
mysteries,   from    /xwtj/s,    »ii/s'<'.v,    initiate,   from 
liidv,     myein,  to  initiate,  close  the  li|)s  or  eyes. 


lion   purposes:   the  northern  streams   belong  to  f,.,„„    ^5^    ,„y_    slight   soun.l    made   bV   the    lips 

the  basin  of  the  Kistna,  and  the  southern  to  the  _(_  iy^f,,^  ar/ogos,   leader,   from    il7«i',"   ai/cin,  to 

Ka\ery    basin.      Grain    and    oilseeds    form    the  ipjul).     In  the  Greek  religious  svstem.  the  func- 

major  part  of  the  crops.    The  betelnut  and  cocoa-  tionarv   who    directed    the    preparations    of   the 

nut  palm  are  important,  and  colVee  is  grown  in  oandidates  for  initiation  in  the  mvsteries   (q.v.). 

large  quantities.     There  are  a  number  of  gold  xhev  were  men  who  had  passed  through  all  the 

mines  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State.  grades   of   initiation,   and   were   probablv   under 

Mysore  is  ruled  by  a  Maharaja,  whose  word  prac-  the  cognizance  of  the  State.     Prior  to  presenting 

tically  IS  law.     A  representative  assembly  meets  ],i,„self  for  initiation,  each  votarv  had  to  place 

annuaUv.  but  its  powers  are  limited  to  discus-  iii,„self  „„,i,.r  tlie  tiuidance  of  one  of  these  mvsta- 


sion.  The  State  maintains  a  small  military  force 
of  about  4000  men.  An  annual  tribute  is  jKiid  to 
the  British  Government  in  consideration  of  mili- 
tary proteetiim.  British  interests  are  looked 
after  by  a  political  agent  who  resides  at  Mysore, 
the  capital.     In  1001  the  iM)piiIatioii  was  .5.538 


gogues,  and  received  instruction  from  him  as 
to  the  various  purifications  and  ceremonies  to 
l)e  ])erformed.  The  mystagogue  passed  upon 
the  fitness  or  unfitness  of  tlie  ajiplicant  to  re- 
ceive the  rites.  In  the  Christian  writers  the 
term  is  used  of  the  jiriest  who  pre]Kired  candi- 


482.  showing  an  increase  of   12  per  cent,  for  the  .  ,iates   for  the   sacraments  of  baptism,  confirma 
decade.     Xearly  94  per  cent,  of  the  population     tj^,,    ^„,i  ji,p  Eucharist, 
are  Hindus.     The  remainder  are  mainly  Mohain- 
medans.     The  principal  town  is  Bangalore. 

IIi.STORV.  Frequently  mentioned  in  Hindu 
literature  under  the  rule  of  various  dynasties, 
the  territory  was  merged  with  the  Balala  King- 
dom of  Delhi  after  the  ilohammedan  invasion 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  After  the  over- 
tlirow  of  the  Ballala  rule  liy  Ala-ud-Din.  a  new- 
State  arose,  including  My.sore  and  part  of  the 
C'arnatic.  with  Vijayanagar  as  capital.  In  1.505 
its  ruler.  Raja  Ram.  was  defeated  and  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Talikot  by  a  ^loslem  confederation, 
and  the  State  again  became  divided  xmder  the 
rule  of  several  minor  cliiefs.     One  of  these.  Raja 


.1 

MYSTERIES  ( Lat.  mysterium,  from  Ok.  larM 
aTiiinov,  iiiiistdiiin  from  ^i'>(Tt>)s,  ?h,i/s/cs,  initiate).^ 
.Secret  rites  connected  with  the  Greek  religion. 
Tiiey  have  been  divided  into  two  groups: 
1 1 )  those  where  the  [larticipants  were  a  small 
circle  of  priests.  olUcially  connected  with  the 
sanctuary,  and  (2)  tlios<'  where  the  participants 
were  numerous.  Xaturally  our  information  on 
these  matters  is  very  scanty,  and  liy  no  means 
trustworthy,  and  the  subject  has  been  a  fertile 
field  for  ingenious  sjieculation.  For  a  long  time 
the  view  was  prevalent  that  the  mysteries  con- 
cealed deep  truths  and  the  remnants  of  a  prinii- 


Wodevar,   captured   Seringapatam   in    1010,  and  tiye    reye  afon     too    profound    lor    the    P"P"  ar  f 

his   successors   strengthened   their   rule   until,   at  """'l-      ^'"^'  el>'ef  representatl^eotls  doctrine  > 

the  close  of  the  seventeenth  centurv.  their  sover-  ^\f  '^'['^^f  >•  '"    "*  '\V'"6«':''-  \">^   '^  n    ''■""i»  iT-' 

extended    throughout   Mvsore.     This   dv-  "''r,?  .L'*"''"!  '■*/'°A';  J"'^''!"'^..""'^  f?""""**''^ 


n;S7^;aV^:;;;;;ian;:.d'T,r'^i:e;iVrh;;:nth^;;:;tm^v     1330-43).     TIu.  dea,h.blow-,o  these  theories,  so 
bv  llvder  Ali    (q.v.).  the  formidable  foe  to  the     f*"-  ''%  '^"tf  •  scholarship  was  concerned,  came 
rising  British  power  in  Imlia.    By  the  defeat  and     f'"'"  \i:!^:^- ^^^''^'l^^ :^^!"":f^:!^r!^Jt!:'']^ 
death  of  his  son  Tipu.  Sultan  at  Seringapatam. 
in    1790,   the   State  came   under   British   control. 
Part  of  the  territory  was  annexed  to  India,  ami  a 
descendant  of  Wodevar  was  appointed  to  rule  over 
the  remainder.   Owing  to  misrule,  the  British  took 
charge  of  tlie  administration  from   1831  to  ISSl. 


berg.  1829)  showed  that  such  occult  wisdom  was 
no  part  of  their  teaching.  Mysteries  were  numer- 
ous in  Greece,  and  were  celebrated  in  honor  o( 
many  gods,  but  in  only  a  few  places  did  they 
reach  a  national  importance.  Of  these  tlic  most 
celebrated  and  reverenced  were  the  Eleusinian 
ntvsteries,  connected  with  the  worship  of  De- 
MYSORE,  or  MAISUR.  The  capital  rf  the  meter  and  Cora  (or  Persephone)  at  Kleusis 
native  Stale  of  the  same  name.  India.  10  miles  (q.v.)  in  Attica.  With  these  goddesses  there 
southwest  of  Seringapatam  and  24.5  miles  south-  appear  in  the  Eleusinian  cult  an  anonymous  go4 
west  of  Madras  (Map:  India.  C  0).  The  tnwn  and  goddess  (SfA«,  thcos,  and  Sei,  thin).  Pluto, 
is  picturesquely  situatid  in  a  valley  at  the  foot  lacchus.  Triptolcinus.  and  Kiibuleus.  whose  con- • 
of  the  temple  crowned  Cliamundi  Hill,  which  nection  with  the  worship  is  by  no  means  clear., 
rises  on  the  southeast  3489  feet  above  the  sea.  The  rites  and  legends  connected  with  this  cult 
It  is  a  well-built  town,  with  wide  and  regular  are  very  simitar  to  those  prevailing  not  long 
streets;  area,  about  three  square  miles.  The  ago  among  the  European  peasants,  and  point 
houses  generally  are  built  of  teak  and  roofed  clearly  to  a  similar  belief  in  a  'corn-spirit, 
with  tiles:  the  chief  buildings  are  (he  quad-  which  dies  and  is  reborn  yearly.  So  far  as  can  be 
rangular  fort  inclosing  the  Maharaja's  palace,  the     judged,  the  Eleusinian  mysteries  consisted  large- 


MYSTERIES. 


207 


MYSTERY. 


ly  in  the  rehearsal  before  the  initiated  (fiia-rai, 
niysta.i)  of  a  sort  of  niiraele  phiy.  in  whieli  the 
rape  of  Cora,  the  surterinf^s  of  Uemeter,  ami  the 
final  reunion  of  mother  and  daugliter,  togetlier 
with  the  bestowal  of  the  art  of  agriculture  on 
man  by  Demeter,  were  represented  in  dra- 
matic form.  The  initiation  seems  to  have  sym- 
bolized the  redemption  of  the  soul  from  the 
powers  of  the  lower  world  and  its  reception  by 
the  goddess  as  pure.  So  far  as  can  be  learned 
from  literature  and  art,  the  candidate  was  puri- 
fied by  a  sacrifice,  which  he  himself  brought, 
and,  after  fasting  and  preparation,  wandered 
through  a  series  of  dai'k  and  confused  passages, 
beset  by  terrifying  sights  and  sounds,  but  emerg- 
ing at  last  into  the  light  where  he  saw  the 
goddesses.  We  know  that  candidates  had  to  be 
initiated  first  into  the  Lesser  ilysteries  at  Agr«, 
near  Athens,  six  months  before  the  ceremonies  at 
Eleusis.  The  Mi/stw  seem  to  include  all.  while 
those  who  had  been  fully  received  are  sometimes 
called  iirb-KTai.,  epoptai,  'those  who  see.'  As  to 
the  public  ceremonial,  we  are  better  informed. 
The  Lesser  3l3'steries  were  celebrated  in  the 
month  Anthesterion  (approximately  February). 
They  were  accompanied,  like  tlie  (ircater  Mys- 
teries, by  a  sacred  truce.  The  Greater  ilysteries 
were  celebrated  in  Boedromion  (approximately 
September)  at  Eleusis,  though  there  was  much 
preliminary  ritual  at  Athens.  On  the  14th  certain 
sacred  relics  (rd  Upi,  ta  hiera)  were  brought 
from  Eleusis  to  Athens  and  deposited  in  the 
Eleusinia:  the  next  day  seems  to  have  been 
given  to  the  gathering  of  the  celebrants;  on  the 
Iflth  the  JIysta>  went  in  procession  to  the  beach 
at  Phaleruni  for  solemn  purification  in  tlie  salt 
water;  the  17th  and  18th  Avere  filled  with  offer- 
ings and  ceremonies  at  various  sanctuaries  in 
Athens;  on  the  19th,  early  in  the  day,  the  sacred 
procession  escorted  the  image  of  lacchus  and  the 
sacred  relics  to  Eleusis.  At  the  bridge  over  the 
Cephissus  jests  and  gibes  were  exchanged,  and 
it  was  evening  (hence  the  20th  in  Greek  reckon- 
ing) when  they  arrived  at  the  great  sanctuary. 
The  following  nights  and  days  were  given  up  to 
the  performance  of  the  saci-ed  ritual  and  the 
ceremonies  of  initiation,  which  certainly  made  a 
strong  impression  on  the  spectators.  On  the 
23d  the  ceremonies  closed  with  a  solemn  pouring 
out  of  water  from  two  earthen  jars  toward  the 
east  and  west.  It  is  certain  that  no  dogmatic 
teaching  formed  part  of  the  Eleusinian  worship. 
The  chief  officials  connected  witli  this  sanctuary 
were  the  Hierophant,  who  was  always  from  the 
Eleusinian  family  of  the  Eumolpidie.  and  from 
the  family  of  the  Kerykes,  the  Dadouchos  or 
torch-bearer,  the  Hierokeryx  or  herald,  and  the 
priest  at  the  altar  (6  i-rrl  /Sw/xcJ  kpe<j!,  ho  cpi 
homo  hierens).  In  connection  witli  the  celebra- 
tion a  sacred  truce,  extending  from  the  full  moon 
of  the  previous  month  to  the  tenth  day  of  the 
following  was  proclaimed  so  that  the  ilvstoe 
could  travel  in  security.  Initiation  was  open  to 
all  ages  and  conditions,  including  even  slaves, 
provided  they  were  Hellenes  (or  later  I?onians), 
and  were  free  from  any  great  crime.  Eleusinian 
'  mysteries  were  celebrated  on  a  smaller  scale  at 
Phlius,  ^Megalopolis,  and  elsewhere,  while  at  .\n- 
dania,  in  jlessenia.  they  appear  in  combination 
with  the  Samothracian  w-orship  of  the  Cabiri. 

("nnsult:  Jlommsen,  Feste  dcr  fitadt  Athrn 
(Leipzig.  1898)  ;  Nebe,  De  Mi/ftteriornm  F.leu- 
siniwum    Tempore    et    Adminiatratione    Publica 


(Halle,  ISSfi)  ;  Strube,  llildcrhrcis  von  Eleusis 
(Leipzig,  1870.  1872);  Foueart,  liechcrches  stir 
Vorifiiiie  et  la  nulurc  dvs  mi/stires  d'Eleiisis 
(Paris,  1895),  and  Lcs  yraiHls  mi/nteres  d'Elcusis 
(ib.,  1900),  very  valuable,  though  the  author's 
theory  of  the  Egyptian  origin  of  the  mysteries  is 
not  generally  accepted;  Gardner,  -Vcie  Chapters 
in  Greek  History  (London,  1892),  and  the  works 
cited  under  Eleu.sis. 

Next  to  the  Eleusinian  the  most  prominent 
were  the  Samothracian  mysteries  of  the  Cabiri 
or  great  gods.  Originally  these  seem  to  have 
been  two  in  number,  though  later  we  tind  two  god- 
desses added,  and  the  four,  Axieros,  Axiokersa, 
Axiokersos,  and  Kasmilos,  were  identified  by  the 
grammarians  with  Demeter.  Perse])hone,  Hades, 
and  Hermes.  Tlie  rites  were  believed  to  afford 
protection  against  the  perils  of  the  sea,  and  were 
doubtless  in  early  times  largely  confined  to  seamen. 
Consult:  Conze,  Archiioloijischc  Untersuchuiiijcn 
auf  Samothrake  (Vienna,  1875-80).  and  Preller- 
Robert,  Ch-iechische  M ytholorjic.  i.  2  (Berlin,  1894 )i. 

Another  sanctuary  of  the  Cabiri  lay  near 
Thebes,  where  we  find  the  deities  worshiped  as 
Cabiros  and  Pais,  or  'boy.'  The  objects  found 
seem  to  indicate  that  these  mysteries  were  or- 
giastic in  character.  See  Athenische  Mittheilun- 
gcii  des  deutschcn  archaologischoi  Instituts,  vols. 
xiii.  and  xv.    (Athens,   1888-90). 

In  the  course  of  iinie  other  mysteries,  such  as 
those  of  Isis,  Sabazios,  Mithras,  and  other  Ori- 
ental deities,  spread  through  the  Greek  world, 
and  at  all  times  there  were  jirivate  sects,  like  the 
followers  of  Orpheus  (q.v.),  who  professed  to 
possess  secret  teachings  which  could  insjure  peace 
and  happiness  in  the  other  world  to  those  who 
followed  their  directions  here. 

On  the  general  subject  of  the  Mysteries,  consult 
in  addition  to  the  books  named  above:  Petersen, 
Der  gehcime  Gottesdienst  hei  den  Griechen  (Ham- 
burg, 1848)  ;Rohde,Psi/c/ie(3ded.,I^ipzig,I902)  ; 
Aurich,  Das  anfike  Mysterieituvsen  in  seinem 
Einfuss  auf  d<is  Christ)  iiliim    (Gdttingen,  1894). 

MYSTERIES  OF  UDOLPHO.  A  novel  by 
Mrs.  Ann  Radclifl'e  (1794  1.  This  once  popular 
romance  tells  of  the  Castle  of  L'dolpho  in  the 
Apennines,  where  terrific  scenes  of  horror  oectir. 
The  victim  of  these  supernatural  events  is  an 
English  girl,  Emily  Saint  Aubyni,  who  is  finally 
rescued  by  her  lover,  the  Chevalier  Velancourt. 

MYSTERY.  The  name  given  to  a  very  early 
type  of  the  mediieval  drama,  founded  upon  some 
part  of  the  Bible  narrative,  and  in  England  often 
used  indiscriminately  with  that  of  miracle  play 
(q.v.).  The  traditions  of  the  ancient  drama  sur- 
vived to  some  extent  the  fall  of  tlie  Western 
Empire,  and  on  them  were  modeled  religious 
plaj-s,  intended  less  for  acting  than  for  reading. 
There  is  extant  a  Greek  play  entitled  Xpurris 
llia-X'^v  (The  Passion  of  Christ),  long  attributed 
to  Saint  Gregory  Nazianzen.  but  now  thought  to 
be  of  much  later  date,  which  follows  the  struc- 
ture of  the  ancient  Greek  drama.  In  the  second 
half  of  the  tenth  century,  Hroswitha  or  Roswitha 
(q.v.),  a  Benedictine  nun  of  Gandersheim  in 
Saxony,  wishing  to  provide  her  sisters  with  a  sub- 
stitute for  Terence,  who  was  widely  read  by  the 
learned  througlumt  tlie  Mi<ldle  Ages,  cast  six 
martyrdoms  in  the  form  of  the  old  Latin  comedy. 
Through  imitations  of  this  kind,  the  classic 
drama  may  be  said  to  have  continued  to  exert 
some  influence  as  late  as  1200.    But  the  main  ira- 


MYSTERY. 


208 


MYSTICISM. 


petus  to  a  revival  of  popular  dramatic  literature 
came  from  the  Church.  The  clergj-  wished  to  pro- 
vide some  uieans  of  making  tlic  gxeat  events  on 
which  tlieir  teachiug  was  based  more  vivid  and 
real  to  their  unlettered  tlocks.  Tliis  was  the 
more  natural  because  the  service  of  the  Church 
was  iu  its  very  nature  dramatic.  Its  chief  act 
of  worsliip  was,  in  no  abstruse  sense,  a  represen- 
tation of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ;  and  both  tlie 
symbolism  of  the  ritual  and  the  responsive  na- 
ture of  the  liturgy  shared  tlie  same  character. 
Kspecially  at  the  great  festivals  of  Christmas  and 
Easter  it  was  customary  to  make  it  still  more 
dramatic  by  representing  tlie  events  then  com- 
memorated as  actually  taking  place  before  the 
congregation.  Traces  of  tliis  procedure  are  found 
as  early  as  tlie  closing  years  of  the  tenth  century. 
The  words  used,  the  directions  to  the  performers, 
hynuis  and  anthems,  were  at  first  in  Latin ;  but 
as  dialogue  was  introduced,  they  were  naturally 
turned  into  the  vernacular.  In  the  thirteenth 
century,  in  fact,  mysteries  and  miracle  plays  lost 
the  favor  of  the  Church.  Where  they  were  not 
still  a  part  of  the  ritual,  they  were  banished  by 
various  decrees  from  the  sacred  building,  and  the 
clergy  were  forbidden  to  take  part  in  tlicm.  They 
passed  first  to  the  churchyard,  and  then  to  the 
streets  and  public  squares,  where  they  were  per- 
formed on  movable  stages  drawn  from  place  to 
place.  The  actors  in  England  were  frequently 
members  of  the  trade  guilds,  who  arranged  for 
these  performances  at  Christmas,  Easter,  and 
Corpus  Cliristi,  supplemented  by  strolling  play- 
ers. In  France  the}-  came  under  the  control  of 
tlie  Confr/rics  de  la  Passion,  which  were  estab- 
lislied  in  many  of  the  leading  towns — societies 
half  religious,  half  literary,  and  wholly  secular- 
ized by  the  fourteenth  century.  The  plays  devot- 
ed to  the  exposition  of  special  niy.steries  were 
combined,  in  England  at  least,  in  an  immense 
cycle,  covering  the  entire  range  of  the  Scriptural 
narrative  from  the  Creation  to  the  Day  of  .Judg- 
ment. In  texts  belonging  to  the  fourteenth,  fif- 
teenth, and  sixteenth  centuries,  four  of  these 
cycles,  more  or  less  complete,  have  come  down  to 
us.  They  are  the  York  cycle  (48  i)lays),  the 
Towneley  (32  plays),  the  Chester  (2.")  plays),  and 
the  Coventry  (42  plays)  ;  of  other  cycles  there 
are  fragments.  The  mystery  plays  died  slowly 
as  the  regular  drama  came  into  existence.  As 
late  as  1.580,  we  hear  of  one  being  represented 
nt  Coventry.  Consult  for  both  mysteries  and  mira- 
cle plays:  Bates.  English  AV/iV/ioH.«  Drama  (Xew 
York,  189.3)  ;  Hase.  Das  iiristlirhc  .S'c/i<ih«/"c' 
drs  }filtrlaltf:rs  (T-eipzig,  18,58;  Eng.  trans.,  Lon- 
don, 1880)  ;  Stoddard,  References  for  >Stu(Ients  of 
Mirnele  Plai/s  an<J  Mj/sleries.  a  classified  list 
(  Herkeley,  1887);  Sepet,  Le  rlrnme  cliretirii  au 
mo!ten-6pe  (Paris,  1878)  ;  Pollard,  Kiif/lish  Mira- 
cle Plans,  Moralities,  and  Interludes,  with  speci- 
mens (Oxford,  1890)  :  Manley,  Specimens  of  the 
PrrSliakcsiiearean  Drama,  arranged  so  as  to 
.show  development  (Boston,  1897)  :  Wright,  Earhi 
Mysteries  (London,  1838):  A.  d'.Vncona,  Sacre 
rap]>resrnta::ir>ni  dri  seeoli  I'l-KI  (Florence, 
1872)  ;  Ward.  I'nfilish  Dramatic  Literature  (Lon- 
don, 189!li:  .lusserand.  l.iterar;/  llistorii  of  the 
Enr/lish  People  ( ib..  189.5):  Petit  de  .Tulleville. 
Les  mtistr'res  (Paris.  188(5)  ;  Davidson.  Studies  in 
the  Enfilish  Mustrni  Plays  (New  Haven,  1892)  : 
and  for  reprints,  besides  the  si)ecimens  given 
above,  York  Plays  (ed.  L.  T.  Smith,  Oxford. 
1885)  ;  Chester  Plays  (ed.  Wright.  London.  1843- 


47)  ;  Toanelcy  Mysteries  (ed.  Raiue,  Newcastle, 
183(i)  ;  Diyby  Mysteries  (ed.  Furnivall,  London, 
1882);  Miracles  de  notre  Dame  (ed.  U.  Paris 
and  Kobcrt,  Paris,  1870-81).  See  Drama;  JIiba- 
CLE  Play;  Passion  Pi^^vy. 

MYSTERY  OF  EDWIN  DROOD.  VW-  last 
and  unfinished  novel  liy  Charles  Dickens.  The 
first  numl)cr  appeared  iu  1870  and  only  six  were 
finished  when  he  died.  The  scene  is  a  cathedral 
town,  where  live  a  music  teacher,  .John  .Jasiji-r, 
and  his  young  nepliew,  Edwin  Drood.  Both  love 
the  same  girl,  Rosa.  Di'ood  suddenly  vanishes, 
and  Neville  Landless  is  accused  by  Jasper  of  mur- 
dering him.  The  story  breaks  olf.  and  the  mystery 
was  never  solved.  Notes  furnished  by  Dickens's 
son-in-law  indicate  that  .Jasper  was  the  murderer, 
but  that  Rosa  finally  married  Tartar,  a  sailor. 

MYSTERY  OF  MARIE  HOGET,  nuVrr'  rO'- 
zhli'.  A  talc  by  Edgar  A.  Poe.  published  iu  three 
parts  in  Snoirdeirs  Lady's  Companion.  { 1842).  It 
is  a  sequel  to  Murders  in  the  Rue  Morgue,  the  ac- 
counts of  the  murder  of  a  beautiful  Paris  grisette, 
and  a  parallel,  with  other  localities  and  names,  of 
the  murder  of  ilary  Rogers  at  Weehawken,  N.  J. 

MYSTICISM  (from  mystic,  from  Lat.  mys- 
tic us,  from  tik.  fivariKSs.  mystikos,  relating  to 
mysteri(js,  from  jhuo-ttjs,  mystes,  initiate).  The 
name  given  to  certain  forms  of  religious  expe- 
rience, in  which  man,  transcending  the  ordinary 
limitations  of  time  and  sense,  seems  to  hold  direct 
commiuiion  with  the  Deity,  ilysticism  may  be 
philosophical  as  well  as  religious,  in  which  case 
its  speculations  are  usually  pantheistic  in  their 
tendency.  Religious  mysticism  exhibits  two 
wholly  different  qualities,  curiously  combined, 
viz.  pure  individualism  aud  the  sinking  of  per- 
sonality. The  mystic  may  have  fervently  striven 
to  attain  the  exalted  .state  of  communion  with 
God,  yet  when  once  it  has  been  reached,  con- 
scious activity  ceases,  and  througli  a  sort  of 
passive  rapture  the  subject  seems  merged  in  the 
object  of  his  yearning.  Direct  intuition  super- 
sedes reason.  The  mystic  is  not  unconscious, 
yet  he  seems  to  be  no  longer  self-conscious  in 
the  ordinary  sense.  The  satisfaction  wliich  he 
feels  is  wholly  dillerent  from  that  derived  from 
ceremonial  observances,  for  the  true  mystic  is 
the  opposite  of  a  legalist.  His  attitude,  indeed, 
is  a  protest  against  formalism.  He  feels  hini'^elf 
to  be  indejiendent  of  external  authorities,  whether 
of  rite,  creed,  priesthood,  or  Scripture,  though, 
of  course,  the  religion  of  the  Catholic  mystic 
precludes   this  .separation   from   externals. 

In  one  or  another  of  its  forms,  mysticism  is  a 
very  ancient  i)henonienon,  finding  illustration  in 
India  both  in  Brabmanism  and  Buddhism,  in 
Persia  among  the  Sutis,  and  among  the  Creeks 
in  NeoPlatonism.  It  passed  over  into  Greek 
Christianity  from  Plotinus,  through  the  writings 
of  pseudo-Dionysius  Areopagita  (see  Dioxv.sirs 
TIIK  Abeopaoite)  ,  and  his  great  commentator. 
Jlaximus  Confessor  (seventh  century).  .John 
Seotus  Erigena  (ninth  century)  translated  the 
pseudo-Dionysius  into  T^atin,  and  thus  introduced 
(ireck  mystical  theologj-  to  Western  Europe, 
where,  superimposed  upon  the  mysticism  of  Saint 
.\ugustine,  it  enjoyed  increasing  popiilarily. 
Monasticism  proved  a  congenial  soil  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  mystic  spirit,  and  some  of  its  most 
perfect  types  are  found  among  the  monks,  e.g. 
in  the  Eastern  Church  the  Hesychastn>  of  Mount 
Athos    (sec  IIesychasts),  and  in  the   Western, 


mysticism:. 


209 


MYTHOLOGY. 


Bernard  of  C'lairvaux,  Francis  of  Assisi,  and  Ig- 
natius of  Loyola.  The  Monastery  of  Saint  Victor, 
near  I'aris,  was  a  very  inlluential  centre  of  mys- 
ticism in  llie  twelftli  century.  About  the  same 
time  an  Italian  abbot,  Joachim  of  Floris,  prophe- 
sied that  the  dispensation  of  the  Spirit  would 
soon  begin.  Several  famous  mystics  appear 
among  the  Schoolmen,  some  of  whom  were  also 
members  of  monastic  orders,  e.g.  Bonaventura, 
a  disciple  of  the  \ictorines.  Amalrie  of  B6ne.  a 
Paris  doctor  (died  1207),  pushed  his  mysticism 
to  a  pantheistic  extreme. 

.\mong  the  Dutch  mystics  are  Ruysbroeck,  au- 
thor of  several  spiritual  tracts  (died  1381).  Ger- 
hardt  Groot,  founder  of  the  Brethren  of  the 
Common  Life  (died  1384),  and  Thomas  a  Kenipis. 
author  of  the  Imiliition  of  Chrixt  (died  1471). 
Eekhardt  (died  c.1327)  stands  in  the  front  rank 
of  (ierman  mystics,  and  among  his  disciples  were 
Tauler  (died  13G1)  and  Suso  of  Constance  (died 
13G0).  The  German  Theology,  a  popular  book  of 
devotion,  was  published  by  Luther  in  1517.  Ja- 
kob Biihrne  (died  lfi24)  belongs  to  the  Protestant 
schooL  Among  more  recent  (Jerman  mystics 
none  perhaps  is  better  known  than  Novalis.  the 
disciple  of  Romanticism  (died  1801).  In  Eng- 
land we  find  George  Fox  (died  1600).  Among 
his  contemporaries,  the  Cambridge  Platonists 
(q.v. ),  especially  Cudworth,  Jlore.  and  Smith, 
■were  both  rationalistic  and  mystical;  George 
Herbert  (died  1(533),  Francis  Quarles  (died 
1(544),  Henry  Vaughan  (died  1695),  and  later 
William  Law  (died  1761)  were  purely  mystical. 
What  is  known  as  Quietism  (q.v.)  was  a  move- 
ment of  the  same  nature  with  whose  earlier 
stages  Saint  Francis  of  Sales,  Bishop  of  Geneva 
(died  1622).  had  some  sympathy,  and  which  the 
Spaniard  Molinos  (died  1696).  Fenelon  (died 
1715).  and  especially  Madame  Guyon  (diedl717) 
made  more  definite.  Not  a  few  of  the  most  gifted 
and  honored  among  mystics  have  been  women, 
e.g.  Saint  Hildegarde  (died  1178).  Elizabeth  of 
Schiinau  (died  1164),  Saint  Catharine  of  Siena 
(died  1380),  and  Saint  Theresa    (died  1.582). 

Certain  philosophical  and  scientific  thinkers, 
including,  for  instance,  Paracelsus,  Giordano 
Bruno,  Spinoza,  llegel,  and  Schelling,  are  less 
properly  included  among  the  mystics.  B\it  Im- 
manuel  Swedenborg  (died  1772),  eminent  in  ap- 
plied science,  but  still  more  eminent  for  his  reli- 
gious  allegorizing,   deserves   prominent    mention. 

Consult  Preger,  Geschichfe  der  dciituchen  }[t/s- 
fil-  (Leipzig,  1874-18S1):  Vaughan,  nours  ir'lth 
1he  Mtistics  (7th  ed..  London,  1895)  ;  Inge,  C/inV 
lUin  Mi/sticism  (ib..  1809)  ;  .Tames,  Tarieiirs  of 
lirlipioiis  RrperiV'iirc  (London,  1902)  ;  Giirres, 
Die  eliristliche  Mi/kIH-  (Regensburg,  1836)  ;  Bigg, 
The  Chr!f:t!aii  Philonintfi  of  Alexninlria  (London, 
1S86)  :  id.,  yeophtlonifmi  (ib..  1895).  See  the  no- 
tices of  tlie  individuals  mentioned  in  this  article. 

MYSTIC  SHRINE,  Ancient  Arabic  Order 
OF  XoBLES  OF  THE.  An  Order  asserted  to  have 
been  founded  at  Jlecca.  Arabia,  in  the  year  of  the 
Hegira  25.  The  modern  order  is  of  comparatively 
recent  origin.  The  governing  body  in  .\nierica 
is  the  Imperial  Council,  with  eighty-five  subor- 
dinate branches,  called  Temples.  The  order  is 
not  a  Masonic  body,  but  only  Jfasons  of  the  thir- 
ty-second degree  of  the  Ancient  and  Accepted 
Scottish  Rite,  or  Knights  Templars  in  good  stand- 
ing, are  eligible  for  admission.  The  membership 
in  America  amounts  to  about  68,000. 


MYTH  (Lat.  mythos,  from  Gk.  /iCfloi,  speech, 
legend).  -V  form  of  folk-lore  (q.v.)  which  sets 
forth  as  an  historic  tale  the  processes  of  nature, 
or  beliefs  concerning  cosmogony  (q.v.),  religion 
(q.v.),  custom  (q.v.),  tradition,  and  the  like. 
The  sum  total  of  myths  is  the  nuttcrial  for  the 
science  of  mythology  (q.v.),  frequent)  \'  termed 
comparative  mythology,  \^"ithin  this  many  sub- 
divisions may  be  set  oflf,  as  the  Greek  myths 
concerning  Diana  (q.v.),  the  Teutonic  Walhalla 
myths  (see  Walh.\lla),  the  Polynesian  water- 
myths,  or  the  Hindu  myths  regarding  caste 
(q.v.).  Myth  must  be  distinguished  carefully 
from  fable  ( q.v. )  and  from  legend  ( q.v. ) .  Thus 
we  may  have  the  fable  of  Zeus  and  the  frogs, 
which  points  a  moral  teaching,  or  the  legend  of 
Saint  Christopher  (q.v.),  which  narrates  a  mi- 
raculous event,  which  may  or  may  not  have  a 
moral  bearing,  but  the  Zeus-myth  (see  Jupiter) 
is  based  on  belief  in  a  sky-god,  and  is  thus  a  part 
of  nature-worship   (cpv.  i. 

MYTHICAL  ISLANDS.  Fabulous  lands, 
with  which  popular  lore  or  the  imagination  of 
poets  and  travelers  have,  since  tlie  earliest 
times,  peopled  various  parts  of  the  ocean.  Among 
the  Greeks,  the  Islands  of  the  Blessed  (q.v.), 
lying  far  in  the  western  ocean,  were  the  homes 
of  those  whom  the  divine  favor  saved  from  the 
pains  of  death  to  live  in  eternal  bliss.  Later, 
Plato  placed  in  the  same  part  of  the  world  his 
lost  Atlantis  (q.v.).  Celtic  mythology  presents 
a  counterpart  to  the  Islands  of  the  Blessed  in 
the  fairy  land  of  Avalon  (q.v.),  where  Arthur 
was  carried  after  his  last  battle.  Of  Celtic  ori- 
gin, too,  is  the  mythical  land  of  Saint  Brendan 
(see  BrE-NOAX.  or  "Bre.xxa.n'x  I .  lying  off  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Africa,  in  search  of  which  expedi- 
tions set  out  as  late  as  the  beginning  of  tlie 
eighteenth  century.  To  Christian  refugees  from 
tlie  Iberian  Peninsula,  at  the  time  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan invasion,  legend  ascribed  the  settle- 
ment of  the  long  sought  for  Island  of  Seven 
Cities  (q.v.).  More  within  the  realm  of  fact 
is  Marco  Polo's  Cipango,  identified  by  some  with 
.Japan.  The  Age  of  Discovery  was  fruitful  of 
legendary  lands,  cities  and  islands.  Best  known 
among  these  last  were  the  island  of  Bimini,  in 
the  region  of  the  Bahamas,  containing  the  foun- 
tain of  youth,  and  the  island  of  Brazil,  which 
owed  its  name  t<'  its  precious  dyestuft's. 

MYTHOL'OGY  (Lat.  mythologia,  from  Gk. 
lj.v6oKoyla,  from  /iOSos,  mythos,  myth  +  -\o7ia, 
-htyia.  account,  from  X^7«j',  legem,  to  say).  The 
science  of  myths,  either  a  body  of  more  or  less 
doubtful  stories,  as  when  we  speak  of  Greek  or 
German  mythology,  or  a  rational  account  of  how 
all  such  stories  originate.  Every  race  has  its 
own  myths,  and  in  the  first  sense  of  the  word 
a  mythology  has  only  to  enumerate  and  classify 
the  special  stories  of  each  race.  The  second 
application  of  the  term,  however,  comprises  vari- 
ous theories  put  forward  to  explain  myths.  Thus 
we  come  to  what  is  now  called  the  science  of 
mythology,  which  deals  with  the  origins  of  such 
myths  or  popular   stories. 

Jlyths  may  be  divided  into  two  sets  of  catego- 
ries, arranged  cither  according  to  the  intellectual 
status  of  the  original  myth-makers  or  according 
to  the  subject-matter  of  the  myth  itself.  Thus 
we  may  have  myths  of  savages,  as  opposed  to  m.vths 
of  cultivated  races,  and  we  may  have  myths  of 
cosmogony,  as  opposed  to  myths  of  heroes.  In 
many  discussions  of  mythology  it  seems  to  be  as- 


MYTHOLOGY. 


210 


MYTHOLOGY. 


sunie<l  that  the  so-called  "savage  nijihs'  treated 
of  the  same  subjects  as  do  tlie  "higher  myths,' 
ouly  ill  a  less  cultivated  maimer ;  but  this  is  an 
error.  Hero-myths  are  sometimes  called  legends, 
to  distinguish  them  from  cosmogonic  mytlis. 

C'LASsiKiCATioN  OF  JIvTUs.  The  first  important 
fact  in  mythology  is  that,  houever  mucli  we  use 
the  word  mythologj"  as  if  it  were  especially  con- 
cerned with  gods,  the  earliest  mythology  ignores 
the  gods  altogether.  Now,  if  we  examine  the 
body  of  myths  found  among  the  most  primitive 
people,  we  shall  find  that  they  are  without  ex- 
ception concerned  with  the  same  subjects,  and 
we  may  therefore  draw  the  historical  conclusion 
that  mythologj-  begins  with  the  discussion  of 
these  subjects,  whereas  tales  of  gods  and  na- 
ture-myths are  a  later  development.  The  two 
linked  subjects  thiis  forming  tlie  base  of  all 
mythology  are  the  deeds  of  ancestors  and  cos- 
mogonic  explanation.  It  is  customary  to  divide 
myths  into  historical  and  scientific,  that  is, 
nn-ths  of  the  past  of  man  and  myths  to  explain 
natural  phenomena.  But  among  the  most  primi- 
tive peo]iles  the  two  sorts  of  myths  become  one. 
A  vague  tradition  of  the  wanderings  of  a  triljc 
is  simply  united  with  an  explanatiiin  of  a  i)hysi- 
cal  process,  and  thus  the  scientific  myth  is  also 
historical.  But  there  is  one  valid  distinction  to 
be  kept  in  mind:  that  is.  the  distinction  between 
such  a  .scientific  myth  and  a  religious  myth. 
Mythology  has  to  do  with  religion  only  because 
religion  is  one  of  the  many  fields  in  which  the 
art  of  telling  stories  has  exercised  itself.  It  does 
not  follow,  however,  that  a  story  in  regard  to 
the  flood  or  to  the  way  the  world  was  made  has 
any  religious  significance.  The  former  example 
is  a  very  good  illustration  of  how  the  historical 
myth  may  become  a  religious  myth.  Thus  in 
India  the  story  of  the  deluge  was  told  at  first 
witho\it  any  suggestion  that  the  flood  was  a  pun- 
ishment of  sin ;  later,  however,  it  is  interpreted 
as  a  'washing  out'  of  sin. 

Another  important  principle  in  the  classifica- 
tion of  myths  is  the  relativity  of  imagination  in 
the  myth-makers.  This  disposes  of  the  rather 
crude  demarcation  into  "savage'  and  "higher' 
nij'ths.  Thus  the  Polynesian  and  Jlelanesian 
mythology  is  almost  as  rich  in  stories  of  the  gods 
ns  is  that  of  Homer,  but  for  all  that  the  island- 
blacks  are  as  savage  as  those  of  .\frica,  and  their 
'higher'  mythology  merely  means  that  these 
savages  are  more  imaginative  than  are  the 
Mishmis  and  Kacharis  of  India,  who  have  an 
active  fear  of  devils,  and  a  very  vague  idea  of 
any  other  spiritual  power  except  the  ancestral 
ghost.  An  excellent  illustration  of  mythology'- 
in  its  lowest  stages  is  otTercd  by  the  Central 
Australians,  Here  the  whole  burden  of  myths 
is  concerned  with  the  great  deeds  of  the  ances- 
tors in  the  holy  Alclierinfia  or  "time  of  old.'  Of 
real  gods  there  is  only  a  Creator,  whose  cos- 
mogonic  work  is  briefly  described  as  'cutting  out 
the  world.'  The  Creator  made  the  world  and  the 
half-human  ancestors  of  the  tribes,  but  the 
niythoIogA"  is  concerned  only  with  the  latter. 
Gods,  and  especially  tales  of  gods,  come  much 
later.  If  we  may  condiule  that  ancestor-deeds. 
nnd  n  somewhat  adventitious  and  remote  scien- 
tific explanation  of  the  universe  as  formed  by  a 
superior  being  or  a,s  consisting  of  such  a  being's 
dismembered  parts  (another  popular ,  savage 
myth),  constitute  the  basis  of  mythology,  we 
shall  no  less  truly  find  that  the  doings  of  the 


demons  constitute  the  ne.xt  stage.  This  phase 
of  niythologj"  is  u.sually  not  developed  beyond 
simple  concrete  performances.  There  is  very 
little  mysticism,  and  no  system.  A  certain 
devil  has  had  a  dilliculty  with  some  mend)er  of 
the  tribe  and  is  cither  driven  oil'  or  slays  the 
man,  who  then  becomes  a  devil  in  turn.  A  fur- 
ther stage  is  reached  as  the  devil  becomes  more 
godlike,  i.e.  is  no  longer  a  mere  mischief-maker, 
but  a  helper  of  man.  This  stage  may  be  reached 
by  savages,  and  it  is  characteristic  of  Polynesian 
mythology  that,  while  mainly  concerned  with  the 
doings  of  demons,  it  rises  also  to  the  conception 
of  a  kind-hearted  demon,  although  this  happens 
seldom. 

At  the  stage  when  demons  and  not  gods  are 
the  controlling  spiritual  agency,  we  find  animal- 
myths  in  their  crudest  form,  often,  as  in  totemic 
tribes,  being  identical  with  ancestor-myths,  but, 
again,  without  such  id<'ntification.  Thus,  when 
the  tribe  is  descended  from  an  animal  ancestor, 
or  the  ancestor  has  become  an  animal,  the  two 
sorts  of  myths  merge;  but  myths  about  animals 
may  be  current  without  any  notion  of  relation- 
ship between  man  and  animal.  The  same  is  true 
in  regiyil  to  myths  about  animated  trees  and 
mountains,  etc.  It  is  quite  impossible  to  draw 
a  .sharp  line  between  this  stage  and  that  where 
demons  and  animals  and  cult-heroes  are  ele- 
vated to  the  position  of  gods,  and  tales  about 
them  become  part  of  theology. 

In  general  we  must  distinguish  between  an- 
cestor and  cosmogonic  myths,  the  myths  of  devils 
and  of  sprites,  and  the  myths  that  collect  about 
higher  anthropopathic  divinities.  Again,  not 
exactly  cosmogonic.  but  historical,  are  the  myths 
of  floods  and  wanderings  and  of  early  settlements 
reflected  in  tales  of  hyperborean  paradises.  As 
the  cosmogonic  myths  are  early  attempts  to  give 
not  a  religious,  but  a  .scientific  or  at  least  a  logi- 
cal explanation  of  the  universe,  so  this  class  of 
myths  may  be  called  historical,  and  they,  may 
really  reflect  some  pre-historical  movement  of 
races,  tlnnigh  most  of  them  are  enwrapped  in 
later  fable.  Thus  myths  of  a  deluge  may  in 
some  cases  rest  on  an  actual  flood,  which  as  far 
as  the  tribe  was  concerned  swept  away  the 
world.  We  cannot  suppose,  however,  that  any 
of  these  myths  have  come  down  to  us  in  a  pure 
condition.  They  are  all  accretions  built  up  by 
successive  generations.  For  this  reason  the 
higher  mythology  contains  also  the  lower,  though 
generally  the  more  savage  features  in  the  latter 
have  been  softened  down.  Further,  in  the  fre- 
quent amalgamation  of  tribes  into  a  larger  po- 
litical unit  myths  often  lose  their  original  sig- 
nificance and  arc  attached  to  quite  difVcrent  gods. 
Even  without  visible  outward  change  the  hero- 
god  lx>comes  modified  in  spirit,  according  to  the 
changing  theologj".  Again,  as  tribes  merge  and 
distribute  their  myths,  so  myths  by  their  own 
charm  travel  from  land  to  land,  the  characters 
being  change<l.  Myths  in  an  advance<l  stage 
may  become  purely  allegorical,  as  when  a  solar 
culture-hero  is  represented  as  destroying  bar- 
Viarism  imtler  the  guise  of  a  long  antliropomor- 
jdiic  tale.  s\ieh  as  the  epic  of  the  Ramfivana  in 
India,  .\gain.  in  the  process  of  anthropomorphiz- 
ing, the  hero  may  become  so  human  as  to  s>ig- 
gest  that  he  was  a  man.  and  we  thus  arrive  at 
the  Euhemeristic  explanation  of  aU  myths  as 
tales  told  about  human  lieings  afterwards  ele- 
vated to  divine  rank.   Thus,  in  India  the  'mortal 


MYTHOLOGY. 


211 


MYTHOLOGY. 


gods,'  or  goJs  who  had  originally  been  men,  are 
a  recognized  class,  the  most  cunsijicuous  mem- 
ber of  the  chisH  being  the  local  Croesus  called 
Kubera,  who  is  usually  regarded  as  king  of  the 
under-world  wealth,  a  Pluto;  but  in  this  inter- 
pretation he  is  a  god  divinized  out  of  a  rich 
man  named  Kubera. 

Exi'LANATiox  OF  Myths.  The  example  just  cited 
(and  analogous  cases)  led  to  the  notion  that  all 
myths  were  to  be  interpreted  in  this  way,  a  view 
held  by  some  rationalists  in  India,  and  favored 
in  Greece  by  many  thinkers,  but  first  reduced 
to  an  'atheistic'  philosophy  of  mythologj-  by 
Euhemerus  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  In  op- 
position to  the  older  view  that  myths  were  to  be 
interpreted  allegorically,  Euhemerus  taught — 
whether  seriously  or  nut  is  now  questioned  by  some 
scholars — that  tlie  gods  were  originally  men,  and 
that  stories  about  men  were  transferred  to  gods,  a 
method  here  and  there  countenanced  by  Plato.  Uei-- 
bert  Spencer,  who  also  believes  that  gods  were  at  first 
the  ghosts  of  men,  has  adopted  the  Euhemeristic 
explanation  in  its  crudest  form.  He  believes,  for 
example,  that  there  was  once  a  girl  called  Dawn, 
and  that  when  she  died  the  Vedie  Aryans  sang 
to  her  ghost  the  Vedie  "hymns  to  Dawn' — a  view 
consonant  neither  with  the  content  of  the  hymns 
nor  with  the  practices  of  the  poets.  At  present, 
if  we  pass  by  Spencer's  theory  with  the  brief 
criticism  it  deserves,  there  are  two  accepted 
schools  of  interpretation.  The  older  view  is  that 
of  Jlax  Jliiller.  In  its  whole  form  it  is  quite  as 
unhistorical  as  Spencer's,  but  it  contains  a  truth 
ignored  by  the  opposing  school.  Miiller  held  that 
myths  were  nature-poetry,  and  that  many  of 
them  in  an  advanced  stage  of  evolution  could  be 
explained  by  what  he  called  'disease  of  language,' 
that  is,  mythology  is  the  result  of  the  misunder- 
standing, ou  the  part  of  a  whole  people,  of  their 
inherited  phraseologv'.  Where  an  old  poet  re- 
ferred to  sunrise  as  'the  shining  one'  (feminine) 
being  followed  bj'  'the  bright  one'  (masculine), 
his  descendants  interpreted  the  grammatical  .sex 
as  imphing  sex  in  person  and  his  phrase  meant 
to  them  'the  (male  god)  Bright  (sun)  courts 
Miss  Dawn,'  and  so,  on  the  strength  of  countless 
errors  of  this  sort,  arose  mythology,  which  can 
be  analyzed  into  its  component  parts  by  com- 
paring the  names  of  gods  in  one  language  with 
cognate  words  in  related  languages,  jliiller's 
error  lies  in  a  too  sweeping  application  of  this 
theory,  in  his  lack  of  appreciation  of  other  causes 
leading  to  mythologj*,  and  in  the-  weakness  of 
his  etjmologies.  But  there  is  truth  in  the  dic- 
tum that  a  misapprehension  makes  gods.  A 
Vedie  poet  sings,  ■'Who  is  the  god  whom  we 
should  revere  ?"  and  his  sublime  word  is  inter- 
preted by  a  later  generation  as  meaning  "there 
is  a  god  called  Who.  and  we  should  make  sacri- 
fice to  Who."  Then  later  writers  go  still  further 
and  enjoin  upon  the  priests  to  make  two  sets  of 
oflferings,  one  to  Who  and  one  to  Whom,  as  dis- 
tinct deities.  The  folk-lore  explanation,  which 
has  obtained  since  llannhardt  and  Tylor  and  is 
steadily  gaining  ground,  rejects  both  Euhemerisni 
and  language-disease  as  factors  of  mythology, 
and  seeks  the  explanation  of  the  higher  myfh  in 
the  original  conr-e|ition  of  the  lower.  Kronos's 
brutality  and  I.itllr  Rrrl  Ridinfi  Hood  are  both 
stories  popular  in  their  day  and  paralleled  by 
many  like  stories  among  savage  nations  to-day. 
Such  tales  are  retained,  toned  .down,  symbolically 
explained,  but  in  origin  they  belong  to  the  tales  . 


that  please  savages.  There  is  no  doubt  that  such 
is  the  state  of  the  case,  and  that  Red  Riding 
Hood  is  not  a  sun-myth  (exposed  to  disease  of  lan- 
guage), but  a  tale  that  pleasantly  atleeted  peas- 
ants. The  folk-lore  explanation  runs  to  accumu- 
lation of  tales,  however,  without  a  radical  ex- 
planation, and  it  ignores  too  much  what  is  true 
in  Spencer's  mythologv-,  that  many  talcs  are 
simply  ghost-stories.  Xor  can  it  be  said  that 
the  folk-lore  method  is  successful  in  explaining 
all  myths.  It  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  all 
myths  are  psjchical  reflections  of  phj-sical  or  of 
meteorological  phenomena,  for  much  must  be  at- 
tributed, even  among  savages,  to  poetical  fancy. 
But  what  Mannhardt  has  himself  called  'nature- 
poetry'  and  illustrated  by  modern  examples 
among  the  Slavs  shows  that  personalities  origi- 
nally solar  are  sometimes  transferred  to  poetical 
representatives  explicable  only  in  a  solar  light. 
The  true  explanation  of  mythology  will  combine 
the  hitherto  antagonistic  explanations  of  Lang 
and  Jliiller,  and  will  also  admit  that  Spencer's 
theory  of  ghost-mythology  is  at  times  applicable. 
No  stereotyped  formula  can  include  all  the  phe- 
nomena. In  the  last  analysis  will  be  found  folk- 
lore, language-change,  and  ghost-stories.  All 
three  principles  are  active  to-day  in  India,  and 
probably  have  always  been  active  among  all  peo- 
])les  in  proportion  to  their  imaginative  powers. 
The  fourth  element  of  p(jetic  fancy  affects  all 
the  other  three.  >Iuch  that  is  looked  upon  as 
elaborated  mythology  is  nothing  but  a  naive 
statement  of  what  appears  to  the  savage  as  every- 
day facts,  sucli  as  the  birth  of  men  from  beasts 
or  from  the  elements,  the  birth  of  animals  from 
women,  metempsychosis,  the  intimate  relations 
between  man  and  all  natural  objects. 

Bibliography.  For  the  folk-lore  theory,  con- 
sult Tylor,  Primitive  Culture  (London,  1871); 
E.  H.  Jleyer,  Indorjcnnnnische  Mijthen  (Berlin. 
1883)  ;  Mannhardt,  ili/tholoriische  Forschungen 
(Strassburg,  1884);  Lang,  Custom  and  Myth 
(London,  1884)  ;  id..  Myth,  Ritual,  and  Religion 
(2d.  ed.,  ib.,  1899);  id..  The  Making  of  Re- 
ligion (ib.,  1898)  ;  Frazer,  The  Golden  Bough 
(New  York,  1900)  ;  for  the  comparative  school, 
Kuhn,  Herahkunft  des  Feuers  nnd  des  Gotter- 
I  ranks  (Berlin.  1859);  Cox,  Mythology  of  .the 
Aryan  Nations  (2d  ed..  London,  1882)  ;  Schrader, 
)<prachvergleichuiuj  uiid  Urgcschichte  (2d  ed., 
.Tena,  1890)  ;  Max  Miiller,  Contributions  to  the 
ficience  of  Mythology  (London.  1897),  which  con- 
tains the  fullest  and  final  statement  of  Jliiller's 
views.  The  ghost  theory  is  given  in  Herbert 
Spencer's  Principles  of  Sociology  (London.  1876- 
96).  Special  mythologies  are  treated  by  Dowson, 
.•I  Classical  Dictionary  of  Hindu  Mythology 
(London,  1878)  ;  Hiliebrandt.  Vedische  My- 
thologie  (Breslau.  1891);  Oldenberg.  Die  Re- 
ligion des  Veda  (Berlin,  !8!U);  Hopkins.  Re- 
ligions of  India  (Boston.  1895)  :  Renouf.  Religion 
of  Ancient  Egypt  (London,  1880)  ;  Jastrow.  Re- 
ligion of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (Boston,  1898)  ; 
Barton,  Setnitie  Origins  (New  York,  1902)  ; 
Preller,  Qriechische  Mythologie  (Berlin,  1894); 
(iruppe,  Qriechische  M ythologie  nnd  Religions- 
acschiehte  (Munich,  1898)  ;  Wissowa,  Reliqion 
'and  Ciilfus  dcr  Rrimer  (ib..  1898)  ;  De  la  Saus- 
saye.  Reliiiionsgeschichte  (Freiburg,  1897):  id.. 
Religion  'of  the  Teutons  (Boston,  190.3); 
(!ill.  Myths  and  Songs  from  the  South  Pacifio 
(London,  1876)  ;  Brinton,  Religion  of  Primitive 
Peoples  (New  York,  1897). 


MYTHOLOGY  IN  ART. 


212 


MYXCEDEMA. 


MYTHOLOGY  IN  ART.  That  portion  of 
an  wliiili  i>  iiiiicerucil  witli  the  leprestntation 
of  iiiylhological  concepts.  Religious  notions  are 
symbolized  at  a  very  early  stage  in  the  history 
of  mankind.  Conceptions  which  can  be  given  in 
vague  and  poetic  terms  in  the  liti-rature,  must 
of  necessity  in  art  be  representeil  concretely.  The 
first  beginnings  are  rude  and  uncouth;  yet  they 
develop  in  the  course  of  time  into  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  all  expressions  of  national  art.  They  are 
thus  important  not  only  from  the  point  of  view 
of  history  of  art,  but  as  one  of  the  main  sources 
for  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  history  of  re- 
ligion. We  may  trace  in  them  also  in  many  cases 
the  influence  which  one  religion  has  exercised 
upon  another.  If,  for  instance,  we  find  the 
bearded  figure  within  a  circle  as  the  Iranian  sym- 
bol of  Ormazd,  and  in  .\ssyrian  sculpture  see 
the  same  figure  hovering  over  a  field  of  battle, 
it  is  at  once  evident  that  the  religious  art  of 
Assyria  has  influenced  that  of  ancient  Persia,  and 
the  implication  follows  that  the  actual  concept  of 
the  deity  of  Ormazd  has  been  modified  by  a 
Semitic  deity. 

Nowhere  are  the  distinct  national  characteris- 
tics of  mythologj'  so  clearly  set  forth  as  in  art. 
In  the  Egyptian  paintings  and  statues  of  deities, 
we  hjive  the  stitT  outlines  and  the  grotesque  ani- 
mal-iieaded  figures,  which  stand  in  marked  con- 
trast to  the  brutal  and  massive  religious  art  of 
Assyria  and  Habylonia.  From  the  point  of  view 
of  comparative  religion  the  most  perfect  pro- 
ductions of  art  are  as  a  rule  inferior  to  the  rude 
and  archaic.  It  might  almost  be  laid  down  as  a 
rule  that  the  higher  the  artistic  merit,  the  less 
the  purely  religious  value.  The  most  important 
contril)Utions  of  Assyrian  art  to  a  knowledge  of 
its  mythology  are  to  be  found  not  in  the  finished 
productions  of  the  late  jieriod.  but  in  the  more 
ancient  seal-cylinders,  whose  ])urely  artistic  merit 
is  often  slight.  In  Greece,  in  like  manner,  the 
early  religious  art  is  rude,  but  here  we  find  in  the 
most  archaic  periods  traces  of  influence  from 
Egj'pt.  or  again,  as  in  certain  pictures  of  the 
struggle  of  Hercules  with  the  Xemean  lion,  an 
analogue  too  close  to  be  accidental  with  Baby- 
lonian pictures  of  the  Gilganiish  cycle.  Though 
the  highest  religious  sentiments  of  a  people  at  a 
given  period  are  eml)odied  in  its  art.  the  endeavor 
to  make  this  embodiment  perfect  tends  in  the 
course  of  time  to  an  increased  ]iurlty  in  the  type 
and  synibolization  of  religious  concept.  This  in- 
teracting process  is  stimulated  by  the  fact  that 
the  statue  or  the  painting  is  conceived  to  be  in  it- 
self divine,  and  at  lat<'r  period  a  portion  of  god- 
hood  ;  later  still  it  is  a  symbol  wliich  may  indeed 
be  a  god  to  the  vulgar,  hut  to  the  cultnreil  or  to 
the  initiated  is  but  a  representation  of  divinity. 
Artistic  conceptions  of  divinities  naturally  vary, 
according  to  the  character  of  the  god  rejiresented. 
Thus  in  ancient  Mexico  we  find  beside  the  figure 
of  the  beneficent  Qnetzacoatl  the  horrible  statue 
of  the  wargod  lluitzilopoehtli,  on  whose  altar 
human  .sacrifices  were  oll'ercd.  If  the  religious 
art  of  Mexico  is  rugged,  that  of  India  is  effem- 
inate. In  India  again,  in  harmony  with  the  grn- 
fes(|ue  religious  legends,  we  find  strange  divine 
figures.  The  monkey-god  Hanuman.  in  harmony 
with  his  energetic  character,  lias  no  touch  of  the 
effeminate  about  him.  ns  has  the  lovegnd  Kama, 
and  in  like  manner  we  find  the  voluptuous  fii;ure 
of  Parvati.  the  wife  of  Siva,  in  her  kindly  aspect, 
beside  the  frightful  and  demoniac  figure  of  Durga, 


the  malignant  form  of  the  same  goddess.  In 
Greece,  where  mythology  in  art  was  developed 
to  its  utmost  perfection,  we  find  this  principle 
carried  out  in  its  entirety.  Beside  the  austere 
Athene  stands  the  seductive  Aphrodite;  with  the 
powerful  Hercules  is  contrasted  the  delicate,  al- 
most too  beautiful  Apollo,  and  over  all  the  Pan- 
theon towers  the  majestic  figure  of  Zeus.  See 
Art.  Hi.story  of:  and  the  various  articles  on 
National  Art  as  well  as  the  plates  of  Eoyptian' 
Dkities.    Hindu    Deitie.s    under    I.vdia;    Greek 

AllT;     .Iri'ITEE;     LySIPPUS;     PARTHENON. 

MYTILENE,  mit'i-le'ni  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Muti- 
XtJit),  Turk,  ilidillii),  or  Mitylexe.  The  largest 
island  in  the  .Egean  Sea,  also  known  as  Lesbos 
(.|.v.). 

MYTILENE,  or  MITYLENE  (modern  Kas- 
tro,  q.v.,  or  Mitilini) .  The  capital  of  the  island  of 
Lesbos  ( q.v. ) .  It  was  colonized  in  very  ancient 
times  by  the  -Eolians.  Its  situation  on  the 
southeast  coast  of  Lesbos  on  a  promontory  that 
had  been  an  island  gave  it  two  excellent  harbors 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Europe.  V  5).  Of  its  internal 
jxilitical  history  down  to  the  time  when  Pittacus 
became  practically  dictator  early  in  the  sixth 
century  B.C.,  something  is  to  be  learned  from 
the  fragments  of  the  poetry  of  Akveus  (q.v.). 
Meanwhile  the  city  had  become  the  most  important 
centre  of  the  Asiatic  .Eolians  and  a  great  naval 
power,  and  had  founded  colonies  in  Mysia  and  in 
Thrace.  After  the  Persian  wars  it  became  an  im- 
portant member  of  the  Athenian  Confederacy, 
but  in  B.C.  428,  the  fourth  year  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War,  it  rebelled  against  Athenian  dom- 
ination. Defeat  after  a  famous  struggle  ended 
its  power  ( u.c.  427 1 .  Mytilene  fought  on  the  side 
of  King  Mithridates  in  his  war  against  Rome 
(li.c.  88).  and  after  his  defeat  suffered  for  it. 
Cimsult:  Leithliuser.  Der  Abfall  Mytilvncs  von 
Athens  (Leipzig;.  1874)  ;  Cichorius,  Rom  und 
Mi/tildu-    (ill..   ISSS). 

MYTILTJS.     See  Mussel. 

MYXINE  (from  Gk.  iiiS^a,  mi/xa,  mucus). 
The  simple  genus  of  the  family  Myxinid;e,  repre- 
sented by  the  single  species  Viijinr  ijlutinosa, 
the  hagfish  or  •borer'  of  the  North  .\tlantic  Coa.st. 
The.se  eel-shapcil  parasitic  animals,  which  bur- 
row into  the  bodies  of  fishes,  are  extraordinary  in 
their  reproductive 
habits.  According 
to  Xansen.  Jlyxine 
is  generally  or  al- 
ways in  its  young 
stage  a  male,  while 
at  a  more  ad- 
vanced stage  it  be- 
comes transformed  into  a  female.  The  ovary 
is  single,  and  on  the  right  side,  and  there  are  no 
oviducts,  the  mature  eggs  falling  into  the  abdomi- 
nal cavity  and  being  extruded  through  the  peri- 
toneal 0])ening  at  the  side  of  the  vent.  The  eggs 
are  few  an<I  large,  and  each  is  inclosed  in  an 
oblong  horny  case,  with  threads  at  each  end, 
by  which  the  egg  adheres  to  some  fixed  object 
until  it   hatches.     See  Hagfish. 

MYXCEDETUAlXeo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  iii^a, 
tnt/.rn.  mucus  -f-  otS-rffxa.  oifh'inn,  swelling) .  A 
progressive  disease  characterized  by  widespread 
chan;:!'-  in  nutrition  and  by  the  invasion  of  the 
suiicutaneous  tissues  by  solid  ledema.  due  to  di- 
minished functional  activity  of  the  thyroid  gland. 
It  has  been  called  cachcxic  pachyderm ique  (Char- 


£Ua  OF  MVXI.S'E. 


MYXCEDEMA. 


213 


MYZONTES. 


cot),  cachexia  thyroidca  (Koclier),  and  hydro- 
paresie  (Feris).  ilyxa'deinu  is  caused  by  de- 
struction of  the  tissue  of  Hue  tliyioid  gland  by 
disease,  or  as  a  result  of  removal  of  it  by  opera- 
tion. It  occurs  priuci])ally  in  women,  and  is  in 
fact  an  acquired  cretinism  in  ;ulull  life.  Jiy  far 
the  greater  number  of  eases  occur  between  the 
aj;es  of  thirty-tive  and  forty-five.  In  some  fami- 
lies there  is  a  distinct  inheritance  of  a  predisposi- 
tion to  disease  of  the  thyroid  gland.  The  disease 
occurs  most  frequently  in  cold  climates,  and  is 
perhaps  most  frequent  in  Eurojie.  The  symptoms 
of  the  disease  develop  gradually,  in  most  cases 
nearly  a  year  elapsing  before  the  disease  becomes 
distinct.  Among  the  principal  sj'mptoms  are 
languor;  sensibility  to  cold;  ab.seiice  of  perspira- 
tion; loss  of  hair;  decay  of  nails  and  teeth; 
pallor;  subnormal  temperature;  hallucinations  of 
sight  and  hearing,  and  even  actual  insanity;  an;e- 
mia ;  indigestion;  and  enlargement  of  l.vni])hatic 
glands.  The  treatment  is  to  feed  the  patient  with 
thyroid  gland  extract  or  dr,v  thyroid,  together 
with  tonics,  such  as  phosphoric  acid  and  iron. 
Thyroid  grafting  has  proved  ellicacious  in  many 
cases.  The  partial  or  entire  thyroid  of  an  ani- 
mal is  transplanted  into  the  peritoneal  cavity  or 
into  the  subcutaneous  tissue  of  the  patient,  to 
whom  thyroid  has  been  administered  for  a  con- 
siderable time  previously  to  the  grafting,  as  sug- 
gested by  Victor  Horslev.  Treatment  bv  the  ad- 
ministration of  thyroid  extract  has  been  largely 
employed  since  it  was  first  used  in  1891  bv  Mur- 
ra.v  of  England.  The  extract  is  made  by  macerat- 
ing sheep's  thj-roids  in  gl.ycerine.  It  must  be 
ailministered  with  great  care,  degeneration  of 
tlie  heart  or  of  the  great  vessels  being  an  indi- 
cation for  very  small  initial  dosage.  In  some  pa- 
tients profuse  diarrhoea  results,  in  others  vom- 
iting, sweating,  headache,  swelling  of  the  glands 
about  the  jaw,  and  prostration.  The  remedv  may 
be  used  hypoderraicallv.  After  the  symptoms  of 
the  disease  have  disappeared,  the  patient  must 
take  a  small  quantity  of  the  th.vroid  extract  at 
regular  intervals  as  long  as  she  lives,  to  maintain 
the  improved  condition.  See  Cretinlsm.  Con- 
sult: Gull,  "On  a  Cretinoid  State  Supervening  in 
Adult  Life  in  Women,"  in  Clinical  Socicti/'s 
Transactions  (London,  1874)  ;  Murray,  in  Brit- 
ish Medical  Journal  (London,  ISni);  Virchow, 
in  Berliner  klinische  Wochcnschrift  (1887); 
Horsle,v,  in  Brotrn  Lectures  (London,  1884)  ; 
Osier,  in  American  Journal  of  the  iledical 
Sciences  (Philadelphia,  1893);  Gindette,  Mi/x- 
cedema  and  the  Thi/roid  Gland  (London,  1895). 

MYXOMYCETES,  mik'sfl-mi-se'tez  ( Neo-Lat. 
nom.]il.,from  Gk./nuJa./H.V-''".  uuicus  -]- ixmrrs^mykcs, 
fungus).  A  group  of  organisms  commonly  called 
slime  molds.  Certain  phases  of  their  life  history 
are  very  animal-like,  but  the  final  fructification 
has  man.v  plant  characteristics,  and  as  the  forms 
are  described  and  classified  b.v  the  fructification 
the  work  has  naturall,v  fallen  within  the  province 
of  botany.  They  are  here  treated  as  one  of  the 
great  groups  of  the  fungi  (q.v.) .  The  purpose  of 
the  fructification  is  the  production  of  multitudes 
of  very  minute  spores.  The  spores  germinate  in 
moist  situations  on  the  soil  and  in  humus,  giv- 
ing rise  each  to  a  motile  protoplasmic  body  pro- 
vided with  a  cilium  (Figs.  6.7.8).  These  swarm 
cells  swim  around  in  the  moisture,  increasing  in 
nunilier  by  division  (fission).  After  an  active 
period  they  become  more  quiet  and  creep  around 


like  amcebae  (Figs.  1,2,3),  finally  approaching 
one  another  and  fusing  in  pairs,  or  jierhaps  sev- 
eral together.  Such  fused  groups  become  centres 
of  attraction  to  nuuiy  hundreds  of  swarmers, 
which  contribute  their  substances  to  the  common 
mass.  The  result  is  a  large  protoplasmic  bod,y, 
called  a  plasnioduim  (Fig.  9),  which  moves  over 
the  surface  of  the  humus  and  into  crevices  like  a 
gigantic  amicba.  Its  food  is  largely  bacteria  and 
other  fungi,  which  are  taken  directly  into  the  pro- 
toplasmic body  and  digested,  the  luird  and  wortli- 
less  portions  being  discarded. 

Vegetating  plasmodia  shun  the  light  and  seek 
moisture.  But  these  habits  are  reversed  when 
the  fructification  is  to  be  formed ;  the  plasmodia 
then  come  to  the  light  and  take  position  in  the 
driest  situations  that  the.v  can  find.  This  is  the 
time  when  plasmodia  are  most  conspicuous  and 
are  frequently  found  on  stumps,  Iiark,  and  hu- 
mus. The  largest  plasmodia  may  cover  several 
square  inches,  but  most  of  them  are  niucli  small- 
er, and  some  are  no  larger  than  a  pin-head. 


MYXOMVCETE8. 

Chondrioderma  :  1,  2.  3,  amoeboid  stage ;  ^.  5.  re8ting 
stage ;  6,  7.  8,  motile  stage ;  9,  Plasmodium  stemouites  ; 
10,  sporangia. 

The  form  of  the  fructifications  is  exceedingly 
various,  some  being  large  and  irregular,  and 
others  with  an  extraordinary  delicacy  and  com- 
plexity of  structure,  but  the  general  history  of 
spore  formation  is  much  the  same.  The  Plasmo- 
dium e.xcretes  a  great  deal  of  nuiterial  (and  fre- 
quently mineral  matter)  which  forms  the  wall  of 
the  spore-case  (sporangium)  and  its  stalk  if 
present  (Fig.  10).  A  filamentous  network  called 
the  eapillitium  may  also  be  di'velojied  inside  the 
spore-case,  its  function  lieing  to  distribute  the 
spores.  The  protoplasm  which  remains  after  these 
activities  divides  up  into  minute  rounded  bodies 
which,  investing  themselves  with  walls,  become 
the  spores.  The  plasmodia  of  slime  molds  have 
been  favorite  subjects  of  observation  by  physi- 
ologists, who  find  here  the  largest  masses  of  pro- 
toplasm that  can  be  studied. 

For  a  general  account  consult:  Engler  and 
Prantl,  Die  natiirliehen  I'ltanzenfamilicn  (Leip- 
zig, 1887)  ;  and  for  special  descriptive  treatment. 
Lister,  A  Monofpytpli  of  the  Myeeto:oa  (London, 
1894)  ;  McBride.  The  \orth  American  Slime 
ilouldx   (New  York,  1809). 

MYZONTES,  mi-Eon'tez.  Same  as  Cyclos- 
tomi    (q.v.). 


N 


^~▼"  riic  foui'tcentli  letter  and  eleventh 
I  cniisDiiant  of  the  Konian  aliihabet. 
I  This  cliaiactcr  has  varied  very  little 
^1  in  form  and  not  at  all  in  value 
^  since  the  orijiin  of  the  alphabet.  The 
orifiinal  letter  was  apparently  called 
nun,  which  in  IMuenieian  and  in  tlie  North  Semitic 
languages  signified  'fish.'  Apparently  the  early 
pietographio  character  represented  a  fish.  See 
Alphabet. 

Phonetic  C'har.^cter.  y  stands  for  the  dental 
or  alveolar  nasal  sound  which  is  the  equivalent 
to  d  and  (.  The  sound  is  produced  by  a  check 
or  mute  contact  and  sonant  vibration  of  the 
vocal  cords  as  in  d  with  the  addition  of  the 
opening  of  the  nasal  passage  made  by  lower- 
ing the  soft  palate.  The  size  and  sha]ie  of  the 
resonance-chamber  make  the  ditlerence  between  n 
and  the  other  nasal  letters.  Under  certain  con- 
ditions n  may  have  a  syllabic  or  vocalic  value, 
as  in  rotten,  forgotten.  In  scientific  linguistics 
this  value  is  represented  by  n.  It  is  sometimes 
silent  after  m  or  I  in  the  same  syllable  as  in 
damn,  hymn,  (iiiltimn,  kiln.  Hefore  r/.  k,  ch  it 
receives  a  semi-guttural  or  palatal  coloring  to 
harmonize  with  the  consonant  it  precedes,  as  in 
long,  think,  pinch. 

Source.  In  its  historic  development  »  repre- 
sents an  original  n  which  has  been  preserved 
with  great  constancy  through  the  Indo-Germanie 
period  to  the  present  time.  Tlnis  night,  Gothic 
nahts,  Skt.  nakti.lMt.  nox :  or  again  Idg.  *ncros, 
'new^,'  Skt.  navas,  Gk.  vc6f,  Lat.  noros.  Goth. 
niujis,  Ger.  ncu,  Eng.  iiric.  In  Anglo-Saxon  an 
original  Germanic  n  disappears  before  s.  f.  and  I'. 

As  A  SvMHOL.  As  a  numeral  X  =  HO  and  ^ 
=  00,000.  In  chemistry  X  =  nitrogen;  Xa  = 
sodium  (i.e.  natrum). 

NABA,  niilia.  A  seaport  of  Japan.  See 
Xafa. 

NABAB,  na'bAb'.  Le  (Fr..  the  Xabob).  A 
story  by  Alpbonse  Daudet  (1S77).  based  on  the 
career  of  a  contemporary  adventurer.  Its  char- 
acters are  in  large  part  actual  persons  thinly 
disgni'ied. 

NABAT.ffi'ANS  (Gk.  Xa/Saroioi.  yahataioi, 
Ar.  .V<i/»/^i(|.  .\n  .\rab  people  or  tribe  settled  in 
various  parts  of  the  country  east  and  southeast 
of  Palestine,  who  formed  during  the  Graeco-Roman 
period  a  petty  indepemlent  kingdom.  Their  his- 
tory is  known  to  us  from  classical  authors,  espe- 
cially Diodorus  and  .Tosephus,  as  well  as  from 
numerous   coins,   and    from    inscriptions,   dating 


from  the  year  B.C.  169  to  a.d.  105,  which  have 
been  collected  bv  De  Vogiie  ( 1808 ) ,  Doughty 
(1884),  Huber  ■  (1884),  and  Euting  (1885)". 
They  are  located  at  various  places  from  the  llau- 
ran  in  the  Xorth  to  Madain  Salah  (Al-llijr  in 
Xorthern  Arabia )  in  the  South.  The  Arabic  char- 
acter of  the  Xabat;eans  is  evinced  by  their  proper 
names,  though  they  used  a  Western  Aramaic 
language  and  script,  as  the  Xorthern  Arabic  had 
not  yet  been  reduced  to  writing.  It  is  uncertain 
whether  they  are  to  be  connected  with  the 
Xabaioth,  an  Arabic  tribe  mentioned  together 
with  Kedar  as  a  son  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv.  13; 
xxviii.  9;  xxxvi.  3;  I.  Chron.  i.  29;  Is.  Ix.  7)  and 
several  times  referred  to  as  yahn iati  in  the 
Assyrian  inscriptions  of  Tiglath-pileser.  Sargon. 
and  Assurbanipal.  The  X'abatasans  are  first  met 
with  about  312  B.C.  at  Petra  as  nomads,  but  so 
strongly  intrenched  here  that  both  the  generals 
sent  against  them  by  Antigonus,  Athenaeus  and 
Demetrius,  were  unable  to  dislodge  them.  The 
Xabataean  kingdom  arose  in  ancient  Edom  upon 
the  ruins  of  the  Seleucid  and  Ptolemaic  empires. 
Its  first  prince  was  Aretas  I.,  to  whom  the 
high  priest  Jason  fled  in  B.C.  109.  Its  first 
king  was  probablv  Erotimus  (Taim-Allat.  n.c. 
110-100).  Obedas'l.  (B.C.  90)  was  able  to  hold 
his  own  against  Alexander  .Jann;pus,  and  Aretas 

III.  (Philellenos)  against  Antiochus  XII.  of 
Ccele-Syria.  The  latter  even  conquered  Damascus, 
but  was  driven  out  by  the  general  of  Pompey. 
Antony  presented  part  of  the  land  of  the  Xaba- 
tieans  to  Cleopatra.  When  Malchus  I.  (B.C.  .i0  2S) 
refused  to  pay  tribute,  his  land  was  overrun  by 
Herod.    War  broke  out  between  Herod  and  Aretas 

IV.  (A.n.  9-40) .  in  which  the  Xabatipans  were  suc- 
cessful. When  Paul  was  in  Damascus,  that  city 
must  have  been  once  again  in  the  power  of  the 
Xabata>ans  (11.  Cor.  xi.  32).  At  the  time  of 
the  Emperor  Claudius.  King  Abias  undertook  an 
expedition  against  Adialiene,  but  he  was  beaten 
back.  Damascus  was  lost  to  Xero  in  the  reign 
of  Malchus  II.  (48-71).  The  last  King  of  the 
Xabata-ans  was  Rabel  II.  (71-100).  In  106 
Cornelius  Palma.  Governor  of  Syria,  made  the 
region  from  Petra  in  the  South  to  Postra  in  the 
Xorth  into  a  Roman  province.  In  the  fn\irtli  cen- 
tury two  provinces  were  created:  Arabia  with 
Rostra  as  a  centre,  ami  Paliestina  Tertia  with 
Petra  as  centre.  The  latest  inscriptions  in  Xaba- 
tiean  ehar.'ieters  are  those  of  .M-Xamarah  (.328), 
Zebed  (.t12).  and  Harran  (.508):  but  the  lan- 
guage is  purely  Arabic.  Later  Arabic  writers  use 
the   word   Xahata;an  as   the  equivalent  of  Ara- 


NABAT^ANS. 


215 


NABOPOLASSAR. 


niiran.  The  iui])Oitaiice  of  the  Xal)atipans  is  due 
to  tlic  fact  that  they  formed  a  sort  of  Ijufl'er  State 
ayainst  the  Arabs  of  the  desert  and  because  their 
country  lay  in  the  direct  line  of  the  caravan 
route  from  Arabia  to  Syria.  Al-Hijr  was  an  em- 
porium for  the  products  of  Yemen ;  and  many 
mausoleums  built  in  the  rocks  and  beautifully 
carved  are  evidence  of  the  riches  which  were  con- 
centrated here.  The  national  temple  was  also  sit- 
uated at  this  place.  The  chief  gods  of  the 
Nabata'an  Pantheon  seem  to  have  been  Dii- 
sares  {Dhu  al-Nhnra) ,  JIanat,  Kais,  AUat,  and 
Hol)al.  Consult:  Euting,  Xabatiiische  Inschnftcn 
cms  Arahien  (Berlin,  1885)  ;  Schiircr,  Geschichte 
des  jiidischen  Volkes,  vol.  i.  (Leipzig,  1886-90). 

NABAYX7GAN,,  na'ba-yoo'gan.  A  head-hunt- 
ing ;\lalay  trilje  in  Cagayan  Province,  Luzon. 
See  PHIL1I'P1^■E  Islands. 

NABBiES,  nabz,  Thomas  (1605-?).  An  Eng- 
lish dramatist,  born  in  Worcestershire.  His 
first  comedy,  Covent  Garden,  was  produced  in 
London  in  1632-33.  His  second  attempt.  Totten- 
ham Court  (1633),  was  followed  by  Hannibal 
and  Scipio:  An-  Hystorical  Tragedy  (163.5),  and 
a  comedy  called  The  Bride  (1638)  ;  but  more 
talent  was  displayed  in  his  masques,  such  as 
liprin(fs  Glory  (1(338).  An  edition  of  his  works 
was  published  by  Bullen  (London,  1887;  Old  Eng- 
lish Phiys,  new  ser.,  vols.  i.  and  ii. ) . 

NABHA,  nii'ba.  An  eastern  native  State  of 
the  Punjab,  India  (Map:  India,  C  2).  Area, 
936  square  miles.  Population,  in  1891,  282,756; 
in  1901,  297,949.     Capital,  Nabha. 

NA'BOB,  or  NA'BAB  (Hind.,  Ar.  nawicCih, 
deputy,  from  Ar.  nCiha,  to  replace,  to  be  a  dep- 
uty). Under  the  Mogul  Empire  of  India,  the 
administrator  of  a  province  comprised  in  the 
region  ruled  by  a  suhahdar  or  viceroy.  The  title 
was  continued  under  the  British  rule,  but  gradu- 
ally was  applied  to  unofficial  wealthy  natives. 
In  the  L'nited  Kingdom  and  other  European 
countries  it  is  applied  derisively  to  Euro-Indians 
who.  having  amassed  fortunes  in  India,  return  to 
make  an  ostentatious  display  of  their  wealth. 

NA'BONAS'SAB  (Ass.  yahu-nasir,  Xabu  (or 
Nebo)  protects).  King  of  Babylonia  (B.C.  747- 
734).  His  contemporary  in  Assyria,  Tiglath- 
pileser  III.  (B.C.  745-727),  succeeded  with  the 
help  of  the  Arama-an  hordes  that  at  all  times 
were  a  menace  to  Babylonian  security  in  oljtain- 
ing  complete  control  of  Babylonia,  and  empha- 
sized his  success  by  giving  himself  in  his  in- 
scriptions the  title  of  King  of  Sumer  and  Accad 
(i.e.  Southern  and  Xorthern  Baliylonia).  and 
by  worshiping  at  the  shrines  of  the  Babylonian 
gods  in  the  most  important  cities  of  the  south: 
1  Sippar.  Xippur.  Babylon.  Borsippa,  Cuthah, 
Kish.  Dilbat.  and  Erech.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  Xabonassar  must  have  been  merely  a  vassal 
to  Tiglath-pileser  III.,  but  a  semblance  of  inde- 
pendence was  permitted  to  Babylonia  because  of 
a  desire  on  the  jiart  of  the  Assyrian  rulers  to  deal 
leniently  witli  the  old  empire  in  the  south  for 
fear  of  incurring  the  displeasure  of  the  Babylo- 
nian gods  who  were  also  the  gods  of  Assyria. 
The  history  of  Babylonia,  therefore,  in  Na- 
bonassar's  reign  is  merely  a  part  of  Assyrian 
history.  His  name  is  preserved  in  the  Ptolemaic 
canon,  whose  list  of  Babylonian  kings  begins  in- 
deed with  Xabonassar.  Why  the  beginning 
should   have   been   made  with   this   ruler   is  not 


clear.  There  is  nothing  to  warrant  the  supposi- 
tion tliat  the  Babylonians  began  a  new  era — 
historical  or  astronomical — at  the  time  of  Xa- 
bonassar, though  that  dat,e  was  adopted  as  a 
new  astronomical  era  bj-  the  Greeks.  Equally 
mysterious  is  Berosus's  statement,  preserved  by 
Syncellus,  that  Xabonassar  first  ^collected  and 
then  destro3-ed  the  chronicles  of  his  predecessors. 
Consult  Rogers,  History  of  Babylonia  and  Assy- 
ria, vol.  ii.  (Xew  York,  1900)  ;  and  for  the 
■reign  of  Tiglath-pileser,  Rost,  Kcilschrifltexte 
Tiylat-Pilesers  in.   (Leipzig,  1893). 

NABON'IDXJS    (Ass.   Nahu-na'id,   Xabu    (or 

Xebo)  is  e.xalted;  Herodotus  (i.  74,  77,  188)  has 
erroneously  Aa/SiixT/Tos,  Labynetos) .  The  last  King 
of  the  Xeo-Babjlouian  Empire,  sixth  in  order 
of  succession  from  Xabopolassar  (q.v.),  the 
founder  of  this  empire.  He  came  to  the  Throne 
in  B.C.  555  as  a  result  of  a  conspiracy  formed 
apparently  by  the  priests  of  the  city  of  Babylon 
against  Labosoarchod  (Ass.  Labashi-Marduk) , 
the  grandson  of  Xebuchadnezzar  (through  the 
female  line),  which  cost  Labosoarchod  liis  life. 
X^abonidus  was  a  native  Babylonian  and  not,  as 
his  predecessors  since  X^abopolassar,  a  Chaldean. 
In  his  inscriptions,  of  which  a  large  number  have 
been  found,  he  appears  chiefly  in  the  light  of  a 
builder  and  restorer  of  the  sacred  edifices  in  such 
ancient  centres  as  Ur,  Harrau,  and  Sippar.  While 
he  did  not  neglect  the  sanctuaries  of  Marduk 
and  Xebo  at  Babylon  and  Borsippa,  yet  his 
greater  devotion  to  other  centres  appears  to  have 
aroused  the  opposition  of  the  priests  and  of  the 
population  of  IBabylon,  and  the  neglect  of  suit- 
able preparation  to  resist  the  threatening  ad- 
vance of  Cyrus  ( q.v. ) ,  the  leader  of  the  Medes, 
is  probably  to  be  ascribed  to  internal  dissensions. 
It  would  appear  tliat  Xabonidus  was  not  even 
present  in  the  city  of  Babylon  when  in  the  sum- 
mer of  538  tl>e  Persian  army  marched  upon  the 
capital.  His  son  Belshazzar  (Ass.  Bel-shar-tisur, 
Bel.  protect  the  King)  had  been  placed  in  control, 
while  the  father's  official  residence  was  at  a 
place  called  Tema,  the  exact  location  of  which  is 
not  known.  Babylon  fell,  as  a  Babylonian  chron- 
icle puts  it.  'without  battle,'  and  in  the  autumn 
Cyrus  himself  entered  the  city  in  triumph  and 
became  heir  to  the  glorious  past  of  Mesopotamia 
and  the  Euphrates  Valley.  Belshazzar  was  put 
to  death,  while  Xabonidus  was  banished  to  Kar- 
mania.  Consult:  Rogers,  History  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria  (Xew  York,  1900)  ;  and  the  Baby- 
lonian-Assyrian histories  of  Tiele  ((xotha.  1886), 
Hommel  (Berlin,  1885),  and  Winckler  (Leipzig, 
1892). 

NAB'OPOLAS'SAR  (Ass.  yabii-apal-usur, 
Xebo.  protect  the  son).  The  founder  of  the  Xeo- 
Babylonian  Empire,  King  of  Babylonia  B.C.  625- 
605.  He  was  not  of  royal  birth,  as  is  indicated 
by  the  absence  of  any  reference  to  his  father 
in  the  inscriptions  that  we  have  of  him.  By 
his  own  eil'orts  he  rose  to  a  position  of  supremacy 
over  the  district  of  Chalda-a  lying  to  the  south 
of  Baliylonia  proper  as  far  as  the  Persian  Gulf, 
wliich  had  managed  even  during  the  height  of 
the  Babylonian  Empire  to  retain  a  certain  meas- 
ure of  inde])endence,  and  whose  separate  position 
continued  to  be  recognized  by  the  Assyrian  kings 
when  Babylonia  had  come  under  the  control  of 
Assyria.  At  various  times  the  Chalda?ans  made 
attempts  to  regain  their  independence,  and  the 
growing  weakness  of  Assyria  after  the  death  of 


NABOPOLASSAR. 


216 


NADEN. 


Assurlianipal  in  B.C.  Il2(i  I'urni'ilied  the  de.sired 
op|ioitunitv  for  the  Chahlspaiis  to  reassert  them- 
selves and  to  extend  their  eontrol  from  Clialdiva  to 
Bahylonia.  About  B.C.  607  Xaboiwhissar.  with  the 
aid  of  the  iledcs  and  the  nortliern  invaders  indefi- 
nitely known  as  the  Scythians,  broiiglit  about  the 
fall  of  Xineveh  and  the  destruction  of  tlie  Assyrian 
realm.  The  Xeo-Babylonian  Empire  now  became 
the  controlling  influence  in  Mesopotamia  and  the 
Euphrates  Valley.  The  few  inscriptions  of  Na- 
bopolassar  which  have  been  found  show  him  to. 
have  been  a  man  of  force  and  energ;\%  who  man- 
aged not  only  to  maintain  his  position  against 
great  odds,  but  to  hand  over  to  his  son.  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, an  empire  almost  as  extensive  and  as 
powerful  as  was  that  of  Assyria  in  her  best  days. 
He  improved  and  enlarged  the  famous  temple  of 
Jlarduk  in  Babylon,  and  the  sanotuarics  of  Sham- 
ash,  the  sun-god,  and  of  Belit  at  Sippar,  and  con- 
structed a  canal  at  the  latter  place  to  bring 
the  waters  of  the  Euphrates  to  the  city  walls. 
The  Chalda^an  origin  of  the  Xeo-Babylonian  Em- 
pire led  to  the  use  of  the  term  Chald<ra  among 
classical  writers  for  Babylonia.  Consult :  Rogers, 
History  of  Biihiilonia  and  Assjiria  (Xew  York, 
inOO),  and  the  Babvlonian-Assvrian  histories  of 
Tiele  (Gotha.  1886).  Ilommel  (Berlin,  1885), 
and  Winekler  (Leipzig,  1892). 

NABOTH.  The  owner  of  a  parcel  of  land, 
described  as  a  'vineyard.'  in  Jezreel.  adjoining 
the  palace  of  Ahab,  King  of  Israel.  \\'lion  the 
latter  proposed  to  buy  the  land,  Xaboth  refused  to 
sell  (1.  Kings  xxi.  1-14).  Tlierexipon  tlie  Queen, 
Jezebel,  had  Xaboth  put  to  death  by  the  elders 
of  his  cit.v  on  a  false  accusation  of  treason 
against  God  and  the  King,  and  the  King  took  pos- 
session of  the  land.  The  crime  was  dcnoimccd 
by  Elijah,  and  the  downfall  of  the  house  of  Ahab 
and  tiie  barbarous  murder  of  Jezebel  were  re- 
garded as  its  just  punishment  (I.  Kings  xxi.:  IT. 
Kings  ix.  21-30).  The  story  is  interesting  for  the 
hints  it  gives  as  to  local  customs  and  popular 
ideas  in  Israel  in  the  ninth  century  B.C.  See 
An.\B:  Jezebel. 

NABT7,  na1)i5o.    See  Xebo,  MorxT. 

NABXJA,  na'B(5o-ft.  A  town  of  Southern  Lu- 
zon, Philippines,  in  the  Province  of  Camarines. 
Tt  is  situated  in  a  low.  marshy  region  occupied 
hv  rice-fielils.  about  20  miles  southeast  of  Xueva 
CAceres  (Map:  Philippine  Islands,  H  6).  Pop- 
ulation, in   IS!16.   IT.TSn. 

NABULUS,  nii'bn-lnns'.  or  NABLTIS.  One 
of  the  chief  cities  of  modern  Palestine,  tlie  ancient 
Shedieni  (<|.v.).  It  is  situated  about  .'{.')  miles 
north  of  Jerusalem,  in  a  well-watered  and  produc- 
tive valley,  between  the  mountains  .Tebel  esh-She- 
mali  (Ebal)  on  the  north  and  Jebel  et-Tor  (Geri- 
zim)  on  the  south.  It  is  the  scat  of  government 
for  central  Palestine  and  the  eorresponiling  region 
beyond  the  Jordan,  the  residence  of  a  Greek 
bishop,  has  several  mosques  and  Mohanuucdan 
schools,  and  English  and  Latin  mission  establisli- 
nients.  It  has  considerable  industries,  especially 
the  manufacture  of  soap,  and  carries  on  a  lively 
trade  with  the  east-Tordan  country  and  .TafTn.  It 
has  about  24,000  inhabitants,  including  the  sur- 
viving remnant  of  the  Samaritans,  who  occupy 
the  southwest  pint  of  the  town.     Sec  S.\M.VRIT.\.N'.S. 

NA'CHI.      Sei'   X.xTciitz. 

NACHTIGAX,  naG't<^-gfll,  Gi'STAV  ( 18.34-8.'>). 
A    German    explorer,    born    at    Eiehstodt,    near 


Stendal.  He  studied  medicine,  practiced  as  a 
military  physician  in  Cologne,  and  in  1S63  went 
to  Algiers,  and  then  became  a  physician  in  the 
service  of  the  Bey  of  Tunis.  In  1869  he  joined 
a  caravan  which  was  dispatched  to  carry  from 
the  King  of  Prussia  to  the  Sultan  of  Bornu  some 
gifts  in  recognition  of  the  hitter's  services  to 
various  German  explorers.  After  a  journey  in 
the  Tibbu  country  he  set  out  for  Kid<a,  the 
capital  of  Bornu^  where  he  arrived  in  1870. 
He  made  a  thorough  exploration  of  Bornu;  then 
went  to  Lake  Chad.  Making  his  way  to  Bagirmi, 
he  followed  up  the  Shari  River  and  its  tribu- 
taries. In  the  spring  of  1874  he  set  out 
for  Egypt,  going  through  Wadai,  which  he  was 
the  first  European  to  penetrate.  lie  visited 
Abeshr.  the  capital  of  Wadai,  passed  through 
Darfur  and  arrived  at  Cairo  in  Xovember.  1874. 
In  1875  he  returned  to  Europe,  where  his 
explorations  had  made  him  famous.  In  1884 
he  visited  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  where  his 
explorations  resulted  in  the  acquisition  by 
Germany  of  the  important  colonies  of  Togo- 
land.  Kamerun,  and  Liideritzland.  Before  fin- 
ishing his  labors,  however,  he  was  taken  sick 
and  died.  His  greatest  work.  Kahara  iind  .S'l/rfa/i, 
was  published  in  1879-89.  Consult  Ruble.  Ous- 
iav  \<icliti(i(tl   (Miinster,  1892.) 

NACOGDOCHES,  nii'ko-dO'chez.  A  city  and 
the  county-seat  of  Xacogdoches  County,  Texas, 
138  miles  north  by  east  of  Houston:  on  the 
Houston,  East  and  West  Texas  and  the  Texas 
and  Xew  Orleans  railroads  (Map:  Texas,  G  4). 
It  has  lumber  mills,  cotton  gins,  cotton  compress, 
cottonseed  oil  mill,  brick  plants,  etc. :  and.  as 
the  commercial  centre  of  a  productive  cotton- 
growing  and  farming  section,  controls  wholesale 
interests  of  importance,  and  a  trade  in  cotton, 
prodvice,  liides,  and  lumber.  Population,  in  1890, 
1138;  in  1900,  1827.  Xacogdoclies  owes  its 
origin  to  a  Spanish  mission,  established  here 
carlv  in  the  eighteenth  century.  As  an  out])ost 
against  American  encroachment  it  played  a  part 
in  the  controversy  between  Spain  and  the  United 
States  over  the  Spanish  possessions  in  the  South- 
west. It  was  captured  in  1812  by  an  American 
filibustering  party  under  Magee  and  Gutierrez. 

NADAL',  EiiKMA.N  Stme  (1843—).  An 
American  author,  born  at  I^wisburg,  W.  Va. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1864.  was  second  secre- 
tary of  the  United  States  I.x?gation  at  London 
in  1870-71  and  1877-83,  and  after  1884  was  for 
several  years  a  member  of  the  staff  of  the  Xew 
York  .Yo/ioH.  His  publications  include  Impres- 
sions of  London  Social  Life  (1875):  Essai/s  at 
Home  and  Elseirlure  (1882):  and  Zirirlntk : 
\(/tcs  of  a  Professional  Kxile  (1895).  He  also 
contributed  in  similar  vein  to  reviews  and  other 
pcriiHlic-nN. 

NADAUD,  n:i'd<'/.  Gvst.we  (1820-03).  A 
French  song-writer,  born  at  Roubaix  (Xord). 
He  was  educated  for  commercial  life,  but  the 
success  of  some  of  his  songs  decided  him  to  take 
up  song-writing  as  a  profession.  Collections  of 
his  compositions  appeared  in  1849.  1852.  1862, 
1870.  187980.  and  1882.  and  many  of  the  songs 
iM'came  popular.  He  also  wrote  three  operettas, 
T'ne  idi/lle  (1861),  a  novel,  and  ftolfepe  po/liijue 
rt  miisiral  (1886).  Mirlles  poi'tir/iies  (ISSSl.  and 
.Voi/r. //>s  rliinisons  i)  dire  ou  <)  ehanter  (1.889). 

NATJEN,  t'oNSTANCE  Cabouxe  WoonniLL 
(18.58-89).     An   English   poet,  born  at  Edgbas- 


NADEN. 


217 


N^VIUS. 


ton,  Birminfjliam,  Jaiuuuy  24,  1858.  She  at- 
teiuk'il  classes  in  science  at  the  Biiinintjhani  and 
Midland  Institute  and  at  Mason  Ccillc;.'c,  and 
became  a  close  student  of  Herheil  Spencer, 
on  wliose  philosophy  she  frequently  gave  lectures. 
She  died  December  23,  ISS'J.  Miss  Xaden  pub- 
lished two  volumes  of  poems;  Songs  and  i<oiuiets 
of  S/irinfftide  (1881),  and  -l  Modern  Apostle 
and  Other  Poems  ( 1887 ) .  containing  pieces,  as 
''The  Pantheist's  Song  of  Immortality,"  that  give 
her  an  assured  place  among  the  lesser  poets. 
Consult  the  Memoir  by  \V.  R.  Hughes  and  others 
(London,  1891);  Induction  and  Deduction,  a 
prize  essay,  ed.  by  Lewins  (ib.,  1890)  ;  and 
Complete  Poetical  Works,  ed.  by  Lewins  (ib., 
1894). 

NA'DIR  (Ar.  nakir,  similar,  corresponding 
(i.e.,  to  the  zenith) ,  from  ua::ara,  to  behold,  to  be 
face  to  face).  That  point  in  the  heavens  which 
is  diametrically  opposite  to  the  zenith,  so  that 
the  zenith,  nadir,  and  centre  of  the  earth  are  in 
one  straight  line.  The  zenith  and  nadir  are  90° 
distant  from  every  part  of  the  horizon  {q.v. ). 
See  Zenith;  Meridian  Circle. 

NADIR  SHAH,  na-der'  shil  (1G88-1747).  A 
King  of  Persia,  lie  belonged  to  the  Afshars,  a 
Turkish  tribe.  He  was  born  near  Kelat.  in  the 
centre  of  the  Persian  province  of  Khorasan. 
At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Usbek  Tatars,  but,  escaping  after  four 
years  of  captivity,  he  entered  the  service  of  the 
Governor  of  Khorasan,  and  soon  obtained  high 
promotion.  Having,  however,  been  degraded  and 
punished  for  some  real  or  supposed  offense,  he 
became  an  outlaw  and  for  several  years  was  the 
leader  of  a  band  of  3000  robbers.  At  this 
period  the  Persian  throne  was  occupied  by  a 
usurper,  Mir  Vaiz,  of  the  Afghan  tribe  of 
Ghilzai,  who  were  bitterly  hated  by  the  Persians 
for  cruelty  and  oppression.  In  favor  of  the 
rightful  heir,  Tahmasp  11.,  Xadir  took  up  arms 
against  Malik  Asliraf,  the  successor  of  Vaiz,  and 
in  token  of  his  loyalty  assumed  the  name  of 
Tahmasp  Kuli,  or  Slave  of  Tahmasp.  Defeating 
the  usurper  in  a  series  of  engagements,  he  freed 
the  provinces  of  Irak,  Fars,  and  Kirman  of  even 
the  semblance  of  Afghan  domination.  The  as- 
sassination of  Ashraf  during  his  retreat  ter- 
minated the  war.  Tahmasp  then  ascended  the 
throne,  and  Xadir  received  for  his  services  the 
government  of  the  provinces  of  Khorasan,  Mazan- 
deran,  Seistan.  and  Kirman.  He  was  sent  against 
the  Turks  in  1731.  and  defeated  them  at  Hama- 
dan,  regaining  the  Armenian  provinces  which 
they  had  .seized  in  the  preceding  reign.  Mean- 
while Tahmasp  himself  had  been  unsuccessful 
in  his  operations  against  the  Turks.  Nadir  took 
this  as  a  pretext  to  imprison  the  Shah,  whose 
infant  son,  Abbas  II.,  he  placed  on  the  throne 
in  1732.  The  death  of  this  puppet,  in  1730, 
opened  the  way  for  the  elevation  of  Xailir  him- 
self, who  was  crowned  as  Xadir  Shah.  Februarv 
26,  1736.  To  win  the  support  of  the  Afghans, 
the  new  ruler  declared  the  Sunnite  form  of 
Jlohammedanism  to  be  the  State  religion  instead 
of  the  Shiite,  which  has  always  been  favored 
by  the  Persians.  Xadir  resumed  the  war  with 
the  Turks,  and,  though  totally  defeated  in  the 
first  two  battles  by  the  Orand  Vizier  Asman, 
turned  the  tide  of  fortune  in  the  subsequent 
canipaign,  and  granted  peace  to  the  Turks  on 
condition    of    receiving    Georgia.     He    also    con- 


([Uered  Afghanistan,  and  drove  back  the  invading 
I'sbeks.  His  ambassador  to  the  tireat  Mogul 
having  been  nuirdered  together  with  his  suite 
at  Jelalabad,  and  satisfaction  having  been  re- 
fused, Xadir,  in  revenge,  ravaged  the  Xorth- 
west  Provinces  and  took  Delhi,  the  capital  of 
the  Great  Mogul,  which  was  pillaged  against 
his  will  (1739).  With  booty  to  the  amount  of 
four  hundred  million  dollars,  including  the  Koh- 
i-nur  (q.v.)  diamond  and  the  famous  peacock 
throne,  he  returned  to  the  west  bank  of  the 
Indus.  He  next  reduced  Bokhara  and  Kliwa- 
rezm,  restoring  to  Persia  her  limits  under  the 
Sassanids,  ancl  formed  plans,  which  were  never 
realized,  for  making  Persia  a  maritime  power. 
Embittered  by  an  attempt  to  assassinate  him  in 
1741,  of  prompting  which  he  suspected  the  heir 
apparent,  Rizakuli.  wluun  he  blinded  and  im- 
prisoned, Nadir's  character  underwent  a  sudden 
change.  Formerly  open-hearted,  liberal,  and 
talented,  he  became  suspicious,  avaricious,  and 
tyrannical.  He  was  assassinated  on  June  20.  1747, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Ali,  who  as- 
cended the  throne  as  Adil  Shall,  or  the  'righteous 
king.'  but  was  deposed  within  a  vear.  Consult 
Maynard,  Sadir  Hhah  (Oxford,  1885). 

NADLER,  na'dler,  Karl  Chri.stian  Oott- 
FRiEn  (1809-49).  A  German  poet,  who  wrote 
in  the  dialect  of  the  Rhenish  Palatinate.  He 
was  born  at  Heidelberg,  and  studied  there  and 
at  Berlin.  His  poems,  under  the  title  Frdhlich 
Pale,  Oott  erhalts  (1847;  8th  edition,  1882), 
were  excellent  pieces  of  genre  verse,  tlie  drinking 
songs  being  peculiarlj-  rollicking  and  musical. 

NADSON,  niit'sSn,  Semyon  Yakovlevitcii 
(1862-87).  A  Russian  lyric  poet,  born  in  Saint 
Petersburg,  of  .Jewish  extraction  on  his  father's 
side.  In  1878  he  published  his  first  poem.  At 
Dawn.  Shortly  after  he  entered  the  army,  but 
soon  left  it  because  of  poor  health.  His  volume 
of  poems  was  bequeathed  to  the  Literary  Fund, 
which  had  advanced  him  a  loan  to  go  abroad. 
Its  sale — over  50.000  copies — was  unprecedented. 
It  is  now  in  the  fourteenth  edition,  an<l  a  special 
Xadson  Fund  of  50,000  rubles  has  accumulated. 
His  poetry  charms  by  the  soft  melancholy  of  a 
youthful  dreamer  who  is  a  prey  to  phj'sical 
suffering. 

NJE'VIVS.  Gn.eus.  One  of  the  earliest  Lat- 
in poets,  jirobably  born  in  Campania,  in  the 
first  half  of  the  third  century  B.C.  In  his  youth 
he  served  in  the  First  Punic  War,  but  later 
made  his  appearance  at  Rome  as  a  dramatic 
writer.  He  was  very  decidedly  attached  to  the 
plebeian  party,  and  in  his  plays  satirized  and 
lampooned  the  Roman  nobles  with  extreme 
virulence.  His  rashness  ultimately  caused  his 
banishment  to  Utica  in  Africa,  where  he  died 
about  B.C.  200.  Besides  his  dramatic  writings, 
comprising  both  tragedies  and  comedies,  he  wrote 
an  epic  poem,  De  Hello  Punico,  in  the  old  Sa- 
turnian  metre.  Of  the  plays  only  a  few  very 
unimportant  fragments  are  extant,  which  may 
be  found  in  Bothe's  Poetarum  Latinoruni  fleeni- 
eorum  Frafimcnta.  i  Halberstadt,  1824);  Kluss- 
mann's  collection  of  the  same  (.Jena,  1843)  ; 
Miiller's  Lirii  Androniei  et  Cn.  Xavi  Frihularum 
lieliquiw  (Berlin.  1885);  or  Ribbeck's  Hen-niem 
Ifomnnorum  Poesis  Frapmenta  (Leipzig.  1S97- 
98).  See  also  Sellar's  Roman  Poets  of  the  Re- 
public  (Oxford,  1881). 


NJEVXXS. 


218 


NAGASAKI. 


NiEVUS  (Lat.,  mole,  wart,  birth-mark),  or 
BiKTii -MAiiK.  Mother's  Makk.  A  congenital 
mark  upon  the  skin  consisting  of  the  pioiluct  of 
excessive  development  of  fibrous  tissue,  liair, 
blood-vessels,  or  pigment  in  a  circumscribed  area. 
The  term  is  generally  and  jjerliaps  more  properly 
limited  to  a  variety  of  angioma,  or  vascular 
tumor,  usually  of  small  size,  composed  of  en- 
larged capillaries  which  communicate  freely 
with  other  capillaries  of  the  skin.  The  ordinary 
form  of  lucvus  is  the  rasculosus.  Tliis  is  present 
at  birth  or  appears  during  tlic  early  months  of 
the  child's  life,  presenting  itself  as  a  red  stain, 
or  a  diffuse  fiat  patch,  somewhat  elevated  above 
the  surrounding  surface.  It  may  be  a  punctate 
spot,  or  may  cover  the  side  of  the  face,  or  even 
the  neck  aiid  chest,  for  example.  This  variety 
is  called  'port-wine  mark.'  'wine  stain,'  iache 
de  feu,  or  Feuermal.  The  nwviis  aranciis  or 
'spider  cancer"  is  not  a  cancer,  but  an  angioma, 
consisting  of  a  central  elevated  red  point  from 
which  radiate  dilated  vessels  so  that  there  is  a 
rough  resemblance  to  a  star.  It  is  conunonly  single 
and  occurs  usually  in  children  of  about  a  year 
or  two  years  old,  and  is  generally  situated  on 
the  noseor  cheeks.  The  nopvi  of  vascular  variety 
are  found  in  the  papillary  layer  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  corium.  and  consist  of  irregularly 
intertwined  and  dilated  capillary  vessels  of  new 
growth  with  free  anastomosis.  In  some  there  is 
a  layer  of  connective  tissue  found  encircling  the 
vessels,  or  an  enormous  growth  of  connective 
tissue,  so  that  the  result  may  resemble  ele- 
phantiasis (q.v.).  The  treatment  for  the  re- 
moval of  na'vi  is  surgical.  Excision  witli  the 
knife,  ligature,  transfixion  of  the  growth  with 
a  cataract  needle,  comjjression  by  means  of 
pads  retained  in  place  with  a  rubber  band, 
chemical  caustics,  such  as  nitric  acid  or  the  acid 
nitrate  of  mercury,  multiple  linear  scarification, 
clectropiuiclure,  and  electrolysis  are  the  means 
employed,  the  last  named  being  the  best  method 
of  ])rocedure.  Vaccination  directly  upon  the 
na?vus  is  an  obsolete  means  of  removal.  Port- 
wine  marks  may  be  removed  by  creating  several 
minute  cicatrices  with  the  electric  needle.  En- 
tire removal  of  an  elevated  mass  may  be  effected 
by  electrolysis,  as  in  the  case  of  a  tumor  (q.v.). 

NAFA,  nii'fa.  NABA,  or  NAVA.  A  seaport 
on  the  western  coast  of  the  island  of  Okinawa,  in 
the  Loo-ehoo  group,  .Jai)an  (Map:  .fapan.  H  7). 
It  is  the  principal  seaport  of  the  group,  and 
exports  sugar,  cotton,  and  silk  to  Japan.  Pop- 
ulation, in   1S98.  35.4.5.3. 

NAFELS,  na'fels.  A  village  in  the  Canton 
of  Glarus.  Switzerland,  on  the  Linth,  four  miles 
by  rail  north  of  the  city  of  Glarus  (Map: 
Switzerland.  D  1).  It  was  the  scene  of  a  famous 
battle,  in  1388,  in  which  l.iOO  natives  defeated 
an  .Austrian  force  of  four  limes  their  n\imber. 
The  aiuiiversary  of  this  battle,  which  freed  the 
canton  from  the  Austrian  yoke,  is  still  cele- 
brated.    Population,   in   inoo",  2r)00. 

NAFTIA,  niif't.*-!!,  Laoo,  or  L.\go  pei  P.\lici. 
A  sMiall  lake  in  Sicily,  near  Palagonia.  in  the 
Province  of  f'atania.  It  is  situated  in  a  )dain, 
near  craggv'  hills,  in  an  ancient  crater,  about 
100  meters  in  diameter.  At  several  points  the 
water  bubbles  violently,  sometimes  rising  to  the 
height  of  two  feet  or  more  under  the  pressure 
of  the  outpouring  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  The 
water   is  greenish,  or   turbid,  and   has   an  odor 


of  naphtha.  The  atmosphere  is  fatal  to  birds 
attempting  to  fly  across  the  .surface  of  the  lake, 
and  to  small  animals  which  approach  it  to 
satisfy  their  tliirst ;  while  to  lean  over  it  is 
believed  to  produce  dizziness  and  headache  in 
man.  The  ancients  regaided  these  phenomena 
with  gieat  dread.  Here  were  worshiped  by  the 
Siculi,  the  pre-Greek  inhabitants  of  the  island, 
a  pair  of  chthonic  gods  of  mighty  power,  called 
commonly  by  the  Romans  Palici  (Gk.  voXikoI). 
In  the  great  servile  revolt  against  Rome  (B.C. 
104)  the  temple  was  the  centre  of  the  conspira- 
tors. Consult  Freeman,  History  of  Sicily,  I. 
(O.xford,  1891). 

NAGA,  nii'ga  (Skt..  serpent).  In  Hindu 
mytholog;i-.  a  member  of  a  fabulous  race  of  semi- 
divine  siM-pents  with  human  faces,  but  reptile 
forms,  inluibiting  the  lower  world,  where  their 
capital,  Bhogavati,  was  a  scene  of  magnificence 
and  splendor.  Sesha.  the  sacred  serpent  of 
Vishnu,  was  their  king.  The  name  Nflga  was 
applied  also  to  an  actual  race  of  people  in  Central 
India.  ])erha])s  so  called  from  their  worship  of 
serpents,  and  this  ])eople  has  left  historical 
traces,  although  fable  and  myth  doubtless  become 
mi.xed  in  allusions  to  the  serjient  race. 

NAGA.  A  town  of  Cebi'i.  Philippines,  on  the 
east  coast,  11  miles  southwest  of  Cebi'i.  It  is 
a  ])ort  of  call  for  steamers  and  coasting  vessels. 
Pojiulation.  in  1890.  1.5.093. 

NAGANAj  na-gii'na.  A  disease  of  live  stock 
prevalent  in  South  Africa,  caused  by  parasitic 
H;ematozoa.  which  are  carried  from  a  diseased 
animal  to  a  healthy  one  by  the  tsetse-fly  (q.v.). 

NAGANO,  na-gil'no.  An  inland  city  of  Hon- 
do. .Japan.  al)out  9.5  miles  south-southwest  of 
Xiigata  (.Map:  .lapan.  F  H) .  It  is  celebrated 
principally  for  the  Buddhist  Temjile  of  Zenkoji. 
one  of  the  uiost  famous  temples  in  Japan,  founded 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventh  century.  The 
town  is  visited  by  many  i)ilgrims,  and  carries  on 
a  considerable  trade  in  textiles  and  woven  goods. 
Population,  in   1898,  31.319. 

NAGARJUNA,  nji-gar'jno-ni.  or  NAGASl- 
NA,  nii'gii-sri'na.  A  great  Buddhist  sage  and 
teacher,  the  founder  of  the  Madhyaniika  School  of 
Xorthern  Buddhism,  also  famous  because  of  his 
religious  conference  or  discussion  with  the 
Gra-co-Bactrian  King  ^Menander  or  Jlilinda  (q,v.). 

NAGAS,  na'gaz-  T'"'  natives  of  the  Xaga 
Hills  in  Southeastern  Assam.  The  Xagas  of 
ilanipur  and  the  mountains  extending  to  the 
north  (Patkoi,  Barai)  of  this  country  seem  to 
l>e  Indonesians,  more  or  less  pure,  while  on  the 
Lushai  Hills,  south  of  Manipur.  are  probably  Xa- 
gas mixed  with  Kyens  and  liurmese  of  .\rakan.  The 
Xagas  live  in  permanent  villages,  the  head-men 
of  which  hold  their  power  largely  by  the  exercise 
of  sacer<lotal  functions.  ^Marriage  is  exogamous, 
with  paternal  relationship.  Many  interesting 
taboos  and  kindred  iisages  are  in  vogue.  The 
Xag;is  are  best  subdivided  into  the  Angami  and 
Kanpui  of  the  west,  who  wear  a  petticoat  or 
apr<in.  the  Lhota  and  Hot  in  the  centre,  who 
wear  a  plaid,  ami  the  Xangta.  or  naked,  in  the 
east.  Consult  Hodson.  "The  Xative  Trilies  of 
IManipur."  in  the  Joiininl  of  thr  Anihrnpniopical 
li\stiliilr    (  London.  1001 ). 

NAGASAKI.  nii'g;'i-sa'kiV  The  capital  of  an 
important  prefecture  of  the  same  name  and  one 
of    the    principal    seaports    of    Japan,    situated 


NAGASAKI. 


219 


NAGPUR. 


on  a  small  peninsula  in  tlio  northwest  of  tlie 
island  of  Kiusiiiu,  iu  kingitude  129'  S2'  E.  and 
latitude  32°  44'  X.  (Map:  Japan.  A  7).  The 
harbor,  about  three  miles  long,  is  one  of  the 
safest  in  the  East,  and  sullicientlj-  deep  for 
vessels  of  twenty-six  feet  draught.  The  town  has 
water-works  with  filter  beds,  a  nieteurologieal 
station,  schools,  a  theatre,  and  hos])itals.  The 
principal  industrial  establishments  are  the 
Akanoura  Engine  \^'orks  and  several  ship  yards. 
The  foreign  commerce  of  Nagasaki  amounted  in 
1000  to  about  .$11,000,000,  of  which  about  .$3,500,- 
000  represented  exports.  The  principal  imports 
are  cotton,  coal,  sugar,  and  petroleum,  and  the 
chief  exports  coal,  rice,  flour,  cam|)hor.  vegetable 
wax.  and  tobacco.  The  shipping  amounted  in 
1900  to  nearly  2.000,000  registered  tons.  Naga- 
saki is  an  important  coaling  station.  The  prin- 
cipal countries  of  the  world  are  represented  at 
Nagasaki  by  consuls.  Population,  in  1900,  120.- 
8(io,  including  1705  foreigners,  of  whom  1144 
were  Chinese.  The  commercial  importance  of 
Nagasaki  dates  from  the  sixteenth  century,  when 
it  became  the  stronghold  of  the  .Japanese  Chris- 
tians, and  an  important  centre  in  the  foreign 
trade  of  Japan.  When  the  Eurojjeans  were  ex- 
pelled from  .Japan,  the  Dutch  were  permitted  to 
maintain  their  factory  on  the  islet  of  Deshima 
(q.v. ).  Nagasaki  then  became  the  only  point 
of  communication  between  Japan  and  Europe. 
It  was  opened  to  foreign  commerce  by  the  treaty 
of  ISoS. 

NAGCABLAIf,  niig'kar-lan'.  A  town  of  cen- 
tral Luzon,  Philippines,  in  the  Province  of  La- 
guna  (Map:  Luzon,  G  10).  It  is  situated  11 
niile.s  south  of  Santa  Cruz,  and  has  a  population 
of  about  13,000, 

NAGEIi,  n-i'gel,  Albrecht  Eduabd  (1833-95). 
A  German  ophthalmologist.  He  was  born  at 
Danzig;  studied  at  Berlin  under  Griife:  and 
after  practicing  in  his  birthplace  for  several 
years,  became  docent  (1804)  and  professor 
(1807)  at  Tubingen.  His  most  important  dis- 
covery was  the  identity  of  the  retinas  as  o|)posed 
to  the  tlieory  of  projection.  This  is  ex])lained 
in  his  book,  Das  Sehoi  mit  ::uxn  Aiigen  (1801). 
Nagel's  further  writings  include:  Die  Refrak- 
tions-  und  Akkommodationsanomalien  des  Auges 
(1800);  Behandlung  der  Anuxuroseii  und  Am- 
hlynpien  mit  Strychnin  (1871);  and  Die  Vor- 
bildung  ~»»i  medizinischen  Stvdinm   (1890). 

NAGELI,  na'ge-le,  Kakl  Wilhelm  (1817-91 ) . 
A  Swiss  botanist,  born  in  Kilchberg,  near  Zurich. 
After  studying  at  Zurich,  Geneva,  and  Berlin,  he 
began  in  1842  to  teach  botany  in  Zurich,  was 
made  extraordinary  professor  in  1848,  full 
professor  at  Freiburg  in  1852,  in  1855  at  Zurich, 
and  linally  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  botany 
at  Munich.  He  gave  to  the  morphology  of  plants, 
especially  cryptogams,  a  great  impetus.  He  also 
worked  upon  the  genera  of  phanerogams,  point- 
ing out  the  limitations  of  species,  with  especial 
reference  to  the  occvirrence  of  hybrids,  and  to 
their  origin  through  the  transformation  of 
species.  He  was  a  somewhat  voluminous  writer 
on  systematic,  eytological.  and  nuirphological 
subjeets.  He  discussed  in  his  Mccltaiiisch-phi/fsin- 
logixche  Theorie  der  Ahstammiingslrhre  (1883) 
the  causes  of  the  transformation  of  species,  main- 
taining that  each  species  is  compelled  by  some 
peculiar  internal  cause  to  develop  into  a  new 
form  independently  of  the  environment,  and  up 

Vol.  XIV.— 16. 


to  a  certain  degree  independently  of  the  struggle 
for  existence.     See  Pkooke.ssion. 

NAGELSBACH,  na'gels-biio,  ICabi,  Feiedbich 
(1800-59).  A  (nrman  classical  scholar  and  pro- 
fessor at  Erlangen  (1842).  He  was  born  in 
Nuriinberg.  and  was  the  author  of  a  popular  La- 
teinisclic  StyUslik  (  1S40,  and  often  reissued); 
Die  honierische  Theologie  (revised  ed.  1801); 
Die  nnchliomerische  Thri>togie  (1857).  He  edited 
the  Againciiinon  of  -Eschylus   (1863). 

NAGLER,  nii'gler,  Geohg  Ka.sp.\k  (1801-00). 
A  German  writer  on  art,  l)orn  at  Untersiissbach, 
Bavaria,  Having  settled  at  Munich  as  an  an- 
tiquary, he  began  the  publication  of  his  Neue.s  all- 
gcmeines  Kiinstlerlexikon  (22  vols,,  1835-52),  a 
monument  of  industry  and  careful  research.  An- 
other important  work  is  Die  Moivigrammisten 
(vols,  i.-iii.,  1857-63;  vol.  iv.,  ed.  by  Andresen, 
1871;  vol.  v.,  ed.  by  Clauss,  1879)  ;  besides  which 
he  published  the  monographs,  Raphael  als  Mensch 
und  Kiinstler  (1835)  ;  Albrecht  Diirer  und  seine 
Kunst  (1837);  Michel  Angela  Buonarotti  als 
Kiinstler,  and  Lehen  und  Wvrke  des  Malers  und 
Radirers  Rembrandt  van  Ryn  (1843). 

WA'GOR  (African  name).  A  West  African 
antelope  (Cervicapra.  redunca) ,  one  of  the  reed- 
bucks. 

NAGOYA,  na-g(yya.  The  capital  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Uwari.  .Japan,  in  the  island  of  Hondo, 
94  miles  by  rail  east-northeast  of  Kioto  (Map: 
Japan,  E  6 ) .  It  formerly  belonged  to  the  House 
of  Owari,  one  of  the  most  prominent  houses 
in  Japan,  whose  castle,  dating  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century,  is  the 
principal  feature  of  Nagoya,  and  contains 
many  specimens  of  the  work  of  some  of  the  best 
artists  of  Japan.  Another  interesting  feature  is 
the  Buddhist  temple  of  Higashi  Hongwanji  with 
beautiful  specimens  of  wood-carving.  In  the 
vicinity  of  the  town  is  the  industrial  settlement 
of  Seto,  where  the  first  glazed  pottery  in  Japan 
was  produced  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
where  the  first  work  in  eloisonne  enameling  in 
the  counti-y  was  done  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
Nagoya  is  still  one  of  the  most  important  pot- 
tery centres  in  .Japan,  the  industry  employing  al- 
most its  entire  population.  It  has  al.so  extensive 
manufactures  of  cotton  and  silk  and  embroideries. 
Population,  in  1898,  244,145. 

NAGPXTR,    nag-poor',    or     NAGPORE.       A 

division  of  the  Central  Provinces  (q.v.),  British 
India,  comprising  the  districts  of  Nagpur,  Bhan- 
dara,  Chanda,  Wardha,  and  Balaghat  (Map: 
India,  C  4),  Area,  24,127  square  miles;  popula- 
tion, in  1891,  2,982.507;  in  1901,  2,716,748.  There 
are  extensive  tracts  of  low  marshland  throughout 
the  region,  and  the  climate  generally  is  unhealth- 
ful.  In  the  more  fertile  districts,  cotton,  rice, 
maize,  oil-seed  and  other  seeds,  fruits,  and  vegeta- 
bles are  largely  cultivated,  and  the  division  is 
famous  for  its  oranges.  The  chief  minerals  are 
coal,  antimony,  ochre,  and  goUl,  The  Gonds  (q.v.) 
inhabit  the  hilly  sections.  Nagpur,  formerly  a 
part  of  the  great  Mah.ratta  kingdom,  was  ruled 
by  rajas,  sometimes  called  the  rajas  of  Berar, 
luitil  1853,  when  the  dynasty  became  extinct,  and 
the  territory  was  annexed  by  the  British.  Capi- 
tal, Nagpur. 

NAGPUR,  or  NAGPORE.  The  capital  of 
the  Central  Provinces.  British  India,  and  of  a 
division   and   district,    520    miles    by    rail   east- 


NAGPUR. 


320 


NAHTJATLAN  STOCK. 


northeast  of  Bombay  (Map:  India.  C  4).  It 
occupies  au  imhealthful  site  on  the  banks  of 
the  Nag,  a  sniall  stream,  and  witli  its  extensive 
suburbs  covers  an  area  seven  miles  in  circum- 
ference. The  European  quarter  is  in  the  Sita- 
baldi  suburb,  centred  by  the  fort-crowned  Sita- 
baldi  Hill.  Here,  also,  on  the  north,  are  the 
bazaars  and  the  cantonment.  Several  fine  Hindu 
temples  of  Mahratlan  architecture,  handsome 
gardens,  monumental  tanks,  and  the  tombs  of 
the  Bhonsla  Kajas  are  notable  native  features. 
There  are  manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  and 
cutlery,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  agricultural 
produce,  salt,  and  European  manufactured  goods. 
■  Xagjmr  became  the  capital  of  an  independent 
Mahratta  raja  in  1740.  In  1817  it  was  the 
scene  of  an  attack  by  Kaja  A])pa  Sahib  with 
18.000  troops  on  the"  British  Residency.  The 
Resident,  Mr.  Jenkins,  who  liad  anticipated 
trouble,  and  had  nianaped  to  assemble  KijO  men 
under  CVjI.  Scott,  defeated  the  assailants  after 
eighteen  hours'  fighting.  A  second  battle  a 
month  later  resulted  in  the  Raja's  submission 
and  subsequent  deposition.  Population,  in  1891, 
117.014:  in  1001.  127,734. 

NAGUILIAN,  nU'g4-le'an.  A  town  of  North- 
ern Luzon,  I'hilippines,  in  the  Province  of  La 
Union,  situated  11  miles  southeast  of  San  Fer- 
nando (Map:  Philippine  Islands,  E  3).  Pop- 
uhition.  10.4(10. 

NAGY-BANYA,  nod'y'-biin'yo.  A  town  of 
Northeastern  Hungary,  situated  among  the  Lapos 
Mountains,  90  miles  east  of  Debreczin  (Map: 
Hungary.  H  3).  It  has  a  State  college,  and  its 
chief  industries  are  gold,  silver,  and  copper 
mining.     Poiuilation,  in   1900,  11,109. 

NAGY-BECSKEREK,  bech'kg-rek.  A  town 
of  Hungary.     See  Becskerek. 

NAGY-KAROLY,  ka'r.M-y'.  The  capital  of 
the  County  of  SzatmSr,  Hungary,  situated  43 
miles  by  rail  east-northeast  of  Debreczin  (Map: 
Hiuigary.  H  3).  It  has  a  fine  church,  a  jialace 
of  the  t'nimts  Kflrolyi,  a  Piarist  monastery,  and 
gymnasium.  Its  chief  products  are  coarse  cloth, 
linen,  and  leather.     Population,  in   1900.   1.5.382. 

NAGY-KIKINDA,  ke'ken-do,  or  Gross  Ki- 
KiN"i).\.  A  town  of  Hungary,  situated  3ti  miles 
by  rail  west  of  Temesvar  (Map:  Hungary,  G  4). 
It  has  a  higher  g\mnasium  and  an  extensive 
trade  in  agricultural  products  and  domestic  ani- 
mals. Population,  in  1890,  22,923;  in  1900, 
28,843.  ov<T  one-half  Serbs. 

NAGY-KOROS,  kf-'resh.  A  town  of  Hungary. 
See  K(iR().s. 

NAGY-SZEBEN,  se'ben.   A  town  of  Hungary. 

See     llKiiMANNSTAOT. 

NAGY-SZOMBAT,  sftrnTjot.  The  Hungarian 
name  ol  Tyrnau   (q.v.). 

NAGY-VARAD.  vii'rod.  A  town  of  Hun- 
gary.     Sec    (iROSSW.VKDEI.N. 

NAHANT'.  A  town  in  Essex  County,  ^lass., 
on  a  peninsula  extending  into  Massachusetts 
Bay;  reached  by  stage  from  Lynn  (four  miles), 
and  in  summer  by  steamers  from  Boston  (ten 
miles)  (Map:  Massachusetts,  F  3).  It  has  a 
public  library  with  13. .500  volumes.  Nnliant 
has  been  for  years  a  favorite  place  of  summer 
resort  for  Boston  business  men.  and  has  many 
handsome  seaside  residences.  Population,  in  1890, 
880:  in  1900,  1182.  The  site  of  Nahant  is 
claimed  to  have  been  the  landfall  of  the  North- 


men. It  was  visited  in  1014  by  Capt.  John 
Smith,  and  in  1022  was  granted  to  Capt.  Robert 
Ciorges.  Until  1853,  when  it  was  incorporated 
as  a  separate  town,  Nahant  was  a  part  of  Lynn. 
Consult  Ilurd,  History  of  Essex  County,  Massw- 
chiisitis   (Philadelphia,  1888). 

NAHARRO,  ua-iir'ro,  Bartolom£  de  Torres. 
A  Spanish  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  La 
Torre,  near  Badajoz,  toward  the  end  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  He  lived  at  Rome  and  subse- 
quently at  Naples,  where  he  published  his  col- 
lected'works  under  the  title  Fropaladia  (1517), 
and  dedicated  them  to  Ferdinand  d"Avalos,  the 
husband  of  Vitloria  Colonna.  His  plays  have 
action,  character,  and  plot,  and  are  of  historic 
value:  Naharro  is  called  the  creator  of  Spanish 
comedy.  He  also  wrote  ballads,  sonnets,  and 
epistles.  It  was  some  time  before  his  plays 
became  known  in  Spain,  and  the  first  Spanish 
edition  of  them  did  not  appear  until  1520.  But 
during  the  following  century  his  works  were 
very  popular,  although,  owing  to  his  manner  of 
describing  the  clergj-,  the  later  editions  were 
exptirgatcd. 

NAHR-EL-ASI,  niir'el-a'se.  A  river  of  Syria. 
See  (JROXTES. 

NAHUATLAKT  (ni-wat'liln)  STOCK.  An 
American  linguistic  grou])  centred  about  the 
southern  jiart  of  the  central  plateau  of  Mexico, 
but  witli  isolated  tribes  farther  to  the  south, 
almost  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  The  Nahuat- 
lan  stock,  in  the  commonly  accepted  scope  of 
the  term,  includes  the  Nahua  proper  or  Aztae 
(q.v.)  in  and  adjoining  the  valley  of  .Mexico 
(States  of  Mexico  and  Puebla),  the  Tlascaltec 
(Tlaxcala),  the  Cuitlateco  (Jlichoacan),  the 
Cora,  the  Huichol  (Jalisco) ,  the  Acaxec  (Sinaloa 
and  Durango),  the  Alaguilac,  the  Pipil  ((iuate- 
mala  and  Salvador),  the  Niquiran  (Nicaragua), 
and  the  Segua  (Costa  Rica),  with  numcroua 
subtribes  and  dialects.  Traditional  and  lin- 
guistic evidence  makes  the  Nahuatlan  emigrants 
from  the  north,  who  acquired  most  of  their 
culture  from  contact  with  the  superior  Mayan 
and  Tarascan  civilizaticm  after  establishing  them- 
selves in  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula.  As 
their  social  condition  advanced,  the  sim))lc  primi- 
tive system  of  ruling  chiefs  develojicd  in  some 
eases,  particularly  among  the  Aztec,  into  a 
regular  hereditary  monarchy.  Descent  and  in- 
heritance, both  of  odice  and  property,  were  in 
the  male  line,  but  land  was  held  by  the  clan, 
and  marriage  was  regulated  by  gentile  laws  of 
kinship.  Agriculture  was  the  basis  of  national 
existence  and  was  governed  by  strict  laws,  while 
the  arts  of  weaving,  pottery,  and  architecture 
reached  a  highdegree  of  perfection.  Gold,  silver, 
and  copper  were  worked,  and  a  bronze  alloy 
has  been  rciiorted,  but  the  ordinarv'  tools 
and  implements  were  still  of  stone  or  obsidian. 
Religious  rites  were  observed  with  elaborate  and 
imposing  ceremonials,  eomlticted  by  priestly  or- 
ders of  both  sexes,  which  controlled  also  the 
education  of  the  children.  At  Tenochtitlan  or 
Mexico,  the  capital  of  the  Aztec  Empire,  thou- 
sands of  captives  were  annually  devoled  to  the 
bloody  rites  of  human  sacrifice  and  cannibalism 
in  honor  of  the  god  of  war.  Literature  was 
extensively  lultivatcd  in  the  form  of  pictograph 
records  and  rituals,  which  were  painted  in  bril- 
liant colors  upon  books  of  maguey  paper  or 
dressed  skins,  very  similar  to  those  in  use  among 


11 


NAHUATLAN  STOCK. 


221 


NAIL. 


the  :Maya.  The  calendar,  which  was  the  conniion 
propertj'  not  only  of  the  southern  Xalniatlan 
nations,  Ijut  also  of  several  neighboring  peoples, 
recognized  the  year  of  305  days,  and  may  have 
been  of  aMaya  origin,  altliough  developed  along 
dillVrent  lims.  Tlie  Xahuatlan  are  now  repre- 
sented by  nearly  two  million  people,  most  of 
wliom,  altliough  subjugated  and  to  a  certain 
extent  Christianized,  still  occupy  their  ancient 
territories  in  nearly  their  ancient  fashion,  having 
adopted  but  little  oi  the  newer  civilization  in 
the  place  of  that  destroyed  by  the  conqueror. 
The  principal  sources  of  information  upon  the 
historj'  and  civilization  of  the  Xahuatlan  tribes 
are:  Sahagun,  Historia  general  de  his  cosris  de 
iiiieva  Espafia  (Jlexico,  1829-30),  and  Prescott, 
History  of  the  Vonqucst  of  Mexico  (Xew  York, 
1843).  See  CoETES ;  Mexico;  Montezuma;  and 
tribal  licadings. 

NAHXJEL-HUAPI,  na-wal'wa-pe',  or  Tiger 
Lake,  A  lake  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes 
Range  in  Argentina,  on  the  boundary  between 
the  territories  of  Xeuqucn  and  Kio  Xegro  (Jlap: 
Argentina,  C  12).  It  is  75  miles  long,  with  an 
average  width  of  10  miles  and  an  area  of  309 
square  miles.  It  contains  a  number  of  islands 
covered  with  hixuriant  vegetation,  and  its  banks 
are  fertile  and  well  watered.  It  receives  many 
streams,  and  discharges  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
through  the  Rio  X'^egro, 

NAHUM.  The  seventh  of  the  minor  prophets 
according  to  the  usual  arrangement.  Xothing  is 
known  of  his  life  exce^Jt  what  may  be  gathered 
from  the  notice  in  the  first  verse  of  his  prophecy, 
where  he  is  called  "the  Elkoshite.'  \^■here  El- 
kosli  was  is  uncertain.  It  has  been  located  in 
Galilee  and  in  Assj'ria ;  a  third  identification  is 
with  Beit  Jibrin  (Eleutheropolis)  in  the 
Shephelah.  Xalunn's  prophecy  consists  of 
two     parts,     besides     the     introductory     verse: 

(1)  A  psalm  (i,  2-ii.  2),  which  describes 
the  majesty  of  God  and  His  punishment  of 
His   enemies    in   somewhat   general    terms;    and 

(2)  the  prophecy  proper  (ii.  3-iii.  19),  which 
foretells  tlie  doom  of  Xineveh,  The  style  is  full 
of  animation  and  fancy,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
clear  and  rounded.  The  te.xt  is  in  part  corrupt. 
The  date  of  the  prophecy  cannot  be  fixed  exactly, 
but  must  have  been  later  than  the  capture  of 
Thebes  in  Egj'pt  (the  "No"  of  iii,  8;  see  Xo- 
Amon),  by  Asshurbanipal,  B.C.  664-663;  and  it 
must  have  been  before  the  fall  of  Xineveh.  about 
B.C.  606.  The  recent  investigations  of  Bickell 
and  Gunkel  have  established  with  certainty 
traces  of  an  original  acrostic  arrangement  in  tlie 
psalm,  and  this  artificiality  points  to  a  late  date 
for  this  part  of  the  hook :  it  fits  in  with  the  condi- 
tions existing  during  the  Persian  rule  in  Palestine, 
when  the  religions  community  of  Jerusalem  was 
struggling  against  great  odds,  and  may  have  been 
prefixed  by  an  editor  to  the  genuine  prophecy  of 
Nahum  as  an  appropriate  introduction.  If  this 
be  the  fact,  it  would  be  qtiite  in  accordance  with 
the  free  treatment  to  wliich  older  discourses  were 
subjected  by  post-exilic  compilers.  Consult  the 
commentaries  mentioned  in  the  article  !MlNOR 
Pbophet.S;  Bickell.  Bcitriiqe  zur  .icmitischcn 
Metrik  (Vienna.  1894)  ;  Gunkel,  in  Zcitschrift 
fiir  alilciitanientliche  Wissen.ichnft,  vol.  xiii. 
(1893)  ;  Nestle,  in  Zeitschrift  dex  deutschen  I'alii- 
stinarcreins,  vol.  i.  (1878)  ;  Davidson,  "Xahuni, 
Habakkuk,   and   Zephaniah,"   in   the   Cambridye 


Bible    for    Schools    and    Colleges     (Cambridge, 
1890). 

NAHUYS  VAN  BXJRGST,  na'hois  van 
boorost,  HcuERT  Geraku^  Baron  (1782-1858). 
A  Dutch  colonial  soldier  and  geographical  au- 
tlior,  born  in  Amsterdam.  In  1809  he  went  to 
Batavia,  where  he  entered  the  army,  and  fought 
against  tlie  English  in  Bengal.  In  1814  he  was 
appointed  commissioner  to  the  Prince  of  Java, 
X'ahuys  was  pensioned  in  1830,  and  nine  years 
afterwards  returned  to  Holland,  settling  at  Breda, 
His  writings,  which  are  of  no  small  geographical 
importance,  include:  Hchets  van  Benkoelen  op  dc 
tiestkiist  !'«»  het  eiland  tiumatra  (1826)  and 
lieschouunngen  over  Nederlandsch-Indie  (1847; 
2d  ed.  1S4S). 

NAIADS,  na'yadz  (Gk.  Nai'Ses,  Naides,  'SiidSet, 
Xciadcs,  from  vav,  nan,  to  flow;  connected  with 
Lat.  naris.  Gk,  vaSs,  nans,  8kt,  ni'iu,  ship).  In 
tireek  mythology,  the  nymphs  of  the  springs, 
and  hence  also  of  rivers.  Caves,  especially  with 
trickling  water,  were  sacred  to  them  and  believed 
to  be  their  dwellings.  Owing  to  the  medicinal 
qualities  of  some  springs,  the  Naiads  naturally 
appear  as  healing  divinities,  and  as  divination 
was  associated  with  the  water,  tliey  became 
prophetic.  Under  their  influence  the  prophet 
became  inspired  or  even  mad.      See  also  Nymph, 

NAIANT,  mi'ant,  or  NAT  ANT,  n.-i'tant  (OF. 
swimming  I.  An  heraldic  term  a]iplied  to  a  fish 
when  borne  horizontally  across  the  shield  in  a 
swimming  position.     See  HER.\LDRy. 

NAIL  (AS.  iicegcl,  OHG.  nagal,  Ger.  Nagel, 
nail,  Goth,  ga-nagljan,  to  nail;  connected  with 
OChurch  .Slav.  nogt'ilJ,  Lith.  nagas,  Skt.  nakhu, 
nail).  The  terms  nail,  claw,  and  hoof  are  popu- 
lar names  for  dilTerent  developments  of  the  same 
epidermal  formation.  All  are  horny  secretions 
formed  from  tlie  outer  layer  of  the  skin,  pri- 
marily to  protect  the  tip  of  the  digits  in  the 
higher  vertebrates.  Nails  have  retained  this 
function,  while  claws  have  become  specialized 
as  weapons  of  ofl'ense  or  defense,  and  hoofs  are 
specialized  to  protect  the  whole  of  the  terminal 
joint  of  the  digit.  Hoofs  are  usually  tliick, 
lieavy,  and  blunt,  and  are  best  developed  where 
the  number  of  digits  is  reduced;  they  are  char- 
acteristic of  the  great  group  of  herbivorous 
animals  known  as  Ungulata,  and  reach  their 
highest  development  in  the  horse.  Nails  are 
flattened,  usually  thin,  and  more  or  less  rounded 
at  the^  end.  They  are  present  in  some  reptiles, 
in  certain  birds  (as  the  grebes),  and  in  many 
mammals,  especially  the  monkeys  and  man.  Com- 
pare Horn, 

Human  Nail.?.  These  are  the  elastic,  horny 
plates  placed  as  protective  coverings  on  the 
dorsal  surface  of  the  terminal  phalanges  of  the 
fingers  and  toes.  Each  nail  consists  of  a  root, 
or  part  concealed  within  a  fold  of  skin;  a  body, 
or  exposed  part  attached  to  the  surface  of  the 
skin;  and  a  free  anterior  extremity  called  the 
edge.  The  skin  below  the  root  and  body  of 
the  nail  is  termed  the  matrix,  from  its  being  the 
part  from  which  the  nail  is  produced.  This  is 
thick  and  covered  with  highly  vascular  papilla-, 
and  its  color  is  seen  through  the  transparent 
horny  tissue.  Near  tlie  root  the  papilla-  arc 
smaller  and  less  vascular;  hence  the  portion  of 
nail  corresponding  to  this  part  is  of  a  whiter 
color:  from  its  form,  this  portion  is  termed 
the    lunula.     The    chemical    composition    of   the 


NAIL. 


222 


NAILS. 


nails  is  given  in  the  article  Horn.  According 
to  tlie  observation  of  Beau,  tlie  finger-nails  grow 
at  the  rate  of  about  two-fifths  of  a  line  in  a 
week,  while  the  toe-nails  only  grow  with  about 
one-fourth  of  that  rapidity.  The  general  state  of 
liealth  influences  the  growth  of  nails,  and  after 
illness  a  deficient  formation  of  horny  matter 
may  result,  shown  by  the  production  of  a  groove 
across  the  nail.  Tlie  breadth  and  position  of 
this  groove  indicate  roughly  the  period  and 
duration  of  the  illness.  An  infiammation  of  the 
matrix  of  the  nail  is  called  onychia,  and  an 
acute  inflammation  of  the  tissues  about  the  nail 
is  termed  paronychia  or  irhilloic.  When  a  nail 
has  been  removed  by  violence,  or  has  been  thrown 
ofT  in  consequence  of  the  formation  of  matter 
(pus)  beneath  it,  a  new  nail  is  speedily  formed, 
provided  the  matrix  has  not  been  seriously  in- 
jured. 

There  is  a  very  common  and  troublesome  affec- 
tion popularly  known  as  ingroicing  nail.  Its  most 
usual  seat  is  the  great  toe.  It  does  not  in  reality 
arise  from  any  alteration  of  the  nail,  but  from 
the  adjacent  soft  parts  being  constantly  pressed 
by  the  use  of  tight  .shoes  against  its  edge.  These 
parts  become  swollen  and  inflamed ;  suppuration 
ensues,  and  an  intensely  sensitive  ulcer  is  formed, 
in  which  the  nail  is  imbedded.  In  obstinate 
cases,  it  is  not  infrequenth'  necessary  to  re- 
move a  portion  of  the  nail,  an  operation  which 
may  be  done  under  local  anaesthesia  without 
pain. 

NAILS.  Slender  jjieces  of  metal,  tapering  to- 
ward and  sometimes  pointed  at  one  end.  and 
with  fiattened  or  rounded  heads.  Nails  are  made 
of  many  different  materials,  as  copper,  zinc, 
brass,  iron,  or  steel,  but  the  bulk  of  the  nails 
in  ordinary  use  are  made  of  steel  wire.  Iron 
nails,  in  turn,  may  be  either  wrought,  cut,  or 
cast,  or  nuule  from  wire. 

Until  almost  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century 
all  nails  were  hand-made.  In  France  for  nearly 
a  century  light  nails  fcir  carpenter  work  have 
been  made  of  wire,  but  \intil  IS.iO  they  were 
made  by  hand  with  a  hammer.  The  hand-nnide 
nail  was  pinched  in  a  vise,  with  a  portion 
projecting.  A  few  blows  of  a  hammer  flattened 
one  end  into  a  head.  The  head  was  beaten  into 
a  counter  sunk  in  the  vise,  thus  reg\ilating  its 
size  and  shape.  In  Northern  Europe.  Britain, 
and  America  nails  were  made,  at  first,  by  forging 
on  an  anvil.  The  iron  used  for  hand  nail-mak- 
ing was  first  formed  info  nail-rods,  which  were 
sold  in  bundles.  The  nail-rods  were  prepared 
either  by  rolling  the  niallcal)le  iron  into  small 
bars  of  the  required  thickness  or  by  the  nuich 
more  common  practice  of  cutting  plate  iron  into 
strips  by  means  of  rolling-shears.  In  colonial 
days  the  making  of  nails  from  these  rods  was 
a  household  industry  among  the  New  England 
farmers. 

To  America  belongs  the  distinction  of  having 
first  made  cut  nails  by  machinery,  and  with  the 
advent  of  machine-cut  nails  the  household  in- 
dustry of  nail-making  rapidly  declined.  Of  these 
early  inventions,  the  only  one  that  has  survived 
is  that  patented  in  1780  by  E/.ekiel  Reed,  of 
Bridgewnter,  Mass.  At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century  twenty-three  patents  for  nail  7nachines, 
or  improvements  thereto,  had  been  granted  in 
the  I'nitcil  States,  and  their  use  bad  been  gen- 
erally introduced  into  England,  where  they  were 


received  with  enthusiasm.  In  1883  cut  nails 
were  first  made  of  steel. 

The  manufacture  of  tacks  was  also  a  house- 
hold industry  in  New  England  till  well  into 
the  nineteenth  century.  The  wire  was  [lointed 
on  a  small  anvil;  it  was  then  placed  in  a  vise, 
worked  by  the  foot,  which  clutched  it  between 
jaws  furnished  with  a  gauge  to  regulate  the 
length.  A  certain  portion  was  left  projecting, 
which  was  beaten  by  a  bannner  into  a  fiat  head. 
New  England,  and  particularly  the  city  of  Taun- 
ton, Mass.,  is  now  the  centre  of  the  tack-making 
industry  in  the  United  States. 

Wire  nails  were  first  made  in  the  United  States 
by  William  Hersel,  of  New  York,  in  18.t1  or 
IS52.  In  1875  Father  Goebel,  a  Catholic  i)riest, 
came  to  Covington,  Ky.,  from  Germany,  where 
the  art  of  making  wire  nails  was  practiced. 
Goebel  began  the  manufacture  of  wire  nails  at 
Covington,  and  in  1876  the  American  Wire  and 
Screw  Nail  Company  was  established  under  his 
leadership.  At  first  the  nails  were  made  by 
hand,  hut  soon  a  French  machine  was  imported. 
In  this  machine  the  nails  were  held  in  dies  to 
form  the  head.  The  blow  of  the  hammer  which 
produced  the  bead  was  caused  by  a  board  or 
single  leaf  spring  suspended  from  a  ceiling, 
against  which  the  machine,  in  rotating,  pushed 
a  cam.  The  release  of  the  latter  produced  the 
blow. 

For  a  time  the  wire  nails  were  made  with 
barbs,  that  they  might  hold  more  securely,  and 
the  new  industry  grew  but  slowly.  In  1876,  at 
the  Centennial  Exhibition,  the  company  received 
a  silver  medal  over  French  and  German  com- 
petitors. This  called  the  attention  of  the  trade 
to  the  article,  and  two  other  firms  at  once  took 
up  its  manufacture.  By  188.T  there  were  twenty- 
six  films  in  the  business,  and  the  wire  nail 
had  been  adopted  by  many  manufacturers.  Since 
then  their  use  has  rapidly  increased. 

Two  types  of  wire-nail  machines  are  described 
in  Smith's  Treatise  on  Wire.  (See  Bihliography 
at  end  of  article.)  In  one  type  '•The  wire  ia 
automatically  straightened  from  the  coil  and  fed 
into  the  machine,  where  dies  grip  it,  while  a 
pair  of  nipjiers  cuts  the  wire  off  in  suitable 
lengths,  when  it  is  automatically  pointed  and 
headed.  The  latter  operation  is  effected  by  means 
of  the  spring-bolt  mechanism  operated  by  a  cam 
of  the  main  shaft  and  remaining  inoperative 
until  a  sulTicient  length  of  wire  has  been  fed  to 
the  machine  for  the  next  nail.  The  cutting  and 
pointing  are  performed  in  one  operation."  In 
the  second  type,  the  heads  are  formed  by  steady 
pressure  instead  of  intermittent  striking. 

The  older  process  of  making  cut  nails  is,  in 
general,  as  follows:  The  ore,  whether  hematite 
or  magnetic,  is  smelted  in  a  blastfurnace,  run 
into  pigs,  puddled,  squeezed,  and.  if  need  be, 
hanunereil,  rolh'd  in  the  ]>uil(llinj,'-ball  train,  and 
cut  to  lengths.  These  are  then  faf;(iled — that  is, 
l)iled  so  as  to  break  joints — reheated  to  a  white 
heat,  drawn,  passed  through  the  nail-plate  train, 
and  the  sheets,  of  the  required  width  and  thick- 
ness, allowed  to  cool.  It  is  next  cut  across  its 
length  (the  width  of  the  sheet  being  usually 
about  a  foot)  into  strips  which  are  a  little  wider 
than  the  length  of  the  reipiircd  nail.  These 
plates,  beateil  by  being  set  on  ed;jre  o!\  h'lt  coals, 
are  seized  in  a  clamp  and  fed  to  the  machine,  end 
first.     The    pieces    cut    out    are    alternate,    and. 


1 


NAILS. 


323 


NAIRS. 


slightly  tapering,  of  course,  with  the  fibre,  and 
are  .squeezed  and  headed  up  by  tlie  machine 
before  jxoing  into  the  trough. 

In  1807  the  wire  nails  produced  in  the  United 
States  amounted  to  8,007,24.5  kegs  of  100  pounds 
each.  The  output  of  cut  nails  for  the  same  year 
was  2.106,790  kegs.  American  wire  nails  are 
largely  exported  to  Europe  and  to  other  parts  of 
the  world.  In  1898  ther  total  number  of  eut-nail 
and  cut-spike  works  in  the  United  States  was 
55;  the  total  number  of  wire-nail  works  was  79. 

The  accompanying  table  shows  the  export  of 
nails  from  the  United  States  for  the  past  decade. 


Oujarati  I.aruth,  chut'n.  Distinctive  marks  of 
Naipali  are  the  occasional  asjiiration  of  medial 
consonants  (e.g.  ayhi,  'before,'  Hindi  age, 
Prakrit  agg<'.  Skt.  agre),  softening  of  initial 
surds  (e.g.  Naipali  guranu  "to  make.'  Hindi 
lama,  Skt.  kar) ,  and  the  use  of  an  agential 
case  as  the  active  subject  of  a  passive  voice  (a 
curious  phenomenon  widespread  in  the  modern 
Indo-Iranian  languages),  in  -le  corresponding  to 
the  Hindi  -«e  (e.g.  Naipali  diitle,  '[by  the] 
milk,'  Hindi  dudhnP) .  The  language  has  a  num- 
ber, possibly  one-fifth,  of  loan-words  from  its 
Tibeto-Burman    neighbors,    but    has    maintained 


Nails  Exported  from  the  Uniteu  States 
(From  the  Statistical  Abstract  for  1000.  iircparcil  by  tlif'  Bureau  of  Statistics,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary 

of  the  Treasury) 


YEAR 

Cut 

Wire,  wrought,  liorse- 

shue,  and  ail  utiier, 

including  taclis 

Wire 

All  other,  including 
ta£kB 

1891 

Pounds 

11,723,727 

12,197,669 

15,604,347 

16,736,643 

16,895,428 

20,730,260 

26,476,585 

32,310,399 

32,869,265 

24.915,866 

Value 
$283,839 
273,191 
330,554 
330,118 
283,646 
428,630 
519,471 
612,234 
604.215 
647.711 

Pounds 
1,768,433 
2,056,267 
2.300,501 
3,233,776 
4,367,267 
8,031,297 
9,941,714 

Value 
$136,858 
160,239 
158,093 
180.607 
210.192 
321.055 
357.541 

Pounds 

22,894,099 
51,193,212 
84,635.468 

Value 

$458,787 

973.434 

2,124,528 

Pounds 

4,308,082 
4,619,843 
4,341,249 

Value 

1893 

1894 

1895 

]S9«i                      

1897 

J89S                         

$245  722 

1899 

285.427 

1900 

278  709 

Consult:  Swank.  Bistorii  and  Manxfactiirc  of 
Iron  ill  All  Ages  (Philadelphia,  1802)  :  Smith, 
Trcalise  on  Wire,  Its  Manufacture  and  Uses 
(London  and  New  York,  1801). 

NAIN",  na'in  (Gk.  Noiv).  A  town  in  Galilee, 
mentioned  in  Luke  vii.  11-17  as  the  scene  of 
Jesus'  miracle  of  raising  a  widow's  son  from 
death.  The  site  is  now  occupied  by  a  miserable 
mud  village  (modern  name  ya'in),  but  ruins 
near  by  show  that  once  a  city  of  some  size 
existed  on  the  spot.  Tlie  situation  on  the  slopes 
of  'Little  Hemion,'  about  six  miles  southeast  of 
Nazareth,  is  beautiful,  commanding  a  view  of 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  Mount  Carmel  to  the 
southwest.  Jlount  Hermon  to  the  northeast,  and 
of  the  varied  landscape  of  Central  CJalilee. 

NAIN  SING  (  ?-1882).  A  Hindu  explorer  in 
Central  Asia.  He  was  born  at  Numaon :  was 
trained  by  a  Colonel  Montgomerie  for  exploring 
work,  and  in  1856  and  1857  was  employed  in 
Kashmir  and  Ladak  by  the  Schlagintweits.  His 
journey  to  Lhasa  (1865-66)  was  rewarded  by  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society;  in  1867  he  explored 
the  gold  mines  of  Thok  .Jalung,  and  he  went  with 
Sir  Douglas  Forsyth  to  Yarkand  in  1873.  His 
most  important  journey  was  from  Leh  across  the 
unexplored  plateau  of  Tibet  in  1874-75,  marking 
its  manv  lakes,  to  Lhasa,  and  thence  to  Calcutta. 
For  a  description,  with  map,  of  this  expedition, 
consult  the  (ieographical  Magazine  of  1870. 

NAIPALI  (ni-pa'le)  LANGUAGE.  The  In- 
dian language  spoken  in  Nepal.  This  dialect  ap- 
proaches in  general  structure  more  closely  to 
Hindi  than  to  any  other  of  the  modern  Indian 
vernaculars.  Thus,  as  examples  sliowing  the 
affinity  of  Naipali  to  the  New  Indian  dialects, 
may  be  cited  Naipali  pdk,  'ripe.'  Bengali  pfiha, 
Hindi  pnkka.  Sindhi  pakfi  (Skt.  Pakra)  ;  Naipali 
maliaiiigo,  'costly.'  Hindi  inahningd  (Skt.  iiiahar- 
ghn)  :  Naipali  'lli'ilo.  'loose.'  Hindi  dliila  iSkt. 
iithila)  ;  Naipali  diit,  'milk,'  Hindi  duilh.  Pan- 
jahi  dudd  (Skt.  diiqdha).  In  inflection  also 
there  are  parallels,  as  Naipali  gar  chum,  'I  do,' 


itself  on  the  whole  with  considerable  purity.  It 
has  a  very  scanty  literature  written  in  the 
Devanagari  character. 

Consult:  Turnbull.  'Nepali  (Irainmar,  and  Eng- 
lish-Nepali and  Nepali- English  Vocabulary 
(Darjiling,  1888)  ;  Hoernle,  Comparative  Gram- 
mar of  tlie  Uaudian  Languages   (London,  1880). 

NAIRN,  narn.  The  capital  of  Nairnshire, 
Scotland,  a  royal  and  Parliamentary  burgh.  15 
miles  northeast  of  Inverness,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Nairn  (Map:  Scotland,  E  2).  It  is  noted 
for  the  excellence  of  its  sea-bathing  and  artificial 
baths.  It  manufactures  rope  and  twine.  Popu- 
lation, in  1801,  4500;  in  1901,  5100. 

NAIRNE,  narn,  Carolina  (Oliphaxt)  (1766- 
1845),  Baroness.  A  Scotch  song-writer,  born  at 
Gask.  Perthshire.  In  1806  she  married  her 
second  cousin.  JIajor  William  Murray  Nairne 
(afterwards  sixth  Lord  Nairne)  ;  lived  in  Edin- 
burgh till  her  husband's  death  (1829);  after- 
wards in  Ireland  and  on  the  Continent ;  and 
returned  to  CJask,  where  she  died.  Between  1821 
and  1824  she  contributed  songs  to  The  Scottish 
Minstrel  of  R.  A.  Smith.  .As  a  song-writer,  she 
is  highly  esteemed.  Particularly  beautiful  are 
"Land  o'  the  Leal,"  "Caller  Herrin',"  "The  Laird 
o'  Cockpen."  and  "The  Auld  House."  Consult: 
Rogers,  Life  and  f<ongs  of  Lady  Nairne  (Edin- 
burgh, 1860)  ;  Kington  Oliphant,  Jacobite  Lairds 
(Grampian  Club.  1870). 

NAIRN'SHIRE.  A  county  in  the  northeast 
division  of  Scotland,  bounded  by  the  Moray 
Firth  and  the  counties  of  Inverness  and  JIo- 
ray  (Map:  Scotland,  E  2).  Its  area  is  195 
square  miles,  of  which  about  26.000  acres  are 
under  cultivation.  There  is  considerable  agri- 
cultural activity,  and  the  county  is  known  for  its 
cattle-breeding.  Nairn  is  the  only  town  of  im- 
portance. Population,  in  1801,  8300;  in  1851, 
10,000:   in  1891,  91.55;  in  1001,  0300. 

NAIRS,  n,a'*rz.  The  inhabitants  of  Malabar, 
in    Southwestern   Hindustan,     They  are  a  con- 


NAIKS. 


224 


NALA. 


glomerate  of  different  tastes  and  tribes,  and  in 
many  cases  contrast  sharply  with  tlie  IJravidian-; 
by  their  fine  type,  their  light  eoniplexion.  and 
their  thin  and  prominent  nose.  They  seem  to  liave 
some  linguistic  and  somatological  atlinitics  with 
the  Indo-Aryans.  They  are  probably  a  mixed 
race  of  Aryans  and  Jlalayalas.  By  all  writers 
they  are  described  as  a  tall  people,  i)repossessing 
in  their  physical  characteristics  and  their  gen- 
eral bearing,  and  gracious  in  manner.  Many  of 
the  women  are  quite  pretty.  The  history  of  the 
Nairs  begins  with  the  invasion  of  the  ancient 
Hindus  and  the  establishment  of  a  Brahman 
aristoeraey — a  conflict  between  these  privileged 
classes  and  the  democratic  masses  ended  in  vic- 
tory for  the  latter  and  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  prosperity  of  the  Nairs  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
turj-.  Islam  of  a  sort  is  in  vogue,  together  with 
the  older  Hinduism.  Through  all  these  changes 
the  peculiar  marriage  system,  which  has  made 
the  Nairs  of  special  interest  to  ethnologists,  has 
remained  unchanged.  This  system,  often  called 
'the  Nair  family,'  is  polyandry  (often  adclphic) 
with  matriarchal  joint  family,  though  polyandry 
and  polygamj"  may  exist  side  by  side  or  be  inex- 
tricably mixed.  The  wealtliy  tend  to  be  ]V)\y- 
gamous,  the  poor  polyandrous.  Consult :  E.  S. 
Schmidt,  '"Die  Nairs,"  in  Globus,  vol.  Ixviii. 
( Brunswick,  )  895 )  ;  Fawcett,  ''Nayars  of  Mala- 
bar," in  Bulletin  of  the  ^[a4ras  Government  ilii- 
seum,  vol.  iii.   (Madras,  1901). 

NAISSANT,  na'sant  (Fr.,  being  born).  A 
term  ai)plicd  in  heraldic  blazon  to  an  animal  de- 
picted as  coming  forth  out  of  the  middle — not, 
like  issuant,  out  of  the  boundary  line — of  an 
ordinary.    See  Heraldry. 

NA'JA  (from  Hind,  naff,  Skt.  naga,  snake). 
A  genus  of  elapine  venomous  serpents  of  the  trop- 
ical parts  of  the  Old  World,  which  includes  the 
cobras.  The  typical  species  is  the  common 
hooded  cobra  IS'aja  lia-je)  of  Africa,  called 
'asp'  in  the  north  and  'spy-slange'  or  spitting- 
snake  among  the  Dutch  of  South  Africa.  Other 
species  are  the  cobra  di  cajtello  and  hamadryad. 
Sec  C'0BR.\;  Hamadryad;  Pboteroglypha. 

NAJAC,  na'zhak',  Emile,  Count  de  (1828- 
891.  A  I'rench  dramatic  author,  born  at  Lorient 
( JIorl)ihan).  Except  for  a  short  time  spent  in  a 
Government  position,  be  gave  himself  entirely  to 
the  writing  of  farces,  texts  for  operas,  and  vaude- 
villes, sometimes  in  collaboration,  and  sometimes 
alone.  Among  these  are:  Vn  mnri  rn  JoO  (1853)  ; 
La  fille  de  trentc  (ins  (18.19,  with  Scribe);  Le 
capifaine  Bitterlin  (with  About,  ISfiO)  ;  Vn  ma- 
rinffe  de  Paris  (with  About,  18G1):  Xna  ffens 
(with  About,  18011);  lii'hc  (with  llennequin. 
1877)  ;  \ounou  (with  Hennequin,  1879)  ;  Divor- 
(ons  (with  Sardou.  1880)  ;  and  Le  fiacre  111 
(with  Millaud,  1880). 

NAKAMTJRA  MASANOWO,  nii'ka-mml'rii 
mii'sano'wi'i  (  IHJ.i-?).  .\  .lapanese  scholar,  horn 
in  Yedo.  He  went  to  England  in  ISOO  and  re- 
mained Ihere  for  tw'o  years,  returning  home  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution.  Thenceforth 
until  his  death  he  labored  perspveringly  in  the 
interest  of  modern  education.  His  schools  and 
translations  exerted  wide  influence,  and  his  ser- 
vices were  recognized  by  posthumous  honors  con- 
ferred by  the  Emperor. 

NAKED  BAT.  A  large  ^ralayan,  long-tailed, 
rniballonurine   bat    {Chiromeirs   tnrquntus) ,   re- 


markable in  having  tlie  skin  entirely  hairless 
except  for  a  fringe  of  liairs  about  the  neck.  It 
has  a  projecting,  pig-like  snout  and  a  thick  tail. 
It  inhabits  the  forests  of  Java,  Sumatra,  and 
Borneo,  where  it  appears  only  at  night.  Its 
most  curious  feature  is  the  presence  of  a  pouch 
or  pocket  of  skin  on  each  side  of  the  body  under 
the  arms,  which  is  present  in  both  .se.\es,  and 
contains  the  mamnue.  In  this  ))ouch  the  young 
are  carried  while  suckling.  Consult:  Dobson, 
Catalogue  of  Cheiroptera  in  the  British  Museum 
(London.  1878)  ;  Horsfield,  Zoological  Researches 
in  Java   (London.  1828).     See  Plate  of  Bats. 

NAKHITCHEVAN,  n-l'ivc-che-viin'.  A  f<n-- 
mer  town  in  the  Unvernmont  of  Ekaterinoslav, 
Russia,  situated  on  a  hill  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Don,  21/-.  miles  from  Rostov-on-t he-Don,  with 
which  it  is  now  incorporated.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  silk,  woolen,  and  silver  goods,  and  has 
a  considerable  trade  in  jewelry  and  precious 
stones  with  Constantinople,  Turkestan.  Circassia, 
and  Astrakhan.  The  town  was  founded  by  Armc-  , 
nians  from  the  Crimea  in  1779,  and  is  the  see  of 
the  Russian  Greek-Armenian  Patriarch.  Popula- 
tion, in  1897,  29,312,  mostly  Armenians. 

NAKONG  (African  name).  One  of  the  'har- 
nessed' antelopes  of  South-Central  and  East 
Africa,  called  also  'Spekc's  antelope,'  'sititunga,' 
and  Tragclaphus  Spekei.  It  is  peculiar  for  its 
perfectly  uniform  grayish  color  when  mature. 
It  formerly  gathered  in  herds,  atid  was  one  of 
the  most  "highly  prized  of  the  smaller  species. 
See  Plate  of  Gazelles  and  Small  AiNTELOi'ES. 

NAKSHATRA,  nak-shii'tra  (Skt.  nakmtra, 
star,  luminary;  of  doubtful  etymology).  A  San- 
skrit term  used  in  the  Vedic  period  in  the  sense 
of  star.  At  a  later  time  it  was  applied  to  the 
asterisms  lying  in  the  moon's  path,  or  to  the 
mansions  in  which  the  moon  was  supposed  to  rest 
in  its  path.  The  number  of  these  asterisms  was 
reckoned  originally  at  27,  later  at  28;  and 
mythology  transformed  them  into  the  daughters 
of  Daksha,  who  became  tlie  wives  of  the  moon. 
The  French  astronomer  liiot  endeavored  to  show 
that  the  Hindu  system  of  the  Xakshatras  was 
derived  from  the  Chinese  sicn  :  but  this  theory 
won  little  favor.  The  arguments  later  advanced 
warmly  favored  the  Indian  origin  of  the  sys- 
tem of  the  Nakshatras.  Weber  sought  for  Baby- 
lonian inlluence  to  explain  the  Xakshatras  and 
some  sup|)ort  has  been  given  to  this  view.  Con- 
sult Tliiliaut,  "Astronomic.  Astrologie  tmd  Mathe- 
matik,"  in  Biihler,  (Irundriss  dcr  intlo-arischen 
Philologie  (Slrassburg.  1899). 

NAKSKOV,  niiks'kftv.  A  town  of  Denmark, 
situated  on  a  fiord  of  the  west  coast  of  the 
island  of  Laaland  (Map:  Denmark,  K  4).  It  is 
the  terminus  of  the  l.aalaml  Railroad,  and  has 
a  harbor  with  considerable  shipping  and  an 
active  trade  in  grain.     Population,  in  1901.  8317. 

NALA,  nii'lA.  A  legendary  king  of  ancient 
India  whose  domain  was  Nishadha,  apiiareiitly  a 
district  between  the  modern  Oudh  and  Bcrar. 
The  story  of  his  marriage  with  Damayanti.  the 
daughter  of  King  Bhima  of  \'i<larbha  (modern 
Berar).  together  with  the  events  which  fol- 
lowed in  consequence  of  his  passion  for  gam- 
bling, the  loss  of  his  kingdom,  his  desertion  of 
wife  an<l  children,  the  final  reunion  with  them, 
and  the  restoration  of  his  fortunes,  forms  one  of 
the    most    romantic    episodes    of   the    Mahiihhi- 


NALA. 


225 


NAME. 


rata  (q.v.).  This  episode,  entitled  tlie  Xalopd- 
khi/anam,  or  Story  of  Xala,  has  often  Ijeen  sepa- 
rately edited  and  translated;  as  an  edition  of 
the  .Sanskrit  text,  together  with  Dean  Milnian's 
translation,  by  Monier-\\  illianis  (Oxford.  1.S7',))  ; 
a  versified  rendering  by  Sir  Edwin  Arnold,  In- 
dian Idylls  (Boston.  1883)  ;  a  translation  into 
Ciernian  prose  by  Kellner,  Xala  und  Damayanti 
(Leipzig,  188(5),  and  stn-eral  others. 

The  subject  of  Nala's  career  was  a  favorite 
theme  with  the  Hindus.  One  of  these,  the  San- 
skrit Xalodaija,  or  Rise  of  Nala,  describes  in  four 
cantos  the  restoration  of  Nala's  fnvtuncs.  This 
artificial  poem  is  ascribed  to  Kalidasa,  but 
it  probably  belongs  to  a  much  later  age.  It 
is  a  remarkable  specimen  of  the  so-called  Kavya 
style  of  artificial  composition,  abounding  in 
elaborate  metrical  devices,  alliterative  versifica- 
tion, and  intricate  rhythms,  complicated  con- 
structions, and  pedantic  imagery.  It  lias  been 
edited  by  Benary  (Berlin,  1830),"  by  Yates  (Cal- 
cutta, 18441,  and  by  Vidyasagara  (ib.,  1873). 
An  excellent  German  translation,  imitating  the 
artificial  devices  of  the  original,  was  made  by 
von  Schack,  Htimmen  voin  (Iuikjcn  (2d  ed.,  Stutt- 
gart,   1877).     ■ 

To  the  same  Nala  cycle  belongs  the  Xai- 
shadhlya.  or  Naishadha-Caraia,  Adventures  of 
Nala  of  Nishadha,  written  in  twenty -two  cantos 
by  one  Sri-Harsha.  who  belongs  to  the  latter  half 
of  the  twelfth  century  of  our  era.  An  edition  of 
this,  with  tlie  Sanskrit  commentary  of  Narayana, 
was  published  bv  RiJer  (Calcutta,  1855),  and 
Swadatta   (Bombay,  1894). 

NAMANGAN,  nil'miVn-giin'.  A  district  town 
in  the  Territory  of  Ferghana,  Russian  Turkestan, 
situated  on  the  canal  of  Yangi  (fed  by  the 
Narym),  about  45  miles  northwest  of  New  Mar- 
gelan,  the  capital  of  the  territory  (Map:  Asia, 
Centi'al,  Ml).  The  chief  occupations  are  cotton- 
ginning  and  the  manufacturing  of  soap,  leather, 
etc.  The  trade  in  cotton,  fruit,  and  animal  prod- 
ucts is  important.  Population,  in  1897.  01,906, 
including  only  a  few  Russians. 

NAMAQUALAND,  na-ma'kwa-l."ind.  Little. 
A  division  of  Cape  Colony  boi'dering  on  Ger- 
man Southwest  Africa  (Map:  Cape  Colony, 
DO).  It  has  an  area  of  19.154  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  10.800  in  1891.  It  is  im- 
portant on  account  of  its  copper  deposits.  The 
chief  town  is  Port  Nolloth  on  the  coast. 

NAMAYCUSH,  nara'a-kiish  (North  Ameri- 
can Indian  name).  The  lake  or  Mackinaw  trout 
{('liiiKti vomer  nmnni/cus-h) ,  the  largest  of  the 
Salmonida>.  It  is  closely  related  to  the  chars, 
from  which  it  differs  slightly  in  the  character 
of  the  vomerine  teeth.  It  is  a  very  good  food-fish 
and  is  the  second  in  commercial  importance  of 
the  fish  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Extreme  weights  of 
T25  poimds  have  been  reported,  but  the  average  is 
from  15  to  20  pounds.  Its  food  is  fishes  and 
a  great  vai'iety  of  other  things.  The  spawning 
season  is  during  September  and  November.  The 
namaycush  occurs  in  the  Great  Lakes,  and  in 
the  inland  lakes  of  New  York  and  Northern  New 
England,  where  the  local  names  'longe'  and 
'togue'  are  applied  to  it.  It  is  also  found  in  the 
headwaters  of  the  Eraser  and  Columbia  rivers, 
and  the  streams  of  Vancouver  Island.  A  deep- 
w.ater  variety,  called  siscowet  (q.v.),  is  found 
in  Lake  Superior.  Its  flesh  is  fatter  and  less 
desirable  as  food.    See  Salmon  :  Trout  ;  and  con- 


sult authorities  there  cited.     Sec  Plate  of  Tkout 
AXD  C;baylixg. 

NAM  DINH,  niim  den'y'.  A  city  of  Tong- 
king.  Erencii  Indo-China,  situated  40  miles  south- 
east of  Hanoi,  on  the  Tongking  River,  30  miles 
from  the  sea  (Map:  French  Indo-China,  E  2). 
It  lies  in  the  most  fertile  region  of  the  delta,  and 
is  prosperous  and  well  l)uill,  with  broad,  paved 
streets.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  French  resident,  and 
the  intellectual  centre  of  Tongking.  It  is  almost 
as  important  commercially  as  Hanoi,  has  numer- 
ous well-stocked  shops,  regular  boat  .service  on 
the  river,  and  a  brisk  trade  in  rice,  silk,  cotton, 
and  indigo.     Population,  about  30,000. 

NAME  (AS.  llama,  Goth,  namo,  OHG.  naino, 
O'er.  Xante;  connected  with  Lat.  nomeii,  Gk. 
jro/ua,  oiioma,  Ir.  ainm,  OPruss,  emnes,  OChurch 
Slav.  line,  name,  and  with  Lat.  gnoscere,  Gk. 
ytyviiffKeiv,  gigiioskeiii,  Skt.  jna-,  Ger.  kennen, 
Eng.  kiiuie).  In  law,  a  word  or  words  em- 
ployed to  designate  a  person,  place,  or  thing. 
In  earlj'  times  in  England  the  Christian  name 
was  the  only  one  recognized  by  the  law,  and  sur- 
names were  mere  words  of  description  to  identify 
one  person  from  another  of  the  same  Christian 
name.  This  practice  was  confirmed  and  received 
legal  sanction  by  a  statute  (1  Henry  V.,  c.  8), 
called  the  "Statute  of  Additions,"  which  pro- 
vided that  not  only  the  name  of  an  individual 
should  be  inserted  in  a  writ  or  indictment,  but 
ins  estate  or  degree,  his  calling  or  business,  and 
the  town  or  district  in  which  he  resided.  By  rea- 
son of  the  above  custom  and  the  statute,  many 
persons  who  had  not  otherwise  adopted  surname^ 
were  known  bv  the  name  of  their  calling,  place 
of  residence,  or  by  some  other  characteristic.  Thus, 
Cieorge,  the  smith,  became  George  Smith,  and 
John  of  Wessyngton  became  John  Wessyngton 
or  Washington. 

The  middle  name  or  initial  of  a  person  is 
generally  regarded  as  of  no  importance,  and  not 
a  part  of  his  legal  name.  Therefore  the  omis- 
sion of  it  in  a  legal  instrument  or  proceedings 
is  not  considered  an  error,  except  in  a  few 
jurisdictions.  In  general  a  person's  Christian 
name  should  be  written  out,  and  in  some  States 
the  mere  initial  of  the  Christian  name,  together 
with  the  surname,  has  been  held  insufficient 
under  statutes  requiring  the  names  of  persons 
to  be  subscribed  to  certain  instruments,  as  a 
petition  for  a  highway. 

Owing  to  the  almost  infinite  variety  of  sur- 
names and  the  consequent  difficulty  in  spelling 
them  properly,  the  courts  have  adopted  a  rule 
known  as  idem  sonaiis  (the  same  sound),  by 
which  they  determine  whether  or  not  an  incorrect 
spelling  of  a  name  is  a  fatal  error  in  legal  docu- 
ments. Briefly  stated,  the  rule  provides  that 
where  a  name  is  not  correctly  spelled,  if  it 
sounds  identically  like  the  name  intended  to  be 
written,  it  will  be  held  sufiicient,  the  error  in 
spelling  being  disregarded.  Thus  the  surnames 
Preyer.  Prior,  and  Prvor  have  been  lield  to  be 
idem  soiinns.  This  rule  is  followed  as  to  legal 
instruments  and  transactions  generally,  but 
where  a  name  in  an  instrmuent  varies  in  some 
irregular  manner  from  the  common  method  of 
spelling  a  name  identically  the  same  in  pronun- 
ciation, the  necessity  for  departing  from  such  a 
doctrine  is  apparent,  as  in  the  case  of  such  as 
Jaeger  and  Yaeger.  which  may  be  pronounced  so 
as    to    sound    alike,    and    a    person    searching 


■NAME. 


226 


NANCY. 


against  the  name  of  Jaeger  would  iiuturally  not 
find  tile  refold  of  the  eonveyame  under  Vaeger ; 
and  accordingly  the  courts  may  hold  that  the 
public  is  not  bound  by  constructive  notice  in  such 
a  case. 

There  are  statutory  provisions  in  some  juris- 
dictions requiring  the  registration  of  fictitious 
trade  names,  where  persons  adopt  them  and  do 
not  do  business  under  their  correct  names.  Cor- 
porations are  usually  required  to  adopt  names 
which  are  not  identical  with  those  of  other  cor- 
porations in  the  same  State.  At  common  law 
there  is  no  property  right  in  a  name,  but  the 
United  States  Statutes  provide  for  protection  in 
the  use  of  trade  names  to  a  certain  extent,  and 
courts  of  equity  will  sometimes  interfere  to  en- 
join the  wrongful  use  of  the  business  name  of 
another,  to  prevent  fraud.  See  Cognomen;  Mis- 
KOMKii;  Title;  Traue-Name;  Trademark. 

NAMTJR,  na'mur'.  A  province  of  Belgium, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Brabant  and  Liftge,  on 
the  east  by  the  Province  of  Luxemburg,  on  the 
south  by  France,  and  on  the  west  by  Hainault 
(Map:  Belgium.  C  4).  Area,  l:i!tO  square  miles. 
The  province  is  traversed  through  the  centre  by 
the  Jleuse  River.  Its  surface  is  jiartly  level, 
partly  hilly,  and  in  part  densely  forested.  The 
soil  is  very  fertile,  and  agriculture  is  the  chief 
occnpation.  though  a  large  proportion  of  the 
population  is  engaged  in  mining  and  allied  in- 
dustries. About  750,000  tons  of  coal  are  mined 
yearly,  and  the  province  is  rich  in  inm,  lead, 
sulphur,  alum,  and  marble.  Population,  in  inOO, 
346..T12.  Xainur  appears  as  a  county  as  early 
as  the  tenth  century,  and  came  later  successively 
under  the  counts  of  Hainault  and  Flanders,  and 
the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  tinally  constituting  one 
of  the  seventeen  provinces  of  the  Netherlands. 

NAMUK.  The  capital  of  the  Province  of 
Xaiiiiir.  Belgium,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Sanibre  and  Meuse,  35  miles  southeast  of  Brus- 
sels (Map:  Belgium.  C  4).  Two  bridges  across 
the  Meuse  connect  it  with  the  extensive  suburb 
of  Janibcs,  and  several  bridges  span  the  Sanibre, 
connecting  it  with  the  suburb  of  Salzinnes.  An 
extensive  circle  of  nine  detached  forts  has  revived 
its  former  military  importance,  and  there  are 
large  cavalry  barracks  in  the  town.  .Among 
many  fine  churches  is  the  Renaissance  Cathedral 
of  Saint  -Aubin.  built  in  1751-(!~.  and  noted 
for  the  l)eauty  of  its  statues,  carvings,  and  paint- 
ings. The  .Archaeological  Museum  has  a  valuable 
collection  of  Roman  and  Frankish  antiquities, 
and  an  art  gallery  is  attached  to  the  Hotelde- 
Ville.  Namur  is  an  important  industrial  centre, 
with  iron  and  brass  foundries,  and  is  knowii  for 
its  manufactures  of  cutlerj-,  glass,  leather,  and 
bronze  art  objects.  The  city  was  taken  by  the 
forces  of  Louis  XIV.  in  Ifiiti.  and  three  years 
later  was  besieged  and  captured  by  William  ITI. 
It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  17411.  and  restored 
to  Austria  in  1748.  For  a  third  time  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  French  in  1702.  Popula- 
tion, in   mnO.  32.333. 

NANA,  na'nii'.  One  of  the  Rougon-Maequart 
series  of  novels  l>y  Kmile  Zola  (18S0).  It  is  a 
study  of  a  courtesan  in  whom  are  depicted  the 
fruits  of  an  evil  heredity  and  their  reflex  influ- 
ence on  snciity, 

NANAIMO.  na-ni'm'..  A  town  and  port  of 
Vancouver    Island,    British    Columbia,    Canada, 


on  Departure  Bay.  on  tlic  cast  coast  (Maji:  Brit- 
ish Columbia,  K  5).  It  is  opposite  \'ancouver 
town  on  the  mainland,  with  which  it  lias  daily 
steamboat  communication.  It  has  a  safe  and 
commodious  harbor,  and  is  the  centre  of  the  coal- 
mining industry  of  British  Columbia,  its  coal 
fields  having  an  area  of  200  square  miles.  It 
also  has  large  lumber  mills.  The  town  dates 
from  the  erection  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
block-house  in  1833.  It  was  incorporated  in 
1874.  and  has  municipal  gas,  electric  light  iiig. and 
water  works,  telephone  system,  etc.  The  United 
States  is  represented  bv  a  consular  agent.  Popu- 
lation, in  1891.  45i15r  in  1001,  fil30.  Consult 
Bell,  CiiiKidian  Mininij  Manual  (Montreal,  1893). 

NANA  SAHTB,  na'n;i  sii'hlb  (c.lS20-?).  A 
Hindu,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Sepoy  mutiny  of 
1857.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  a 
Brahman  from  the  Decean,  and  his  real  name 
was  Dliundu  Pant.  He  was  born  about  1820,  and 
was  adopted  as  a  son  in  1827  by  Baji  Rao,  the 
childless  ex-]ieshwa  of  Poona,  whose  estate, 
which  amounted  to  more  than  a  million  dollars, 
he  inherited.  He  was  refused,  however,  the 
annual  pension  of  eight  lacs  of  rupees,  or  about 
four  liuiulred  thousand  dollars,  which  had  been 
granted  Baji  Rao  during  his  lifetime.  This 
rankled  in  his  mind,  although  he  was  allowed  to 
retain  some  of  the  state  of  a  native  prince,  a 
retinue  of  200  soldiers,  with  three  field-pieces, 
and  a  fortified  residence  at  Bithur.  10  miles  west 
of  Cawnpore.  He  had  long  maintained  an  agent 
in  England,  .Azim  I'lla  Khan,  who  tol<l  liim  tales 
of  British  weakness.  When,  thercfiire,  the 
nnitinv  broke  out  in  May,  1857.  X^ana  Sahib  of- 
fered to  assist  the  English,  but  trea<'herou.sly 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  mutineers  in 
Cawn]«)re.  The  Eurojiean  troops  were  induced, 
on  .Tune  25th.  to  capitulate  to  Nana  .Sahib,  who 
promised  they  should  be  sent  down  the  f!;inges 
in  safety.  They  embarked  on  boats  provided  for 
them,  but  had  no  sooner  done  .so  than  a  mur- 
derous fire  was  ojiened  upon  them.  The  sepoys 
were  ordered  to  shoot  the  men.  but  to  spare  the 
women  and  children,  who  were  removed  to  a 
house  in  Cawnpore.  On  ,Tuly  15th  Sir  11.  Have- 
lock,  who  hail  advanced  from  Allahabad,  defeated 
the  sepoys  in  two  engagements,  one  within  eight 
miles  of  Cawnpore;  and  Nana  Sahib  thereupon 
directed  that  tlie  women  and  children  should  be 
put  to  death  and  that  their  coqises  should  be 
cast  into  a  well,  which  is  now  marked  with  a 
beautiful  statue  in  their  meniorv.  A  long  series 
of  engagements  against  Xana  Sahib  followed,  in 
■which  he  was  always  the  loser,  and  lie  was  ulti- 
mately driven  lievoiid  the  English  frontier  into 
X"ep:il,  where  he  proli:ibly  jierished  in  the  jungle. 

NAN-CHANG-FTT,  n.-in'chang'fnr/.  'Hie  capi- 
tal of  the  Province  of  Kiang-si,  China,  situated 
at  the  head  of  the  delta  formed  bv  the  Kan-kiang 
at  its  entrance  into  the  Po-yang  lake,  about  175 
miles  southeast  of  Hankow  (Map:  China,  E  0). 
It  is  an  important  centre  of  the  porcelain  trade. 
Population,  estimated  at  100.000, 

NANCY,  naN'.se'.  The  capital  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Meiirt  beet -Moselle,  France,  and  an  im- 
portant railroad  junction.  220  miles  east  of 
Paris,  and  04  miles  west  of  Strassburg.  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Meurthe.  six  miles  above  its 
junction  with  tlie  Moselle  (Map:  France,  X  3). 
It  is  a  stronglv  fortified  and  well-built  citv.  with 
fine  squares,  broad  streets,  and  imposing  edifices. 


NANCY. 


227 


NANKEEN  CLOTH. 


The  city  owes  much  ut  its  architectural  orna- 
nientation  to  Stanislas  Leszczynski,  King  of 
Poland,  who  resided  here  as  Duke  of  Lorraine. 
His  statue  stands  in  the  Place  Stanislas,  the 
most  important  square  in  the  city,  surrounded 
by  imposing  edifices,  including  the  theatre,  the 
liotel-de-Ville,  and  the  Episcopal  Palace. 

The  HOtel-de-Ville,  dating  from  the  seventeenth 
century,  contains  a  fine  ballroom  with  mural 
paintings  by  Girardet.  The  Ducal  Palace  is  an 
attractive  example  of  the  Gothic  style  and  holds 
the  Musee  Lorraine,  a  collection  of  historical  and 
other  antiquities.  The  cathedral  is  a  creation 
of  the  famous  Mansart.  Nancy  has  seven  fine 
triumphal  arches,  the  most  elaborate  one  being 
the  Porte  Ro.yal,  constructed  luider  Louis  X^'. 
Among  other  structures  of  note  are  the  Gothic 
Church  of  Saint  Epvre,  an  ancient  Gothic  castle, 
and  the  Palais  du  Gouvernement,  now  used  for 
military  purposes. 

Nancy  has  a  university  ( see  below ) ,  a  noted 
school  of  forestry  (the  only  one  in  France),  one 
of  the  two  French  hypnotic  schools,  an  important 


under  the  control  of  the  I  ni\crsity  of  France, 
but  with  the  dissolution  of  that  university,  Nancy 
became  autonomous.  In  l'.tU2  the  University  of 
Nancy  consisted  of  the  faculties  of  Law,  Medi- 
cine, Mathematics,  Natural  Science,  and  Philos- 
ophy, and  the  School  of  Pharmacy.  It  also  in- 
cluded the  chemical,  scrothorai)ic,  eleclrotecbnic, 
and  agricultuie  institutes  and  the  "Etudes  Co- 
lonialcs."  The  attendance  in  1002  was  1130. 
The  library  contains  about  38,000  volumes. 

NANDA  DEVI,,  nun'da  da've.  A  peak  of  the 
Himalayas    (q.v.). 

NANDXJ,  nan'doo.  The  Brazilian  name  of  the 
South  American  ostrich.     See  RiiEA. 

NANEK,  n-i'nek.  or  NANAK,  nii'nAk  {1469- 
1538).  Founder  of  the  religi<jus  sect  of  Sikhs 
(q.v.).  He  was  born  at  the  village  of  Talwandy, 
now  called  Nankana,  on  the  bank  of  the  river 
Ravi,  near  Lahore,  India,  and  was  a  Kshatriya 
in  caste.  In  his  youth  he  showed  a  tendency 
toward  mysticism.  He  was  at  first  a  shepherd, 
and  afterwards  became  a  Government  official,  in 
charge   of   the   State's   granary.     He   visited   all 


hospital,  a  seminary,  a  botanic  garden,  and  a  pub-     the  sacred  places  of   India  for  the  purposes  of 


lie  library  of  over  100,000  volumes  and  5000  ilSS. 
Attached  to  the  school  of  forestry  is  a  valuable 
forestry  museum. 

Tlie  situation  of  Nancy  on  the  Eastern  Canal 
and  the  Canal  Marne-au-Rhin  gives  it  a  large 
trade.  Its  principal  manufactures  are  embroi- 
dery, hardware,  boots  and  shoes,  straw  hats, 
woolen  goods,  and  agricultural  implements.  The 
great  breweries  here  are  among  the  most  im- 
portant in  France.  In  art  industries  the  city 
furnishes  many  unique  features  and  varieties. 
Not  a  few  of  the  artistic  specialties  in  furniture 
and  in  printing  in  France  originated  here.  To 
facilitate  tralfie.a  belt  line  railway  has  been  built. 
Population,  in  1891,  78.110;  in  1001.  102,.550. 

Charles  the  Bold  was  overwhelmed  and  slain 
before  the  gates  of  Nancy  in  1477  in  battle 
against  Ren6  of  Lorraine  and  his  Swiss  mer- 
cenaries. Nancy  was  the  seat  of  the  dukes  of 
Lorraine  down  to  1766,  in  which  year  it  came  to 
France.  The  tovm  has  greatly  grown  in  general 
importance  since  the  loss  of  Alsace-Lorraine  by 
France,  large  numbers  of  Alsatians  coming  here 
to  live. 

NANCY,  University  of.  One  of  the  leading 
universities  of  France,  founded  originally  at 
Pont-il-Mousson.  It  had  its  inception  in  the 
papal  bull  of  1572,  issued  at  the  instance  of  the 
Cardinal  of  Lorraine,  and  consisted  at  first  of  two 
faculties :  Theology  and  Arts.  It  was  surrendered 
to  the  Jesuits  to  combat  heresy.  A  law  faculty 
was  added  in  1582  and  a  medical  faculty  in  1598. 
The  L'niversity  maintained  a  steady  growth  and 
in  1608  its  attendance  reached  abotit  2000.  This 
growth  was  checked  by  the  wars  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  In  1768  it  was  removed  to  Nancy 
by  the  order  of  Louis  XV.  During  the  stormy 
days  of  the  French  Revolution  it  went  down  with 
the  rest  of  the  French  universities,  but  was  not 
reorganized  at  the  establishment  of  the  ITniver- 
sity  of  France.  In  1852.  at  the  instance  of  forty 
municipalities  a  rectoratc  was  est.-ihlished.  and 
in  1854  the  faculties  of  Letters  and  Science  were 
organized.  In  1864  the  faculty  of  Law  and  in 
1871  the  faculty  of  Medicine,  consisting  mostly  of 
professors  who  had  come  over  from  Strasshurg 
University,  were  established.  Until  1896  these 
were   knois-n    as    Facultes    de   Nancy    and    were 


formulating  the  religious  system  he  wished  to 
introduce  among  his  neighboring  tribes.  He 
spent  two  years  in  the  town  of  Livanobbhon, 
where  he  associated  himself  with  Kabir,  the 
founder  of  a  monotheistic  sect.  It  was  due 
to  the  influence  of  Kabir,  whom  Nanek  often 
quotes  in  his  book,  that  he  determined  to  found 
a  similar  sect.  Having  previously  made  pil- 
grimages to  Mecca  and  Medina,  he  returned  to 
India,  where  he  compiled  the  great  work  known 
as  the  Adi-Granih.  For  many  years  he  traveled 
widely,  and  proclaimed  ever\^vhere  the  doctrines 
of  his  new  religion.  He  preached  the  abolition 
of  caste,  the  unity  of  God.  and  the  obligation  to 
lead  a  pure  life,  and  soon  had  a  large  follow- 
ing. Upon  his  death,  which  occurred  at  Kirti- 
pur  on  the  Ravi  River,  his  disciple  Lina  (or 
Labona)  assumed  the  leadership  of  the  sect. 
Ten  apostles,  or  'gurus,'  as  they  are  termed, 
are  traced  from  Nanek  down  to  Govind  Sinh  in 
1708.  with  whom  the  succession  stopped. 

NANGASAKI,  nan'ga-sil'ke.  A  seaport  of 
.lapan.     See  Nagasaki. 

NANINI,  na-ne'ne.  Giovanni  IMabia  (c.l540- 
1607).  An  Italian  composer,  born  at  Tivoli. 
He  opened  the  first  public  school  of  music  ever 
controlled  by  an  Italian  nuisician  in  Rome.  The 
famous  Paiestrina  and  a  nephew,  Bernardino, 
were  two  of  his  assistants.  He  succeeded  Paies- 
trina as  maestro  at  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  in 
Rome,  and  in  1577  became  a  member  of  the  Papal 
Choir.  Three  years  before  liis  death  he  was 
appointed  maestro  di  cappella  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel.  A  six-part  motet,  Bodic  Nobis  Ca'lorum 
Rex,  composed  by  him,  is  sung  annually  on 
Christmas  morning  in  the  Sistine  Chapel.  Some 
of  his  most  important  works  remain  in  MS.  and 
are  the  private  property  of  the  Sistiiie  Chapel 
and  the  Vatican  Library.  His  printed  works 
include  motets,  madrigals,  canzonets,  and  church 
pieces,  most  of  which  examples  are  regarded 
as  representing  the  best  of  the  Paiestrina  period. 
He  clieil  at  Rome. 

NANKEEN'  CLOTH.  .\  fabric  formerly  im- 
ported extensively  frniii  (^hina.  and  said  to  be 
the  manufacture  of  Nanking:  the  color,  a  yel- 
lowish buff,  being  a  favorite  one.  In  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century  this  material  was  much 


KANKEEN  CLOTH. 


228 


NANTEL. 


used  for  clothing,  especially  for  trousers.  Lately 
nankeen  has  been  largely  superseded  by  ordi- 
nary cotton,  artificially  colored  to  imitate  the 
genuine  fabric. 

NANKINCK  (Chin.,  Southern  Capital.)  The 
capital  <if  the  Province  of  Kiang-su,  China,  and 
seat  111  the  viceroy  for  the  three  provinces  of 
Kiangsu.  Kiang-si,  and  Xganhwei.  It  is  194 
miles  northwest  of  Shanghai,  near  the  Yang-tse 
Kiver.  latitude  32°  40'  N.,  longitude  118"  47'  E. 
(Map:  China,  E  5).  It  was  made  the  capital 
of  the  Empire  and  called  Nanking  in  13(i8,  but 
was  the  capital  only  until  1403.  Its  ollicial 
name,  given  by  the  Manchu  Dynasty,  is  Kiang- 
ning.  It  is  an  ancient  city,  having  been  the  capital 
as  far  back  as  a.d.  317 -.582.  It  has  been  famous  as 
a  literary  centre  and  for  its  fine  arts,  manufac- 
tures, and  monuments.  It  was  captured  by  the 
Tai-pings  in  1853,  who  held  it  for  more  than  a 
year.  They  destroyed  the  beautiful  porcelain 
tower  from  fear  of  its  geomantic  inlluences,  and 
so  injured  the  city  that  it  has  not  yet  recovered 
fully.  The  first  British  treaty  was  signed  in 
Nanking  in  1842.  Its  present  •  importance  in 
part  is  from  its  military  college,  arsenal,  and 
factories  for  the  making  of  war  material.  It  is 
a  centre  of  missionary  activity.  The  climate  is 
exceedingly  unhcalthful.  The  populalimi  is  vari- 
ously estimated  at  from  one-quarter  to  one-third 
of  a  million  inhabitants.  It  was  oin-ned  to  foreign 
trade  in  ISilt),  but  its  commercial  importance  is 
insignificant,  owing  to  the  pro.ximity  of  Chin- 
kiang  (q.v.).  In  the  vicinity  are  the  famous 
Ming  tcimbs. 

NAN'-NING'.  A  treaty  port  of  Southern 
China,  in  the  Province  of  Kwang-si,  situated  at 
the  hejid  of  navigation  on  tlie  Vu-kiang  River, 
320  miles  west  by  south  of  Canton  ( .Map:  China, 
C  0).  It  is  one  of  the  principal  trading  stations 
near  the  southern  frontier,  and  lies  on  the  route 
of  the  proposed  railroad  from  Hanoi  to  Canton. 
Population.  40.000. 

NANNINOSE  (corniptii.n  of  .\merican  In- 
dian miiiKiiiosii!/) ,  or  MANNINOSE,  A  local 
name  in  use  along  the  South  .\tlantic  coast  for 
the  soft  clam   {Mya  aroiaria).     See  Cl.v.m. 

NANSEN",  niin'scn,  Friotjof  (1861  —  ),  A 
Norwegian  Arctic  explorer  and  naturalist,  born 
near  Christiania,  Norway.  Me  was  educated  in 
the  university  of  his  native  city,  and  was  trained 
as  a  zoiilogist.  In  his  twenty-first  year  he  under- 
took a  trip  to  East  Greenland  waters  for  zoiilogi- 
cal  specimens;  the  same  year  he  was  appointed 
curator  in  the  Natural  History  Museum  at  Ber- 
gen. He  became  known  to  the  world  as  the  first 
man  to  cross  the  ice  cap  of  fireenlaml,  an  adven- 
turous journey  from  the  east  to  the  west  coast, 
undertaken  in  1888,  which  he  described  in  two 
volumes.  The  First  Crossinr/  of  nrrnilaiul  ( 1890) . 
He  spent  the  winter  of  188S-S9  among  the  West 
Greenland  natives,  which  resulted  in  a  volume  on 
Eskimo  Life  (1893).  After  his  return  to  Nor- 
way he  was  appointed  curator  in  the  Miiseiun 
of  Comparative  .Vnatomy  at  the  Christiania  I'ni- 
versity.  From  his  twenty-third  year  he  was  con- 
stantly planning  for  the  great  journey  into  the 
polar  regions,  upon  which  he  did  not  embark 
till  nine  years  later.  He  had  unusual  natural 
and  acquired  qualifications  for  the  work,  and 
his  winter  among  the  Eskimos  was  of  inestimable 
value  lo  him  in  his  later  experiences. 

Nanseu  inferred,  partly   from  the  appearance 


in  Greenland  of  a  pair  of  trousers  which  had 
been  left  ujion  the  ice  south  of  Siberia  when  the 
Jeannctte  was  abandoned,  parti}'  from  the  pres- 
ence in  Greenland  of  driftwood  from  Siberia,  and 
partly  from  the  experience  of  other  explorers, 
that  a  sliip  driven  with  the  ice  by  prevailing 
winds  might  drift  from  above  Siberia  across  the 
pole.  The  weight  of  Arctic  authority  did  not 
sujjport  this  plan;  nevertheless,  with  the  as- 
sistance of  the  Government  and  private  citi- 
zens Nansen  built  and  equipped  the  Arctic 
exploring  vessel  I'niin  (Forward),  left  Nor«;iy 
in  1893,  skirted  the  north  coasts  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  put  into  the  polar  pack  ice  near  the  New 
Siberia  Islands  on  September  22,  1893,  and  drifted 
northwest  till  ilarch  14,  1895.  On  that  day, 
with  a  single  companion.  Lieutenant  .lohansen, 
he  left  the  Fram  frozen  in  the  pack  and  started 
toward  the  Pole  with  dog  sledges.  On  .April  7, 
1805,  he  reached  latitude  86°  4'  N.,  within  272 
statute  miles  of  the  North  Pole,  and  184  miles 
nearer  to  it  than  any  man  had  ever  been  liefore 
him.  Further  progress  was  impossible,  and  he 
retreated  to  Franz  Josef  Land,  where  he 
and  .lohansen  spent  the  winter  in  a  snow  hut, 
living  on  Arctic  game.  In  the  spring  they 
started  southward  for  Spitzbergen,  but  fortu- 
nately found  the  winter  camp  of  the  Harms- 
worth  expedition  under  Jackson,  and  returned 
home  on  the  ship  of  that  party  in  the  summer 
of  1896,  Meanwhile  the  From  drifted  around 
to  the  north  of  the  Franz  Josef  Land  Archipelago, 
reaching  the  latitude  of  85°  57',  then  blasted 
her  way  southward  to  open  water,  and  re;iched 
the  coast  of  Europe  within  a  week  of  N:Misen's 
arrival  there.  The  scientific  results  of  the  expe- 
dition were  very  great,  and  were  published  in  a 
series  of  reports.  Nansen  also  wrote  Farlhest 
yorth,  a  popular  description  of  the  expedition. 
His  achievements  were  recognized  by  many  geo- 
graphical societies,  which  conferred  their  higliest 
honors  upon  the  explorer.  He  made  extensive 
lecture  tours  in  Europe  and  the  L'nited  States. 

Nansen  failed  to  find  any  form  of  life  above 
the  84th  parallel.  His  discovery  of  a  wide  sea 
of  oceanic  depth,  north  of  tlie  New  Siberia 
Islands,  overthiew  the  theory  of  the  prevailing 
shallowness  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  He  found  that, 
owing  to  the  jtredominanee  of  water  in  the  far 
North,  the  temperatures  there  were  higher  than 
along  the  nortli  coast  of  Asia,  He  discovered 
no  land  except  a  few  little  islands  near  the 
Asian  coast:  and  the  free  movement  of  the  ice 
masses  driven,  as  Nansen  observed,  by  the  winds 
in  every  direction,  has  led  geographers  to  eon- 
elude  that  there  is  no  large  land  near  the  North 
Pole.    See  Polak  Research. 

NANTEL',  GriLLAi'ME  Alphoxse  (1852  —  ). 
A  Canadian  advocate,  journalist,  and  politician, 
born  at  Saint  .lerome,  Quebec.  lie  was  educated 
at  Sainte  ThfrSse  de  Blainville,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  and  afler  several  years  of  practice  estab- 
lished at  Saint  Ji'-rome  the  colonization  newspaper 
Le  Nord,  whose  publication  he  continued  until 
1887.  From  1887  to  1892  he  was  editor  of  lAi 
Prcsse  at  Montreal,  and  in  1897  established  the 
weekly  journal  l,r  Munih  Cinuiilien.  In  1SS2  he 
was  returned  bv  Terrebonne  to  the  Quebec  Assem- 
bly, and  in  1880,  1890  and  1892  was  reelected  by 
acclamation.  From  1891  to  1890  he  was  Min- 
ister of  Public  Works.  He  became  a  director  of 
the  Great  Northern  Railway  and  of  the  Nor! hern 
Coluuization   Railway,   and   published   in   the   in- 


NANTEL. 


229 


NANTICOKE. 


tercsts  of  colonization  Solre  nord-ouest  provincial 
(1HS8). 

NANTERRE,  niix'tar'.  A  town  of  Fiance 
in  llie  JJeprti'tuieut  of  Seine,  situated  a  few 
niiles  north  of  Paris,  near  Saint  Denis.  Accord- 
ing to  the  tradition,  it  is  the  birthplace  of  Sainte 
Genevi&ve,  the  patron  saint  of  Paris.  Population, 
in  1901,  92U;  of  comm-une,   14,140. 

NANTES,  niiNt.  An  important  seaport  town, 
capital  of  the  Department  of  Loire-lnferieure, 
France,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire, 
at  its  continence  with  the  Erdre  and  the  S6vre- 
Nantaise,  both  navigable  streams  (iMap:  France, 
E  4).  It  is  about  250  miles  by  rail  southwest 
of  Paris.  Besides  railways,  there  is  communica- 
tion with  the  interior  by  steamers  on  the  Loire. 
The  city  is  handsome  and  well  built.  Among  the 
numerous  striking  and  beautiful  buildings,  the 
chief  are  the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Pierre  and  the 
old  castle,  dating  from  938.  The  Bourse  is  a 
modern  building  and  one  of  the  finest  in  France. 
There  are  a  public  library  containing  200,000 
volumes,  a  museum  of  paintings,  a  museum  of 
natural  history,  an  ecclesiastical  college,  several 
learned  societies,  and  three  theatres.  A  very 
beautiful  promenade,  formed  by  the  Cours  Saint 
Pierre  and  the  Cours  Saint  Andre,  extends  from 
the  Erdre  to  the  Loire.  It  is  planted  with  four 
rows  of  trees,  bordered  with  lines  of  palatial 
houses,  and  ornamented  with  statues.  On  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  there  are  six  miles  of 
quayage.  Formerly  vessels  of  200  tons  only 
could  reach  the  port,  vessels  of  greater  burden 
unloading  at  Paimboeuf,  or  Saint-Nazaire,  but 
a  ship  canal  on  the  left  bank  now  admits  large 
sailing  vessels  and  steamers  directly  to  Nantes. 
In  the  manufacture  of  sugar  Nantes  stands  next 
to  Paris  and  Marseilles.  Its  ship-building  in- 
dustry and  its  tobacco  factories  are  also  very 
important.  There  are  also  iron,  copper,  and  lead 
foundries,  oil  and  soap  works,  food-preserving 
establishments,  saw  mills,  and  manufactures  of 
railroad  material,  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
chemicals,  and  cement. 

Nantes,  anciently  Condivincum,  was  founded 
before  the  Roman  conquest.  It  took  its  ])resent 
name  from  that  of  a  Gallic  tribe,  the  Namnetes. 
It  was  the  capital  of  the  Duchy  of  Brittany, 
and  its  history  until  the  fifteenth  century  is  a 
record  of  struggles  with  successive  invaders  in 
defense  of  its  independence.  In  1491  the  duchy 
was  miited  to  France  by  the  marriage  in  the 
castle  of  Anne  of  Brittany  to  Charles  VIII.,  King 
of  France.  The  castle  also  witnessed  the  sign- 
ing of  the  famous  Edict  of  Nantes  (q.v.)  by 
Henry  IV.  in  1598.  From  the  fifteenth  century 
the  commerce  of  the  town  began  to  have  a 
gi'cat  development,  and  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  its  prosperity  increased  on 
account  of  the  slave  trade,  but  in  1700  Nantes 
had  declined  greatly  in  importance.  During  the 
Revolution  it  W'as  the  scene  of  the  noundps  and 
other  atrocities  of  the  infamous  Carrier  (q.v.). 
The  popiilation,  which  showed  a  falling  off  in 
1880  and  in  1890,  in  the  last  decade  advanced 
again,  and  in  1901  Nantes  had  132,990  inhabit- 
ants. Consult  iMaillard,  Nantes  et  le  diparte- 
ment  an  XlXeme  sircle  (Nantes,  1896). 

NANTES.  Edict  of.  The  name  given  to  the 
famous  decree  signed  in  the  city  of  Nantes  by 
Henry  TV.  of  France,  April  13,  1598,  which  se- 
cured to  the  Protestant  portion  of  his  subjects 


partial  freedom  of  religion.  The  document  con- 
sisted of  ninety-two  patent  or  public  articles 
and  fifty-six  secret  or  close  ones,  and  among  its 
chief  provisions  were  the  following:  the  procla- 
mation of  a  full  amnesty ;  the  granting  of  liberty 
of  conscience  to  the  Huguenots;  the  permitting 
to  Huguenot  chiefs  and  noblemen  of  pul)lic 
religious  exercises  attended  1)V  themselves, 
their  families,  and  the  families  of  tlieir  de- 
pendents. In  addition  the  Huguenots  were  to 
be  allowed  to  establish  new  churches,  except  in 
Paris  and  the  surrounding  districts,  and  in  the 
royal  residences ;  and  to  maintain  universities, 
or  theological  colleges,  of  which  the  Huguenots 
had  four,  those  at  Montauban,  Saunuir.  Jiont- 
pellier,  and  Sedan.  Adherents  of  tlu'  reformed 
faith  were  also  to  be  eligible  to  all  civil  oHices 
and  dignities;  bvit  they  were  obliged  outwardly 
to  celebrate  the  festivals  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  to  pay  tithes  to  the  Catholic  priesthood.  In 
each  Parlement  a  chambre  de  lYdit  was  created 
to  take  cognizance  of  all  cases  arising  out  of  the 
act  and  to  supervise  its  working.  Owing  to  the 
difficulties  and  delays  in  registering  the  Edict  of 
Nantes,  it  was  not  published  until  a  year  after  it 
had  been  signed  by  the  King.  It  remained  in 
force  until  revoked  by  Louis  XIV.,  October  22, 
1685.     See  Huguenots. 

NANTEUIL,  niix'te'v',  Rohert  ( 1030-78) .  A 
celebrated  French  engraver,  born  at  Rheims.  He 
studied  in  his  native  city  under  Nicolas  Regnes- 
son.  About  1645  he  went  to  Paris,  and  there 
worked  in  crayon  and  pastel  for  some  time 
before  he  took  up  the  graver  again.  His  plates 
having  come  to  the  King's  notice,  he  was  ap- 
pointed designer  of  the  Cabinet  (1058).  He  is 
credited  with  the  decree  of  1600,  dated  from 
Saint  Jean  de  Luz.  by  whicli  engraving  was 
raised  to  an  equality  with  painting  and  set  apart 
from  the  purely  mechanic  arts.  He  left  about 
three  hundred  plates,  which  include  portraits  of 
many  of  the  celebrities  of  the  time.  Consult 
Duplessis,  Histoire  de  la  gravure  en  France 
(Paris,  1861). 

NAN'TICOKE.  A  former  important  Algon- 
quian  tribe  of  Maryland.  They  were  noted  for 
their  dark  complexion  and  peculiar  customs  and 
ceremonies,  from  which  they  acquired  the  repu- 
tatftin  of  being  a  tribe  of  sorcerers.  Their 
power  was  broken  by  the  Iroquois  in  1678. 
In  1707  they  had  seven  villages,  and  in  1722 
their  principal  village  still  contained  about  one 
hundred  inhabitants  and  was  the  seat  of  an  'em- 
press,' who  ruled  over  all  the  neighboring  Indians. 
The  whole  tribe  then  numbered  about  500.  Soon 
afterwards  they  began  a  gradual  removal  to  the 
Iroquois  country,  and  settled  in  several  villages 
on  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Susquehanna, 
in  southern  New  York,  although  a  portion  of 
them  continued  to  reside  in  their  old  country. 
In  1753  a  part  of  those  on  the  Susquehanna 
became  incorporated  with  the  Iroquois,  but  the 
majority  removed  to  the  Ohio  and  joined  the 
Delaware  tribe,  with  which  they  became  com- 
pletely merged.  There  are  still  several  score  of 
mixed-blood  Nanticoke  in  southern  Delaware. 

NAN'TICOKE.  A  borough  in  Luzerne  Coun- 
ty, Pa.,  eight  miles  west-southwest  of  Wilkes- 
barre;  on  the  Susquehanna  River,  and  on  the 
Pennsylvania,  the  Lackawanna,  and  the  Central 
of  New  Jersey  railroads  (Map:  Pennsylvania, 
E  2).     It  is  chiefly  engaged  in  mining  and  pre- 


NANTICOKE. 


230 


NAPHTALI. 


paring  for  market  antluacite  coal,  but  has  also 
■hosiery  mills,  a  canning  factory,  etc.  Settled 
in  1850-55,  Nanticoke  was  incorporated  in  1874; 
it  is  governed  under  the  charter  of  that  date, 
which  provides  for  a  burgess,  elected  every  three 
years,  and  a  unicameral  council.  Population,  in 
1890,' 10,044;  in  1900,  12,116. 

NANTXTCK'ET.  A  town  and  the  county-seat 
of  Nantucket  County,  ilass.,  co-extensive  with 
Nantucket  Island  and  several  small  outlying 
islands;  GO  miles  southeast  of  Xew  Bedford, 
with  which  it  has  steamboat  communication 
(Map:  ilassachusetts,  G  5).  Xantuckct  is 
widely  noted  as  a  summer  resort,  prcstiiling 
much*  of  picturesque  and  historic  interest.  It 
was  formerly  the  seat  of  a  great  whaling  in- 
dustry, but  at  present  the  community  is  engaged 
principally  in  fishing,  agriculture,  and  the  coast- 
wise trade.  The  town,  including  within  its  cor- 
porate limits  several  villages,  contains  the 
Athenieum  (pidilic  library).  Admiral  Sir  Isaac 
Coffin's  Lancastrian  School,  and  JIuskeget  Park. 
The  government  is  administered  by  town  meet- 
ings.   Population,  in  1890,  3208;  in  1900.  300G. 

In  1G59  the  first  settlers,  headed  by  Tliomas 
Macy,  came  to  the  island  and  settled  at  Madeket, 
the  "present  site  of  Nantucket  not  having  been 
chosen  until  1673.  Consult  Hinchman,  Early 
Settlers  of  ynnlucket.  Their  Associates,  and 
Their  Dcsccitdiiiits    (Philadelphia,  1S9G). 

NANTWICH,  niint'ich.  A  market-town  in 
Cheshire,  England,  on  the  Weaver.  20  miles 
southeast  of  Chester  (Map:  England,  D  3). 
The  parish  church,  one  of  the  finest  country 
churches  in  England,  was  restored  in  18G4.  Nant- 
wich  was  famous  in  former  times  for  its  brine- 
springs  and  salt-works.  Shoes,  gloves,  cotton 
goods,  and  ale  are  manufactured.  The  town  owns 
its  water  supply  and  markets.  Nanlwich  dates 
from  the  Roman  period,  and  was  formerly  called 
Halen  Gwvn — the  white  salt  towTi.  Population, 
in  1891.  7400:  in  1901,  7700. 

NANTYGLO,  mln'tl-glS.  and  BLAINA,  bla'- 
na.  A  town  in  Monmouthshire,  England.  7\-< 
miles  southwest  of  Abergavenny  (Map:  England, 
C  5).  It  has  important  coai-mining  and  iron 
industries.  Population,  in  1891.  12.400;  in  1901, 
13,500. 

NAOGEORG,  nii'6-g-i-org',  Thomas  (ISII- 
63).  .\  ( Airman  Protestant  dramatist,  whose 
name  in  the  vernacular  was  Kirchmej'er.  He  was 
born  at  Hulidschmeiss,  near  Straubing:  possibly 
studied  at  Tiibingen :  and  in  1535  became  pastor. 
His  Latin  poems,  all  animated  by  the  most  bit- 
ter opposition  to  the  Papacy,  include  the  dramas, 
Paminachius  (1538)  ;  Incemlia  sen  Piirfiopolinices 
(1541)  :  Mercator  sen  IiHlicium  (1541)  :  and  the 
satiric  poem  Uvfinum  Papist iriim  (1553).  These 
were  often  rendered  into  fJerman,  and  were  long 
popular,  as  were  his  weaker  biblical  dramas,  77a- 
maniis  (1543):  Bicrcmias  (1551);  and  Judas 
Iscariiilfs   (1551). 

NAOROJI,  nou'rA-ji'.  DAHAnilAt  (1825—). 
The  first  Indian  member  of  tlie  British  House  of 
Commons.  The  son  of  a  I'arsi  priest,  he  was 
bom  at  Bombay,  and  educated  in  the  school  of 
that  city  which  afterwards  became  the  Elphin- 
stone  Institution.  He  was  nppointed  professor 
of  mathematics  and  of  natural  philosophy  there 
in  18.54.  but  after  1855  he  lived  chiefly  in  Eng- 
land. He  was  instrumental  in  founding  the  East 
India  Association  in  18fi7,  and  three  years  after- 


wards he  succeeded  iu  liuviug  certain  positions 
in  the  civil  service  opened  to  native  Indians.  In 
1874  he  was  made  Prime  Minister  to  the  Prince 
of  Baroda.  From  1885  to  1887  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Bombay  Legislature,  and  he  was  president 
of  the  Indian  National  Congress  in  1886  and  iu 
1893.  He  was  a  liberal  member  of  Parliament 
for  Central  Finsbury  in  1892-95,  and  in  1895 
was  appointed  a  member  of  the  royal  commis- 
sion to  incjuire  into  Indian  affairs.  His  publica- 
tions include:  Eiiylund's  Duties  to  India  (1867)  ; 
The  IV(ni(.s-  and  Means  of  India  (1870)  ;  collected 
articles  published  in  1887:  and  Poverty  and  Vn- 
British  Rule  in  India   (1901). 

NA'OS  (6k.  vabi,  Attic  wiis,  from  raUiv, 
nuiein,  to  dwell).  The  central  chamber  of  a 
Greek  or  Grsco-Roman  temple.    See  Cella  ;  Pko- 

KAOS. 

NAPA,  na'pi.  A  city  and  the  county-scat  of 
Napa  Coimty,  Cal.,  4G  miles  northeast  of  San 
Francisco;  on  the  navigable  Napa  River,  and 
on  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  (Map:  Cali- 
fornia, B  2).  It  is  the  seat  of  a  State  Hospital 
for  the  Insane,  and  has  attractions  of  beautiful 
scenery  and  special  features  of  interest  in  Napa 
Soda  Springs,  Napa  Redwoods,  Calistoga  Hot 
Springs,  and  petrified  forests.  The  leading  in- 
dustries are  fruitgrowing  and  the  mauufaclure 
of  tanned  leather,  shoes,  gloves,  and  woolen  goods. 
At  Napa  Junction  there  are  Portland  cement 
works,  the  vicinity  having  extensive  deposits  of 
cement  rock.  Settled  in  1847,  Napa  was  incor- 
porated in  1863.  The  present  government  is  ad- 
ministered under  a  charter  of  1893,  wliich  jiro- 
vides  for  a  mayor,  elected  every  two  years,  and 
a  unicameral  council.  Population,  in  1890,  4395; 
in  1900,  4036. 

NAP'ANEE.  A  town  and  port  of  entry.  Len- 
nox Ciiunty,  Ontario,  Canada,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Nai)ance  River,  on  the  Bay  of  (Juintf-,  23 
miles  west  of  Kingston.  It  has  a  station  on  the 
Grand  Trunk  Railway  and  is  the  terminus  of  the 
Bay  of  Quints  and  Naj)anee  Railway.  It  is  a 
grain-trading  centre  and  the  seat  of  a  United 
States  consular  agent.  Population,  in  1891,  3433; 
in  1901.  3143. 

NAPATA,  nA-pli'fa.  Tlie  ancient  capital  of 
Ethiopia  (q.v.).  mentioned  in  inscriptions  as 
early  as  n.c.  14.50,  and  later  the  scat  of  independ- 
ent "kings.  It  was  rivaled  by  Meroe  (q.v.)  after 
the  Persian  period.  For  the  ruins  of  the  city, 
destroyed  by  Petronius,  see  Barkal. 

NA'PERVILLE.  A  city  in  DuPage  Coinity, 
III..  30  miles  west  of  Chicago;  on  the  DuPage 
River,  and  on  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  IJuiney 
Railroad  (Map:  Illinois,  D  2K  The  city,  chiefly 
a  residential  place,  has  the  Nichols  Library,  and 
is  the  seat  of  Northwestern  College  (Evangelical 
Association),  established  in  1861.  There  are 
quarries,  a  furniture  factory,  and  a  fly-net  fac- 
tory. The  electric- light  plant  is  owned  and 
operated  by  the  municipality.  Naperville  was 
settled  in  1830.  and  was  incorporated  in  1857. 
Population,  in  1890.  2216;  in  1900.  2G29. 

NAPH'TALI.  According  to  Gen.  xxx.  7-S, 
the  fifth  son  of  .Tacob.  and  the  second  born  to  him 
by  Bilhah.  In  the  actual  history  of  the  Hebrew 
Confederation,  the  trilx>  Naphtali  plays  but  ii 
minor  part.  Its  territory  lay  in  the  north,  bor- 
dering on  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  According  to 
.Judges  iv.  C.  Barak  came  from  Kedesh  in  Napli- 


NAPHTALI. 


231 


NAPIER. 


tali,  but  it  is  douljlful  wlu'llier  the  addition 
'Naplitali'  is  correct  here,  though  both  the  chius 
Naphtali  and  Zebulon  were  involved  in  the  strug- 
gle against  tlie  King  of  Hazor.  (8ee  Debokah.) 
Acc(nding  to  Josephus  ( II  firs,  iii.  3,  2)  the 
Xaphtaliles  were  men  of  valor.  Their  dangerous 
position  as  a  border  tribe  made  them  among 
tlie  lirst  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  Assyria  (B.C. 
734;  cf.  II.  Kings  xv.  29).  In  the  religious  de- 
velopment of  Israel  the  tribe  plays  no  part,  but 
in  the  post-exile  period  Tiberias  (q.v.),  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  comes  into 
prominence,  and  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem it  became  one  of  the  centres  of  Jewish 
learning. 

NAPHTHA  (Lat.,  from  Median  Pers.  vi^ida, 
Av.  napUi,  Pers.  nap,  moist;  connected  with  l^at. 
Kciiluiiiis,  ycptiine,  name  of  the  .sea-god).  A 
term  originally  applied  to  an  intlamniable  liquid 
which  exudes  from  the  soil  in  certain  parts  of 
Persia.  Subsequently  the  use  of  the  term  spread 
to  include  some  of  the  more  volatile  oils  found  in 
Europe  and  even  in  America.  The  product  of  the 
oil  fields  of  Southern  Russia  is  usually  called 
naphtha,  although  it  differs  in  no  way  from  the 
ordinary  grades  of  petroleum.  Naphtha  prop- 
erly includes  the  lighter  oils  which  pass  ofl'  first 
in  the  distillation  of  petroleum,  the  gravities 
ranging  from  90  to  02  degrees  iieaume.  Penn- 
sylvania crude  oil  contains  from  8  to  20  per 
cent,  of  naphtha.  In  the  refining  of  such 
naphtha  several  products  are  obtained  by  frac- 
tional distillation,  those  which  pass  oflf  first, 
namel.y  rhigolene  and  cymogene,  are  gases  at 
ordinary  temperatures  and  are  seldom  saved. 
The  next  product  is  known  as  gasoline,  a  ma- 
terial largely  used  in  machines  and  for  illumi- 
nating purposes.  After  this  come  stove  naphtha 
and  gas  naphtha,  the  latter  being  tlie  base  of 
much  of  tlie  illuminating  gas  now  made.  Pe- 
troleum naphtha  is  often  treated  with  chemicals 
to  deodorize  it.  Naphtha  may  also  be  obtained 
in  the  distillation  of  wood  and  coal  tar.  See 
Petboleuii. 

NAPH'THALENE  ( from  miph  tha  +  aJcohol ) , 
C'loHs.  A  crystalline  solid  chemical  compound  of 
carbon  and  hydrogen,  found  abundantly  in  coal- 
tar  (q.v.).  The  crystalline  mass  obtained  from 
this  source  is  pressed,  warmed  with  a  little  strong 
sulphuric  acid,  and  then  distilled  in  a  current  of 
steam  or  subjected  to  a  process  of  sublimation. 
When  thus  obtained  in  the  pure  .state,  naphtha- 
lene melts  at  80°  f.  {176°  F.),  and  boils  at 
218°  C.  (424°  F.).  It  has  a  peculiar  character- 
istic odor,  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  freely  solu- 
ble in  ether  and  in  hot  alcohol.  It  is  largely  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  coloring  substances  and  to 
some  extent  also  as  an  enricher  for  ordinary  il- 
luminating gas.  The  molecule  of  naphthalene  is 
composed  of  two  rings  of  carbon  atoms,  with 
hydrogen  atoms  attached  to  them,  and  its  con- 
stitution is  represented  by  either  of  the  follow- 
ing graphic  formulas: 


H 


HC***   "^C^    "^CH 


I 


H 

C  CH         HC^Qc:^|^CH 

H  H  H  H 


\   number   of   interesting   derivatives   of  this 
hydrocarbon    are    obtained    bv    the    action    on 


naphthalene  of  chlorine,  nitric  acid,  etc.  The 
most  important  derivatives  commercially  arc  the 
so-called  sulphonic  acids.  By  acting  on  naiJhtha- 
lene  with  an  excess  of  sulphuric  acid,  we  obtain 
naphthalene-sulphonic  acid,  CioHjSOjU  -{-  il^O, 
from  which,  by  substitution  processes,  a  large 
number  of  compounds  are  produced,  many  of 
these  finding  employment  in  the  color  and  dye 
industrj-. 

NAPIER,  na'pi-6r.  The  capital  and  chief 
port  of  Ilawke's  Bay  County  and  Provincial  Dis- 
trict, North  Island,  New  Zealand,  on  the  east 
coast  (Map:  New  Zealand,  F  3).  Wool  is  the 
chief  export;  there  are  also  large  exports  of 
timber,  canned  and  frozen  meats.  The  principal 
public  buildings  comprise  an  Anglican  cathedral, 
town  hall,  and  athenieuni.  It  has  railwaj'  com- 
munication with  Wellington  and  New  Plymouth. 
Population,  in  1901,  9015. 

NAPIER,  nap'yer  or  na-per',  Sir  Ciiaklks 
(178G-18G0).  A  British  admiral.  His  father  was 
the  Hon.  Capt.  Charles  Napier,  R.  N.,  second  son 
of  Francis,  fifth  Lord  Napier.  lie  was  born  at 
the  family  seat.  Jlerchiston  Hall,  Stirling,  Scot- 
land. At  thirteen  he  went  to  sea  as  a  naval 
volunteer.  In  1808  be  received  the  command  of 
the  Recruit,  18  guns,  serving  in  the  West  Indies. 
He  became  a  post-captain,  but  being  thrown  out 
of  active  service,  volunteered  in  the  Peninsular 
Army,  and  was  wounded  at  Busaco.  In  1814  he 
was  ordered  to  America,  and  took  an  active  part 
in  the  operations  against  Baltimore.  In  1829  he 
received  the  command  of  the  (lalatea,  a  42-gun 
frigate,  and  was  employed  'on  particular  service' 
on  the  coast  of  Portugal.  He  accepted  the  com- 
mand of  the  fleet  of  Dom  Pedro,  the  father  of  the 
young  Queen,  Maria  da  Gloria,  in  the  struggle 
against  her  uncle,  Dom  Miguel,  and  by  defeating 
the  Miguelite  fleet,  hastened  the  downfall  of 
the  usurper.  He  was  made  admiral-in-ehief  of 
the  Portuguese  navy,  but  soon  returned  to  Eng- 
land. In  the  war  between  the  Porte  and  Jle- 
hemet  Ali,  he  organized  a  land  force,  with  which 
he  stormed  Sidon,  and  defeated  Ibrahim  Pasha 
among  the  heights  of  Jlount  Lebanon.  He  took 
part  in  the  naval  attack  on  Acre.  He  next 
blockaded  Alexandria,  and  concluded  a  conven- 
tion with  Mehemet  Ali.  For  these  services 
he  was  knighted,  and  in  1847  he  received  the 
command  of  the  Channel  Fleet.  When  the 
Russian  War  broke  out,  he  was  sent  out  to 
command  the  Baltic  fleet,  but  had  to  content 
himself  with  a  prudent  and  successful  blockade 
of  the  strongly  fortified  ports,  which  somewhat 
disappointed  public  expectations  of  more  daring 
achievements.  He  twice  sat  in  Parliament,  and, 
until  his  death,  labored  with  success  to  reform 
the  British  naval  administration.  He  was  a 
man  of  great  personal  courage  and  decision  of 
character,  but  selfish,  vainglorious,  and  arrogant. 
These  traits  are  strongly  marked  in  his  works: 
The  War  in  Portugal  (1836)  ;  The  War  in  Syria 
(1842)  ;  The  Karii:  Its  Past  and  Present  State 
(1851).  Partiality  marks  the  biography  by  his 
stepson  Gen.  Elers  Napier,  The  Life  and  Cnrre- 
spoiidcnce  of  Admiral  Sir  Charles  Napier  (Lon- 
don. 1862). 

NAPIER,  Sir  Charles  JAsrE.s  (1782-18.53). 
A  celebrated  British  general,  son  of  Col.  George 
Napier.  He  was  born  at  Whitehall,  August  10, 
1782.  and  in  his  twelfth  year  received  a  commis- 
sion in  the  Thirty-third  Infantry.    His  first  mili- 


NAPIER. 


232 


NAPIER. 


tary  experience  was  in  Ireland  in  ll'JS.  His  next 
active  service  was  in  Spain  during  tlie  Napoleonic 
wars,  and  lie  commanded  the  I'ifticth  Infantry 
at  Corufia,  where  he  was  wounded  and  taken 
prisoner.  Marshal  Ney  dismissed  him  on  parole, 
and  he  went  to  England,  but  returned  in  1810  to 
the  Peninsula  after  having  been  exchanged.  At 
Coa  he  fought  as  a  volunteer  and  had  two  horses 
killed  under  him.  At  Busaco  a  shot  in  the  face 
broke  his  jaw  and  injured  an  eye:  but  he  re- 
covered in  time  to  be  present  at  the  battle  of 
Fuentes  de  OQoro  and  the  second  siege  of  Bada- 
joz,  both  in  1811.  In  the  smnmer  of  1813  he  was 
with  the  fleet  under  Beckwitli.  and  afterwards 
under  Coekbnrn,  engaged  in  desultory  operations 
on  the  coast  of  the  United  States.  In  1815  he 
took  part  in  the  storming  of  Cambrai,  and 
marched  into  Paris  with  the  allied  armies.  From 
1822  to  1830  he  was  Resident  (Governor)  of 
Cephalonia,  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  the  af- 
fairs of  which  he  administered  with  great  energy 
and  intelligence.  In  1841  he  was  ordered  to 
India  to  take  command  of  the  army  at  Bombay. 
The  most  splendid  service  of  his  life  now  began, 
and  resulted  in  the  conquest  of  Siiidh  against 
great  odds.  In  the  battle  of  Miani,  1843.  Napier 
with  about  2000  troo|)s  attacked  a  strongly 
posted  native  force  ten  times  as  great,  and  de- 
feated it,  killing  more  than  6000  men.  There- 
upon all  the  ameers  surrendered  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Shir  Muhammed,  who  brought  2.5,000 
men  into  line  of  battle  at  Hyderabad.  In  three 
hours  Napier's  little  army  of  5000  men  gained 
a  decisive  victory,  and  a  few  days  afterwards 
the  English  general  was  master  of  Sindh.  The 
Governor-tieneral,  Lord  Ellenborough,  made 
him  (idvernor  of  the  conquered  territory,  but 
though  his  administration  was  very  successful, 
as  were  also  various  campaigns  against  the  hill 
tribes,  Napier  retired  in  1847.  after  liaving  quar- 
reled with  the  directors  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. During  the  Sikh  war  of  1848-4!)  he  again 
went  to  India,  but  arrived  too  late  to  take  part 
in  the  conflict.  After  having  put  down  a  mutiny 
among  the  native  soldiers,  lie  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  1850.  having  had  another  quarrel  with  the 
directors.  He  retired  to  the  liainpshire  Downs, 
near  Portsmouth,  busying  himself  with  literary 
labors.  There  he  died  on  August  20,  1853. 
Napier  was  a  man  brave  to  rashness,  quarrel- 
some with  his  superiors,  but  beloved  by  his 
soldiers,  and  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the 
military  men  of  his  time.  Consult :  Bruce,  Life 
of  Oencral  .S'l'i*  Charles  yapicr  (London,  1885)  : 
Butler,  .S'ir  Charles  Sapier  (ib.,  18(10).  His 
brother.  Sir  William  Francis  Patrick  Napier 
(q.v.),  has  also  written  of  him. 

NAPIER,  Sir  Francis  (1810-98).  An  Eng- 
lish dipioniat,  born  at  Thirlestane.  in  Selkirk- 
shire. He  entered  the  diplomatic  service  in 
1840,  was  attache  at  Vienna  and  at  Constanti- 
nople, secretary  of  legation  at  Naples,  envoy 
to  Washington  and  The  Hague,  and  ambassador 
to  Saint  Petersburg  (ISdO-d-li  and  to  Berlin 
(1864-66).  From  Berlin  he  was  transferred  to 
India  as  Governor  of  Ma<lras,  and  there  labored 
incessantly  and  wisely,  especially  in  tiehalf  of 
public  health  <luring  the  famine  in  Ganjam.  In 
1872.  after  serving  temporarily  as  GnvernorGen- 
cral  of  Inilia,  he  returned  to  Kngland  and  was 
created  Baron  Ettrick  of  Ettrick. 


NAPIER,  John  ( 15501617).  A  Scotch  mathe- 
malieian,  born  at  Mcrchiston,  near  Edinburgh. 
He  was  educated  at  Saint  Andrews  and  probably 
also  abroad.  His  natural  pugnacity  of  character 
often  involved  him  in  difficulties  with  his  neigh- 
bors and  tenants.  In  1594  he  published  his 
Platne  Discofpri/  of  the  Whole  Revelation  of 
Saint  John  (2d  ed.,  London,  1611),  in  which  he 
sought  to  prove  that  the  Pope  was  Antichrist. 
In  somewhat  the  same  spirit,  ostensibly  to  defend 
his  country  from  "the  enemies  of  God  and  true 
religion,"  he  made  some  secret  inventions,  includ- 
ing burning-mirrors,  a  piece  of  artillery,  and  a 
chariot  of  metal,  none  of  which  had  any  more 
merit  than  his  theological  contributions.  Napier's 
fame  rests  on  his  mathematical  discoveries,  and  he 
is  chiefly  known  as  the  inventor  of  logarithms 
(q.v.).  In  his  earlier  investigations  he  seema 
to  have  been  considering  the  subject  of  imaginary 
roots,  and  he  refers  to  this  as  an  important 
algebraic  secret.  The  idea  of  logarithms  seems 
to  have  occurred  to  him  as  early  as  1504,  and 
thenceforward  the  rest  of  his  life  was  sjient  in 
developing  the  idea  and  computing  logarithmic 
tables.  He  also  invented  some  mechanical  de- 
vices for  computation  known  as  'Napier's  rods.' 
(See  CALCUL.VTIXG  ilAciii.XES.)  By  means  of 
these,  multiplication  and  division  can  be  per- 
formed, and  square  and  cube  roots  extracted.  He 
was  also  the  inventor  of  a  number  of  formulas  in 
trigonometry,  known  as  'Napier's  circular  ])arts.' 
(See  CircvLak  Parts.)  Napier  was  one  of  the 
first  English  writers  to  make  any  valuable  contri- 
bution to  mathematics,  and  his  discoveries  niark 
an  epocli  in  the  history  of  science.  His  chief  writ- 
ings arc:  Dc  Arte  Logislica  (written  in  1573, 
published  in  1839)  ;  Mirifici  Logarilhmorum 
Canonis  Descripiio  (1614  and  subsequent  edi- 
tions; Eng.  trans.,  1616  and  1857);  Mirifici 
Logarithmorum  Canonis  Constritetio  (1619:  Eng. 
trans.  1889)  ;  liahdologiir  seu  yiimcrationif:  per 
Virgiilas  Librl  Duo  (1617).  Consult:  JIark 
Napier,  Memoirs  of  Xapier  (Edinburgh,  1793)  ; 
Earl  of  Buchan,  Life  of  Xapier  (ib.,  1787).  A 
complete  edition  of  Napier's  works  apjieared  in 
Edinburgh  in  1839.  A  bibliography  of  Napier's 
works,  by  Macdonald.  may  be  found  in  the  Eng- 
lish translation  of  the  Miri/icl  Logarithmorum 
Canonis  Constritetio  mentioned  above. 

NAPIER,  Robert  (1791-1876).  A  Scotch 
marine  engineer,  born  at  Dumbarton.  He  was 
for  a  time  apprenticed  to  his  father,  a  blacksmith, 
and  afterwards  went  to  Glasgow,  where  in  1815, 
after  working  for  Robert  Stcvenscm.  he  set  up  a 
smithy,  with  two  apprentices.  In  1823  he  built 
his  first  marine  engine.  In  1830  he  supplied 
engines  for  the  Glasgow  Steam-Packet  Company, 
and  ten  years  later  he  supplied  the  Cunard  Com- 
pany with  engines  for  their  first  four  .steamers. 
He  added  shipbuilding  to  the  construction  of 
engines  in  1841.  and  built  more  than  300  vessels 
for  the  Government,  and  the  larger  companies. 

NAPIER,  RoREBT  CoRXEUs,  Lord  Napier  of 
IMag.lala  (1810-90).  A  British  soldier,  born  at 
Colombo.  Ceylon.  He  studied  at  the  East  India 
Company's  military  college  at  Addiscombe.  and 
at  the  royal  engineering  school  at  Chatham,  and 
from  1828  to  1845  was  chiefly  employed  on  the 
public  works.  In  the  latter  year,  however,  he  par- 
ticipated in  several  liaftles  of  the  First  ."^ikh  War. 
During  the  Second  Sikh  War  (1848-49)  he  again 
saw  active  service,  and  at  its  close  was  appointed 


NAPIEK. 


233 


NAPLES. 


civil  engineer  to  the  board  of  administration  of 
the  I'unjal),  in  which  capacity  he  iuau^airatcd 
and  partly  carried  out  a  comprehensive  scheme 
of  public  improvements.  During  tlie  summer  and 
fall  of  18o7,  at  the  time  of  the  Mutiny,  Napier 
distinjruished  himself  in  the  movements  which 
resulted  in  the  relief  of  Lucknow.  Later  he 
nl>o  planned  the  recapture  of  that  place.  In  June, 
1858,  he  cooperated  witli  Sir  Hugh  Rose  in  the 
lattcr's  operations  against  the  insurgent  forces 
under  Tantia  Topi  and  the  Ranee  of  Jhansi ;  and 
on  the  29th,  after  Sir  Hugh's  departure,  he  took 
the  chief  command  in  Central  India.  In  August 
he  coiiperated  with  Brigadier-General  Smith  in 
the  capture  of  Paori ;  in  December,  with  slight 
loss  to  himself,  destroyed  Ferozeshah's  army 
and  in  April,  1859,  captured  Raja  Man  Singh  of 
Narwar  and  Tantia  Topi.  Subsequently  he  was 
appointed  military  member  of  the  council  of  the 
Governor-General  and  aided  in  the  amalgamation 
of  the  national  army  and  that  of  the  East  India 
Company.  Lord  Elgin's  (q.v. )  sudden  death 
left  him  Acting  Governor-General  for  a  short 
time.  In  18C8  he  commanded  the  English  ex- 
pedition sent  to  Abyssinia  and  stormed  the  royal 
stronghold  of  Magdala.  On  his  arrival  in 
England  Queen  Victoria  created  him  Baron  of 
Magdala.  The  next  year  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief in  India.  Six  years  later  he 
returned  to  Europe,  and  in  1883  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  field-marshal.  Consult  Markham, 
Bisiory  of  the  Abyssinian  Expedition  (London, 
1809).  and  Escott,  Pillars  of  the  Empire  (Lon- 
don, 1879). 

NAPIER,  Sir  William  Frakcis  Patrick 
(1785-1800).  An  English  general  and  historian, 
born  at  Celbridge,  Kildare,  Ireland,  December  17, 
1785.  He  was  a  brother  of  Sir  Charles  .James 
Xapicr.  the  conqueror  of  Sindh,  and  a  cousin  of 
Sir  Charles  Xapier,  the  English  admiral.  Enter- 
ing the  army  as  ensign  in  the  Royal  Irish  Artil- 
lery (1800),  he  became  captain  of  a  regiment  in 
Sir  John  Moore's  brigade  (1804)  ;  took  part  in 
the  siege  of  Copenhagen  (1807)  ;  went  with  his 
regiment  to  Spain  ( 1808)  ;  and  for  his  bravery  in 
the  Peninsular  campaigns  was  appointed  lieu- 
tenant-colonel (1813).  Later  he  became  colonel 
(1830);  then  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Guernsey 
(1842),  and  general  ^1859).  He  was  knighted 
in  1848.  Napier  passed  his  last  years  at  Scinde 
House,  Clapham,  where  he  died  February  10, 
1860.  Napier  gained  an  immense  reputation  by 
his  History  of  the  Peninsiilar  War  (6  vols.,  1828- 
40).  This  work,  which  aimed  to  tell  the  truth, 
led  to  a  long  controversy  with  the  officers  who 
had  taken  part  in  the  campaigns.  It  is,  however, 
believed  to  be  an  impartial  statement  of  facts. 
His  History  of  Sir  Cltarles  Xapiei-'s  A'Jministra- 
tion  of  Scinde  (1851)  is  written  in  his  boldest 
style.  Consult  the  Life  by  Lord  Aberdare  (Lon- 
don, 1864). 

NAPIER'S  RODS,  or  Eon-es.  See  Calcvlat- 
IN'G  ^LvcniXES. 

NATLES  (It.  yapoli:  anciently,  yeapolis). 
The  largest  citv  and  the  second  seaport  of  Italy, 
capital  of  the  Province  of  Naples,  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  situ- 
ated on  the  western  coast  of  the  Penins\ila,  at  the 
foot  of  encircling  hills,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Bav  of  Na[)les.  in  latitude  40°  51'  N.,  and  longi- 
tude 14°  16'  E.(Map:  Italy,  .J  7).  It  is  about  five 
miles  long  and  three  miles  broad.    The  climate  is 


mild,  although  the  variations  in  temperature  and 
humidity,  owing  to  alternating  winds  from  the 
north  and  south,  are  often  great  and  sudden. 
The  thermometer  ranges  from  26°  F.  in  January 
to  97°  in  .July,  the  average  winter  temperature 
being  50°,  the  average  summer  temperature  75°. 
Fogs  are  rare  and  snow  seldom  falls.  The  rainy 
season  lasts  from  the  end  of  January  to  the  be- 
ginning of  April.  The  heat  of  summer  is  tem- 
pered by  the  sea  wind  that  blows  until  about  2 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  Vesuvius  acts  as  a 
great  natural  barometer:  when  its  smoke  blows 
toward  Capri,  fair  weather  is  always  expected. 

The  far-famed  situation  of  the  city  on  the  sea, 
amid  its  amphitheatre  of  hills,  can  be  compared 
perhaps  only  W'ith  that  of  Constantinople. 
Across  the  bay  to  the  south  is  visible  the  his- 
'toric  island  of  Capri ;  on  the  eastern  shore  are 
villas,  vineyards,  and  orange  groves  grouped 
around  tiny  cities,  while  over  all  towers  Vesuvius 
with  ominous  grandeur.  The  envirems  in  general 
are  unsurpassed  for  loveliness  and  the  great 
variety  of  interest  they  present.  Sorrento,  Capri, 
Ischia,  and  the  Phlegrx'an  district  are  localities 
that  delight  the  sightseer.  Other  striking  attrac- 
tions are  the  former  monastery  of  the  Canial- 
dolites  (q.v.),  and  the  hill  of  Posilipo  with  its 
multiple  associations  and  its  fine  streets  offering 
magnificent  views. 

Architecturally  Naples  is  by  contrast  surpris- 
ingly poor.  The  ancient  and  commercial  part  of 
the  city  lies  east  of  a  line  drawn  from  Capodi- 
monte  through  Sant'  Elmo  to  Castello  dell'  Ovo, 
and  is  divided  from  north  to  south  by  the  Via 
Roma. 

The  modern  and  western  part,  where  are  nearly 
all  tlie  principal  hotels,  is  bordered  on  the  south 
by  the  famous  Riviera  di  Chiaia  along  the  bay 
in  a  curved  course  of  three  miles.  Here  the 
Villa  Nazionale  stretches  away — a  splendid  park 
dating  from  1780.  It  is  embellished  with  lordly 
allees,  statues,  and  miniature  temples.  It  con- 
tains the  well-known  aquarium  of  Naples,  which 
is  filled  with  a  great  variety  of  extraordinary 
fish — frutti  di  mare.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  school 
established  for  the  scientific  investigation  of  the 
aquatic  fauna  and  flora  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  public  squares  or  larghi  of  Naples  are  adorned 
with  fotmtains  and  obelisks;  and  within  the 
precincts  of  the  city  are  several  highly  prized 
springs  of  fresh  mineral  waters. 

The  handsome  Renaissance  Porta  Capuana  is 
jtistly  celebrated.  The  castles  are  numerous. 
Among  the  principal  ones  are  the  Castello  Nuovo, 
called  the  Bastille  of  Naples,  somewhat  similar  to 
the  Tower  of  London,  and  adorned  with  a  fine 
tritunphal  arch  erected  in  honor  of  Alfonso  of 
Aragon:  the  Castello  Sant'  Elmo,  commanding 
a  magnificent  view  from  the  ramjiarts;  and  the 
historic  egg-shaped  Castello  dell"  Ovo.  The  last 
was  begun  in  1154.  It  is  situated  on  an  islet 
connected  with  the  mainland,  and  is  one  of  the 
conspicuous  features.  Near  it  is  the  street  Santa 
Lucia — the  centre  of  the  noisy  Neapolitan  life, 
particularly  of  the  lower  classes.  Women  engaged 
in  domestic  duties,  naked  children,  and  peddlers 
of  all  sorts  present  a  uniqtie  spectacle  here  in  a 
city  characterized  by  festivals  and  processions 
and  bustling  traffic.  The  neighboring  royal  pal- 
ace is  of  modern  construction.  It  has  an  impos- 
ing facade  decorated  with  rich  statues.  The  in- 
terior is  uninteresting. 


NAPLES. 


234 


NAPO. 


Of  the  nearly  four  liundied  elmrclies  none  is 
very  striking.  Tlie  cathedral,  dedicated  to  Saint 
Januarius,  contains  the  celebrated  vials  in  which 
the  liquefaction  of  the  saint's  blood  is  alleged 
to  take  place  on  three  annual  festivals.  The 
church  also  contains  the  tombs  of  Charles  of 
Anjou  and  I'ope  Innocent  IV.,  besides  numerous 
line  paintings  and  statues.  San  Martiiio  is  an 
iuteresting  religious  precinct,  with  its  belve- 
dere, cloisters,  and  nniseum.  In  the  monastery 
attached  to  the  Church  of  Santi  Scverino  e  Sosio 
are  ileposited  the  valuable  archives  of  the  former 
Neapolitan  kingdom,  consisting  of  some  40,000 
manuscripts,  the  earliest  dating  from  "03. 

Xaples  is  far  licher  in  archieological  than  in 
architectural  interest.  The  JIuseo  Xazionale  con- 
tains an  immense  and  unsurpassed  colUclion  of 
frescoes,  paintings,  mosaics,  sculptures.  anli(iui- 
ties,  coins,  medals,  and  inscrijitions.  including 
objects  excavated  at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii. 
Among  its  rarest,  most  celebrated  possessions  are 
the  Farnese  Bull,  the  Farne.se  Hercules,  the  Mo- 
saic of  the  Battle  of  Ale.Kunder,  the  Pompeiian 
frescoes,  and  a  valuable  collection  of  bronzes  and 
vases. 

The  splendid  Galleria  Umberto  Prime  was 
completed  in  1800  at  great  expense. 

At  the  head  of  the  educational  system  is  the 
university  (q.v. ).  There  are  also  an  engineering 
school,  an  Oriental  institute,  an  astronomical 
ob.servatory,  a  botanical  garden,  several  \inions 
for  the  study  and  difl'usion  of  many  leading 
branches  of  knowledge,  a  marine  school,  and  a 
royal  conservatory  of  music.  The  charitable  in- 
stitutions are  n\imcrous,  on  an  extensive  scale, 
and  richly  endowed.  Besides  that  of  the  uni- 
versity there  is  the  National  Library,  with  over 
.3.')0.o6o  volumes.  200.000  pamphlets,  and  about 
8000  manuscripts.  Naples  has  many  good  play- 
houses. The  San  Carlos  is  one  of  tlie  largest  and 
most  famous  of  opera  houses.  The  marionette 
theatres  and  the  theatres  where  the  famous 
Neapolitan  Pulcinella  is  to  be  seen  are  a  never- 
failing  source  of  entertainment. 

Xaples  is  one  of  the  most  important  manufac- 
turing centres  in  Italy.  Ships,  locomotives  and 
cars,  and  stationary  engines  are  built;  and  glass. 
cotton,  wool,  gloves,  perfumery.  linen  and  silk 
products  are  manufactured.  The  extensive  steel 
works  are  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  English  lirms. 
Copies  of  ancient  vases  and  bronzes,  lava  articles, 
and  coral  and  tortoisc-slidl  gnods  are  also  largely 
dealt  in.  The  commerce  of  Xaples  is  even  more 
important  than  are  its  industries.  It  has  regular 
communication  by  steamers  with  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  world.  The  harbor  has  been 
much  improved  in  the  last  decade.  The  tonnage 
of  vessels  entering  was  .T.:!rir>.4.^.'>  in  1000.  an  in- 
erea.'ie  of  nearly  1.700.000  tons  during  tin-  liecade. 
The  chief  articles  of  import  are  co.il.  iron  and 
steel  (Creat  Hiitain.  f;<'rmany.  and  iiclgiuiiiK 
grain  (Russia  and  Inilia) ,  lumber  (.^nslria-Ilun- 
pary),  cotton  (United  States  and  India),  wool, 
leather,  oils,  and  wines  (France),  and  chcmieals 
(fJermany  and  Oreat  Britain).  The  leading  ex- 
jiorts  are  wine  and  brandy,  dried  and  sub- 
tropical fruits,  nuts,  paper,  and  hemp.  The  total 
value  of  the  import.s  in  1900  was  .«l  l..'i'>4..')f)7. 
showing  an  increase  of  nearly  $2,800,000  since 
181)8.  The  exports  for  IftOO  were  vahied  at 
$20.910.0.11. 

Half  of  the   population   of  Naples,   including 


the  countless  lazzaroni  and  trovatori,  were  hud- 
dled togetlier  in  the  slums  in  ancient  unsanitary 
buildings  that  crowded  narrow,  crooked  streets, 
until  the  cliolera  epidemic  of  1884  aroused  the 
whole  conntry.  In  188.5  the  Italian  Parliament 
voted  $20,000,000  toward  a  systematic  renovation 
which,  when  entirely  completed,  will  cost  city 
and  nation  not  less  than  .'i;lOO.OOO,000.  A  new 
water  supply  was  at  once  introduced  from  the 
mountains  near  Avellino,  50  miles  away,  and 
plans  were  elaborated  for  a  new'  sewer  system,  for 
new  streets,  new  squares,  and  new  buildings.  Of 
271  old  streets  144  were  to  be  abolished  and  127 
widened:  the  habitations  of  90,000  people  were 
to  be  destroyed,  and  the  density  of  the  population 
reduced  from  045  to  280  per  acre.  The  work 
so  far  has  been  done  on  contract  by  private  com- 
panies, and  the  resale  of  street  frontage  on  the 
new  business  streets  has  to  some  extent  reim- 
bursed the  Government.  The  water-works  are 
owned  by  a  private  company.  The  population 
of  Naples  in  1001  was  503,7.31. 

Consult:  Colletta,  [Jistnry  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Xaples,  translated  by  Horner  (Edinburgh,  1858)  ; 
Beloch.  Kdiiiixinien.  Genchichte  vnd  Topuyniphie 
den  aniil.cii  \capcl  {2d  ed..  Berlin.  l.S!)0)  ;  Del 
Balzo.  Xripoli  e  >  Xapoiitani  (Milan,  1884); 
Forbes,  Rambles  in  Naples  (New  York,  1886); 
Hare,  Cilics  of  tSuuthmn  Italy  (London,  1883); 
Waters,  Xaples  (Boston,  1894):  Pellet,  Xaples 
conteiiiporain  {Pariti,  1894)  ;  Rolfe,  Naples  in  the 
Nineties  (London.  1897);  Whitehouse,  The  Col- 
lapse of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  (X^ew  York, 
1899)  :  Norway,  Xaples  Past  and  Present  (New 
Y'ork,  1901)  ;  Kispoli,  La  proiincia  e  la  citta  di 
Nnpoli    (Xaples,    1902). 

NAPLES,  Bay  of.  A  bay  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea  on  the  southwest  coast  of  Italy 
(Map:  Italy,  .17).  It  is  20  miles  wide  from 
Cape  ^liseno  on  the  northwest  to  Point  Cam- 
panclla  on  the  southeast,  and  extends  inwanl 
about  10  miles.  The  bay  is  famous  for  its  beau- 
tiful scenery,  the  view  including  the  city  of 
X'aples.  Castellamare.  and  the  other  towns  and 
villages  along  the  shores,  dominated  by  Mount 
Vesuvius  on  the  east,  while  at  the  entrance  to 
the  bay  are  the  lovely  islands  of  Ischia  and 
Capri. 

NAPLES,  Kingdom   of.     See  Two  Sicilie.s, 

Kl.\(;l>l)M    OF  THE. 

NAPLES,  UxivFR.«iTV  OF.  An  Italian  univer- 
sity, founded  in  1224  by  the  Emperor  Frederick 
II.  It  was  reformed  or  reconstructed  at  least 
three  times  before  1200.  when  Charles  I.  of  AnjOU 
finally  placed  it  on  a  sound  footing.  Among  its 
earliest  and  most  brilliant  scholars  was  ThotnW 
Aquinas,  who  lectured  here  during  its  short  but 
brilliant  revival  about  1272-74.  It  was  reorgan- 
ized in  1780.  and  since  the  incorporation  of  Naples 
witli  Italy.  1800.  it  has  increased  remarkably  in 
numliers  and  influence.  Tt  had  in  1901  a  budget 
c.f  over  900. nOO  lire  and  more  than  5100  students, 
cliietly  in  law  and  medicine.  Its  lilirarv  contains 
about  100,000  volumes  and  30.000  i)ampblets. 

NAPO,  na'pft.  A  tributary  of  the  Vpper  .Vma- 
zon.  It  rises  on  the  slojx;  of  Mount  Cotopaxi  in 
Ecuador  and  (lows  sotitheast,  emptying  into  the 
Amazon  near  the  eastern  boundary  of  Ecuador 
after  a  cotirse  of  7.50  miles  (Map:  Ecu:idor.  C  4). 
Tn  its  upiKT  course  it  flows  in  a  steep  incline 
through  a  rough  and  rocky  valley,  but  after 
emerging  from  the  mo\intains  it  traverses  a  vast 


NAPLES 

VIEW  CF  THE  CITY  FROM  THE  TOMB  OF  VERGIL   (UPPER) 

PIAZZA  DEL  MUNICIPIO   (LOWER) 


NAPO. 


235 


NAPOLEON  I. 


forpstcovcrc'il  plain,  almost  unexplored,  and 
spaisi'lv  inliahiti'd  b_v  savayos.  The  Napo  is 
navigable  for  steamers  nearly  400  miles,  but  the 
natural  wealth  of  the  region,  including  gold,  sar- 
saparilla,  and  rubber,  is  but  little  exploited. 

NAPO'LEON.  A  village  and  the  county-seat 
of  Henry  County,  Ohio,  35  miles  southwest  of 
Toledo;  on  the  ilaumee-  River,  the  Miami  and 
Erie  Canal,  and  tlie  Wabash  and  Detroit  and 
Lima  Nortlicrn  railroads  (Map:  Ohio,  B  3).  It  is 
of  some  importance  as  an  industrial  centre,  its 
chief  manufactured  product  being  flour.  The 
water-works  and  electric-light  plant  are  owned 
bv  the  numicipalitv.  Population,  in  1890,  2764; 
in  1900,  3639. 

NAPOLEON  I.,  Fr.  pron.  na'po'lii'oN'  ( Napo- 
leon Bonajiarte)  (1769-1821).  Emperor  of  the 
French,  born  at  Ajaccio,  on  the  island  of  Corsica, 
August  1.5,  1709.  The  family  of  Buonaparte  (as 
the  name  was  spelled  until  1796)  was  of  Tuscan 
origin,  but  had  been  settled  in  Corsica  since  1529. 
The  parents  of  tile  future  Emperor  were  Carlo 
Maria  de  Buonaparte  and  Letizia  Ramolino,  a 
descendant  of  a  good  Florentine  family.  Napo- 
leon was  the  fourth  child  and  the  second  son. 
After  a  few  months  spent  in  learning  French  in 
a  school  at  Autun,  he  entered  the  military  school 
at  Brienne  on  April  23,  1779,  and  there  remained 
until  he  was  transferred  to  the  great  military 
school  in  Paris  in  Septend)er.  1784.  Just  a  year 
later  he  received  his  commission  as  second  lieu- 
tenant in  La  F&re  Regiment  of  Artillery,  which 
was  stationed  at  Valence.  He  served  with  this 
regiment  until  1791,  but  passed  the  greater  part 
of  his  time  (1786-88  and  1789-91)  on  furlough 
in  Corsica,  where  he  took  part  in  the  patriotic 
movement  under  Paoli.  He  was  in  Paris  during 
the  events  of  August  10.  1702,  when  the  mob 
of  Paris  attacked  the  Tuileries,  and  on  August 
30th  attained  the  rank  of  captain  in  the  army. 
He  returned  to  Corsica,  but  this  time  he  had 
a  falling  out  with  Paoli  and  identified  him- 
self with  the  French  Revolutionary  Party  on  the 
island.  The  defeat  of  this  party  compelled 
Napoleon  and  the  other  members  of  his  family 
to  escape  and  take  refuge  in  France  in  June. 
1703.  As  yet  Napoleon  had  shown  little  indica-' 
tion  of  his  genius  and  of  the  mighty  career  he 
was  destined  to  lead.  Self-contained  and  gloomy, 
he  had  made  scarcely  any  friends  except  Bour- 
rienne.  He  had  mastered  his  profession  of 
arms,  had  sliown  a  capacity  for  intrigue,  and  had 
learned  to  rely  up<m  himself.  In  his  long  leisure 
hours  he  had  devoted  himself  faithfully  to  books 
of  a  solid  character.  He  was  in  the  beginning 
an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Rousseau,  and  his 
earliest  writings,  which  date  from  the  Valence 
period,  reveal  an  amount  of  sentiment  that  is 
strangely  unlike  the  man  who  later  squandered 
hnnian  lives  l)y  flic  himdred  thousand  in  order  to 
gratify  his  ambilion.  Buonaparte  rejoined  his 
regiment  in  So\ithern  France,  participated  in  the 
occupation  of  Marseilles  by  the  Revolutionary 
forces,  and  then  nuirched  to  Toulon  to  take  part 
in  the  siege  of  that  town.  As  chef  de  hntnillon 
in  the  .Second  Regiment  of  Artillery  he  was  prac- 
tically in  charge  of  the  artillery  during  the  siege 
operations,  and  won  for  himself  golden  opinions 
I  from  the  commissioners  of  the  Convention  with 
I  the  army.  One  of  these  commissioners  was 
Robespierre's  younger  brother,  .\ugustin.  whose 
I  intimate  friend  and  confirlant  Buonaparte  now 
j  became.    His  conduct  at  Toulon  won  him  promo- 

V'OL.  XIV.— 16. 


tion  to  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade,  but  his 
relations  with  the  younger  Robespierre  and  his 
outspoken  Jacobinism  caused  his  imprisonment 
after  the  coup  of  tlie  9th  Thcrmidor.  An  old  Cor- 
sican  acquaintance,  Saliceti,  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners of  the  Convention  in  the  south  of 
France  at  this  moment  and  intervened  on  behalf 
of  the  young  artillery  ollicer.  Marmont,  who 
was  in  position  to  help  Buonaparte  at  this  time, 
said  that  he  did  so  because  he  saw  "there  was 
so  much  future  in  his  mind."  He  was  released 
on  August  20.  1794.  and  after  further  misfortunes 
he  turned  up  in  Paris,  where  he  found  temporary 
einplo\nnent  in  the  topographical  bureau. 

The  Convention  was  now  drawing  to  a  close, 
but  was  forced  to  face  one  more  insurrection,  one 
antagonistic  to  the  new  Constitution  of  the 
Year  III.  (See  French  Revolution.)  Tlie  work 
of  defending  the  Convention  was  intrusted  to 
Barras  (q.v.).  who  .selected  as  his  second  in 
command  Bumuiparte,  whom  he  had  seen  at 
Toulon,  and  whom  he  now  found  in  Paris  half  fed 
and  shabbily  clothed,  awaiting  the  next  turn  of 
the  wheel  of  fortune.  "From  the  first,"  says 
Thiebault,  "his  activity  was  astonishing;  he 
seemed  to  be  eveiywhere  at  once:  he  surprised 
people  by  his  laconic,  clear,  and  prompt  orders: 
everybody  was  struck  by  the  vigor  of  his  arrange- 
ments, and  passed  from  admiration  to  confidence, 
and  from  confidence  to  enthusiasm."  With  the 
'whifT  of  grape  shot'  he  swept  the  Parisian  mob 
from  the  streets  on  the  13th  Vend^miaire  (Octo- 
ber 5,  1795).  The  Convention  came  to  an  end,  the 
Directory  took  its  place  with  Barras  as  one  of  the 
Directors,  and  Buonaparte  .succeeded  Barras  as 
commander  of  the  Army  of  the  Interior.  Barras 
welcomed  the  young  hero  of  the  hour  to  his 
salon,  where  the  grace  of  person  and  charm  of 
manner  of  a  young  Creole  widow,  .Josephine  de 
Beauharnais,  aroused  in  Buonaparte  passionate 
admiration  and  love.  Despite  a  disparity  of  six 
years  in  their  ages,  the  influence  of  Barras 
brought  about  a  marriage  on  March  9,  1796. 
Meanwhile  the  favor  of  another  Director  had 
brought  to  Buonaparte  a  nuich  more  important 
command  in  the  army.  Buonaparte  had  visited 
the  Genoese  Riviera  in  1794.  and  at  the  Topo- 
graphical Bureau  he  had  taken  the  opportunity 
to  prepare  a  plan  of  campaign  in  Northern 
Italy,  which  he  now  ]jerfected  and  presented  to 
Carnot  (q.v.),  who  admired  it  and  ordered  its 
execution.  Scherer,  the  general  of  the  Army  of 
Italy,  replied  that  if  the  Directors  wanted  the 
plan  carried  out  they  could  send  dowTi  the  man 
who  devised  it  to  do  it.  He  was  taken  at  his 
word :  Buonaparte  was  a|ipointed  to  the  com- 
mand, and  left  Paris  two  days  after  his  marriage, 
arriving  at  Nice  in  March.  1796. 

At  this  moment,  after  the  treaties  of  Basel, 
France  was  still  at  war  with  England.  Austria, 
and  Sardinia.  England  was  no  longer  a  factor 
in  the  military  situation  on  the  Continent:  Aus- 
tria had  been  attacked  only  in  Southern  Ger- 
many, while  on  the  Italian  frontier  France  had 
done  nothing  except  to  make  intermittent  attacks 
on  Sardinian  territory.  Italy  was  made  up  of 
patches  of  Austri;in  territory  an<l  of  petty  States 
\inder  Austrian  influence,  which  offered  a  rich 
spoil  for  tlie  conqueror.  The  main  body  of  the 
Austro-Sardinian  army  was  at  IMontenotte.  oc- 
cupying the  pass  between  the  ilaritime  Alps  and 
the  Apennines  at  the  headwaters  of  the  Bormida 
and  the  Tanaro,  two  affluents  of  the  Po.     One 


NAPOLEON  I. 


236 


NAPOLEON  I. 


road  followcil  tlio  latter  noilhwcst  to  Turin,  the 
other  road  followed  the  Boriiiida  to  the  northeast 
to  ililan;  between  the  two  was  an  almost  im- 
passable mountain  country.  A  successful  blow 
would  compel  the  Sardinians  to  retreat  on  their 
capital,  Turin,  and  the  Austrians  on  .Milan,  their 
headquarters  in  Italy,  witlKJUt  hope  of  reuniting 
their  forces.  This  army  of  .')2.()()()  men  was  some- 
what scattered  and  could  not  be  used  in  full  force 
at  any  one  point,  and  many  of  the  men  were  sick. 
The  French  .\rmy  of  Italy  was  no  better  ort'. 
There  were  42.000  poorly  erpiipped.  worse  clad, 
and  unpaid  men  scattered  in  detachments  along 
the  Kiviera  from  Xice  to  Savona.  Their  new 
commander.  Huonaparte,  was  a  slender,  delicate- 
looking  youth  of  twenty-six.  who  was  known  only 
for  some  skill  shown  in  handling  artillery  at 
Toulon  and  in  Paris.  Rumor  said  he  owed  his  ap- 
pointment to  a  discreditable  intrigue  between 
.losephine  and  harras.  Certainly  there  was  little 
to  promise  one  of  the  greatest  military  campaigns 
in  all  history,  the  most  dazzling  success  of  mod- 
ern times.  Bonaparte  (as  he  now  spelled  his 
name)  from  the  moment  of  his  arrival  took  hold 
of  things  with  the  grasp  of  an  e.vperieneed  gen- 
eral skilled  in  the  management  of  men.  His 
address  to  his  army  kindled  their  imagination: 
"Soldiers,  you  are  half-starved  and  half-naked; 
the  Government  owes  you  nuieii.  but  can  do  noth- 
ing for  you.  I  am  about  to  lead  you  into  the  most 
fertile  valleys  of  the  world:  there  you  will  find 
nourishing  cities  and  teeming  provinces;  there 
you  will  reap  honor,  glory,  and  riches.  Soldiers 
of  the  Army  of  Italy,  will  you  lack  courage?" 
Keenforccments  arrived  which  raised  the  army 
to  about  r>l).000  men.  whom  Bonaparte  concen- 
trated at  Savona.  The  campaign  oijcncd  at 
Montcnotte  on  .\pril  11th.  Three  successive  at- 
tacks compelled  the  Sardinians  under  Colli  to 
retreat  toward  Turin,  while  the  Austrian  com- 
mander, Beaulieu,  fell  back  toward  Milan.  Bona- 
parte pressed  on  against  Colli,  and,  though  he  had 
no  power  to  negotiate,  compelleil  him  to  sign  the 
armistice  of  C'herasco  (April  "iSth),  which  gave 
France  military  control  of  Piedmcmt  and  left 
Bonaparte  free  to  attack  Beaulieu.  From  this  mo- 
ment Bonaparte  showed  the  Directory  that  they 
had  no  ordinary  general  to  deal  with,  lie  did  not 
wait  for  orders.  He  did  things  and  then  re- 
ported; he  preferred  no  recpiests.  but  presented 
demands  couiiled  with  an  ultinnitum.  Hnmedi- 
ately  after  tlie  signature  of  the  armistice  with 
Colli,  Bonaparte  reassembled  his  forces,  which 
had  scattered  to  forage  and  plunder,  and 
prepared  to  attack  Beaulieu.  who  had  re- 
treated across  the  Po  and  the  Ticino.  Beaulieu 
expected  Bonaparte's  attack  near  Pavia.  The 
French  commamler  turned  his  (lank,  seized  Pia- 
eenza  on  May  7th.  and  comi)clled  Beaulieu  to 
retreat  across  the  Adda,  leaving  .Milan  to  the 
French.  Bonaparte  |i\irsued  the  retreating 
Austrians  and  ilefeated  them  at  the  bridge  of 
Lodi  across  the  Adda,  on  May  10th.  After  this 
battle  it  is  said  the  troops  gave  Bonaparte  the 
endearing  name  of  the  T.ittle  Corporal ;  from 
this  time  they  were  thoroughly  devoted  to  him. 
Bonaparte  promptly  occu|iic-d  Milan  and  there  dis- 
played his  characteristic  qualilie-*.  He  appealed  to 
the  popular  enthusiasm,  and  led  the  Milanese  to 
believe  that  he  was  their  deliverer.  He  estab- 
lished a  temporary  administration,  welcomed  ar- 
tists and  writers,  and  showed  an  interest  in  the 
University  of  Pnvia.     On  the  other  hand,  he  ex- 


torted a  war  contrilnitiou  of  20,000,000  francs 
and  seized  and  sent  to  Paris  numerous  literary 
and  art  treasures.  The  young  general  did  not 
dally.  In  a  few  days  he  was  again  pushing  on 
against  the  Austrians,  and  on  June  3d  the  siege 
of  Mantua  was  bcgiui.  This  strongly  fortified  town 
was  the  key  to  Northern  Italy.  While  the  siege 
was  in  progress  Bonaparte  paid  his  respects  to 
the  Dukes  of  Modena  :ind  Parma,  to  the  firaml 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  to  the  Pope,  each  of  whom 
he  compelled  to  buy  peace  with  large  sums  of 
money  and  witli  treasures  of  art  and  literature. 
The  Austrians  raised  army  after  army  for  the 
relief  of  Mantua,  but  in  vain.  The  first,  under 
Wurmser,  advanced  from  Tyrol  in  three  divi- 
sions, and  compelled  the  raising  of  the  siege  of 
Mantua  by  Bonaparte,  who  marched  to  meet  the 
Austrians  and  defeated  them  at  Castiglione  on 
August  5th.  Wurmser  made  a  second  attempt  by 
the  valley  of  the  Brcnta,  but  was  defeated  at 
Bassano  on  September  8th,  and  driven  into 
ilantua,  the  siege  of  which  was  resumed  by  the 
French.  Alvinczy,  by  the  way  of  the  Brcnta,  and 
Davidovich,  by  the  way  of  the  Adige,  brought 
the  second  Austrian  army  into  Italy,  planning 
to  concentrate  tiO.OOO  men  at  \"erona.  Bonaparte 
had  to  meet  them  with  about  40.000,  and  at  Cal- 
(liero,  on  Xovember  l'2th.  he  met  a  severe  check; 
but,  driven  to  desperation,  he  put  forth  super- 
human ett'orts.  and  after  three  days  of  fighting 
defeated  the  Austrians  at  the  bridge  of  Arcole 
and  forced  them  to  retreat.  Alvinczy.  from  the 
wreck  of  his  army  and  with  rcenforcements,  cre- 
ated the  third  Austrian  army  and  advanced 
southward  between  Lake  Ciarda  and  the  Adige. 
Bonaparte  hastened  to  meet  him.  seized  the  im- 
portant strategic  position  at  Rivoli.  repulsed 
-Mvinczy  on  .lanuary  14,  1707.  and  hurled  him 
back  into  Tyrol.  Turning  back  on  ilantua, 
Bonaparte  captiired  at  La  Kavorita  two  days 
later  an  important  detachment  of  Alvinczy's 
force  which  by  a  (lank  movement  liad  almost  suc- 
ceeded in  r'eaeliing  Mantua.  Wurmser  sur- 
rendered Mantua  on  February  2d.  In  this  fa- 
mous campaign  of  1700  Itonaparte  relied  on 
three  important  maxims  to  which  he  held  fast 
•throughout  his  career:  divide  for  foraging,  con- 
centrate for  fighting;  unity  of  command  is  essen- 
tial for  success;  and  time  is  everything.  Quick- 
ness to  divine  his  enemy's  plans;  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  geography  which  produced  com- 
binations that  were  executed  wilh  bewildering 
audacity:  an  ability  to  get  a  maxinuim  amount 
of  marching  ami  fighting  out  of  an  army  of 
young  veterans  who  were  poorly  shod  and  clad 
"and  ill-fed;  and  the  loyal  support  of  his  subor- 
dinates. Augercau.  Massena.  .loubert.  Lannes, 
Marmont.  Victor.  Murat.  and  .Tunot.  combiniil 
to  enable  Bonaparte  to  compicr  Northern  Italy 
fiu'  France.  The  campaign  of  1707  was  an  act 
of  ccdossal  audacity.  With  less  than  .')0.000  men 
Bonaparte  drove  the  Archduke  Charles  and  the 
Austrians  from  Italy,  forced  the  passes  of  the 
.Mps  in  .March,  and  pressed  on  directly  for  Vienna 
witlumt  waiting  for  Moreati  (q.v.)  to  cooperate. 
At  Leoben.  within  one  hundred  miles  of  Vienna, 
he  signed  preliminaries  of  peace  with  Austria 
on  .\pril   ISth. 

Bonaparte  the  conqueror  began  to  take  wider 
views  of  the  part  he  was  to  play,  and  played  it 
wilh  a  boldness  and  a  skill  that  dazzled  France 
into  eomplaisancy.  He  organized  the  Italian 
conquests  into  the  Cisalpine   Kepublic   and  con- 


NAPOLEON   I 

FROM   AN   ENGRAVING  OF   A   PORTRAIT    BY    DAVID 


NAPOLEON  I. 


237 


NAPOLEON  I. 


stitutcil  the  Genoese  dominions  into  tlip  Ligiirian 
Republic ;  lie  sent  Augerean  as  his  secret  agent 
to  conduct  the  military  operations  of  the  coup 
d'etat  of  the  IStli  Fructidor  (see  Fre.nch  Kevo- 
i.lTlo.N' )  ;  he  lived  and  acted  like  a  monarch  in 
Xorthern  Ital_v;  and  finally,  disregarding  the  ex- 
j)ress  orders  of  the  Directors,  he  negotiated  with 
Austria  the  Treaty  of  Campo  Formio  (October 
17,  1797).  Austria  gave  up  her  former  Belgian 
jiossessions  and  Lombardy,  ami  received  most  of 
the  territories  of  the  extinguished  Kepublic  of 
Venice.  Bonaparte  now  returned  to  France,  but 
the  Directors  were  afrai<I  of  him  and  sought  to 
rid  themselves  of  liim  by  dispatching  him  on  some 
out-of-the-way  or  hazardous  enterjjrise.  It  was 
evident  to  him  that  a  direct  attack  upon  France's 
one  remaining  foe,  England,  could  not  succeed, 
and  he  suggested  instead  the  campaign  in  Egj'pt. 
The  Oriental  dream  was  always  before  his  eyes, 
and  tliroughout  life  influenced  his  policy.  He  saw 
in  India  the  source  of  England's  power,  and  he 
ilitcrmined  to  attack  India.  He  negotiated  with 
I  ipu  Sultan,  a  determined  foe  of  the  English,  and, 
;is  the  easiest  route  to  India  was  by  the  Ked 
Sea,  he  proposed  to  conquer  Eg^'pt  as  a  stepping- 
stone  to  India.  An  expedition  was  fitted  out 
with  the  utmost  secrecy  at  Toulon,  and  on  May 
I!1.  1708,  he  set  sail  with  a  large  fleet  carrying 
::."i.000  men.  He  stopped  on  the  way  to  capture 
Malta.  On  Jul.v  1st  he  landed  in  Egypt  and 
HI  cupied  Alexandria  on  the  next  day.  Advancing 
into  the  desert,  he  encountered  and  defeated  the 
i:iinous  JIameluke  cavahy  in  tlic  battle  of  the 
Pyramids  on  .July  21st,  and  three  days  later 
entered  Cairo.  Desaix  was  detached  to  conquer 
Upper  Egypt,  and  Bonaparte  devoted  himself 
to  consolidate  his  conquests.  On  August  lst-2d, 
however,  Nelson  destroyed  his  fleet  in  Abukir 
Bay,  and  Turkey  declared  war  and  planned  to 
recover  Eg^-pt.  Taking  the  offensive  at  the  be- 
ginning of  1799,  Bonaparte  invaded  Syria,  cap- 
tured Jaffa,  and  laid  siege  to  Acre.  Junot  fought 
an  engagement  with  the  Turks  near  Nazareth, 
and  Kleber  found  himself  attacked  by  thirty 
thousand  of  them  at  tlie  foot  of  Mount  Tabor 
on  April  loth,  but  was  rescued  by  the  opportune 
arrival  of  Bonaparte.  Returning  to  Acre,  Bona- 
parte found  that  he  was  unable  to  take  the  place 
liy  storm,  and  having  lost  five  thousand  men 
in  fighting  or  from  the  plague,  he  ordered  a 
retreat.  Arriving  in  Eg^pt,  he  met  another 
Turkish  force,  which  had  landed  near  Alexandria, 
and  defeated  it  on  .July  2.5th.  News  from  France 
told  of  the  infidelity  of  .Josephine,  and  of  the 
evil  plight  of  France  under  the  decadent  Direc- 
tory, which  was  being  attacked  by  the  newly 
formed  Second  Coalition  of  the  Powers  of  Europe 
against  France.  On  the  night  of  August  22d-2.3d, 
leaving  Kleber  in  command,  Bonaparte  escaped 
from  Alexandria,  and  evading  the  English  ships, 
landed  at  Frejus  on  October  9.   1799. 

On  reaching  Paris  he  speedily  took  council 
with  the  members  of  his  family  and  after  a  scene 
with  .Josephine  forgave  her.  thovigh  he  did  not 
forget  her  olVensc.  Councils  with  Talleyrand, 
Sieyfs,  and  other  important  men  of  afl'airs  fol- 
lowed, but  most  of  all  with  his  brother  Luoien, 
who  was  now  president  of  the  Coimcil  of  Five 
Hundred.  Plans  were  speedily  devised,  and  on 
November  9.  1799.  the  famous  coup  d'ftat  of  the 
ISth  Brumaire  took  (ilace.  The  Directory  was 
overthrown,  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  dis- 
persed, and  a  provisional  government  composed  of 


Bonaparte  and  two  of  the  late  Directors,  Sieyfes 
and  Roger  Ducos,  installed.  SieyCs(q.v.)  expected 
to  be  the  managing  head  of  the  new  combination, 
but  at  the  first  meeting  found  that  Bonaparte  had 
everything  in  his  own  hands.  In  a  few  weeks  the 
Provisional  (Jovernment  drew  up  and  promulgated 
the  Constitution  of  the  Year  \'III.,  which,  in 
spite  of  its  elaborate  provisions  for  the  Legis- 
lature and  the  other  parts  of  the  Government, 
really  intrusted  all  power  to  Bonaparte,  who 
became  First  Consul  (December  24,  1799). 
Ha\ing  arranged  the  more  important  de- 
tails of  the  administration  and  restore<l  internal 
peace  by  the  pacification  of  the  VendOe, 
lie  turned  his  attention  to  the  military  situa- 
tion. The  victory  of  JIassOna  at  Zurich  on  Sep- 
tember 2.5-2G,  1799,  had  freed  France  from  the 
danger  of  invasion  by  the  Second  Coalition,  but 
Italy  and  Southern  Germany  were  once  more 
in  the  hands  of  the  Austrians,  and  MassOna  with 
a  French  army  was  shut  up  in  Genoa.  Bonaparte 
suddenly  and  with  the  utmost  secrecy  gatliered 
a  new  army  for  the  invasion  of  Italy.  Instead  of 
taking  the  expected  course  of  advancing  along 
the  Riviera  as  in  1796  and  raising  the  siege  of 
Genoa,  he  took  his  army,  who.se  existence  was  un- 
known to  the  Austrians,  across  the  Great  Saint 
Bernard  i*ass  and  occupied  Mil.an  on  June  2, 
1800.  The  surprised  Austrian  General  Melas 
endeavored  to  gather  his  forces  and  siive 
himself.  A  detachment  under  Lannes  defeated 
an  Austrian  detachment  at  Montebello  on  .June 
9th,  but  on  the  14th  Bonaparte  found  himself 
forced  to  face  the  main  Austrian  army  of  31.000 
men  at  Marengo  with  only  18,000.  and  with 
difiieulty  saved  himself  from  complete  defeat. 
The  opportune  arrival  of  Desaix  after  the  battle 
was  really  over  led  to  a  renewal  of  tlie  fight,  to 
the  astonishment  of  the  Austrians,  who  were 
driven  from  the  field.  The  campaign  of  ilarengo 
was  a  masterpiece,  but  the  honors  of  the  victory 
itself  belong  to  Desaix,  who  bought  it  with  his  life, 
and  to  Lannes,  Bessi^res,  and  the  younger  Keller- 
niann.  Melas  evacuated  all  of  Italy  west  of  Man- 
tua, but  Au.stria  was  not  ready  to  make  peace  un- 
til she  had  been  defeated  by  Moreau  at  Hohenlin- 
den  (q.v. )  on  December  3d,  and  Macdonald  had 
crossed  the  Spliigen  and  threatened  Vienna.  Ne- 
gotiations were  then  opened  between  Cobenzl  and 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  and  on  February  9.  1801,  the 
Treaty  of  Liineville  was  signed.  England  was 
now  the  only  remaining  foe  of  I'^ranee.  England 
forced  the  French  to  evacuate  Egypt  and  cap- 
tured Malta;  while  Bonaparte  forced  Naples  and 
Portugal  to  abandon  the  English  alliance.  The 
faint-hearted  Addington  Ministry  in  England 
signed  preliminaries  of  peace  with  France  on 
October  1,  1801,  and  on  March  27,  1802.  Corn- 
wallis  and  Joseph  Bonaparte  signed  the  Treaty 
of  Amiens,  which  gave  France  complete  peace  for 
the  first  time  in  ten  years.  The  diplomatic 
genius  of  Bonaparte  shines  brightly  in  these 
treaties,  which  enabled  him  to  make  real  gains 
for  France  such  as  all  the  wars  of  Louis  XIV. 
had  failed  to  obtain.  He  carefully  hid  many 
things  in  these  treaties  for  future  use,  which 
enabled  him  to  appear  as  the  pacificator  and  re- 
organizer  not  only  of  France,  but  of  Europe,  and 
as  the  founder  of  a  great  colonial  empire.  Seeds 
for  future  war  were  as  carefully  sown,  which 
were  to  bring  forth  fruit  at  the  appropriate  sea- 
son. 


NAPOLEON  I. 


238 


NAPOLEON  I. 


Bonaparte  had  shown  himself  tl\c  greatest  mas- 
ter of  the  art  of  war,  and  one  of  tlie  shrewdest 
of  diplomats,  when  at  thirty  years  of  age  he  un- 
dertook the  duties  of  a  ruler,  law-giver,  and  ad- 
ministrator. His  greatness  lay  in  the  univer- 
sality of  his  genius  and  in  his  inordinate  ca- 
pacity fur  hard  work.  Further,  he  was  able  to 
conunand  the  services  of  many  men  of  e.\traor- 
dinary  ability,  and  to  make  their  work  his  own. 
His  reorganization  of  the  Government  of  France 
was  accomplished  in  a  few  months  and  comprised 
enough  achievements  of  the  first  order  to  have 
established  the  enduring  fame  of  several  .states- 
men. This  tremendous  activity  so  stirred  and 
inspired  his  ollieials  that  they  said  "the  gigantic 
entered  into  our  very  habits  of  thought."  With 
Gaudin  he  reorganized  the  treasury  department, 
regulated  the  assessment  and  collection  of  the 
taxes,  and  organized  the  Bank  of  France.  With 
Chaptal  he  reorganized  the  local  administration 
with  the  prefects  and  subprefects  responsible  to 
the  central  authority,  the  Council  of  State.  The 
schism  between  the  Catholic  Church  and  the  con- 
stitutional clergy  was  healed  an<l  the  Catholic 
Church  restored  to  its  old-time  place  in  France, 
by  the  negotiation  of  the  Concordat  (q.v.) 
with  Pius  VII.  in  1801.  The  Lutherans, 
the  Calvinists,  and  ultimately  even  the  Jews 
were  brought  into  similarly  close  relations  with 
the  State.  The  educational  system  was  recon- 
structed, especially  in  the  matter  of  secondary 
schools  and  of  technical  education.  The  work 
was  completed  by  the  establishment  in  1808  of 
the  Universit}'  of  France,  which  comprised  the 
whole  teaching  force  of  the  Empire.  The  estab- 
lishment of  tiie  Legion  of  Honor  in  Jlay,  1802, 
provided  a  means  of  recognizing  services  to  the 
State.  The  greatest  triumph  was  the  codification 
of  the  laws  of  France.  (See  Code  XapoliSon.) 
All  these  acts  revealed  Bonaparte  as  a  master 
workman  who  deftly  joined  together  in  a  perfect 
whole  the  many  parts  which  numerous  craftsmen 
had  wnmght  out  with  dirticulty  in  the  days  of 
the  Revolution. 

France  had  lost  her  colonial  empire  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  it  was  the  fonil  ho|)e  of 
Bonaparte  that  iie  might  restore  it  and  thus 
rival  England  in  commerce  and  upon  the  seas. 
To  this  end  he  began  a  series  of  en- 
terprises wliich  embraced  every  quarter  of 
the  globe — Xorth  and  South  America.  Africa, 
India  and  the  East,  and  Australia.  He  secured 
the  cession  of  Louisiana  from  Spain,  and  sent  an 
army  to  recover  Haiti,  where  the  blacks  had  suc- 
cessfully risen  against  their  op|)ressors.  In  all 
these  schemes  he  was  checkmated  by  England,  but 
on  the  Continent  of  Europe  he  was  hindered  by 
nothing  more  serious  than  protects  in  reaping  the 
fruit  of  the  wars  of  the  French  Hevolution.  He 
reconstituted  upon  the  new  French  lines  the 
Bntavian  Republic,  the  Cisalpine  Repid)lic  (which 
became  the  Italian  Republic).  an<l  the  Ligurian 
Republic  (1801-02).  He  extended  the  boimds  of 
France,  which  already  had  the  Rhine,  the  Pyre- 
nees, and  the  Alps  as  her  frontiers,  by  the  im- 
jiistifiable  annexation  of  Piedmont  and  Parma  in 
1802.  He  was  actively  concerned  in  the  reorgan- 
ization of  Switzerland  and  of  Oermanv  in  ISO.?. 
The  Treaty  of  .Xranjuez  (March  21.  18(11)  bound 
Spain  to  France,  while  Portugal,  the  faithful 
ally  of  Englanil.  was  humbled  by  the  Treaty  of 
Ba'dajoz  ( September  20,  1801), 

Bonaparte's  colonial  schemes  were   frustrated 


by  yellow  fever,  which  destroyed  General  Leclere 
and  his  army  in  Haiti  and  forced  the 
Consul  to  sacrifice  Louisiana  to  the  United 
States  (1803)  and  abandon  his  dream  of  em- 
pire beyond  the  seas.  Pique  at  this  disappoint- 
ment hastened  Bonaparte  into  the  predetermined 
rupture  with  England.  A  casu.i  belli  was  found 
in  the  question  of  Jlalta,  which  England  refused 
to  surrender  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the 
Treaty  of  Amiens.  Mortier  occupied  Hanover,  of 
which  George  III.  was  King.  (Jen.  Gouvion 
Saint-Cyr  was  ordered  to  occupy  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples,  an  ally  of  England,  to  ollset  the  occupa 
tion  of  Malta.  The  French  army  was  mobilized 
in  six  divisions  and  stationed  along  the  Channel 
from  Ostend  to  Brest.  War  existed  from  .May 
10,  180ii,  but  actual  hostilities  did  not  begin 
imtil  over  two  years  later.  In  the  meantime 
England  recalled  Pitt  to  office  (May,  1804). 
Pitt's  great  service  consisted  in  securing  allies 
and  in  forming  the  Third  Coalition  against 
France.  In  this  work  he  was  aided  by  Bona- 
parte's blunders,  the  most  notable  of  which  was 
the  execution  of  the  Due  d'Enghicn  (March  21, 
1804),  in  retaliation  for  the  Royalist  plots  of 
Pichegru  and  (Georges  Cadoudal.  On  the  day 
of  Pitt's  return  to  power,  Bonaparte  was  oflered 
the  title  of  Emperor  by  the  French  Senate,  and 
on  December  2,  1804,  he  was  crowned  Emperor 
as  Napoleon  I.  at  Paris  in  the  presence  of  Pope 
Pius  VII.  On  May  2Gth,  1805,  he  was  crowned 
at  Milan  King  of  Italy.  A  few  days  later  fol- 
lowed the  last  of  his  series  of  aggressions,  which 
provoked  Austria  and  Russia  into  the  alliance 
with  England,  the  annexation  to  France  of  the 
Ligurian  Republic  (.lune  4).  A  month  later 
Russia  and  England  signed  their  alliance  against 
Napoleon,  and  on  August  flth  they  were  secretly 
joined  by  Austria.  Sweden,  Portugal,  and  Naples 
were  practically,  though  not  formally,  parties  to 
this  coalition. 

For  two  years  Napoleon  had  been  dallying 
with  a  scheme  for  the  invasion  of  England.  In 
the  camps  alon^  the  Channel  he  had  organized, 
eq\iipped,  and  drilled  his  famous  (Irand  Army, 
com]iosed  largely  of  veterans  of  the  wars  of  the 
Revolution,  and  at  Boulogne  special  preparations 
had  long  been  under  way  for  an  attack  upon 
England.  The  summer  of  1805  seemed  the  pro- 
pitious time  for  the  attack,  and  Napoleon  made 
elaborate  dispositions  for  obtaining  mival  control 
of  the  Channel  and  for  the  transportation  of  an 
army  of  100,000  men  from  Boulogne  to  the 
Kentish  coast.  The  French  fleet  under  Villeneuve, 
however,  was  outmann-uvrcd  and  oulfotight  by 
the  English  under  Cornwallis.  (Wilder,  and  Nel- 
son. By  the  middle  of  August.  180.i,  the 
scheme  had  become  impossible  of  execution. 
Napoleon,  however,  had  foreseen  this  possi- 
bility; his  other  acts  had  already  provided 
him  with  another  chance  to  employ  his  army, 
and  he  had  worked  out  in  his  mind  the  plan 
of  his  most  brilliantly  successful  campaign, 
that  of  Austerlitz.  On' .Vugust  2nth  the  Army 
of  England  was  officially  denominated  the  Grand 
Army  and  divided  into  seven  corps  under  Herna- 
dotte.  Marmont,  Davout,  Soult.  LanTics.  Xey, 
and  .\ugereavi.  with  the  cavalry-  \mder  Miirat. 
anil  the  Imperial  Guard  luidcr  Bessi^res,  in  all 
about  220.000  men  under  the  personal  command 
of  the  Emperor,  with  Herthier  as  chief  of  stalT. 
War  was  declared  against  .Au-^tria  on  September 
2;')th,    and    the    next    dav    the    movement    of   the 


NAPOLEON  I. 


239 


NAPOLEON  I. 


Grand  Army  iutu  Soutliern  Gennany  began.  On 
the  part  of  Austria,  tlip  Arduliikp  Diaries, 
with  over  00,000  men,  the  best  <;''i"'ral  and 
the  hirjtest  army,  was  intrusted  with  operations 
in  Italy,  where  50.000  French  tr(Kips  were 
under  tlie  eonmiand  of  Massf-na,  wliile  the 
smaller  Austrian  army  under  the  command  of 
the  Arehduke  Ferdinand  and  General  Mack,  in- 
vaded Bavaria  and  occupied  the  untenable  line 
of  the  Danube  and  the  lller  with  headquarters 
at  Ulm,  This  move  left  Austria  almost  bare  of 
troops.  Making  a  feint  at  repeating  Moreau's 
tactics  of  1790  in  attempting  to  turn  Mack's 
left,  Napoleon  ordered  the  actual  attack  to  be 
made  on  the  right,  Bernadotte  and  Jlarmont 
occupied  ilunich,  Davout  and  Soult  seized  Augs- 
burg, while  Ney  and  Lannes  occupied  Giinzburg 
and  operated  to  the  north  of  Ulm.  Mack  made 
three  fruitless  attempts  to  extricate  himself,  but 
after  defeats  at  Wertingen,  Menimingen,  and 
Elehingen  (October  14th),  he  was  forced  to 
capitulate  with  .33,000  men  on  October  20th. 
Though  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  escaped,  Xapo- 
leon's  forces  were  tlius  able  to  advance  directly 
to  Vienna,  which  he  occupied  on  November  13tli. 
The  Russian  forces  which  had  been  advancing  to 
support  JIack  were  forced  to  fall  back  into 
Bohemia,  where  the  various  divisions  were  united 
under  the  command  of  Kutusoff  and  joined  by 
part  of  the  Austrian  forces.  Napoleon  marched 
northward  to  meet  them,  and  on  December  2d 
won  his  greatest  victory,  Austerlitz.  The  cam- 
paign of  Ulm  and  Au.sterlitz  was  won  by  Napo- 
leon's knowledge  of  the  value  of  time,  the 
whirlwind  rapidity  of  his  movements,  and  the 
precision  of  his  combinations.  The  battle  of 
Austerlitz  was  won  by  a  masterly  use  of  artillery. 
The  vanquished  Emperor  Francis  I,  of  Austria 
humbled  himself  before  Napoleon  in  the  Treat.v 
of  Pressburg  ( December  26th )  and  consented  to 
large  cessions  of  territory,  including  the  former 
Venetian  dominions,  Tyrol  (which  was  given  to 
Bavaria),  etc.  The  overthrow  of  Austria  re- 
sulted in  the  formal  dissolution  of  the'  old  Holy 
Roman  Empire   (August  6,  180G), 

What  Austerlitz  was  for  Napoleon  on  land, 
Trafalgar  was  for  England  on  the  .sea.  After 
a  brief  rest  at  home.  Nelson  had  been  ordered  out 
to  attack  Villeneuve,  who  with  the  combined 
French  and  Spanish  fleets  sailed  out  of  Cadiz  and 
met  Nelson  off  Cape  Trafalgar.  England's 
greatest  sea-fighter  won  the  greatest  naval  battle 
of  the  century,  but  lost  his  life  (October  21, 
1805).  After' this  the  French  were  able  to  do 
nothing  at  sea,  and  the  ports  of  both  France  and 
her  allies  were  generally  blockaded  by  the  English 
fleets.  England  was  undisputed  mistress  of  the 
Beas,  while  Napoleon  began  to  remake  the  map  of 
Europe  as  though  he  were  the  undisputed  master 
of  the  Continent.  The  most  important  changes 
during  the  vear  1806  were  the  formation  under 
his  protection  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Tlliine. 
the  establishment  of  his  brother  .Joseph  as  King 
of  Naples,  and  of  his  brother  Louis  as  King  of 
Holland,  and  the  creation  of  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Berg  for  his  brother-in-law  Murat.  The  death 
of  Pitt  (.January  23.  1806)  led  to  negotiations 
between  Napoleon  and  Fox,  the  new  Foreign 
Secretary.  These  negotiations,  as  well  as  those 
with  Russia,  came  to  naught,  and  to  Napoleon's 
surprise  this  failure  was  coupled  with  the  de- 
cision on  the  part  of  Frederick  William  TIT.  of 
Prussia  to  make  war  upon  him.     Single-handed 


Prussia  undertook  to  meet  Napoleon,  who,  as 
soon  as  he  foresaw  that  war  was  inevitable, 
acted  with  the  same  \igor  as  in  the  previous 
year.  The  Prussian  armv  under  Prince  Hohen- 
lohe-Ingeltingen  and  Charles  William  Ferdinand, 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  was  drawn  out  in  a  line 
eighty-tive  miles  in  length,  extending  from  Gera 
westward  to  the  borders  of  Hesse-Cassel  with 
the  bulk  at  Erfurt,  Napoleon  left  Paris  on  Sep- 
tember 25th  and  assumed  charge  of  the  campaign 
at  Wiirzburg  on  October  2d,  On  the  10th  Prince 
Louis  Ferdinand  was  defeated  and  slain  in  a 
skirmish  at  Saalfeld ;  on  the  14th  Napoleon  sur- 
prised the  Prussian  army  in  its  attempt  to  con- 
centrate, and  in  person  defeated  Hohenlohe  at 
Jena,  while  Davout  defeated  Brunswick  at  Auer- 
stiidt,  Murat  and  Lannes  pursued  Hohenlohe  and 
forced  him  to  surrender  at  Prenzlau  (October 
28th),  while  the  other  remnants  of  the  Prussian 
army  and  the  fortresses  surrendered  without  a 
blow.  Saxony,  which  had  acted  as  the  ally  of 
Prussia,  went  over  to  Napoleon,  and  later  re- 
ceived as  reward  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw.  From 
the  Prussian  capital  Napoleon  issued  the  Berlin 
Decree,  which,  with  the  Milan  Decree  of  1807  and 
other  decrees,  was  directed  against  English  com- 
merce.    See  Continental  Sy.stem, 

Prussia,  though  vanquished,  continued  weakly 
the  struggle  in  her  eastern  provinces,  where  Ben- 
nigsen  and  the  Russians  were  ready  to  join  in 
the  contest,  ilurat  occupied  Warsaw,  then  Prus- 
sian territory,  in  November,  1800.  In  December 
Napoleon  entered  the  ancient  Polish  capital  and 
was  greeted  as  the  restorer  of  Polish  liberties.  The 
French  having  gone  into  winter  quarters,  Ben- 
nigsen  hoped  to  surprise  them  and  destroy  them 
before  they  could  again  take  the  fielil,  and  accord- 
ingly attacked  Ney  and  Bernadotte,  but  their 
successful  resistance  defeated  the  plan  and  Napo- 
leon in  person  pursued  Bennigsen,  who  retreated 
toward  Kijnigsberg  and  overtook  him  at  Eylau 
(q.v.  I.  The  ensuing  battle  (  February-  7-8,  1807) 
was  a  butchery,  not  a  victory.  Napoleon  hurried 
up  reenforcements  to  renew  the  struggle  in  the 
spring.  Sebastian!,  the  French  Ambassador  at 
Constantinople,  persuaded  the  Sultan  to  declare 
war  against  Russia.  Gardane  was  sent  to  stir 
up  Persia  to  like  action.  Mortier  induced  the 
Sw-edes  to  treat  with  France.  The  campaign  for 
Ktinigsberg  liegan  early  in  June  and  was  marked 
by  the  indecisive  action  of  lleilsbcrg  (June  10) 
and  the  defeat,  four  days  later,  of  the  Russians 
under  Bennigsen  at  Friedlan<l  (q.v.).  On  June 
25th  the  Czar  and  Napoleon  held  tlieir  famous 
conference  of  Tilsit  (q.v.)  on  a  raft  moored  in 
the  Niemen.  By  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit,  Prussia 
was  humbled  even  more  than  Austria  had  been 
at  Pressburg,  while  the  Czar  became  the  ally  of 
Napoleon  and  began  to  plan  with  him  the  divi- 
sion of  the  world  between  thflm. 

Though  England,  under  the  Ministry  of  .Ml  the 
Talents,  had  behaved  very  badly  toward  Prussia 
and  Russia,  she  remained  the  one  .steadfast  foe 
of  the  French  Emperor,  and  purs\ied  without 
wavering  her  policy  of  opix)sition  to  Napoleon.  At 
Tilsit  Napoleon  bound  the  Czar  to  enforce  the 
Continental  System  against  England,  and  then 
began  the  task  of  compelling  all  the  lesser  Powers 
to  adhere  to  the  system.  There  were  to  be  no 
neutrals.  Portugal,  the  constant  ally  of  Eng- 
land, was  the  first  victim.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Fontainebleau  Napoleon  joined  with  Spain  to 
dismember  that  kingdom,  and  in  November.  1807, 


NAPOLEON  I. 


240 


NAPOLEON  I. 


a  French  army  uuder  Junot  occupied  the  coun- 
try with  little  trouble,  the  2oyal  family  having 
already  started  for  the  New  World  to  establish 
a  temporary  capital  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The 
year  ISOS  witnessed  the  unfolding  of  Napoleon's 
designs  against  Spain.  Gradually,  in  spite  of 
all  treaties,  French  troops  were  sent  across  the 
Pyrenees,  where  they  quietly  took  possession  of 
various  fortresses.  Spain  was  sutl'ering  from 
the  family  troubles  of  the  Bourbon  monarch, 
and  it  suited  Napoleon's  purpose  to  make  use 
of  them  and  to  order  the  advance  of  a  French 
army  under  Murat  toward  lladrid.  This  move- 
ment precipitated  the  fall  of  the  Bourbons. 
Charles  IV.  was  compelled  by  a  popular  uprising 
to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  son,  Ferdinand 
VII.  (Jlarch),  and  a  little  later  father  and 
son,  at  a  meeting  with  Napoleon  at  Bayonne, 
were  forced  to  renounce  the  Spanish  throne.  On 
June  6,  1808,  Joseph  Bonaparte  was  proclaimed 
King  (if  Spain.  For  an  account  of  the  struggle 
in  Spain  and  Portugal,  see  Pemnsilar  \\  ar. 

In  Austria  Francis  I.  had  called  to  ollice  as  his 
chief  minister  Count  Philip  Stadion.  who,  with 
the  aid  of  Archduke  Charles,  devoted  himself  to 
the  task  of  preparing  Austria  for  another  strug- 
gle with  Napoleon.  The  misfortimes  of  Najioleon 
in  Spain  and  the  urgency  of  England,  which 
offered  liberal  subsidies  and  active  coiiperatiun, 
<ietermined  the  Austrians  to  try  their  fortunes 
once  more  in  the  spring  of  180t).  In  .Xpril  Ardi- 
<luke  Charles  opened  the  war  liv  invading  Bavaria, 
"while  another  force  under  Archdid<e  Jolm  invaded 
Italy.  Napoleon  reached  the  scene  ])rom])tly  and 
in  the  five  days'  fighting  (A])ril  10th-'23d)  around 
Ratisbon  completely  defeated  the  Austrian  jilan 
of  campaign  and  forced  Archduke  Charles  to 
retreat  toward  Vienna,  which  the  victorious 
Emperor  entered  on  May  1.3tli.  He  then 
crossed  the  Danube  and  attacked  the  .Vrchduke. 
who  had  taken  up  strong  positions  in  the  villages 
of  Aspern  and  Essling.  Two  days  of  hard  light- 
ing (Slay  21st-22d)  failed  to  give  Napoleon  any 
decided  advantage,  and  he  found  himself  and  his 
army  practically  prisoners  on  the  island  of 
Lobau  in  the  Danube.  With  his  accustomed  vigor 
he  ordered  up  reenforcements  and  reorganized  tlie 
troops  under  him.  On  July  5th  Napoleon  left 
the  island  of  Lobau  and  on  the  tith  defeated  the 
Archduke  Charles  in  a  great  battle  at  Wagram. 
On  October  14th  was  signed  the  Treaty  of  Schiln- 
brunn  (q.v. ),  by  which  Austria  was  forced  to 
make  large  cessions  of  territory  to  the  overhear- 
ing conqueror.  From  1800  to  1812  the  main 
strength  of  the  French  Empire  was  devoted  to 
contin\iing  the  struggle  in  the  Peninsula.  A 
niimber  of  isolated  events  in  other  parts  of  Eu- 
ro]ie.  however,  made  the  period  important.  In 
pursuance  of  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit,  the  Czar  robbed 
Sweden  of  Finland  (1808).  and  in  the  same  year 
the  French  seized  Swedish  Pomerania.  The  next 
year  the  Swedish  Kingdom  was  the  scene  of  a 
revolution.  Oustavus  IV.  was  deposed  and  his 
tincle  plaeerl  on  the  throne  as  Charles  XIII. 
Marshal  liernadotte.  the.  brother-in-law  of  .Joseph 
Bonaparte,  was  elected  heir  to  the  childless  mon- 
archy and  intnisted  with  the  govermnent  of  the 
kingdom.  (See  Ciiari.f.s  XTV.)  Denmark  bad 
likewise  heen  rriarked  to  sufTer  on  behalf  of  Napo- 
leon's Continental  System:  but  in  this  instance  he 
was  forestalled  by  Englaml,  which  seized  the  Dan- 
ish fleet  in  Seiitember,  1807.  After  the  Treaty  of 
Tilsit  a  kingtiom  of  Westphalia  was  carved  out 


for  Jerome  Bonaparte  in  Germany,  and  numerous 
changes  made  in  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine. 
Napoleon  enlarged  his  own  empire  by  the  an- 
nexation of  Tuscany  (1807).  the  Papal  States 
(180SI),  Holland  (1810),  \alais,  and  the  German 
coastline  to  Liibeck  (1810).  He  also  kept  the 
Illyrian  provinces,  which  had  been  wrested  from 
Austria,  for  himself.  Naples  was  transferred  to 
ilurat  after  the  choice  of  Joseph  as  King  of 
S])ain.  Pojie  Pius  VII.,  the  same  pontilT  who  had 
conscerated  Napoleon  as  lMii|ieriir  in  1804,  was 
carried  away  as  a  prisoner  and  kcjit  in  confine- 
ment. The  new  Cajsar  nuist  have  an  heir  to  his 
empire,  and  accordingly  Josci)hine,  to  whom  the 
Emperor  was  greatly  attached,  was  divorced  and 
a  marriage  arranged  in  1810  with  the  Arch- 
duchess Maria  Louisa  of  Austria,  daughter  of  the 
Emperor  Francis,  who  bore  Napoleon  one  son.  the 
King  of  Rome  (1811).  From  Napoleon's  policy 
England  profited  as  much  as  did  France,  for  the 
whole  connncrce  of  the  seas  was  under  her  con- 
trol and  she  had  seized  the  colonies  of  France 
and  all  those  of  the  countries  under  French  con- 
trol or  influence  that  she  saw  fit.  During  the 
years  from  1809  to  1815  England  furnished  the 
inspiration  and  the  sinews  of  war  for  every 
campaign  against  Napoleon,  but  it  was  only  in 
the  Peninsula  that  she  was  directly  responsible 
for  the  conduct  of  the  campaign,  which  was  car- 
ried on  with  desperation  on  both  sides  till  the 
French  were  driven  beyond  the  Pyrenees  in  1814. 
For  three  years  after  Wagram  Napoleon  did 
not  in  person  conduct  a  single  military  operation. 
Family  affairs  and  the  administration  of  his 
great  empire  occupied  all  his  attention.  During 
these  years  many  changes  were  taking  place 
which  presaged  the  downfall  of  the  great  con- 
queror. Austria  was  very  cautiously  strengthen- 
ing her  position  under  the  skillful  direction  of 
iletternich.  The  regeneration  of  Prussia  \mder 
Stein,  Scharnhorst,  and  llardenberg  is  <me  of 
the  most  notable  events  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. Russia  was  never  content  with  the  French 
alliance,  and  the  enforcement  of  the  Continental 
System  was  causing  great  suffering  and  discon- 
tent, and  the  Czar  Alexander  was  beginning  to 
lose  his  enthusiastic  admiration  for  Napoleon, 
who  had  ofTended  him  by  concluding  a  matri- 
monial alliance  with  Austria  witliout  waiting  for 
an  answer  to  his  ri'ijuest  for  the  hand  of  a 
grand  duchess  in  iiiarrinL'c.  anil,  most  of  all.  by 
the  annexation  of  Oldenburg  to  France.  The  es- 
trangement was  increased  by  the  Cirsarism  of  Na- 
poleon, who  could  no  liHiger  endure  the  existence 
of  even  a  friendly  rival.  .Mexander,  duly  warned 
of  Napoleon's  intentions,  turned  to  England  and 
in  1812  entered  into  a  close  alliance  with  her.  With 
Turkey  be  negotiated  the  Peace  of  Bucharest  (  May 
28th).  and  with  Sweden  not  only  |)eace.  but  alli- 
ance (.\pril  5tli).  Najiolcon  left  Paris  early  in 
>Iay,  and  went  direct  to  Dresden,  where  he  took 
care  to  bind  Prussia,  .\ustria.  and  the  other  Ger- 
man States  more  closely  to  his  cause.  Then  he 
entered  Poland,  where  lie  regulated  the  internal 
affairs  and  supervised  the  mobilization  of  his 
army.  On  June  22d  he  issiied  a  declaration  of 
war  against  Russia.  The  passage  of  the  Niemen 
was  begim  on  .Tunc  24th,  and  by  the  end  of  the 
month  Napoleon  had  400,000  men  across  the  Rus- 
sian frontier.  The  Czar  had  between  250.000  and 
.'iOO.dOO  men  under  arms,  but  only  about  oTiehalf 
of  this  number  ready  to  face  Na))oleon  under  Bar- 
clay de  Tolly  and  Bagration.  who  conducted  a  F.i- 


NAPOLEON  I. 


241 


NAPOLEON  I. 


bian  campaign.  Napoleon  found  the  country  Jevas- 

tulecl  and  abandoned  as  he  advanced,  with 
nu  enemy  to  make  a  stand  against  liim.  Like 
Charles  Xll.,  a  century  earlier,  he  was  being 
lured  to  his  ruin.  At  Smolensk  (August  17th- 
18th)  the  French  encountered  tlie  first  serious 
resistance.  Napoleon  as  he  advanced  had  to 
leave  large  bodies  of  troops  along  his  line  of 
march,  and  he  detached  a  large  force  to  the 
northward  to  capture  Mitau  and  Riga  and 
tlireateu  Saint  Petersburg.  Russian  discontent 
became  pronounced  as  the  people  saw  Barclay  de 
T(dly  and  liagration  permitting  Napoleon  to  ad- 
vance unresisted  on  their  ancient  capital,  Mos- 
cow. The  two  generals  allowed  themselves  to  be 
superseded  liy  Kutusoff,  who  chose  his  ground, 
and  on  September  7th  ofl'ered  battle  to  the  French 
at  Borodino  (q.v.).  It  was  the  bloodiest  battle  of 
the  century,  the  losses  probably  aggregating  40,- 
000  on  each  side.  The  loss  to  Napoleon,  who  could 
obtain  no  reenforcements,  was  fatal,  but  still  he 
pressed  on  and  entered  Moscow  (September  14th) 
onh'  to  find  himself  robbed  of  the  fruit  of  victory 
by  the  terrible  confhigration  Avhich  broke  out 
two  days  later.  With  a  folly  tliat  seemed  mad- 
ness. Napoleon  lingered  in  the  city  until  October 
lilth  before  beginning  the  retreat.  The  hard- 
fought  drawn  battle  of  Malo-Yaroslavitz  (October 
'24th)  compelled  Napoleon  to  retreat  by  the  same 
desert  road  on  which  he  had  advanced,  instead 
of  by  a  more  soutlierly  route  through  country  not 
yet  devastated  by  war.  Suft'erings  from  the  cold 
and  from  lack  of  food  were  intensified  liy  the 
constant  presence  of  the  Russians  on  the  flanks 
and  in  the  rear.  The  expected  supplies  were  not 
found  at  Smolensk,  and  the  sufferings  of  the 
French  reached  their  terrible  climax  at  the  cross- 
ing of  the  Beresina  (November  2()th-28th),  where 
thousands  perished  in  spite  of  the  heroic  efforts 
of  Oudinot  and  Ney.  A  week  later  Napoleon 
turned  over  the  command  to  Murat  and  hastened 
to  reach  Paris  and  organize  a  new  army  before 
the  news  of  the  great  disaster  shoiild  become 
known  in  Western  Europe.  Ney,  the  bravest  of 
the  brave,  in  command  of  the  rear-guard,  pro- 
tected the  retreat,  but  only  20,000  out  of  the 
400,000  who  had  crossed  the  Niemen  in  .June  re- 
crossed  it  in  December.  The  disaster,  however, 
was  greater  than  the  mere  loss  of  an  army  of 
400.000  men.  Napoleon  had  lost  his  prestige, 
and  henceforth  Castlereagh,  the  English  Foreign 
jMinister,  and  the  Czar  Alexander  supplanted 
Napoleon  as  controllers  of  the  destinies  of  Eu- 
rope. The  Czar  advanced  into  Eastern  Prussia, 
where  he  in.stalled  as  Governor  the  ex-Minister 
Stein,  who  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  great 
Prussian  patriotic  rising  against  Napoleon. 
Driven  by  this  outburst  of  national  spirit,  Fred- 
crick  William  III.  signed  an  alliance  with  the 
Czar  at  Kalisz  (February  27.  1S13).  Austria, 
under  jMetternich,  hesitated  between  Napoleon 
and  Alexander  and  olTered  to  mediate.  Napo- 
leon sent  into  Germany  a  new  army  made  up  of 
conscripts  and  of  troops  withdrawn  from  Spain, 
and  on  April  20th.  at  Weimar,  assumed  the  direc- 
tion of  the  campaign  of  1813,  which  he  had  de- 
cided to  fight  on  the  line  of  the  Elbe,  where 
Eug&ne  de  Beanharnais  and  Davout  were  strug- 
gling to  check  the  Russians  and  repress  the  Prus- 
sians. Successes  at  Liitzen  and  Oross-Gc'irschen 
(May  2d)  on  the  great  plain  aroimd  Leipzig 
enabled  Napoleon  to  occupy  Dresden  as  his  base 


of  operations,  and  advance  to  Bautzen,  where  he 

defeated  the   Allies  on   .May  20th-21st. 

Napoleon  should  h;ive  followed  up  this  move- 
ment with  vigor,  but  lie  hesitated  because  of  the 
untrained  condition  of  his  army  and  of  the  atti- 
tude of  Austria.  Bernadotte,  after  the  Treaty  of 
Stockholm  with  England  (March  3d),  had  landed 
at  Stralsund,  prepared  to  take  an  active  part  in 
the  overthrow  of  Napoleon,  whom  he  had  learned 
to  hate  bitterly.  Moreau,  the  only  surviving 
French  rival  of  Napoleon,  was  sununoned  from 
America  to  act  as  chief  adviser  of  the  Allies. 
England  signed  new  treaties  with  Prussia  and 
Russia  (June  14th- 1.5th),  and  the  Czar  and  Met- 
ternich  signed  at  Reichenbaeh  (June  27lli)  a 
secret  treaty,  by  which  Austria  bound  herself  to 
join  the  Allies  if  Napoleon  did  not  accept  her 
proposals  before  the  expiration  of  the  truce,  on 
August  10th.  This  was  equivalent  to  a  treaty 
of  alliance,  for  it  was  certain  that  the  Congress 
of  Prague  would  accomplish  nothing.  On  Au- 
gust lOtli  the  Austrian  army  under  Schwarzen- 
berg  began  operations  in  Bohemia  in  concert  with 
the  allied  army  luider  Bliicher  in  Silesia.  The  vic- 
tory of  Wellington  at  Vittoria  (June  21,  1813) 
encouraged  tlie  Allies  and  made  a  great  victory 
an  absolute  necessity  to  Napoleon,  who  promptly 
took  the  oft'ensive  and  attempted  to  force  a  battle 
with  Bliicher  near  Giirlitz  and  crush  him  and 
then  turn  against  Schwarzenberg.  Bliicher 
evaded  battle  and  Scliwarzcnbcrg  advanced  to  at- 
tack Dresden.  Napoleon  reached  Dresden  just  in 
time,  and  on  August  26th-27th  won  his  last  great 
victory.  (See  Dresden,  Battle  of.)  For  the 
moment  Dresden  was  saved,  but  the  success  was 
more  than  oft'set  by  the  defeats  inflicted  upon  his 
subordinates,  Oudinot  at  Grossbeeren  (August 
23d),  Maedonald  on  the  Katzbach  (August 
2Gth),  Vandamnie  at  Kulni  (August  29th- 
30th ) ,  and  Ney  at  Dennewitz  ( September 
0th).  The  losses  of  Napoleon  during  the 
ten  ■  days'  campaign  were  almost  overwhelming 
and  irretrievable,  while  reenforcements  speedily 
made  good  the  losses  of  the  Allies.  Napoleon 
failed  to  appreciate  that  the  line  of  the  Elbe 
had  become  untenable  from  the  moment  that 
Austria  joined  the  Allies,  and  instead  of  falling 
back  of  the  Rhine  and  ofl'ering  to  negotiate,  he 
continued  to  struggle  to  hold  Dresden.  Constant 
rains  and  bad  roads  had  been  an  important 
factor  in  the  August  campaigns  and  prevented 
Napoleon,  in  spite  of  his  boundless  energy  and 
activity,  from  accomplishing  anything  in  Septem- 
ber. This  failure  was  fatal,  for  in  October  the 
Allies,  who  had  defined  tlieir  relations  in  the 
Treaty  of  Toplitz  (September  lOth),  took  the 
offensive  and  developed  their  campaign  with  such 
skill  that  Napoleon  was  completely  deceived 
until  they  had  nearly  completed  their  disposi- 
tions. Bliicher.  unpereeived.  crejit  around  Napo- 
leon's left,  got  in  touch  with  Bernadotte.  and  ad- 
vance<l  toward  Leipzig  from  tlie  north,  while 
Schwarzenberg  was  advancing  from  the  soutli 
toward  the  same  place.  Napoleon  left  Gouvion 
Saint-Cyr  to  hold  Dresden  and  Inirriedly  concen- 
trated all  available  forces  to  protect  Leipzig  and 
hold  his  lines  of  communication.  For  three  days 
(October  Kith,  ISfh.  and  lOth),  -the  Battle  of  the 
Nations'  raged  around  Leipzig,  and  on  the  last  day 
the  Frencli  were  driven  out  of  Leipzig  in  a  disas- 
trous rout.  (See  Leipzig.  Batti.e.s  of.)  Napoleon 
retreated  hastily  behind  the  Rhine,  .stopping  only 
to  destroy,  at  Hanau    (October  30th).  the  army 


NAPOLEON  I. 


242 


NAPOLEON  I. 


of  Bavaria,  which  had  recently  joined  the  Allies. 
Napoleon  made  a  serious  mistake  iu  leaving  able 
lieutenants  with  large  garrisons  to  hold  the  great 
Cierman  fortresses,  thus  depriving  himself  of  the 
assistance  of  Rapp,  who  held  Danzig  with  8000 
men;  Davout,  who  was  shut  up  in  Hamburg  with 
12,000  men,  and  many  others.  These  places  were 
besieged  and  captured  by  the  Allies  during  the 
ensuing  months,  but  the  bulk  of  the  allied 
army  pressed  on  toward  Paris.  Bliicher  with  the 
Prussians  and  part  of  the  Russians  crossed  the 
Rhine  at  Caub  (December  31st)  and  began  the 
invasion  of  France :  Schwarzeiiberg.  with  the 
Austrians  and  the  rest  of  the  Russians,  entered 
France  by  the  way  of  Basel.  To  meet  this  double 
invasion.  Napoleon  could  only  muster  a  Bniall 
army.  This  he  interpo.sed  between  Bliicher  and 
Schwarzenberg,  whom  he  defeated  in  turn. 
Bliicher's  army  was  disper.sed  in  the  battles  of 
Bricnne,  Champaubert.  ilontmirail.  and  Vau- 
chanips.  between  January  2nth  and  February  14, 
1814.  while  divisions  of  Scliwarzenberg's  army 
were  severely  worsted  at  Nangis  ( February  17th) 
and  Montereau   (February  18th). 

This  first  defensive  campaign  of  1814  is  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  defensive  tiglits  in  military 
history.  The  military  genius  of  Napoleon  never 
shone  more  brightly,  though  the  dulling  of  his 
political  sense  made  his  failure  inevitable.  With 
a  little  army  of  worn  out  and  defeated  men, 
reenforced  by  a  few  hastily  collected  and  un- 
trained conscripts,  he  thrust  himself  between  two 
vastly  superior  forces  against  which  he  hurled 
himself  alternately  with  sucli  swiftness,  skill,  and 
violence  as  to  shatter  the  hostile  armies  and 
frustrate  the  plans  of  the  opposing  generals. 
Finally,  worn  out,  he  had  to  succumb  to  tlie  over- 
whehning  numbers  of  the  foe  and  to  the  in- 
separable obstacles  of  time  and  space. 

Napoleon,  who  had  refused  to  accept  the  pro- 
posals of  Frankfort  .submitted  by  the  Allies  on 
November  9,  181.3.  now  sent  C'a\ilaincourt  to 
meet  their  representatives  in  the  (\mgress  of 
Chntillon  (February  .-iMarch  19.  1814),  hut  with 
instructions  to  'sign  nothing.'  The  Allies  once 
more  (lelined  their  relations  to  one  another  in 
the  Treaty  of  Chaumont  (March  1st),  brought 
up  new  troojis.  and  prepared  to  crush 
Napoleon.  Napoleon's  second  defensive  cam- 
paign of  1814  was  a  brilliant  failure — a  stubborn 
struggle  against  the  inevitable.  The  first  blows 
were  struck  at  Bliicher  on  JIarch  7th  and  Oth 
at  Craonnc  and  l.aon.  l)>it  failed  to  interrupt 
Bliicher's  campaign  seriously.  .-\n  attack  upon 
a  part  of  Scliwarzenberg's  army  at  Areis-sur- 
.Aube  met  with  no  better  success,  and  so  Napoleon 
turned  to  the  eastward  to  threaten  Schwarzcn- 
berg's  line  of  eomnuinieation.  But  the  great  dis- 
parity of  forces  enabled  the  Allies  to  neglect  this 
movement  and  to  concentrate  nn  Paris.  Schwarz- 
enlierg  and  Bliicher  arrived  before  Paris  on  March 
.'iOtb.  and  after  hard  fighting  with  Marmont. 
]Mortier.  and  Moneey,  occupied  the  French  cap- 
ital. The  Fniperor  arrived  just  a  few  hours  too 
late  to  strike  a  blow  in  defense  of  his  capital. 
and  could  only  make  an  obstinate  attempt  to  re- 
new the  struggle  south  of  Paris,  but  Ney  and 
the  other  marshals  finally  forced  him  to  listen  to 
reason  (April  4th)  and  to  bring  the  campaign 
to  a  clo.se.  In  the  southwest,  ."^oult  had  been 
driven  from  position  to  position  and  was  about 
to  lose  his  Inst  battle  at  Toulouse.  Suchet  had 
withdrawn    from    Spain   too   late   to   help   Soult  ; 


Augereau  at  Lyons  had  failed  to  disturb 
Schwarzcnberg's  left  flank.  In  Italy  Murat  had 
deserted  to  the  enemy,  negotiated  with  Austria, 
and  turned  the  Neapolitan  army  against  Kugfrne 
Beauharnais.  the  Viceroy  of  Italy,  who  faith- 
fully and  ably  faced  the  triple  danger  of  JIurat's 
treachery,  the  invasion  of  the  Austrians,  and  the 
occupation  of  Genoa  by  an  Englisli  force  under 
Lord  William  Bentinck.  On  April  lllh  Napoleon, 
the  Emperor  of  the  French,  formally  abdicated  at 
Fontainebleau  in  favor  of  his  infant  son,  the  King 
of  Rome. 

In  the  stipulations  with  the  .\llies.  Napoleon 
was  allowed  to  retain  the  title  and  state  of 
Emiieror,  but  was  to  be  detained  as  a  prisoner 
on  the  island  of  Elba.  The  relations  between 
the  newly  restored  Bourbons  and  the  Allies 
were  settled  by  the  First  Treaty  of  Paris  on 
May  .'iOth.  The  changes  which  had  taken  place 
in  Europe  since  the  outbreak  of  war  in  1792 
had  been  such  that  the  old  order  could  not 
be  restored,  and  accordingly  a  Congress  of  tho 
Powers  was  sunnnoned  to  meet  at  \icnna  to 
make  the  necessary  new  arrangements.  These 
were  completed  on  Jvme  9.  1S1.">.  But  in  the 
meantime  Napoleon  had  left  Elba,  landed  in 
France  on  March  1st,  made  his  way  to  Paris, 
reestablislied  his  power,  gathered  a  new  army  and 
advanced  to  attack  the  Allies,  whose  representa- 
tives at  Vienna  planned  at  once  to  place  new 
armies  in  the  field  and  overthrow  him  a  second 
time.  (See  HiKDEEn  Day.s.)  The  campaign, 
wliich  lasted  only  a  week,  included  Napoleon's 
defeat  of  Bliicher  at  Ligny  (q.v.)  on  .hme  IGth, 
Ney's  figlit  with  Wellington  at  (.^uatreBras  on 
the  same  day.  and  the  final  overthrow  of  NajjO- 
leon  on  the  field  of  Waterloo  (q.v. )  by  Welling- 
ton and  Bliicher  on  June  18.  ISl.?.  After  tliia 
last  battle  Napoleon  fied  to  Paris,  where  he  abdi- 
cated a  second  time  on  .lune  22d.  For  a  few  days 
he  hesitated  between  dreams  of  again  playing  a 
part  in  France  and  plans  for  an  escape  to  Amer- 
ica. The  first  was  preposterous,  the  second  im- 
possil>le,  and  on  .luly  15th  be  surrendered  him- 
self to  Captain  Maitland  on  hoard  tlie  English 
ship  Iirll(ii>phi>it.  The  Allies  under  Bliicher 
had  entered  I'aris  a  second  time  on  July  7th  and 
made  the  final  adjustments  for  the  settlement 
of  Euro])c  in  the  Second  Treaty  of  I'aris  on 
November  20th.  Napoleon  was  taken  to  England, 
and  after  some  dclib<>ration  his  request  to  be 
permitted  to  settle  in  England  was  refused.  He 
was  transferred  to  the  ship  XorlhiiDilitrliind  and 
on  October  llith  landed  on  the  island  of  Saint 
Helena.  In  his  captivity  he  was  accompanied 
In'  his  faithful  friend  Bertrand.  and  by  (Jour- 
gaud.  Montholon,  Las  Cases,  and  a  number  of 
other  indiviiluals  of  minor  importance.  In  1816 
Sir  Hudson  Lowe,  a  British  soldier,  arrived  as 
Governor  of  the  island.  Napoleon's  chief  occu- 
])ation8  as  a  captive  were  his  quarrels  with  Lowe, 
and  his  monologni's  with  Gourgaud  and  Montho- 
lon. which  they  wrote  out  and  sulimifted  for  cor- 
rection to  the  Kmperor.  These  documents  form  a 
parti.il  autobiography,  valualile  not  for  its  facts, 
but  for  llic  liglit  which  it  sheds  upon  Napoleon's 
character.  Napolc(m  gave  himself  up  to  long 
periods  of  gloom  and  humored  liimself  in  the 
mo-it  inexcusable  obstinacies  when  a  more  ra- 
tional behavior  would  have  improved  his  health 
and  rendered  his  surroundings  more  agreeable 
socially.  Cancer  of  the  stiuuacb,  which  had  car- 
ried off  his  father,  and  which  was  to  cause  the 


NAPOLEON  I. 


243 


NAPOLEON  III. 


deatli  of  two  of  his  sisters,  was  slowly  uiuler- 
miiiing  his  health,  and  on  May  5,  1821,  he 
breathed  his  last  at  the  set  of  sun.  He  was 
buried  with  military  honors  upon  the  island,  but 
in  accord  with  his  own  request,  his  remains  were 
in  1S40  taken  I'rom  the  island,  attended  by  the 
faithful  Bertrand,  and  under  the  direction  of 
Louis  Philippe  placed  in  a  magnificent  sar- 
cophagus beneath  the  Dome  of  the  Hotel  des  In- 
valides  in  Paris. 

John  Holland  Rose  has  perhaps  given  the  most 
correct  summary  of  the  qualities  which  made  Na- 
poleon great :  "He  was  superlatively  great  in  all 
that  pertains  to  government,  the  quickening  of 
human  energies,  and  the  art  of  war.  His  great- 
ness lies,  not  only  in  the  abiding  importance  of 
his  best  undertakings,  but  still  more  in  the 
Titanic  force  that  he  threw  into  the  inception  and 
accomplishment  of  all  of  tliem — a  force  which 
invests  the  storm-blasted  monoliths  strewn  along 
the  latter  portion  of  his  career  with  a  majesty 
unapproachable  by  a  tamer  race  of  toilers.  After 
all,  the  verdict  of  mankind  awards  the  highest 
distinction,  not  to  prudent  mediocrity  that  shuns 
the  chance  of  failure  and  leaves  no  lasting  mark 
liehind,  but  to  the  eager  soul  that  grandly  dares, 
mightily  achieves,  and  holds  the  hearts  of  mil- 
lions even  amidst  his  ruin  and  theirs.  Such  a 
wonder-worker  was  Xapoleon.  The  man  who 
bridled  the  Revolution  and  remolded  the  life 
of  France,  who  laid  broad  and  deep  the  founda- 
tions of  a  new  life  in  Italy,  Switzerland,  and 
Germany,  who  rolled  the  West  in  on  the  East 
in  the  greatest  movement  known  since  the  Cru- 
sades, and  finally  drew  the  yearning  thoughts  of 
myriads  to  that  solitary  rock  in  the  South  At- 
lantic, must  ever  stand  in  the  very  forefront  of 
the  immortals  of  human  story." 

UiBLioGR.'iPnY.  An  excellent  Life  in  English 
is  Rose.  Life  of  \<ipolcoi>  I.  (New  York.  1901 ) .  Of 
the  numerous  other  works  on  the  life  and  times  of 
Napoleon,  the  more  important  are:  Bignon,  Eis- 
toire  de  France  sous  Xapoleon  (14  vols..  Paris, 
1S29-50)  :  Thibaudeau.  Le  Consulat  et  VEmpire 
(10  vols.,  ib.,  1834-3.5)  ;  Thiers.  "Histoire  de  la 
Hevoliitioii  francaise  (10  vols.,  ib.,  1823-27); 
*Bist(iire  du  Consulat  ef  de  I'Empire  (21  vols., 
ib.,  1845-61)  :  Lanfrey,  *Histoire  de  Sapoleon  (.5 
vols.,  ib.,  ISdO-T.T).  which  ends  at  1811:  Four- 
nier,  ^Xapoleon  /..  einc  Bioiiraphietheipzig,  188C- 
89).  For  the  early  life  of  Bonaparte:  Iting, 
Bonaparte  et  son  temps  (Paris,  1880-81),  and 
C'huquet,  La  jenncsse  de  yapoleon  (ib.,  1897-99), 
are  the  most  important.  For  the  personal  life 
of  Napoleon,  LCn'y,  yapolion  intime  (Paris, 
1892);  Jlasson.  *yapoleon  et  les  femmes  (ib., 
1893):  Xapoleon  et  sa  fumille  (6  vols.,  ib., 
1897-1903)  :  XapoUon  ehez  lui  (ib..  1893)  :  and 
Xapoleon  inconnu  (ib.,  189.5).  are  the  most  valu- 
able. On  the  military  genius  of  Napoleon  the 
most  accessible  are:  Ropes.  The  First  Xapoleon 
(Boston.  188.5)  and  Campaifin  of  Waterloo  (New 
York.  1893)  ;  Sargent.  Xapoleon  Bonaparte's 
First  Campaifin  (Chicago,  1894)  and  Campaifin 
of  Marenno  (ib.,  1897)  :  Houssave,  i.S/.';  (Paris, 
1888)  and  ISl-',  (ib..  1894-99)  :'  and  York  von 
Wartenburg. tA""/>o/ro)i  als  Feldherr CBerMn.  1885- 
8G).  For  naval  affairs:  JIahan,  Influence  of  Sea 
Poiver  Upon  the  French  Revolution  and  Empire 
(London.  1893).  For  ecclesiastical  atiairs: 
Haussonville,  L'Eglise  romaine  et  le  premier  Em- 
pire. ISnO-l'i  (P.nris,  1868-70) .  may  be  cited.  For 
the  relations  with  the  Germanic  States  the  most 


notable  works  are  Oneken,  Das  Zeitaltcr  der 
Uevolution,  des  Kaiscrreichs  und  der  Befreiungs- 
Icriege  (Berlin,  1884-86):  Bailleu,  I'reussen  und 
Frankreich,  1796-1807  (Leipzig,  1887);  Beer, 
iZehn  Jahre  osterreichischer  Polilik,  IHOI-IO  {ih., 
1887)  ;  Wertheimer,  Oesehiclite  Oesterreichs  und 
Vngarns  im  erstcn  Jahrzehnt  des  neunzchnten 
Jahrliunderts  (ib.,  1884-90).  For  relations  with 
Russia,  Bogdanovitch,  Hisloirc  du  regne  d'Alex- 
undre  ler  (Paris,  1869-71);  Tatisheff,  XapoUon 
et  le  Tsar  Alexandre  (ib.,  1891).  For  relations 
with  Spain,  Gomez  de  Arteche,  Guerra  della  In- 
dependeneia  (1868  et  seq. ).  For  relations  with 
Italy,  Tivaroni,  Htoria  critica  del  risorgimento 
ilaliano.  vols,  i.-iii.  (Turin,  1889-91).  For  rela- 
tions with  England  and  the  United  States.Adams, 
History  of  the  United Hl(ites,lHf)  1-17 (^  vols..  New 
York,  1889-91).  For  original  documents  consult 
tile  files  of  the  Monileur ;  the  volumes  of  the 
Archives  parlementaires ;  Xapoleon  /.,  Corre- 
spondance  (32  vols.,  Paris,  1858-70)  ;  and  the  new 
volumes  of  Napoleon's  correspondence  published 
recentl}'  by  Leeestre  and  b.v  Brotonne.  Of  great 
value  are  many  of  the  writings  by  and  on  the 
contemporaries  of  Napoleon,  such  as  his  mar- 
shals, notably  Davout.  Marmont,  and  Soult ;  his 
ministers,  notabl,v  Talleyrand,  Savarv,  and 
Chaptal ;  his  generals  and  subordinates,  cspe- 
peciall,y  Dumas,  Fov.  '.Jomini.  *iIarbot,  Segur, 
*Thiebault,  and  Vandamme;  his  brothers  Joseph, 
Lucien,  Louis,  and  .Jerome,  and  his  stepson  En- 
gine de  Beauharnais;  personal  attendants  like 
Bourrienne,  "Meneval,  Las  Cases,  and  IMontlio- 
lon :  minor  oflicials  and  others,  notably  *!Miot  de 
ilelito,  *Pasquier,  Roederer,  Otivrard,  Lavalette, 
Vitrolles,  and  lime,  de  Remusat.  Of  great  value 
are  also  similar  works  by  or  on  the  Prussians. 
Hardenberg,  Stein,  Scharnhorst,  Gneisenau,  and 
Clausewitz;  the  Anstrians,  Metternieh,  Gentz, 
and  the  Archduke  Charles :  the  English.  Castlc- 
reagh.  Canning,  Nelson,  Wellington,  and  Napier; 
and  the  Russian,  Barela.v  de  Tolly. 

NAPOLEON  II.  Son  of  Napoleon  I.  See 
Reichstadt.  Duke  of. 

NAPOLEON  III.,  CiFAELEs  Lotns  Napoleon 
BoxAPARTE  (1808-73).  Emperor  of  the  French. 
He  was  the  third  son  of  Louis  Bonaparte,  King 
of  Holland,  and  of  Hortense  Beauharnais.  (See 
Bonaparte.)  The  law  of  succession  enacted  un- 
der the  First  Empire  gave  the  crown,  in  default 
of  direct  descendants  of  the  Emperor,  to  the  sons 
of  either  .Joseph  or  Louis  Bonaparte.  Joseph 
being  childless,  the  sons  of  Louis  became  heirs 
apparent  of  the  Napoleonic  pretensions.  Louis 
Napoleon  was  born  .4pril  20.  1808.  in  Paris.  He 
spent  his  boyhood  with  his  mother  at  her  Chateau 
of  Arenenberg  in  Switzerland,  and  at  Augsburg, 
where  he  studied  in  the  gj'mnasium.  After  the 
death  of  the  elder  of  his  brothers  he  returned  to 
France  with  his  mother,  b\it  they  were  ex- 
l)elled  by  Louis  Philippe,  went  to  England, 
and  thence  returned  to  Switzerland.  The  death 
of  the  Didce  of  Reichstadt  (.July  22,  1832),  only 
son  of  the  first  Napoleon,  left  Louis  Napoleon 
the  representative  of  his  famil.v.  and  there- 
after the  restoration  of  the  Napoleonic  Em- 
pire became  his  fixed  idea.  Dtiring  the  next 
four  years  his  published  works  kept  him  before 
the  French  people.  Among  them  were:  Uer^ries 
politiques;  Projet   de   constitution;   Deux   mots 

•Thpfle  are  also  in  Enjrlish  tranBlations. 
fTbeee  are  also  in  French  translations. 


NAPOLEON  III. 


244 


NAPOLEON  III. 


d  il.  de  Chateaubriand  sur  la  duchesse  de  Berri 
(in  verse)  ;  and  Considerations  i>olili<{UC!s  el 
militaires  sur  la  Suisse.  In  18.JU,  bi-lieving  in 
tlic  weakness  of  the  July  nionartliy,  he  un- 
dertook at  Strassburg  a  eou/i  wliich  was  so 
absurd  a  failure  that  it  covered  him  with  ridi- 
cule. He  was  sent  to  America,  but  returned 
to  Europe  on  account  of  his  mother's  illness. 
She  died  October  3,  1837,  and  soon  afterwards 
the  French  Glovernment  asked  for  his  expulsion 
by  Switzerland.  He  went  to  London,  where,  in 
1S38.  he  published  the  Idees  Xapoleoniennes, 
which  had  considerable  circulation  in  France.  In 
1840  he  made  at  Boulogne  his  second  attempt  to 
l>rinj;  about  a  military  uprisinj;  in  his  favor,  but 
this  was  as  complete  a  failure  as  its  predecessor. 
He  was  imprisoned  in  the  fortress  of  Ham.  where 
he  wrote  several  works,  some  political  articles, 
and  had  a  share  in  editing  the  Diclionnaire  de  la 
conrersuiion.  lie  escaped  from  Ham,  May  25. 
1840,  and  made  his  way  to  the  Belgian  frontier 
and  thence  to  England.  lie  hastened  back  to 
France  when  the  Revolution  of  1848  broke  out, 
but,  although  he  professed  devotion  to  the  Pro- 
visional Government,  he  was  distrusted  and  asked 
to  leave  the  country.  Notwithstanding  liis  prom- 
ise to  do  this,  he  obtained  an  election  to  the 
Xational  Assembly  for  Paris  and  three  other 
departments.  He  took  his  seat  on  June  13,  1848, 
but  resigned  on  the  loth,  after  a  stormy  debate, 
and  left  France.  He  was,  however,  elected  from 
live  departments  in  September,  and  returning 
became  a  camiidate  for  the  Presidency.  He  re- 
ceived .T.odU.OOO  votes  in  the  election  of  December 
10,  1848,  his  closest  op|)onent,  (ieneral  Cavaignac 
(q.v. ),  having  1,500.000.  Tie  entered  upon  his 
ollice  on  Decemlier  20th.  His  Presidency  was  a 
continuous  contest  with  the  majority  in  the  As- 
sembly, who  continued  to  doubt  the  sincerity  of 
the  President's  devotion  to  the  Kepublic.  This 
disturbed  condition  was  ended  by  the  coup  d'rtat 
of  December  2,  18.51.  a  thoroughly  Napoleonic 
stroke,  carried  out  with  blunt  disregard  for  law 
or  political  honesty,  by  the  President  himself, 
assisted  by  Jlorny,  Maupas,  and  Saint. \rnaud. 
The  cost  of  success  was  the  estal)lishment  of  a 
repressive  tyranny  maintained  by  military  force. 
France  submitted  to  the  new  ruler,  who  promised 
to  restore  the  glories  of  the  past.  On  December 
20th-21st  the  President  was  reelected  for  ten  years 
by  more  than  seven  million  votes.  i)ractieally 
without  opposition.  He  had  revived  the  ])lebiscite. 
used  with  such  effect  by  his  uncle — a  plebiscite  so 
managed  that  the  issue  was  a  foregone  conclusion. 
In  the  same  way.  when  he  had  himself  proclaimed 
Emperor,  as  Napoleon  HI.,  just  a  year  after 
the  coup  d'f'tat  (December  2.  1852),  it  was 
maile  to  appear  that  this  also  was  in  accordance 
with  the  popular  will.  The  new  Emperor  had 
studied  his  uncle's  methods  and  attempted  to  imi- 
tate him  na  far  as  circumstances  and  his  own 
ability  would  permit,  but  he  only  won  for  him- 
self the  Tiame  of  Napoleon  the  Little.  He  pos- 
sessed ability,  hut  it  was  that  of  the  politician 
rather  than  of  the  statesman.  He  lacked  the 
dash  and  rapidity  of  decision  which  were  the 
chief  elements  in  nceomplishing  the  vast  schemes 
of  the  first  Napoleon.  N"apoleon  III.  hesitated  in 
deciding  upon  a  policy  and  in  carrying  it  out 
when  once  determined.  Ponspirncies  against  him 
developed  as  early  as  18.53  and  three  attempts 
were  made  to  assassinate  him.  by  Pianori  and 
BcUamare  in  1855.  and  by  Orsini   (q.v.)   in  1858. 


Napoleon  III.  was  looked  upon  coldly  by  the 
'legitimate'  sovereigns  of  Eurujie,  but  the  aim 
of  his  foreign  policy  was  to  make  France  again 
dominant  in  European  all'airs  and  himself  the 
general  arldter  of  the  Continent.  To  check  the 
similar  ])rclcn>ions  of  Nicholas  1.  of  Russia  in 
Eastern  iCuroiK',  be  joined  England  in  protecting 
Turkey  against  Ilussiaft  aggression,  and  France 
took  the  leading'  jiarl  in  the  Crimean  War  (q.v.). 
The  pacilicatiou  which  followed  and  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  Eastern  Question  (q.v.)  were  ar- 
ranged by  a  congress  at  Paris.  (See  P.\Ris,  Trea- 
ties OF.)  The  three  Eastern  Powers.  Russia, 
Prussia,  and  Austria,  which  were  tlie  strongholds 
of  legitimacy  ami  autocracy,  as  against  the  de- 
UKK-racy  of  Frani-e  and  England,  were  Napoleon's 
natural  opponents.  In  the  Crimean  War  he  ad- 
ministered a  lesson  to  one  of  them.  By  befriend- 
ing Italy,  which  under  the  leadership  of  Sardinia 
was  struggling  to  free  itself  from  Austrian  op- 
pression, lie  found  an  opportunity  to  strike  at 
Austria  and  to  uphold  in  the  most  marked  man- 
ner his  favorite  jiolitical  hobl>y,  the  princiide 
of  nationalities.  He  encouraged  Cavour  (q.v.) 
in  the  advocacy  of  Italy's  cause  at  the  Congress 
of  Paris,  and,  though  the  attempt  of  Orsini  u])on 
tlie  Emperor's  life  almost  destroyed  tlie  cordial 
rcialions  that  had  l)een  cultivated  between  the 
Courts  of  Paris  and  Turin,  under  Cavour's  shrewd 
management  the  Emperor  finally  became  more 
friendly  than  ever.  The  two  held  a  private  con- 
ference" at  Plombi^res,  .July  20,  1858,  at  which 
Napoleon  agreed  to  support  Sardinia  in  case  of 
an  attack  by  Austria.  Cavour  at  once  f<irced  Aus- 
tria into  aggressive  action,  and  Na]iolcon.  now 
half  repentant  of  his  engagement,  took  the  field. 
The  Italian  cani])aign  of  1850.  in  which  Napoleon 
showed  himself  utterly  incapable  of  military  lead- 
ership, was  marked  bv  two  great  battles.  Ma- 
genta and  Solferino,  won  by  the  Allies.  Napo- 
leon then  selfishly  closed  the  struggle  by  the 
preliminaries  of  Villafranca.  (See  Cavour  and 
It.vi.y.  )  He  exacted  from  \'ictor  Emmanuel  the 
cession  of  Nice  and  Savoy,  although  he  had  failed 
to  deliver  Venetia  and  the  duchies.  His  later  re- 
lations with  Italy  were  disturbed  by  the  fact  that 
be  felt  cmIUmI  u'ikiu  to  uphold  the  Pope  in  his 
temporal  possessions,  and  thus  clashed  with  the 
national  ambition  of  the  Italians  for  complete 
unity  with  Rome  as  the  cai)ital.  The  protection 
of  French  troops  was  only  withdrawn  from  the 
Papal  States  when  war  with  Prussia  had  begun. 
During  the  Civil  War  in  the  I'nited  States  ( I8(il- 
(!5)  Napoleon  took  an  active  part  with  the  Eng- 
lish Coveiiimeiit  in  the  diplomatic  intrigues 
against  ttn'  riiitcd  States.  He  took  advantage  of 
tlie  disturbed  condition  of  Mexican  all'airs  and  of 
the  preoccupation  of  the  Inited  States  to  revive 
his  uncle's  dream  of  a  Latin-.Xmerican  empire 
uniler  French  protection,  by  establishing  the 
.\rchdiikp  Maximilian  on  the  new  imperial  throne 
of  Mexico  by  means  of  French  bayonets.  Secre- 
tary Seward  warned  the  French  Emperor  that  the 
flovcrnmiMlt  of  the  Inited  States  could  only  con- 
sider this  as  an  infringement  of  the  Monroe  Doc- 
trine and  an  unfriendly  act.  but  no  attention  was 
paid  to  this  jirotest  until  the  termination  of 
the  Civil  War  made  it  possilile  to  si-nrl  Cen- 
eral  Sheridan  with  an  army  of  seasoned  troops 
to  the  Mexican  frontier,  when  the  French  troops 
were  removed  and  the  unstable  Mexican  Empire 
collapsed  (I8fi7).  This  struck  a  great  blow  at 
the  prestige  of  the   Emiicror.      In    181)304,  when 


NAPOLEON  III. 


245 


NAPOLEON  III. 


the  Schleswig-HolsU'iu  (q.v.)  question  engaged 
the  attention  of  the  Powers,  Xajiuleou  refused  to 
aid  Denmark  in  her  hght  for  the  duehies  and 
advocated  tlie  recognition  of  tlie  jirineiple  of  na- 
tionalities tlirougli  tlie  union  of  the  ticrman  por- 
tion of  the  duehies  to  (iermany.  On  the  eve  of 
the  war  of  180G  Napoleon  entered  into  negotia- 
tions with  both. Prussia  and  Austria,  with  respect 
to  an  alliance,  but  he  was  foiled  by  Bismarck's 
diplomacy,  and  the  swift  issue  of  the  Seven 
\\'eeks'  War  (q.v.)  revealed  to  Napoleon  a  new 
military  power  under  masterful  guidance,  threat- 
ening his  schemes  for  European  control.  Austria 
ceded  Venetia  to  Napoleon  with  the  understand- 
ing that  it  was  to  be  made  over  to  Italy.  This 
was  his  last  appearance  in  the  role  of  an  arbiter 
in  the  affairs  of  Europe. 

The  internal  history  of  the  Empire  divides 
itself  into  two  periods,  that  of  the  autocratic 
and  that  of  the  lilicral  Empire.  Napoleon,  the  man 
of  progressive  and  liberal  ideas,  believed  that  a 
permanent  political  edifice  could  be  erected  only 
by  the  exercise  of  absolute  power.  At  the  out- 
set he  brought  under  his  own  control  the  finances 
and  public  enterprises;  public  liberty  was  re- 
stricted, and  a  thorough  system  of  police  espion- 
age was  organized.  Napoleon  married,  January 
30,  1853,  Eugenie  de  Montijo,  a  young  Spanish 
countess,  and  gratified  his  own  ambitions  and  her 
tastes  with  a  brilliant,  extravagant,  and  frivolous 
court.  Tlie  Empress  Eugenie's  influence  was  al- 
ways exerted  in  the  interest  of  the  Ultramontane 
Party.  In  these  days  of  his  absolute  power 
Napoleon  pushed  public  improvements  with  great 
energy.  Pliilanthropic  institutions  were  multi- 
plied in  France ;  industrial  development  was  en- 
couraged: and  an  era  of  great  material  prosperity 
followed,  degenerating  into  one  of  speculation  and 
luxurious  living  in  which  were  the  seeds  of 
decadence.  Railroads  and  highways  were  con- 
structed and  lines  of  steamships  were  established 
and  subsidized.  Canals  were  built  and  harbors 
improved.  Manufactures,  agriculture,  and  for- 
estry were  all  fostered  by  the  State.  Stock 
companies  were  created,  and  the  crMit  fonder 
and  the  cri'dit  mohUier  stimulated  these  enter- 
prises with  financial  support.  Paris,  under  the 
Prefect  Haussmann,was  transformed.  As  early  as 
the  exposition  of  18.55  Paris  was  able  to  show  a 
new  city  to  its  visitors,  and  at  the  brilliant  ex- 
position of  1807  this  development  was  still  more 
marked.  Politically,  there  were  three  parties  in 
opposition — Legitimists.  Orleanists,  and  Republi- 
cans. Of  these  the  Legitimists  were  almost  lost 
sight  of.  with  the  exception  of  a  few  irrecon- 
cilable leaders.  The  Orleanists  were  stronger  in 
numbers  and  in  the  quality  of  their  adherents, 
and  gave  the  Em])eror  more  anxiety.  The  great 
literary  leaders  were  found  in  their  camp,  and 
the  French  Academy  was  their  stronghold.  The 
really  active  opposition,  however,  lay  with  the 
Republicans.  None  of  these  parties  had  any 
legal  means  of  expression  or  action.  In  1858, 
after  the  Orsini  attempt,  the  General  Security 
Act  was  forced  through  the  Corps  IjOgislatif,  giv- 
ing the  fJovernnient  power  to  exile  or  transport 
without  trial  any  person  convicted  of  a  political 
offense.  Wholesale  arrests  were  made  under 
this  act  for  the  purpose  of  intimidating  the 
Republicans.  Havinjr  alienated  the  Ultramon- 
tanes,  upon  whost  support  he  had  hitherto  de- 
pended, by  the  Italian  War.  Napoleon  rela.xed 
some  of  his  repressive  measures  to  gain  the  sup- 


port of  the  Liberals.  In  1859  an  amnesty  decree 
allowed  the  return  of  the  exiles  of  1851.  This  was 
followed  by  a  grant  of  more  freedom  of  action  to 
the  Corps  Legislatif.  The  commercial  treaty 
of  18t)0  with  England  abolished  the  prohibitions 
and  lowered  many  of  the  high  protective  duties 
which  had  formed  a  part  of  the  Emperor's  com- 
mercial system.  The  restrictions  upon  the  free- 
dom of  the  press  were  partially  removed.  A 
Liberal  opposition  now  began  to  organize  through 
a  coalition  of  the  opposition  parties,  and  after 
18U3  there  was  real  parliamentary  activity  in 
France.  A  section  known  as  Liberal  Imperialists 
supported  the  Emperor,  but  opposed  his  reac- 
tionarj-  ministers.  The  Jlinistry,  headed  by  Kou- 
lier,  and  with  Drouyn  de  Lhuys  in  charge  of 
foreign  affairs,  favored  a  vigorous  attitude  of 
opposition  to  Prussia.  The  Emperor  was  broken 
in  health,  and  after  the  Prussian  triumph  over 
Austria  had  demoralized  his  plans  and  left  him 
discredited  with  his  own  ministers,  he  turned 
for  support  to  the  constitutionalists  in  the 
Corps  Legislatif.  The  liberties  of  that  body  and 
of  the  press  were  much  extended,  and  the  right 
to  hold  public  political  meetings  was  conceded. 
In  1809  a  responsible  Ministry  was  granted. 

In  1870  the  following  proposition  was  sub- 
mitted to  a  plebiscite:  "The  French  nation 
approves  the  liberal  reforms  made  in  the  Con- 
stitution since  1800,  and  ratifies  the  Senatorial 
decree  of  April  20,  1870."  This  was  opposed  by 
the  Republicans,  but  was  carried  by  a  vote  of 
7.000,000  to  1,500,000.  This  popular  support  of 
the  Imperial  regime  was  apparent  rather  than 
real.  Notwithstanding  temporary  coalitions,  the 
different  parties  were  still  irreconcilable.  The 
autocratic  and  war  party,  which  had  voted  in  the 
affirmative  on  the  plebiscite,  came  again  into 
power  in  the  Corps  Legislatif,  with  the  Duke  of 
Grammont  in  charge  of  foreign  affairs.  Partly 
compelled  by  the  tliplomacy  of  Bismarck,  and 
partly  actuated  by  their  own  aims,  the  Ministry 
brought  on  the  war  with  Prussia,  much  against 
the  will  of  the  Emperor.  (See  Franco-Germ.\n 
War.  )  The  Emperor  went  to  the  front,  leaving 
the  Empress  as  Regent,  and  she  constituted  a 
Ministry  of  the  war  party  under  General  Pali- 
kao.  Napoleon  was  captured  at  Sedan  (Septem- 
ber 2.  1870),  and  on  the  4th  of  September  was 
taken  to  the  Castle  of  Wilhelmshohe,  near  Cassel. 
In  the  wild  confusion  that  attended  "the  news 
of  defeat  in  Paris  and  the  declaration  of  the 
Republic,  the  Empress  fled  from  the  city  and 
Avent  to  England,  taking  up  her  residence  at 
Chiselhurst.  Kent,  where  she  was  joined  by  Napo- 
leon in  1871,  after  the  conclusion  of  peace.  He 
resided  there  until  his  death.  .lanuary  9.  1873. 

Napoleon  and  Eugenie  had  one  child,  a  son, 
Eug&ne  Louis  Jean  Jo.seph,  Prince  Imperial  of 
France,  born  March  10,  1850.  See  Napoleon, 
EuGi>XE  Loiis  Jeax  Jcsepu. 

A  collection  of  Napoleon's  own  works  was 
published  in  five  volumes  (Paris,  1869).  Many 
of  them,  including  the  Histoyi/  of  Julius  Ca-sar 
and  Xapoleonic  Ideas,  have  been  translated  into 
English.  The  Posthumnus  Works  and  Unptib- 
tished  Autofiraplis  of  Xapoteon  III.  in  EacHe  were 
edited  by  De  la  Chapelle  and  published  in  1873. 
English  works  on  Na])(deon  III.  are  those  of 
Forbes  (London,  1898)  :  .Terrold  (London.  1874)  : 
and  Frazer  (London.  1895).  In  translation  are 
the  works  of  Imbert  de  Saint  Amand,  Louis  Napo- 
leon and  Mile,  de  Montijo  (Eng.  trans.  New  York, 


NAPOLEON  III. 


246 


NARBONNE. 


1S!»7).  Xapolcoit  HI.  u,id  lli.t  Vvurt  ( ib.,  18SI8), 
anil  The  ('unit  of  the  .Stcoiirf  tinpiic  yil).,  18'.I8;. 
The  leading  comprehensive  histories  of  the  .Sec- 
ond Kmi)ire  are:  De  la  Goree,  Hinloirc  du  second 
empire  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1885-98),  which  partially 
supersedes  the  earlier  work  by  Taxile  Delord, 
Histoire  du  seeond  empire  (G  vols.,  Paris,  1809- 
7ti).  Consult,  also,  Thirria,  Xapol^on  III.  avani 
I'lmpire  (Paris,  1895);  Villel'ranclie.  Xapolifon 
J II.  (ib.,  1897)  ;  tiottsohalk,  \upoleoii  III.,  eine 
hiutjraphische  Sludie  (1871)  :  Von  8ybel,  Xapo- 
leon  III.  ( 1873)  ;  Siuison,  Die  Bezicliuiiyen  Xapo- 
hoiis  III.  :u  Preussen  und  Deutschland  (1882)  ; 
-Murdock.  l{ceon/<truction  of  Europe  (Boston, 
1891)  :  Victor  Hugo,  Histoire  d'un  crime  (1877)  ; 
and  id.,  Xapol^on  le  petit  (1852). 

NAPOLEON,  ErGf;NE  Louis  .Jean  Joseph 
llSoO-7'.i).  Xlie  only  son  of  Napoleon  III.  of 
France;  better  known  as  the  Prince  Imperial.  He 
was  born  in  the  Tuileries  in  Paris.  March  16, 
185li.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-German 
War  of  1870-71  he  accompanied  his  father  to  the 
front  and  was  first  under  fire  at  Saarbriicken. 
When  the  war  began  to  go  against  the  Im- 
perial arms,  however,  he  was  sent  to  England, 
where  he  joined  his  mother  after  her  flight 
from  Paris.  I'pon  the  death  of  his  father 
he  took  the  title  of  Count  of  Pierrefonds.  In 
1874  he  reached  his  majority  and  was  pro- 
claimed as  Napoleon  IV.  by  his  adherents.  Five 
years  later,  in  order  to  arouse  enthusiasm  on 
his  behalf  among  his  countrymen,  he  joined  a 
British  expedition  against  the  Zulus,  and  while 
reconnoitring  was  ambushed  and  killed  (June  1, 
18791.  Consult:  Barlee.  Life  of  Xitpoleoii.  Prince 
Imperial  of  France  (London.  1880);  Hfrisson, 
Le  prince  imperial  (Paris,  1890)  ;  and  Martinet, 
I.r  prince  imjicrial  (ib.,  1895). 

NAPOLEON,  Joseph  Charles  Paul,  Prince 

(1822-911.  .\  son  of  Jerome  Bonaparte.  See 
Bonaparte. 

NAPOLEON  GUN.     See  Artillery. 

NAPOLEON  LE  PETIT,  Ir  pr-f,'-'  (Fr..  Napo- 
leon the  Little).  A  violent  satirical  attack  on 
Louis  Napoleon  by  Victor  Hugo,  written  at  Brus- 
sels in   1S.")2. 

NAPOLEON'S  TOMB.  The  magnificent  bur- 
ial place  of  Xapolcon  Bonaparte  is  under  the  dome 
of  the  Invalides.  Paris.  It  was  constructed  by 
Visconti  and  has  the  form  of  a  circular  crypt  20 
feet  deep  and  30  in  diameter,  open  at  the  top. 
On  the  granite  walls  arc  ten  marble  reliefs  by 
Simart.  The  mosaic  pavement,  repri-icnting  a 
laurel  wreath.  tx>ars  the  names  of  various  liattles. 
In  the  middle  rises  the  red  granite  sarcophagus, 
13  feet  long.  fi'(.  wide,  and  141/.  high,  cut  from  a 
single  block  weighing  67  tons,  surrounded  by  12 
victories  by  Pradier.  .Above  the  entrance  to 
the  crypt  is  a  sentence  from  Napoleon's  will:  "I 
desire  that  my  ashes  shall  rest  on  tlie  banks  of 
the  Seine,  in  the  midst  of  the  French  people  that 
I  have  loved  so  well."  On  one  side  is  the  sar- 
rnphagiis  of  the  Emperor's  friend  Duroc.  who 
fell  at  Bautzen  in  1813.  on  the  other  that  of  his 
faithful  companion  Bertrand.  who  shared  his 
captivity.  Napoleon's  remains  were  brought  from 
Saint  Helena  to  their  present  burial  place  bv 
the  Prince  dc  .TMiiiviltr  in  18-10. 

NAPOLEON-VENDEE,  viiN'dft'.  .\  former 
name  of  Roche-sur-Von  (q.v.).   A  town  of  France. 


NARA,  nii'ra.  The  capital  of  a  prefecture  of 
the  same  name  on  the  island  of  Hondo.  Japan, 
situated  25  miles  by  rail  southeast  of  Osaka 
(Map:  Japan,  D  U).  It  was  the  capital  of 
Japan  from  709  to  784.  The  most  interesting 
temples  are  the  Kasuga,  situated  in  a  magnificent 
park;  the  Todai-ji  with  its  huge  bell,  over  13  feet 
high  and  more  than  9  feet  in  diameter,  and  the 
gigantic  statue  of  Buddha  over  53  feet  high; 
and  the  Kobuku-ji  with  the  modern  statues  of 
Brahma  and  Indra.  Of  great  archa-ological  value 
is  the  storehouse  in  which  specimens  of  articles 
used  in  the  Imperial  household  for  over  a  thou- 
sand years  have  been  preserved.  The  local  mu- 
seum is  also  of  considerable  archaeological  inter- 
est. The  principal  manufactures  of  Nara  are 
Indian  ink,  fans,  and  modern  toys.  Population, 
in  1898,  30,539. 

NARAKA,  nil'ri-ka  (Skt.,  hell).  The  hell  of 
the  Hindus.  The  doctrine  of  a  place  for  the  bad, 
though  not  necessarily  a  place  of  torment,  is  as 
old  as  the  Veda.  This  region  was  one  of  bottom- 
less darkness  beneath  the  earth.  The  faith  of  the 
Brahmanic  jieriod  and  of  the  Upanishads  had  the 
same  belief,  and  the  descriptions  of  hell-torments 
became  fully  devdojied  later,  ilanu  enumerates 
21  hells,  and  gives  a  general  description  of  the 
tortures  which  await  the  impious  there.  The 
Puranas.  however,  arc  more  systematic.  The 
Vishnu-Purana.  for  instance,  not  only  names  28 
such  hell~.  but  distinctly  assigns  each  of  them  to 
a  particular  class  of  sinners.  Besides  these  hells 
which  the  Purana  knew  by  name,  there  were 
ccnmtless  others.  Buddhism  .shares  with  Brah- 
manism  in  the  later  doctrine  of  hell-torment  and 
the  grades  of  hell.  Consult:  Scherman,  Male- 
rialien  ci/r  Oeschichte  der  indischen  Visionslit- 
teratur  (Leipzig,  1892)  ;  Hopkins,  Religions  of 
India   (Boston,  1895). 

NARBADA,  nur-bud'a.   A  river  of  India.   See 

Nekiudda. 

NARBONNE,  niirbun'  (Lat.  Xarho).  A 
town  in  the  JJcpartmcnt  of  Aude.  in  Southern 
l''rance,  situated  si.x  miles  from  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  93  miles  by  rail  southeast  of  Toulouse 
(  Map:  France,  .T  8) .  The  streets  of  this  formerly 
important  city  present  a  poor  appearance,  relieved 
only  by  those  of  the  attractive  new  but  small 
quarter.  The  Church  of  Saint  Just  was  in  olden 
times  the  cathedral.  It  is  an  imposing  though 
uncompleted  structure,  begun  in  the  .Middle  Ages, 
and  exhibiting  many  of  the  most  daring  ideas  of 
the  Gothic.  Its  choir  is  131  feet  high;  the  towers 
rise  104  feet.  The  Gothic  Hotel-de-ville  is  a 
creation  of  \iolletle-Duc.  There  is  a  gooil  mu- 
seum, containing  chiefly  paintings  and  ceramics. 
Narbonne  has  a  hydrographical  school  and  a 
seminary.  Its  industries  include  coopering  and 
distilling  establishments.  It  jiroduccs  ver<iigris, 
candles,  tiles,  pottery,  dyes,  and  liathcr.  It 
deals  in  wine,  grain,  oil,  salt,  and  sulphur.  Its 
honey  is  famous,  and  its  red  wine  is  peculiar  to 
the  district.  It  has  a  Chamber  of  .-\griculture 
and  an  amological  station,  the  latter  established 
in  1894.  The  town  is  on  a  branch  of  the  impor- 
tant Canal  du  Midi.  .Mmut  11  miles  to  the  .south 
is  the  port  La  Nouvclle.  at  the  end  of  the  Nar- 
bonne Canal.  It  is  the  harbor  for  Narbonne,  and 
has  some  manufactories.  Population  of  Nar- 
bonne. in  1901.  28,852.  a  decrease  of  700  since 
1891.    Narbo  became  Roman  in  B.C.  116.     It  was 


NARBONNE. 


247 


NARCOTICS. 


at  the  time  one  of  llie  leading  ports  of  the 
ilcdilenancan,  and  well  known  for  its  beauty 
and  attractions  as  a  city.  It  was  tlie  capital  of 
the  I'rovincia  Koniana.  and  later  of  Gallia  Nar- 
bouensis.  In  the  fifth  century  it  passed  under 
llie  sway  of  the  Visigoths.  Alioul  720  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Saracens,  from  whom  it  [jasseJ 
into  the  possession  of  the  Franks  in  7.59.  The 
Viscounts  of  Xarbonne  became  hereditary  feuda- 
tories of  the  French  Crown  in  1080.  In  1447 
Viscount  William  III.  sold  Xarbonne  to  the 
House  of  Foix.  and  UO  years  later  the  fief  was 
united  with  the  French  Crown.  Late  in  the 
Jliddle  Ages  the  harbor  of  Xarbonne  became 
practically  filled  up  and  the  town  began  to  de- 
cline. 

NARBROtTGH,  Sir  John  (1G40-88).  An 
English  admiral  and  explorer.  In  1G70  he  made 
a  notable  voyage  through  the  Strait  of  Magel- 
lan and  up  the  Chilean  coast.  He  was 
knighted  and  made  lear-admiral  in  1673,  and 
the  following  year  he  .sailed  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, where  he  distinguished  himself  by  scat- 
tering the  pirates  of  Tripoli  and  Algiers.  In 
1087  he  sailed  to  the  West  Indies  in  command  of 
a  squadron,  and  he  died  there  of  fever  while 
superintending  the  investigation  of  a  sunken 
treasure  ship,  and  was  buried  at  sea  off  Santo 
Domingo. 

NARCIS'SUS  fLat.,  from  Gk.  Nd/3/>i<r<ros,  \ar- 
kissos,  from  vipKij,  narkr.  torpor).  According  to 
Ovid,  the  son  of  the  river-god  Cephissus  and  of 
the  nymph  Liriope  of  Thespi.-e,  in  Boeotia.  He 
was  a  youth  of  extraordinary  beauty,  but  refused 
all  suitors.  They  prayed  to  Xemesis  for  ven- 
geance, and  she  caused  Xarcissus  to  see  his  own 
image  in  a  forest  spring.  Enamored  of  this,  he 
pined  away  ip  hopeless  love  beside  the  stream. 
From  his  body  sprang  the  flower  Xarcissus.  The 
story,  which  seems  to  be  of  Alexandrian  origin, 
is  told  with  variations  by  other  late  Greek  and 
Roman  writers.  The  bronze  statuette  in  Xaples, 
commonly  called  Xarcissus,  really  repre.sents  the 
youthful  Dionysus. 

NARCISSUS.  A  genus  of  beautiful  bulbous 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Amaryllidacea>,  with 
narrow  lea\4s  and  usvially  white  or  yellow  flow- 
ers. The  species  are  natives  of  Southern  Europe, 
Xorthern  Africa,  and  the  temperate  parts  of 
Asia.  JIany  are  cultivated  in  gardens  for  the 
sake  of  their  beautiful  and  often  fragrant  flow- 
ers, which  in  general  appear  early  in  the 
season.  Some  of  them  are  known  by  the 
names  of  daffodil  and  jonquil.  The  dif- 
ferent species  are  naturally  separated  into 
two  divisions,  those  bearing  but  one  flower  on  a 
scape  and  those  bearing  more  than  one.  The 
poet's  narcissus  ( Vomssiis  poetious)  is  perhaps 
the  best  known  and  most  popular  species.  It  is 
a  hardy  plant  and  bears  white  fragrant  flowers. 
The  jonquil  (ytircissiix  ./oiuivilln)  bears  from 
two  to  five  very  fragrant  golden  yellow  blossoms 
on  a  scape.  This  species  is  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  perfumes.  J^^nrcissiis  Tazetta  is 
the  narcissus  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans, 
and  is  now  largely  grown  as  a  forcing-house 
plant.  There  are  numerous  varieties  of  this 
species  with  white,  j-ellow.  single,  and  double 
flowers.  Narcisatix  Pfifiido-Nnrrissux  is  common- 
ly called  daffodil  or  trumpet  daffodil.  The  plants 
are  ordinarily  propagated  by  offset  bulbs  which 


arc  produced  on  the  bulb.  These  usually  flower 
the  second  year  after  planting.  See  Colored  Plate 
of  Amakyllid.^ce.e. 


poet's  narcissus  {Xarcissus  poeticus). 

NARCOT'ICS  (Gk.  vapK0TiK6s,  narkotikos. 
benumbing,  from  vapKovv,  nurkoiin,  to  benumb, 
from  vdpKTi,  narke,  torpor;  connected  with  OHG. 
snerhan,  to  draw  together,  AS.  snear,  Eng.  suai'e) . 
Remedies  which,  in  moderate  doses,  lessen  the 
action  of  the  nervous  system.  Their  full  opera- 
tion is  sleep  or  coma.  Opium  is  the  type  front 
which  mo.st  descriptions  of  this  class  of  medicines 
have  been  drawn;  but  although  most  narcotics 
more  or  less  resemble  opium  in  their  action,  al- 
most ever3"  one  presents  some  peculiarity  in  the 
wa.v  in  which  it  afl'ects  the  system.  These  medi- 
cines are  primarily  stimulating,  especially  when 
given  in  small  or  moderate  doses;  but  this  stage 
of  their  action  is  com])aratively  short,  and  when 
the  dose  is  large  the  excitement  is  scareel.v  per- 
ceptible. Their  power  of  inducing  sleep  has  pro- 
cured for  them  the  names  of  hypnotics  and 
soporifics;  while  many  of  them  are  termed  ano- 
dynes, from  their  pos.sessing  the  property  of 
alleviating  pain.  Xext  to  opium  and  the  general 
ana'sthetics,  hyoscyamus,  Indian  hemp,  and 
chloral  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  important 
narcotics.  Of  late  years  a  number  of  coal-tar 
derivatives  have  been  introduced,  such  as 
sulphonal,  trional.  acetanilid,  and  phenacetine, 
which  are  taking  the  place,  to  some  extent,  of  the 
older  remedies. 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  there  are 
differences  in  the  mode  of  operation  of  the  differ- 
ent members  of  this  class.  Alcohol,  for  example, 
in  suflScient  doses  produces  intoxication;  bella- 
donna, delirium;  opium  contracts  the  pupil  of 
the  eye:  hyoscyamus  dilates  it.  Each  drug  af- 
fects the  organism  in  its  own  peculiar  way.  and 
it  is  impossible  to  give  a  general  description  of 
their  minor  actions. 

Xareoties  are  usually  administered  with  the 
view  either  of  inducing  sleep  or  of  alleviating 
pain  or  spasm.   As,  however,  their  action  is  much 


NARCOTICS. 


248 


NARRAGANSET. 


modified  by  a  variety  of  ciioumstanecs — such  as 
agf,  idiosyncrasy,  and  prolonged  vise — they  should 
be  administered  with  extreme  caution,  and,  as 
a  general  rule,  only  luidcr  competent  advice.  The 
various  quack  medicines  for  children  which  are 
known  as  carmiiialivcs,  soolhiiiy  syrupa,  etc.,  con- 
tain some  form  of  opium,  and  are  a  fertile  cause 
of  the  great  mortality  that  occurs  in  early  life, 
especially  among  the  poorer  classes. 

NAR'COTINE,  C^^fl^XO:.  One  of  the  organic 
bases  or  alkaloids  occurring  in  opium,  in  wliich 
it  usually  exists  in  the  jiroportion  of  0  to  8  per 
cent.  It  is  nearly  insoluble  in  water,  and  but 
sparingly  sijluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  but  dis- 
solves readily  in  chloroform.  Narcotine  possesses 
very  slight  alkaline  properties;  its  salts  do  not 
readily  crystallize,  and  are  even  more  bitter 
than  those  of  morphine,  although  the  substance 
itself  is  almost  tasteless.     See  Alkaloid.'?. 

NARD.    A  fragrant  plant.    See  Spikenard. 

NARDO,  ujir-do'  (Lat.  Neretum).  A  town  in 
the  Province  of  Lecce,  Italy.  34  miles  south  by 
east  of  Brindisi  (Map:  Italy,  N  7).  It  is  the  see 
of  a  bishop,  has  a  <athedral  and  an  old  castle, 
and  manufactures  woolen  goods  and  tobacco. 
The  s\irriiuMiliiig  country  aho\ni(ls  in  olive  plan- 
tations and  vineyards.  Population  (comnuinel, 
in   1881,   10.r>8.S;"in   1001,   14.:iS7. 

NAR'DUS  (Lat..  nard.  from  (;k.  i/dpSos.  from 
Pers.  niirt).  from  Skt.  luilada.  Indian  spikenard). 
A  genus  of  one  species  of  grass  {Xardiin  ulicta), 
often  called  mat-grass,  a  pur])lish  perennial  grow- 
ing in  tufts  characteristic  of  dry  elevated  situa- 
tions in  Europe,  Australia,  etc.  It  has  little  or 
no   feeding  value. 

NARES,  n;1r/.  Sir  George  Strong  (1831  —  ). 
A  British  Arctic  explorer,  born  at  Danestown, 
Scotland.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1840.  and 
■went  with  Mecham  on  the  Rrfiolutc  in  the  .\retic 
expedition  of  18-')2.  In  1872-74  he  connnanded  the 
famous  i'hiilU  iKjir  exjiedition.  engaged  in  deep- 
sea  exploration.  In  lS7.i.  in  command  of  the 
splendidly  <'i|uii)i)ed  Ahrl  and  Di.triirrrii.  he  set 
out  on  a  Polar  expedition,  and  proceeding  up 
Smith  So\ind,  be  reached  with  the  Alrrt  the  par- 
allel of  82°  27',  the  farthest  north  any  ship  had 
then  gone.  Markham,  his  lieutenant,  on  sledges 
went  in  1870  as  far  as  83°  20',  another  record  at 
the  time.  In  1878  Xar.es  surveyed  ;Magellan 
Strait  and  many  parts  of  the  Pacific.  He  served 
in  the  Harbor  Oeparlment  of  (he  Hoard  of  Trade 
(187!l-!10l.  and  in  I8it2  became  vice-admiral.  He 
wrote:  Ur/xiits  on  Orraii  Sou iitl infix  (iiiil  Trntpcr- 
aturc  ( 1874-7.'))  :  Official  Report  of  the  Arctic  Ex- 
prtiititm  (1S70)  ;  and  yarratice  of  a  Voyage  to 
the  Vuhir  Hen   (1878). 

NARES,  ROHERT  (I753-182n).  An  English 
philologist,  born  at  York.  .After  studying  at 
Christ  Church.  Oxford,  he  took  orders,  and  from 
17JIS  until  his  death  was  Canon  of  Lichfield.  As 
critic,  essayist,  and  theologian  he  held  a  high 
rank  among  the  writers  of  his  time.  With  the 
Tiev.  William  Bcloe  he  foundeil  the  Urilixh  Critic 
in  17'.13,  and  he  published:  HIemriil.i  of  Orthoepy 
(1784):  C hrotxil  11(1  i rill  VtVir  i,f  the  Prophecies 
Relating  to  the  Clirixtian  Chiirrh  (1805)  :  and  A 
(lloKxarii  of  Wfiriln.  I'hrn.sen,  \nmen.anil  Alliisinnfi 
in  the  Wnrla  of  Ihuili^h  Anthor.i  (1822).  which 
is  by  far  Iiis  most  important  work,  contains  many 
excellent  criticisms  of  the  text   of  Shakespeare, 


and  is  valuable  for  all  of  the  Elizabethan  litera- 
ture. 

NAREW,  nii'rev.  A  river  of  West  Russia, 
rising  in  the  Government  of  Grodno.  It  flows 
westward,  forming  part  of  the  boundary  of  Po- 
land, and  joins  the  Bug  19  miles  north  of  War- 
saw. Its  length  is  271  miles,  212  of  which  are 
navigable.  The  Augustowo  Canal  connects  it 
with   the  Xiemen. 

NARINO,  na-re'ny6,  Anto.mo  (1705-1823).  A 
Colombiau  politician,  born  in  Bogotft.  In  1705, 
on  account  of  bis  republican  views,  he  was  -de- 
ported to  Spain,  whence  he  esca])cd  to  France  and 
England.  In  1707  be  returned  to  Xew  Granada. 
In  the  War  of  Independence.  Xariiio  took  a 
prominent  part  as  leader  of  the  Centralist  Party 
and  withstood  the  attacks  of  the  Federal i.sts  on 
Bogota.  He  had  now  become  dictator  and  turned 
his  attention  to  the  Spanish  forces  in  the  south, 
by  whom  he  was  defeated  and  captured  in  1814. 
After  five  years'  imprisonment  in  Spain  he  re- 
turned to  Colombia,  was  acquitted  of  a  charge  of 
embezzlement  and  malfeasance,  and  appointed 
Vice-President  by  Bolivar. 

NARNI,  niir'ne.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Perugia,  Italy,  on  the  Xera,  45  miles  north  of 
Rome  by  rail  (Map:  Italy.  G  5).  Ruins  of  a 
massive  marble  bridge  built  by  Augustus  and 
of  a  very  ancient  aipu'duct  are  still  to  be  seen. 
Xarni  has  been  the  seat  of  a  bisliopric  since  360. 
The  Cathedral  of  Saint  .luvenalis  dates  from  the 
thirteenth  century.  Other  buildings  of  interest 
are  the  castle,  now-  used  as  a  prison,  and  the 
town  hall  with  a  finely  sculptured  fa(;ade.  Xarni, 
the  ancient  Xeiiiiiniun,  was  colonized  by  the 
Romans  about  n.c,  300,  The  Emperor  Xerva  was 
born  here.  Population  (commune),  in  1881,  11,- 
071:  in  1001,  12,725. 

NARO,  nii'r6.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Girgenti,  Sicily,  situated  at  an  altitude  of  1045 
feet.  12  miles'east  of  Girgenti  (Map:  Italy.  11 
10).  It  has  a  sixteenth-century  castle  of  the 
Chiaranumti.  and  remains  of  catacoudis,  grottoes, 
aijueducts.  and  other  antiquities.  The  brimstone 
[lits  in  tlie  vicinity  yield  large  quantities  of  sul- 
phur. Population  (commune),  in  1881,  10.305; 
in  1001.  12.>^00. 

NARRAGAN'SET.  A  former  leading  Al- 
gonquian  tribe  of  Xew  England,  occupying  most 
of  the  territory  along  the  western  shore  of  the 
bay  of  the  same  name,  in  Rhode  Island,  and 
claiming  dominion  over  several  smaller  tribes  of 
the  interior  and  the  islands,  including  Long 
Island.  They  .seem  to  have  Ijeen  of  more  ancient 
occupancy  than  the  neighboring  Moliegan  and 
Pequot,  They  escaped  the  pestilence  which  li.nd 
desolated  the  southern  Xew  England  coast  in 
I6I7.  and  being  joined  by  nniny  of  the  fugitive 
survivors,  soon  became  a  strong  tribe,  so  that  it 
is  certain  that  they  numbered  several  thousands 
when  first  known  to  the  whites.  They  befriended 
Roger  Williams,  and  through  his  influence  re- 
fused to  join  in  the  Pequot  War.  In  King 
Philip's  War  the  Xarraganset  took  a  leading  part 
under  their  chief  Canonicus.  In  the  celebrated 
'Swamp  Fight'  they  lost  nearly  1000  in  killed 
and  prisoners.  Canonicus  himself  was  killed 
soon  afterwards.  Those  who  surrendered  at  the 
close  of  the  war  were  settled  among  their  former 
tributaries,  the  Xiantic  (q.v,),  the  whole  body 
thenceforth  being  known  as  Xarraganset.     They 


NARRAGANSET. 


249 


NARVA. 


were  assigned  a  tniut  of  Uiml  near  Charlestown, 
on  the  soutliwestein  const  of  Kluide  1-lanil,  where 
they  have  gradually  decreased  by  emigration  and 
decay,  until  tliey  are  now  reduced  to  a  mongrel 
remnant  of  mixed  Indian,  negro,  and  Portuguese 
blood. 

NARRAGANSETT  BAY.  An  inlet  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  extending  into  Rhode  Island 
uMap:  Rhode  Island,  C  3).  It  is  28  miles  long, 
from  3  to  12  miles  broad,  and  receives  the 
waters  of  several  small  rivers,  the  principal  one 
being  the  Providence.  It  contains  a  number  of 
islands  of  which  Rhode  Island,  Prudence,  and 
Conanicut  are  the  largest.  At  the  head  of  the 
bay  lies  the  city  of  Providence,  and  Newport  is 
situated  at  its  entrance. 

NARRAGANSETT  PIER.  A  not«d  water- 
ing place  in  Washington  County,  R.  I.,  nine  miles 
from  Kingston  Station,  where  a  branch  line  con- 
nects with  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hart- 
ford Railroad  (Jlap:  Rhode  Island,  C  4).  It  is 
deliglitfuUy  situated  near  the  mouth  of  Narra- 
gansett  Bay,  and  has  a  fine  beach  and  splendid 
drives.  Among  other  attractions  of  the  resort 
are  its  scenery,  Narragan.sett  Heights  in  particu- 
lar commanding  an  extended  view,  and  the  beau- 
til'ully  colored  rocks  in  the  vicinity,  which  are 
picturesque  also  in  form.  There  are  a  nuanber  of 
handsome  summer  residences  and  many  Ixitels. 
Population  (Narragansett  District),  in  1890, 
I40S;  in  1000.  1523.  The  first  settler  came  to 
this  neighborhood  about  1675,  and  in  1815  the 
pier  from  which  the  place  takes  its  name  was 
built.  It  was  not  until  after  1876,  when  a  rail- 
road was  completed  to  this  point,  that  'The  Pier' 
became  a  favorite  summer  resort.  Near  by  in 
December,  1075.  General  Winslow.  at  the  liead 
of  1000  colonists,  defeated  the  Narraganset  In- 
dians, of  whom  300  were  killed  and  about  600 
captured,  while  the  whites  lost  80  killed  and  150 
woiniiled. 

NARRENSCHIFF,  nilr'ren-shlf.  Das  (C4er., 
The  Ship  of  Fools).  The  most  celebrated  work 
of  Sebastian  Brant   (q.v.). 

NARSES,  niir'ses  (  ?-568 ) .  A  celebrated  eu- 
nuch statesman  and  general  of  the  Byzantine 
Empire.  He  was  an  Armenian  by  birth,  and  was 
probably  sold  as  a  slave  in  childhood.  He  rose  by 
successive  steps  to  the  post  of  grand  cham- 
berlain to  the  Emperor  Justinian.  In  o^2  he. 
aided  in  suppressing  the  'Nika'  rebellion.  In 
■"i.'is  he  was  sent  to  Italy  to  act  in  concert 
with  Belisarius  (q.v.)  in  the  war  against  the 
Goths.  After  gaining  some  successes.  Narses 
came  into  conflict  with  Belisarius  and  was 
recalled  to  Constantinople  in  539.  After 
Belisaritis  had  been  recalled,  Narses  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  chief  command  in  Italy.  Near 
Tagina  in  552.  after  a  desperate  engagement, 
the  Goths  were  totally  defeated,  and  their  King, 
Tofila,  slain.  In  the  following  year  Teja  (q.v.) 
was  defeated  near  Sorrento.  Narses  took  posses- 
sion of  Rome,  and  completely  extinguished  the 
Gothic  power  in  Italy.  He  was  appointed  ex- 
arch of  Italy  in  553.  He  fixed  his  court  at 
Ravenna,  and  continued  till  the  death  of 
Justinian  in  565  to  administer  the  aflfairs  of 
Italy  with  vigor  and  ability.  The  only  blot  on 
the  character  of  his  administration  is  the  avarice 
with  which  he  is  charged  by  his  contemporaries. 
His  exactions  pressed  heavily  on  the  exhausted 
resources  of  the  population,  though  their  sever- 


ity may  be  in  some  degree  palliated  by  the 
splenilor  and  utility  of  the  public  works  on 
which  he  partly  expended  the  public  resources. 
The  Romans,  on  the  accession  of  Justin,  eom- 
jjlained  of  the  exactions  of  Narses,  and  that 
Emperor  is  said  to  have  deprived  him  of  his 
oflice.  He  is  accused  of  secretlj'  intriguing 
with  Alboin,  King  of  the  Lombards,  to  incite  a 
new  invasion  of  Italy,  at  the  same  time  submis- 
sively ofl'ering  his  services  to  the  Emperor  for 
the  purpose  of  repelling  the  invasion.  This  ac- 
C(mnt.  however,  seems  improbable;  and  as  Narses 
died  at  Rome  in  508,  Just  on  the  eve  of  the  Lom- 
bard invasion,  no  light  is  thrown  upon  this  story 
by  the  actual  events  of  the  war.  Consult :  Bury, 
Later  Roman  Empire,  vol.  i.  (London  and  New 
York,  1889)  ;  Hodgkin,  Ilalii  and  Her  Invaders, 
vols.  iv.  and  v.  (Oxford,  1885  and  1895);  Gib- 
bon, Decline  and  Fall,  edited  by  Bury  (London, 
1896-1900).    See  Goths;  Justinian. 

NAR'THEX  (Lat..  from  Gk.  mpdTjt  narihex, 
casket,  a  sort  of  tall,  hollow-stalked,  pithy,  umbel- 
liferous plant).  A  part  of  Early  Christian  and 
media>val  churches,  situated  at  the  o2jposite  end 
from  the  altar  and  choir,  and  either  just  inside 
or  outside  the  entrance  and  facade.  It  had  in 
most  cases  the  same  width  as  the  entire  church 
(nave  and  aisles),  but  was  usually  rather  short. 
The  term  is  used  especially  of  Byzantine  archi- 
tecture, the  corresponding  part  in  the  West  being 
usually  called  portico  or  porch.  There  were  two 
main  divisions:  (1)  the  inner  narthex,  which 
was  an  integral  portion  of  the  interior,  within 
the  main  facade,  and  (2)  the  outer  narthex.  a 
closed  porch  attached  to  the  outside  of  the  facade, 
or  with  a  separate  fagade. 

NARUSZEWICZ,  nii'roo-sha'vlch,  Adam 
Stanisl.\w  (1733-90.)  A  Polish  historian  and 
poet,  born  at  Pinsk,  Lithuania.  He  joined  the 
Jesuits  in  1748.  and  was  sent  by  them  to  France 
to  complete  his  education.  On  his  return  lie 
became  professor  of  Latin  at  the  Vilna  Academy. 
A  second  journey  through  France,  Germany,  and 
Italy  secured  for  him  the  directorship  of  the 
Collegium  Nobilium  at  Warsaw.  Prince  Czar- 
toryski  introduced  him  to  King  Stanislas  Augus- 
tus, and  the  two  became  inseparable.  After  the 
suppression  of  the  .Jesuit  Order,  he  became ' 
bishop,  first,  of  Smolensk,  and  then  of  Lutsk.  He 
died  at  Janow.  Galicia.  His  chief  work,  the 
Historji  of  the  Polish  Kation  ( 1780-86.  new  ed., 
1859-60),  was  the  first  scientific  treatise  of  its 
kind.  It  is  the  result  of  .a  critical  collation  of 
original  documents  in  the  Polish  archives,  and 
deals  with  the  period  previous  to  1386.  A  demo- 
crat in  his  ideals,  he  aimed  in  his  history  to 
warn  his  countrymen  against  their  narrow- 
minded  egotism  and  the  lawlessness  and  arbi- 
trariness of  the  nobility.  He  also  wrote  a  Life 
of  Chodkiewic::  (q.v. )(  new  ed..  Warsaw,  1805), 
and  a  Hixtorif  of  the  Crimea  (1787).  The  Idi/lls 
(highly  sentimental)  and  l^atires  are  the  best 
known  of  his  poetic  productions,  collected  as 
Lyrica  (Warsaw,  1778,  and  repeatedly). 

NARVA,  niir'va.  A  town  in  the  Government 
of  Saint  Petersburg.  Russia,  situated  on  the 
river  Narova,  about  100  miles  west-southwest  of 
Saint  Petersburg  (iMap:  Russia,  C  3).  The 
cathedral  (formerly  a  Lutheran  church)  contains 
a  fine  collection  of  crosses  and  crucifixes.  The 
town  has  a  seventeenth-century  town  hall,  an 
old  castle,  two  gjmnasia,  a  theatre,  and  a  num- 


NARVA. 


250 


NARWHAL. 


ber  of  technical  schools  attadied  to  the  ex- 
tensive cotton  and  woolen  mills  in  the  vicinity. 
There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  cotton  and 
lumber.  Population,  in  1897,  10,577 — Germans, 
Esths,  and  Russians.  The  town  was  founded 
by  the  Danes  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
and,  after  being  held  for  a  short  time  by 
the  Russians,  passed  to  Sweden  in  1581.  Here, 
on  Xovend)cr  30,  1700,  an  army  of  about  40,000 
Russians  under  I'ctcv  the  (ireat  was  conii)letely 
defeated  by  some  8000  Swedes  under  Charles  XII. 
In  1704  I'eter  the  Great  made  himself  master  of 
the  town. 

NARVACAN,  nar'va-kiin'.  A  town  of  North- 
ern Luzon.  I'liiliiijiines,  in  the  Province  of  Ilocos 
Sur.  It  is  silualcd  on  the  main  road,  and  on 
the  proposed  northern  railioad,  a  short  distance 
from  the  coast  and  about  I'i  miles  southeast  of 
Vigan.  It  has  a  population  of  10,500,  being  next 
to  the  capital  the  largest  town  of  the  province. 

NARVAEZ,  nar-vii'ath.  Paxfilo  de  (1470?- 
I52SI.  A  Sixuiish  soldier  and  'conquistador.'  He 
was  born  in  Valladolid,  and  came  to  America 
about  1498,  and  became  lieutenant  to  the  Gov- 
ernor of  Cuba,  Velazquez.  In  1520  Narvaez 
was  sent  with  a  body  of  soldiers  to  reduce 
Cortes,  then  in  Mexico,  to  submission.  Land- 
ing at  San  Juan  de  Ulua,  he  was  surprised 
one  dark  night  (ilay,  1520),  and  seized  in 
his  camp  by  a  party  under  Cortes  himself, 
who  then  persuaded  the  soldiers  to  join  in  the 
conquest  of  Mexico.  After  about  two  years  of 
imprisonment  at  Vera  Cruz,  Narvaez  was  per- 
mitted to  return  to  Spain.  There  he  secured 
permission  to  conquer  and  govern  the  territory 
from  Florida  to  the  Rio  de  Palmas,  which  is 
now  known  as  the  Rio  Cirande.  He  sailed  from 
San  Lucas,  .Tunc  17,  1527,  with  a  lleet  carrying 
si.x  hunilred  colonists  and  soldiers,  priests,  and 
negro  slaves,  with  a  few  women.  Stopping  at 
Santo  Domingo  for  horses  and  supjilies,  about  a 
quarter  of  his  men  deserted  in  order  to  join  in 
the  exodus  toward  Mexico  and  Peru.  Thence  he 
went  to  Santiago  de  Cuba,  where  he  jiasscd  the 
winter,  ami  toward  the  end  of  Feliruary  or  early 
in  March.  1.128,  he  finally  started  lowanl  Florida. 
After  many  mischances,  on  Ajiril  14th  he  an- 
chored near  a  bay  which  he  nauied  lUiIiia  de  la 
Cruz,  and  which  has  been  identified  with  .\pala- 
chee  Hay  and  Tampa  Bay.  Finding  little  here- 
abouts to  justify  settlement,  on  May  1st  the 
company,  now  numbering  three  hundred,  started 
to  march  through  the  country,  while  the  vessels 
were  to  follow  the  shore  as  far  as  the  harbor  of 
Panuco.  Hopelesslv  misled  by  ln<lian  guides, 
lost  in  the  tangled  morasses,  hungry  and  foot- 
sore, helpless  against  the  harrying,  pestering 
attacks  of  unseen  natives,  the  Spaniards  strug- 
gled along  across  the  country  until  Scplenibcr 
22d,  when,  at  a  point  named  by  Xarvaez  Rahia 
de  Cavallos,  two  hundred  and  forty  survivors 
embarkeil  in  five  boats  which  they  had  built 
with  such  rude  tools  as  could  be  fashioned  from 
their  weapons.  They  fcdlowed  the  coast  until 
(October  .31st)  they'  reached  the  mouth  of  a 
mighty  river,  whose  stream  carried  them  out  to 
sea.  This  was  the  Mississippi.  Here  two  of  the 
boats,  in  one  of  which  was  N'arvaez,  disappeared. 
The  others  made  their  way  toward  the  shore,  but 
n  storm  siqiarated  them  nurr  more.  Only  one 
reached  the  land.  For  the  fate  of  the  survivors. 
see  NviNEZ  Cabeca  de  Vaca,  Alvab. 


NARVAEZ,  l^iiiu.N  iL\RiA,  Duke  of  Valencia 
(1800-08).  A  Spanish  general  and  statesman, 
born  at  Loja.  in  Andalusia.  In  early  youth  he 
fought  in  the  war  of  lilieration  against,  the 
French.  In  1822  Xarvaez  acted  with  the  Liberals 
and  contributed  to  the  suppression  of  the  revolt 
in  the  Koyal  Guards,  lie  withdrew  to  Loja  in 
182;!  upon  the  triumph  of  the  Reactionary  Party, 
and  lived  tliere  in  retirement  until  the  death  ol 
Ferdinand  \ll.  in  1833.  He  was  engaged  in  the 
Bas(]ue  provinces  in  1834. then  conmutnded  a  divi- 
sion luider  Ksparlero,  and  in  Xovember,  1830, 
routed  the  Carlist  leader,  Gomez,  near  Arcos.  He 
won  i)opularity  in  these  campaigns,  and  was 
reganleil  as  the  rival  of  Espartero.  In  1.S38, 
by  acts  of  great  severity,  he  cleared  the  District 
of  La  ^lancha  of  brigands,  and  was  appointed,  i:i 
1840,  Captain-General  of  Old  Castile,  and  general- 
in-chief  of  the  army  of  reserve.  He  took  part  in 
the  insurrection  against  Espartero  that  l)roke 
out  at  S<'ville  in  1840,  but  was  compelled  to  lice 
to  France.  He  succeeded  in  1843  in  liringing 
alniut  the  overthrow  of  the  Government  of  Espar- 
tero, and  was  made  president  of  the  Council  and 
created  Duke  of  Valencia  in  1844.  He  entered 
upon  a  thorouglily  reactionary  policy  and  revised 
the  Liberal  Constitution  of  1837.  Petty  insur- 
rections broke  out,  which  the  rigorous  soldier- 
statesman  repressed  with  an  iron  hand.  But  his 
dictatorial  maimers  alienated  even  his  per.sonal 
friends,  and  his  ilinistry  was  overtluown  (Feb- 
ruary 10,  184G).  After  serving  as  special  Am- 
bassador at  the  French  Court,  he  returned  to 
power  in  1847,  but  soon  afterwards  quarreled 
with  Queen  Christina,  and  retired  from  ollice  in 
1851.  In  1850.  on  the  overthrow  of  the  O'Doimcll 
Ministry,  he  again  became  president  of  thi'  Coun- 
cil. Intrigues  of  the  Court  compelled  bis  resigna- 
tion in  1857.  Once  more  in  ])owcr  in  18(i4.  he 
was  succeciled  in  tlie  fidlowing  year  by  O'Donnell. 
with  whom  he  suppressed,  in  18(;(1.  a  military 
revolt  in  Madrid.  He  supplanted  0"Donncll  in 
the  same  year,  and,  despite  the  ellorts  of  O'Don- 
nell and  Prim,  retained  power  until  his  death, 
April  23.  1808.  See  ^^azade.  Lcs  revolutions 
d'Esjiaiiiii    I  I'aris,   1809). 

NARWHAL,  niir'wol  (from  Swed..  Dan. 
narhval,  Icel.  nalwalr,  probably  from  Icel.  iiar. 
corpse   4"   hrnlr.  whale;   so  called  from   the  pale 


sKn.L  OP  NAHiraAL. 

Tlic  lowi>r]nw  linfl  bot»n  reninvpd.  ftinl  the  vii'w  Is  of  t.hfl 
roof  <»r  till'  iiMUith.  wliifli  liMstn'iMi  partl.vi-ut  away  to  sliow 
till'  ili'f|)  liiwrlloii  lit  thi'  root  of  Hit-  tusk  (<iii  llic  Ii'(t>-liiuid 
Hiilc)  ami  tijt-'  abortive  tooth  on  the  rlg))t~hand  ekle  of  the 
upper  jaxv. 

color  of  the  skin).  A  cetacean  of  the  family 
lielugida'.  resembling  the  white  whale  in  form 
and  in  the  want  of  a  dorsal  fin,  but  renuirkably 
characterized  by   liaviiig  no  teeth   at  all,  except 


NARWHAL. 


251 


NASH. 


two  in  the  upper  jaw.  supposed  to  be  canines, 
(iiie  and  occasionally  botli  of  which  (in  the  male) 
develop  into  spirally  twisted  straight  tusks, 
passinj;  tlirough  the  upper  lip.  and  projecting 
like  horns  in  front.  Wlien,  as  usually,  only  one 
is  so  produced,  it  is  always  the  left  one.  Only 
one  species  is  known  (Munudon  monoceros) ,  of 
Arctic  seas,  where  narwhals  are  often  seen  in 
{.•reat  numbers  among  the  ice-fields,  and  in  the 
creeks  and  bays,  always  active  and  playful.  A 
mature  narwhal  is  generally  about  15  feet  in 
length,  besides  the  tusk,  which  is  from  6  to  10 
feet  long.  The  tusk  is  hollow  nearly  to  the 
jioinf,  and  is  spirally  grooved.  Its  use  is  rather 
conjectured  than  known:  it  is  pr(>l)ably  a  weapon 
of  defense,  but  it  may  also  be  used  for  breaking 
thin  ice  in  order  to  breatlie,  and  for  killing  fish. 
The  remains  of  skates  and  other  llatlish  have 
l«en  found  in  the  stomach  of  a  narwhal,  and  it 
i^  not  easy  to  imagine  how  a  toothless  animal, 
with  rather  small  lips,  could  capture  and  swal- 
low such  prey  unless  the  formidable  tusk  were 
first  employed.  Cejihalopod  mollusks,  however, 
are  believed  to  constitute  a  principal  part  of 
the  food.  The  narwhal  is  pursued  by  the  Eski- 
mos for  food,  and  for  the  sake  of  its  blubber, 
with  which  the  whole  body  is  invested  to  the 
thickness  of  about  three  inches,  weighing  nearly 
half  a  ton  and  yielding  a  large  amount  of 
e.xcellent  oil.  The  tusks  are  also  valuable,  as 
tliey  are  denser,  harder,  and  whiter  than  ivory. 
The  kings  of  Denmark  have  long  possessed  a 
magnificent  throne  of  this  material,  preserved  in 
the  Castle  of  Rosenberg.  Great  medicinal  virtues 
were  formerly  ascribed  to  the  tusks.  The  animal 
has  been  called  the  'sea-unicorn.' 

NASALS  (from  Lat.  nasus,  nose;  connected 
with  Skt.  nOsa,  OChurch  Slav,  nosu,  Lith.  «osis, 
OPrus.  110Z1J,  OHG.  nasa,  Ger.  .A((.se,  AS.  nosu, 
Eng.  nose).  A  name  given  to  sounds,  as  m,  n, 
whose  quality  is  afl'ected  by  the  deflection  of 
the  breath  from  the  oral  to  the  nasal  passages. 
The  voice  is  made  to  pass  through  the  nose  by 
lowering  the  soft  palate  and  sometimes  by  clos- 
ing the  oral  passage. 

NAS'BY,  PETROLEtM  V(esuvius).  The  pseu- 
donym of  the  American  humorist  David  Ross 
Locke    ( q.v. ) . 

NASCENT  STATE  (from  Lat.  nasccns,  pres. 
part,  of  nasci.  to  1)C  born),  status  nascendi.  The 
state  in  which  a  chemical  element  exists  at  the 
instant  of  its  liberation  from  a  compound.  The 
reacting  capacity  of  an  clement  in  the  nascent 
state  is  far  greater  than  in  the  ordinaiy  state, 
i.e.  some  time  after  it  has  been  liberated.  For 
example,  in  the  gaseous  state  hydrogen  has  no 
action  upon  ordinary  aldehyde;  but  when  sodium 
amalgam  is  brought  in  contact  with  an  aqueous 
solution  of  aldehyde,  the  latter  combines  directly 
with  the  nascent  hydrogen,  yielding  ordinary 
alcohol.  According  to  most  authors,  nascent 
hydrogen  is  made  up  of  single  atoms,  while 
gaseous  hydrogen  is  made  up  of  molecules, 
each  of  which  consists  of  two  atoms.  Others 
believe  that  nascent  hydrogen  is  nothing  but 
highly  compressed  gaseous  hydrogen:  for.  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  has  been  shown  that  highly 
compressed  hydrogen  is  capable  of  acting  in  many 
respects  like  nascent  hydrogen,  and  it  can  also 
be  shown  that  hydrogen  is  chemically  liberated 
with  considerable  pressure.  Similar  remarks  ap- 
ply also  to  other  elements  in  the  nascent  state. 
Vol.  XIV.— n. 


NASCIMENTO,  niis'se-man'to,  Maxoel  do 
{ lT34-lSlil|.  A  Portuguese  poet  and  a  secular 
priest.  He  was  summoned  to  appear  before 
the  Inquisition  because  of  certain  heterodox 
practices.  He  fled  to  Holland  and  then  to 
Krance,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life. 
\\hile  still  in  Portugal  Xascimento  formed  with 
some  seceders  from  the  Arcadia  a  counter 
poetical  academy  (the  (Jrupo  da  Ribriru  das 
-Vaos),  whose  members  observed  the  Arcadian 
system  of  taking  ])seudonyms,  so  that  he  is  kimwii 
as  Xiccno  and  Filinto  IJhjsio.  At  Paris  (1817- 
10)  and  at  Lisbon  (IS30-1())  there  a])peared  two 
separate  editions  of  his  Obras  comjilelus,  neither 
of  which  is  really  complete.  Consult  Pereira  da 
Silva,  Filinto  Elysio  e  sua  epoca  (Rio,  1891). 

NASCOPI,  na-sko'pe.    The  most  northeasterly 

tribe  of  the  AlgoiKiuian  stock  (q.v. ),  occupying 
the  interior  highland  region  of  Quebec  and  Lab- 
rador, northwaril  almost  to  Ungava  Bay.  They 
are  closely  allied  by  intermarriage  with  the 
Montagnais  (q.v. ) ,  and  trade  at  the  same  stations 
along  the  Saint  Lawrence.  They  depend  entirely 
upon  hunting  and  fishing  for  subsistence,  and 
are  still  but  little  changed  from  their  primitive 
condition.  They  are  supposed  to  number  alto- 
gether about  3200  souls. 

NASEBY,  naz'bl.  A  parish  of  Northampton- 
shire, England,  12  miles  east  by  north  of  Rugby. 
Population,  under  7.50.  It  gives  its  name  to  the 
decisive  action  of  the  Civil  War  between  Cliarles 
I.  and  the  Parliamentary  army  under  Fairfax 
and  Cromwell,  which  took  ])laee  here,  .June  14, 
1645.  It  resulted  in  the  total  defeat  of  the 
Royalists,  the  King  being  compelled  to  flee,  after 
losing  his  cannon  and  baggage,  and  nearly  5000 
of  his  army  as  prisoners. 

NASH,  Abxer  (171G-8G).  An  American  offi- 
cial, brother  of  G!en.  Francis  Nash  (q.v.).  He 
was  born  in  Prince  Edward  County,  Va.,  but 
removed  to  North  Carolina,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  and  gained  a  large  practice.  He  repre- 
sented Newbern  in  the  First  Provincial  Con- 
gress in  1774,  and  the  next  year  was  a  member 
of  the  Provincial  Council.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  body  which  framed  the  State  Constitution  in 
1776,  and  Avas  the  Speaker  of  the  first  House  of 
Commons  the  next  year.  In  17S0  he  was  elected 
the  second  Governor  of  the  State.  His  adminis- 
tration was  stormy,  as  the  Legislature  gave  most 
of  his  powers  to  a  board  of  war.  and  he  served 
but  one  year.  In  1782  and  1785  he  represented 
Jones  County  in  the  Legislature,  and  was  elected 
bv  that  bodv  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Con- 
gress in  1782-84  and  1785-86. 

NASH,  Fraxcis  (1720-77).  An  American 
soldier,  born  in  Prince  Edward  County,  Va.  At 
an  early  age  he  removed  to  Orange  County.  N.  C. 
In  1771  he  served  as  a  captain  under  Governor 
Tryon  in  the  campaign  against  the  Regulators. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Assembly  in  1771. 
and  from  1773  to  1775.  He  was  also  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Provincial  Congress  of  1775,  and 
by  it  was  commissioned  lieutenant-colonel  of  the 
First  North  Carolina  Regiment  in  September,  and 
promoted  to  be  colonel.  April  22,  1776.  This  regi- 
ment became  a  part  of  the  Continental  line,  and 
in  February.  1777.  he  was  made  brigadier-general. 
At  Germantown  his  brigade,  which  was  intended 
to  form  part  of  the  reserve,  participated  in  some 
of  the  hottest  fighting  of  the  day.    General  Nash 


NASH. 


252 


NASHUA. 


was  mortally  wounded  by  a  cauuon  ball,  and  war* 
buried  at  Kuliisville. 

NASH,  Sir  Joh.\  (17521835).  An  English 
architect.  He  was  born  in  London,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  Sir  Robert  Taylor.  After  qualifying 
as  an  architect,  he  spent  many  years  in  building 
speculations,  and  did  not,  until  I7!)'2,  return  to 
London  and  architecture,  in  which  he  speedily 
rose  to  eminence.  He  designed  numerous  man- 
sion-houses for  the  nobilit}-  and  gentry  in  Eng- 
land and  Ireland,  but  he  is  chielly  celebrated 
in  connection  with  the  great  street  improvements 
in  Londiin,  especially  in  the  Marvldioiu'  region, 
which  he  helped  to  transf(jrm  into  Regent's  Park. 
Regent  Street,  Haymarket  Theatre,  Langham 
Place  Church,  Park  Square,  and  the  terraces  in 
Regent's  Park  are  specimens  of  his  designs.  The 
pavilion  at  Brighton  is  another  of  his  works. 
He  died  at  East  Cowes,  Lsle  of  Wight,  May  13, 
1835.  Nash,  notwithstanding  his  n^auy  defects, 
possessed  great  power  of  efl'ective  grouping,  as 
may  be  seen  in  Buckingham  Palace. 

NASH,  .losEiMi  (lSOil-78).  An  English  water- 
color  painter  and  lithographer,  born  at  tireat 
Marlow,  Buckinghamshire.  He  is  principally 
known  by  his  water-colors  and  lithograiihs, 
illustrating  late  Gothic  architecture  and  domes- 
tic interiors.  His  publications  include  Archi- 
tecture of  the  Middle  Ages  (183S)  and  Mait- 
sions  of  England  in  the  Ohlen  Time  (1S3!)- 
49).  He  also  did  some  views  of  Windsor  Castle. 
There  are  .sketches  by  him  in  the  Victoria  and 
Albert  Museum,  South   Kensington. 

NASH,  RiciiAiin  (1074-1702).  An  English 
society  lea<ler,  better  known  as  'Beau  Nash;' 
born  at  Swansea.  In  1002  he  entered  .lesus 
College,  Oxford,  but  he  left  before  finishing  his 
course,  and  after  a  very  brief  career  in  the 
army,  entered  as  a  student  of  law  at  the  hmcr 
Temple  in  1003.  There  he  quicrkly  became  con- 
spicuous for  his  good  manners,  his  taste  in  dress, 
and  his  high  living.  His  income  being  insufli- 
eient  to  meet  his  demands,  he  eked  it  out  by 
gambling  and  by  performing  for  large  wagers 
such  risque  exploits  as  riding  naked  thnnigii  a 
village  on  a  cow.  It  was  the  former  occupation 
that  in  1705  took  him  to  Bath,  then  newly  be- 
come a  fashionable  watering  jjlace.  Here  was 
his  opportunity.  Bath  was  then  a  rude  little 
village  (illed  to  overflowing  with  fashionable  peo- 
ple who  were  compelled  to  pay  extravagant  rates 
for  miBeral>le  lodgings,  whose  only  dancing  place 
was  the  bowling  green,  and  whose  card  and  tea 
rooms  were  canvas  tents.  Nash  set  himself  to 
change  all  this.,  and  in  a  short  time  lie  had 
succeeded  not  only  in  building  an  assembly  house. 
in  procuring  decent  lodgings,  and  in  reducing  the 
insolent  sedan-chair  men  to  humility,  but  also 
in  making  himself  the  social  a>iln<>ral  of  the 
|)lacc.  He  drew  up  a  set  of  rules  which  were 
enforced  on  liigh  and  low;  he  practically  abol- 
ished dueling,  and  he  even  assumed  the  d\ity 
of  improving  the  country  roads  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. During  these  years  his  income,  prin- 
cipally derived  from  his  partnership  in  gambling 
houses  anil  his  own  skill  as  a  ^ramcster,  was  large. 
and  he  lived  in  a  style  befitting  'the  King  of 
Bnth.'  Bui  in  1740  gambling  cam<'  \ui(ler  the 
ban  of  the  law,  and  though  Nash  managed  for  a 
time  to  evade  yielding  obedience,  new  regulations 
in  1715  left  him  iiracfically  without  resources. 
In  this  plight,  the  town,  which  owed  so  nuich  to 


him,  came  to  his  rescue  witli  a  pension  of  £10 
a  month,  and  on  this  he  lived  until  his  death. 
Nash  owed  but  little  of  his  [lopularily  to  physical 
attraction,  for,  according  to  Goldsmith,  he  was 
large  and  clumsy,  and  his  features  were  "harsh, 
strong,  and  peculiarly  irregular."  But  he  did 
have  "assiduity,  llattery.  fine  clothes,  and  as 
much  wit  as  the  ladies  he  addressed."  Consult 
fioldsmith.  Life  of  Richard  Sash  (London, 
1762). 

NASH,  Thomas  (1567-1001).  An  English 
pauiplileteer,  born  at  Lowestoft,  SuflFolk,  in  1507. 
He  graduated  B.A.  from  Saint  .Tohn's  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1580:  traveled  in  France  and 
Italy;  settled  in  London  as  an  author  in  1588; 
and  died  ob.scurely  in  lOttl.  His  first  publica- 
tion was  a  shar|)  review  of  the  state  of  letters, 
prefixed  to  Greene's  Mennphon  (1589).  It  was 
followed  by  a  pamphlet  in  similar  vein  entitled 
Anatomg  of  A  hsurdiliesi  1589) .  Nash  now  entered 
the  JIartin  Marprelate  controversy  (q.v.),  writ- 
ing abusive  satires  on  the  Puritans.  He  also 
violently  attacki'd  Gabriel  Harvey  in  Hinc  With 
>o((  lo  Saffron  Waldcn  (159(i).  t)f  more  general 
interest  are  his  .satirical  sketches  of  contempo- 
rary manners:  fierce  Penniless.  His  Supplica- 
tions to  the  Devil  (1592);  The  Terrors  of  the 
Night  (1.594);  Lenten  Stuff  (1.599);  and  the 
picaiescpie  novel  called  The  Unfortunate  Trav- 
eler, or  Jack  Wilton  (  1594).  This  last  work  was 
the  sternest  piece  of  realism  that  had  yet  ap- 
peared in  English  fiction.  Nash  also  wrote  a 
comedy  entitled  Summer's  Lust  Will  and  Tistii- 
me»<  "  (printed  1000),  and  had  ;i  hand  with 
Marlowe  in  The  Traged;/  of  Queen  Dido  (  printeil 
1594).  Nash  was  given  to  outright  s|)eech  :ind 
sarcastic  n\irth.  He  was  well  read  and  avowed 
himself  the  disciple  of  Pietro  Aretino.  He  also 
knew  Brant's  Xarrcnschiff  and  the  works  of 
Rabelais,  as  well  as  English  poets,  such  as  Sur- 
rey and  Spenser.  Izaak  Walton  aptly  described 
Nash  as  "the  master  of  a  seolling,  satirical,  and 
merry  pen."  Consult  his  Complete  Works,  ed. 
by  (iiosart  (0  vols.,  London,  1883-85). 

NASHUA,  n:"ish'ft-a.  An  important  manu- 
facturing city  and  one  of  the  county-scats  of 
Ilillsboro  Counly.  N.  H..  40  miles  northwest  of 
Boston,  Mass.;  on  the  Naslnia  River,  near  its 
junction  with  the  Merrimac.  and  on  several  di- 
visions of  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad  (.M:ip; 
New  Hampshire,  .1  10).  It  has  a  pul)lic  library, 
a  L'nited  States  Eish  Hatchery,  and  Saint  Fran- 
cis Xavier  Church  (Roman  Catholic),  one  of 
the  finest  church  edifices  in  the  State.  A  canal, 
3  miles  long,  00  feet  wide,  and  8  feet  deep, 
leading  from  the  Nashua  River.  f\irnishes  excel- 
lent water  power  for  huge  cotton  mills.  The 
manufactures  include  iron  and  steel,  stationary  ■ 
engines,  edge  tools,  furniture,  cotton  goods, 
cards  and  glazed  paper,  shoes,  refrigerators,  ice- 
cream freezers,  registers,  sash,  doors,  and  blinds, 
kits  and  caskets,  boxes,  saddlery  and  hanlware, 
shears  and  clippers,  etc.  The  goviTnment  is  ad- 
ministered, under  the  original  charter  of  incor- 
poration (1853),  by  a  mayor,  chosen  every  two 
years,  and  a  bicameral  council,  which  elects  the 
nnijority  of  nuinicip:il  ofi'icers.  The  school  hoard 
is  independent Iv  elected  on  a  general  ticket  by 
the  people.  Population,  in  1890.  19.311:  in 
1900.  23.898.  Settled  in  1655,  Nashua  was  in- 
corporated as  the  township  of  Dunstable  by 
Massachusetts    in    1073.    was    reincorporated   by 


NASHUA. 


253 


NASHVILLE. 


New  Hampshire  in  174G,  received  its  present 
name  in  1836,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1853.  Consult  Parker,  Bistury  of  the  City  of 
Xashua,  X.  H.  (Nashua,  1897). 

NASH'VILLE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Washington  County,  111.,  49  miles  southeast  of 
Saint  Louis,  Mo.;  on  the  Louisville  ami  Nashville 
and  the  Illinois  Southern  railrciails  (Map:  Illi- 
nois, C  5).  It  is  surrounded  by  a  disUicl  inter- 
ested chiefly  in  farming,  cattle-raising,  and  coal- 
mining, and  has  large  Hour  mills  and  a  coal 
mine.     Population,  in  1890,  2084;  in  1900,  2184. 

NASHVILLE.  The  capital  of  Tennessee,  and 
next  to  Memphis  its  largest  city,  and  the 
county-seat  of  Davidson  County,  233  miles  east- 
northeast  of  Memplii.s  and  180  miles  south  by 
west  of  Louisville,  Ky. ;  on  the  Cumberland  River 
( mainly  on  the  left  bank ) ,  and  on  the  Louis- 
ville and  Nashville  and  the  Nashville,  Chat- 
tanooga and  Saint  Louis  railroads  (Map: 
Tennessee,  E  4).  It  has  an  area  of  about 
OVo  square  miles,  and  is  regularly  laid  out  on 
gradually  rising  ground,  wliich  reaches  an  ele- 
vation of  550  feet  above  sea  level.  Macadam  is 
very  largely  used  in  the  pavement  of  streets, 
about  190  miles  being  laid  with  this  material. 
There  are  a  number  of  liandsome  structures.  The 
State  Capitol,  situated  on  a  hill,  cost  $1,500,000 
and  is  the  most  imposing  building  in  the  city. 
The  grounds  contain  the  tomb  of  .James  K. 
Polk  and  a  statue  of  Andrew  .lackson.  Among 
other  notable  public  edifices  are  tlic  L'nitcd  States 
Government  building,  the  court-house,  the  city 
hall,  the  Tennessee  School  for  the  Blind,  the 
State  penitentiary,  and  the  'Parthenon.'  The 
Tennessee  Industrial  School  is  in  Nashville,  and 
about  si.x  miles  away  is  the  State  lunatic  asylum. 
Tlie  Hermitage,  of  historic  interest  as  the  home 
of  Andrew  Jackson,  is  some  ten  miles  distant  to 
the  east.  The  national  cemetery,  a  short  distance 
north  of  the  city,  has  10,643  graves,  4711  of  un- 
known dead. 

Nashville  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  educa- 
tional centres  in  the  South.  It  is  the  seat  of 
Vanderbilt  University  (q.v.)  ;  University  of 
Nashville  (q.v.),  with  the  Peabody  Normal  Col- 
lege; Central  Tennessee  College  (Metliodist  Epis- 
copal), opened  in  1866  (colored);  Eisk  LTniver- 
sity  (q.v.)  (colored)  ;  Roger  Williams  L'niver- 
sity  (Baptist),  opened  in  1865  (colored);  Bos- 
cobel  College  for  women,  opened  in  1889;  and 
Ward  Seminary  for  women  (Presl)yterian) . 
opened  in  1865.  There  are  also  the  medical  and 
dental  departments  of  tlie  University  of  Tennessee, 
and  numerous  sccondaiy  institutions,  among 
which  are  Belmont  College  and  Saint  Cecilia's 
.\eadeniy.  The  State  library  comprises  40.000 
volumes;  and  Watkins  Institute,  tlie  repository 
of  the  collections  of  the  State  Historical  Society, 
has  the  Howard  Library  of  10.000  volumes. 
Nashville  is  the  leading  industrial  city  in  the 
State,  its  manufactures,  according  to  the  census 
of  1900,  liaving  an  aggregate  capital  of  $13,173.- 
000.  and  a  production  valued  at  $18,470,000. 
First  in  importance  is  the  manufacture  of  flour 
and  grist-mill  products,  the  city  being  the  chief 
centre  of  this  industry  in  Tennessee.  Next  in 
rank  are  lumber  and  timber  products.  There  are 
also  extensive  mamifactories  of  fertilizers,  cotton 
goods,  clothing,  saddlery  and  harness,  confec- 
tionery, tobacco,  soap  and  candles,  foundry  and 
machine-shop    products,    carriages    and    wagons. 


etc.  Nashville  controls  a  large  trade  in  lumber, 
cotton,  grain,  and  nuinufaetured  goods,  and,  as 
the  distributing  centre  for  a  considerable  area, 
lias  important  wholesale  interests  in  groceries, 
dry  goods,  drugs,  boots  and  shoes,  etc. 

The  government,  under  tlie  charter  of  1883, 
last  revised  in  1901,  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected 
every  two  years,  and  a  unicameral  council,  which 
confirms  tlie  mayor's  nominations  of  boiler  in- 
spector and  of  the  boards  of  education  and 
health.  It  elects  the  other  administrative  olficers 
excepting  the  city  attorney,  comptroller,  treas- 
urer, tax  assessor,  city  jmige,  and  lioard  of  pub- 
lic works,  these  being  cliosen  by  pii])ular  vote. 
Nashville  spends  annually  in  maintenance  and 
operation  about  ,$1,000,000,  the  principal  items 
of  expenditure  being:  for  schools,  $200,000;  for 
interest  on  debt,  $167,000;  for  the  police  depart- 
ment (including  police  courts,  jails,  etc.),  $95,- 
000;  for  the  fire  department,  $92,000;  and  for 
tlie  water-works,  $60,000.  The  water-works  are 
owned  by  the  municipality  and  were  built  in 
1832.  The  system  now  coniiu-iscs  about  80  miles 
of  mains  and  cost  more  than  $2,000,000.  Popu- 
lation, in  1830,  5566:  in  IS.IO,  10.165:  in  1860, 
16.988;  in  1870,  25.865:  in  18S0,  43,.350:  in  1890, 
76,168;  in  1900,  80,805,  including  3037  persons 
of  foreign  birth,  and  30,044  of  negro  descent. 

Nashville  was  first  .settled  in  1780  by  a  com- 
pany of  pioneers  led  by  James  Robertson,  and  in 
honor  of  Governor  Abner  Nash  of  North  Carolina, 
was  called  Nashborough  until  1784,when  it  was  in- 
corporated as  a  town  under  its  present  name. 
Throughout  its  early  years  the  settlement  was 
almost  continually  harassed  by  the  Indians,  and 
on  April  2,  17S3,  a  large  body  of  Cherokees  made 
a  deternnned  but  unsuccessful  attack.  Nashville 
was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1806,  was  the  seat  of 
th^  State  Legislature  in  1812-15  ajid  again  from 
1826  to  1843.  and  became  the  permanent  State 
capital  in  1843.  It  was  occupied  by  a  Federal 
army  in  1862,  and  in  1864  was  the  scene  of  a 
hotly  contested  battle.  (See  Nashville.  Battle 
OF.)"  The  centennial  of  the  admission  of  Tennessee 
into  the  L'nion  was  celebrated  at  Nashville  in 
1896,  and  the  event  was  further  commemorated 
by  a  grand  exposition  opened  on  May  1,  1897. 
ilany  well-known  men,  including  Andrew  Jack- 
son,"  James  K.  Polk.  Gen.  Sam  Houston,  and 
Thomas  H.  Benton,  made  Nashville  their  home 
for  tlie  whole  or  a  part  of  their  lives.  Consult 
Powell  (editor).  Historic  Toicns  of  the  Southern 
States   (New  York,  1900). 

NASHVILLE,  Battle  of.  A  battle  of  the 
Civil  War  in  .Vmerica,  fought  south  of  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  December  15  and  16,  1864.  between  a  Fed- 
eral army  under  Gen.  George  H.  Thomas  and  the 
Army   of   Tennessee    under   Gen,    .John    B.    Hood. 

Wiien  General  Hood  evacuated  Atlanta  early  in 
September  he  moved  west  into  Alabama,  hoping 
to  draw  General  Sherman  after  him  and  carry 
the  war  back  into  Tennessee.  General  Sherman, 
Ifowever,  sent  General  Thomas  and  a  part  of  his 
army  to  oppose  General  Hood,  while  he  undertook 
the  'March  to  the  Sea.'  General  Thomas  pro- 
ceeded to  Nashville  and  assembled  the  Fourth 
Corps  of  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland  under 
General  Wood,  the  Twenty-third  Corps.  Army  of 
the  Ohio,  under  General  Schofield.  the  First  and 
Third  Divisions.  Army  of  the  Tennessee,  under 
Gen.  A.  J.  Smith,  a  provisional  division  includ- 
ing two  brigades  of  colored   troops  under  Gen. 


NASHVILLE. 


254 


NASR  ED-DIN. 


J.  B.  Steedman,  and  the  cavalry  corps  under  Gen. 
James  II.  Wilson,  about  55,000  in  all.  (ieneral 
.  Hood  advancing  northward  into  Tennessee  was 
repulsed  at  Franklin,  November  .'iOtli,  by  General 
Schofield,  who  at  once  retired  within  the  in- 
trenchnients  at  Nashville.  On  Deccniljer  2d 
General  Hood  appeared  before  Naslivillc  and 
offered  battle.  General  Thomas,  fecliiii;  that  his 
army  was  not  sufficiently  imitied,  delayed,  though 
ordered  to  fight  at  once  by  the  authorities  at 
Washington.  On  December  15tli  he  advanced 
from  his  intrenchments.  The  cavalry  was  placed 
upon  the  right  of  a  great  curve,  the  Sixteenth 
Corps  next,  the  Fourth  Corps  was  the  centre 
and  the  pivot,  the  Twenty-third  Corps,  as  a  re- 
serve, was  to  the  left,  and  the  Provisional  Divi- 
sion was  at  the  extreme  left.  General  Steodman 
attacked  Cheatham's  corps  on  the  Confederate 
right,  but  was  repulsed ;  but  Gen.  S.  D.  Lee  in 
the  centre  and  General  Stewart  on  the  left  were 
driven  back  and  some  unfinished  works  captiired. 
Late  in  the  day  General  Sohofield  with  the 
Twenty-third  Corps  was  moved  to  the  Federal 
right.  During  the  night  General  Hood  formed 
Cheatham's  corps  on  the  left.  Xo  change  was 
made  in  the  Federal  arrangement.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  December  10th  the  Fourth  Corps  made 
an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Overton's  11  ill  on  the 
Confederate  right,  but  Cleburne's  old  division  was 
transferred  from  the  left  to  strengthen  the  right. 
General  McArthur.  of  the  Sixteenth  Corps,  as- 
saulted General  Hate's  division  on  the  Confederate 
left,  and  pierced  the  line.  At  this  moment  some  of 
Hatch's  cavalry,  which  had  made  a  long  detour, 
attacked  the  Confederate  rear  and  soon  the  re- 
treat became  a  rout  along  the  whole  line.  Gen- 
eral Forrest  with  the  Confederate  cavalry  came  up 
and  covered  the  rear.  General  Hood  with  the 
fragments  of  his  army  retreated  across  the  Ten- 
nessee River,  and  on  January  14.  1,'^()5,  asked  to  be 
relieved  from  the  command.  The  Federal  troops 
actually  engaged  numbered  about  45.000;  the 
Confederate  about  2.5.000.  The  Federal  forces 
lost  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing  3057.  The 
Confederate  losses  in  killed  and  wounded  were 
not  given,  l)ut  4402  were  taken  prisoners.  Con- 
sult:  Hood,  Ailvaticc  and  Kelrcat  (New  Orleans, 
1880);  .lohnson  and  Buel  (cd.),  TinllJcs  mid 
traders  of  the  Civil  War  (New  York.  1887); 
and  Cox,  .1/arc/i  to  Sea  (New  York,  1882). 

NASHVILLE,  Univer.sitt  of.  An  education- 
al institution  at  Nashville.  Tenn..  chartered  as 
Davidson  .\cadomy  in  1785  by  the  State  of  North 
Carolina,  and  as  Cumberland  College  in  1800 
Ijy  the  Stale  of  Tennessee.  In  1,'*20  the  name 
■was  changed  to  the  University  of  Nashville,  and 
it  became  in  time  one  of  the  leading  colleges  of 
the  Southwest.  During  the  Civil  War  the  in- 
stitution was  closed.  In  1875  the  trustees  of  the 
Pcabody  Fund  and  of  the  imivcrsity  united  in 
establishing  a  school  for  the  training  of  teach- 
ers. (See  Pe.yuodv  Normal  CoLi.KOK.)  The  ui»- 
versity  has  n  collegiate  department  with  an  at- 
tendance in  1902  of  577.  a  medical  school  with 
310  students,  and  a  jueparatory  department 
(ilontgoniery  Bell  Academy  and  Winihrop  llodel 
School)  with  ."iO.'i  students.  The  faculty  num- 
bered 05.  The  library  contained  10,000  volumes. 
The  college  buildings  and  campus  of  10  acres 
were  valued  at  $200,000;  the  endowment  was 
4106,000,  and  the  gross  income  was  $80,000.     At 


the  same  time  the  total  value  of  the  university 
property  was  $325,000. 

NASIK,  na'sik.  or  NASSICK.  The  capital 
of  a  district  of  Bombay.  British  India,  on  the 
Godavari  Kiver,  95  miles  northeast  of  Bombay 
lilap:  India,  B  5).  Owing  to  its  proximity  to 
Trind)ak.  19  miles  distant,  the  source  of"  the 
sacred  Godavari.  Nasik  is  one  of  the  holy  towns 
of  India,  and  rivals  Benares  as  a  place"  of  pil- 
grimage. It  is  the  chief  seat  of  Brahmanism  in 
the  Dcccan.  The  town  is  built  on  both  sides  of 
the  river,  the  portion  on  the  right  bank  divided 
into  the  old  and  new  town,  being  spread  over 
three  hills;  Panchwati.  the  quarter  on  the  left 
bank,  contains  the  prineii)al  features  of  interest. 
The  river  is  lined  with  temples,  .shrines,  and 
ghats  for  devotional  ablutions.  Nasik  is  the 
chief  seat  of  the  coi)per  and  brass  industry  in  the 
province,  and  is  noted  for  its  artistic  produc- 
tions; it  has  also  manufactures  of  cotton  and 
paper.  Four  and  a  half  miles  to  the  south  arc 
the  celebrated  Lena  Caves,  situated  in  a  conical 
hill,  about  450  feot  from  its  base.  They  were  ex- 
cavated probably  in  the  second  or  third  century 
A.D.,  and  contain  several  rudely  sculptured  lig- 
ures,  the  leading  ones  representing  liuddlia.  The 
town  is  the  Nasica  of  Ptolemy.  It  v.as  long  the 
capital  of  a  ilaliratta  principality.  Population, 
in  1801.  24.429;  in  1901,  21,490. 

NASMYTH,  n.a'smith,  James  (1808-90).  A 
Scotch  engineer  and  inventor.  He  was  born  at 
Kdinburgh.  where  he  received  his  education  at 
the  high  school,  the  school  of  arts,  and  the  uni- 
versity. As  a  youth  he  was  an  expert  mechanic 
and  constructed  models  of  steam-engines  and 
other  machinery.  In  1829  he  became  assistant 
to  Henry  !Maudsley.  a  London  engineer,  from 
whom  he  derived  much  useful  knowledge  and  ex- 
perience. In  1834  he  began  the  manufacture  of 
machine  tools  at  Manchester,  where  his  business 
rajiidly  increased  and  developed  into  the  well- 
known  Bridgewater  Foundry.  In  1S39  he  in- 
vented the  steam  hammer,  which  he  improved 
from  time  to  time.  He  was  also  the  inventor  of 
many  important  machine  tools,  inehiding  a  by- 
draidic  punch  and  a  steam  pile-driver,  and  lie 
was  the  first  to  propose  the  use  of  a  submerged 
chain  for  towing  boats  on  rivers  and  canals,  and 
of  chilled  cast-iron  shot.  In  addition  to  his 
work  as  a  nicelianical  engineer  he  was  much  in- 
terested in  astronomy  and  made  many  observa- 
tions with  reflect ing  telescopes  which  were  con- 
structed and  mounted  according  to  bis  ideas. 
His  astronomical  work  includes  investigations 
of  the  surface  of  the  sim  and  moon,  which  form 
the  subjects  of  several  papers,  which  were  pub- 
lished in  elaborate  form.  Consult  .famca  \a- 
sniiitli:  An  Autobiography,  edited  bv  Smiles 
(London.  1861-02). 

NASR  ED-DIN,  niisr  fd-den'  (1,829-96).  A 
Shall  of  Persia.  On  the  death  of  his  father, 
Jlohammed  Mirza,  September  10,  1848,  he  as- 
cended the  throne.  At  his  accession  he  found 
fhe  country  in  confusion,  but  by  the  aid  of  his 
Vizier,  Jlirza  Taki  Khan,  he  established  himself 
firmly,  and  |)rocceded  to  carry  out  numerous  re- 
forms. These  plans  were  unfortunately  inter- 
rupted by  the  new  \'izier.  who  was  an  enemy  of 
all  progress.  .Against  the  Turkomans  and  other 
neighboring  peoples  Nasr  ed-Din  was  successful, 
but  in  1871  the  English  put  a  stop  to  whatever 


NASR  ED-DIN. 


253 


NAST. 


thou^'lits  of  furtlior  coiiqiii"it  he  may  have  enter- 
tained l)y  defiiiiiiy  the  boundaries  between  Persia 
and  Af^lianistan.  Tlie  SSliali  made  three  tours  of 
Euidpe,  in  1873,  187S,  and  1880.  Xasr  cd-Din 
intnidiieed  many  reforms  into  his  kingdom,  and 
liis  long  reign  of  forty-eight  years  has  but  one 
serious  blot  on  it,  the  persecution  of  the  Babis. 
He  was  assassinated  in  1896,  and  was  succeeded 
by  liis  son,  Muzatl'ar-ed-Din. 

NASS,  niis  (properly  Xasqa,  corruptly  XiSH- 
GAH ) .  A  group  of  tribes  related  to  the  Chime- 
syan,  but  speaking  a  distinct  language,  re- 
siding on  the  Nass  River  and  the  adjacent  ter- 
ritory in  Xorthwestern  British  Columbia.  They 
are  a  maritime  people,  and  tlieir  culture  is  that 
of  tile  other  peoples  of  the  Xorthwest  coast. 
Their  population  is  800,  in  seven  villages.  Mor- 
ally and  intellcetnaUy  the  Xass  are  steadily  im- 
]iroving,  but  in  numbers  they  are  barely  holding 
their  own.  About  one-half  are  reported  as  Chris- 
tianized. 

NASSAU,  Gcr.  pron.  niis'sou.  Formerly  a 
German  duehy.  now  a  part  of  the  Prussian  Prov- 
ince of  Hesse-X'assau  (q.v. ).  The  districts  now 
known  by  the  name  of  X'assau  were  anciently 
occupied  by  the  Alemanni  (q.v.).  They  subse- 
quently became  a  part  of  the  Frankish  realm. 
After  the  partition  of  the  Caroliugian  Empire  in 
the  Treaty  of  Verdun  ( 84.3 )  the  present  Xassau 
was  a  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Germany  and  was 
included  in  the  Duchy  of  Franconia.  About  1100 
the  Count  of  Laurenbnrg  built  the  Castle  of  Xas- 
sau. from  which  his  descendant  Walrani  I.  took 
the  title  of  Count  of  X'assau  about  11(10.  In  the 
midille  of  the  thirteenth  century  Walram's  two 
grandsons.  Walram  II.  and  Otho,  became  the 
founders  of  two  separate  lines,  ruling  respectively 
in  the  southern  and  the  northern  parts  of  the 
country.  The  descendants  of  Walram  II.  con- 
tinued to  rule  in  X'assau  until  1866.  His  son 
Adolphus  was  King  of  Germany  from  1292  to 
1298.  His  later  descendants  established  several 
separate  lines,  but  by  the  successive  extinction  of 
other  branches  the  Xassau-Weilburg  family  was 
left  as  the  sole  representative  in  1816.  In  1806 
the  territories  of  the  line  of  Xassau-Usingen  had 
been  erected  into  a  duchv.  In  18.3.5  Xassau  joined 
the  ZoUverein.  Duke  Adolphus  of  X'assau  ( 18.39- 
66)  had  many  difficulties  with  his  stibjeets,  who 
chafed  under  his  conservative  tendencies.  He' 
sided  with  Austria  against  Prussia  in  1866,  with 
the  result  that  Prussia  took  possession  of  Xassau. 
(See  fiERMANY.)  In  1S90  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Luxemburg  passed  to  the  Duke  of  Xassau. 

The  younger  line  of  Xassau  was  foimded  by 
Otho  I.  (died  about  1292),  who  in  the  division 
with  his  brother  received  the  northern  part  of  the 
country.  From  this  line  have  sprung  the  Stadt- 
holders  and  royal  sovereigns  of  Holland.  This 
junior  branch  of  the  House  of  Xassau  acquired 
possession  in  1544  of  the  Principality  of  Orange 
in  the  person  of  William  the  Silent,  the  great 
leader  of  the  Dutch  in  their  struggle  for  inde- 
pendence, who  assumed  the  title  of  Prince  of 
Orange.  With  the  death  of  William  III.  of  Eng- 
land and  Holland  in  1702  Orange  passed  out  of 
the  House  of  Xas.sau.  but  the  princely  title  de- 
rived from  the  little  State  was  retained  bv  his 
successors,  and  the  ri'igning  dynasty  in  the 
Netherlands  is  still  styled  the  House  (if  Orange. 
Consult  Schliephake.  f.'eschichte  von  Nassau  (7 
vols.,  Wiesbaden,  1864). 


NASSAU,  nas'sft.  The  capital  of  the  Bahama 
IshnuK.  situated  near  the  eastern  end  of  the  isl- 
and of  Xew  Providence  (Map:  West  Indies,  J  2). 
Owing  to  its  salubrious  climate,  X'assau  is  a 
winter  resort  for  invalids,  chiefly  from  the 
United  States.  The  town  is  well  laid  out,  has 
handsome  public  buildings,  a  cathedral,  and  the 
only  good  harbor  in  the  Bahamas.  The  people 
are  engaged  in  agriculture,  and  carry  on  consid- 
erable trade  in  cotton,  fruit,  sponges,  and  salt. 
Population,  11,000,  chiefly  negroes.  Founded  by 
the  English  in  the  seventeenth  century,  Xassau 
was  destroyed  by  the  French  and  Spaniards  in 
1703,  but  was  rebuilt  fifteen  years  later.  In 
1740  it  was  made  a  fortified  port,  open  to  free 
trade. 

NASSAU,  niis'sou,  .Joan  ^Iaubitz  van.  Count 
of  Xassau-Siegen  (1604-79).  A  Dutch  soldier 
and  governor.  He  early  distinguished  himself  in 
the  service  of  Holland  at  the  sieges  of  Breda 
(1625)  and  Maastricht  (1632).  From  1636  to 
1042  he  was  Governor  of  the  Dutch  possessions  in 
Brazil.  Under  his  rule  the  colony  was  notably 
prosperous.  He  defeated  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese fleets  in  1640,  and  continued  to  attack  these 
])owers  with  varying  success,  imtil  his  return  to 
Holland.  In  1047  he  was  made  tJovernor  of 
Cleves,  and  as  .\mbassador  from  Brandenburg  ar- 
ranged the  treaty  of  1661  with  England.  Placed 
at  the  head  of  the  army  of  the  X'etherlands.  he 
repulsed  the  Bishop  of  Miinster  (1665).  In  1671 
he  became  field-marshal,  took  an  active  part  in 
the  war  against  Louis  XIV.  in  the  Spanish  Xeth- 
erlands,  and  was  made  Governor  of  Utrecht 
(1674). 

NASSE,  nas'se,  Erwin  (1829-90).  A  German 
economist,  one  of  the  most  prominent  representa- 
tives of  the  'Socialism  of  the  Chair.'  He  was 
born  and  educated  at  Bonn,  and  became  professor 
there  in  1800,  From  1869  to  1879  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Prussian  Lower  House,  and  in 
1889  was  appointed  to  the  House  of  Peers.  One 
of  the  founders  of  the  Verein  fiir  Socialpolitik, 
he  was  its  president  from  its  institution  until 
his  death.  His  writings,  which  were  marked  by 
unusiutl  clarity  of  style, include:  Ucber  das  prciis- 
siscJie  ^iteiiersi/steni  (1861);  Die  preussische 
Bank  (ISOO);  Ueier  die  mittelaltrrlichc  Feld- 
gemeinscliaft  in  England  (1869;  trans,  by  Ouvry. 
1871);  and  Agrarische  Zustdnde  in  England 
(1884), 

NAS'SICK.     A  town  of  India.     See  Xasik. 

NAST,  THOMA.S  (1840-1902).  An  American 
illustrator.  He  was  born  at  Landatv,  Bavaria. 
His  parents  emigrated  to  America  in  1846,  and 
when  only  fourteen  years  of  age  he  was  employed 
as  a  dratightsman  on  Frank  Leslie's  Illustrated 
Newspaper.  He  went  to  England  in  1800  and 
then  traveled  to  Italy  to  follow  Garibaldi,  mak- 
ing sketches  of  the  war.  which  appeared  in  the 
New  York  Illustrated  News,  the  Illustrated  Lon- 
don News,  and  Le  Monde  Illustre.  Returning  to 
America,  he  formed  a  connection  with  Harper's 
Weekh/,  whicli  was  continued  for  many  years. 
In  1862  his  drawings  of  scenes  from  the  Ameri- 
caji  Civil  War,  published  in  Harper's  periodi- 
cals, attracted  wide  attention.  His  caricatures 
of  public  men  were  pointed  and  severe,  and  he 
in  his  drawings  did  as  much  probably  as  any 
verbal  vituperation  of  the  newspapers  to  break 
up  the  corrtipt  Tweed  'ring.'  He  st.arted  the 
publication    of    Nast's    Illustrated    Almanac    in 


NAST. 


256 


NATAL. 


1872,  and  illustrated  The  Tribute  Booh;  Nasby's 
iSuiiifiiiig  'round  the  Ccrkle,  and  other  works, 
including  Dickens's  Pickwick  Papers  and  Pic- 
tures from  Italy.  He  was  also  a  clever  jiainter 
in  oil  and  water  colors,  remarkable  for  ciuick- 
ness  of  conception  and  facility  of  execution. 
Though  he  was  not  as  good  a  draughtsman  as 
the  great  French  caricaturists,  liis  |)icturcs  are 
fine  examples  of  strong  realism.  Among  his  chief 
oil  paintings  are:  "The  Departure  of  the  Seventh 
Regiment"  (1801)  ;  '"The  Civil  War:"  "The  Last 
Drip."  In  1804  he  was  called  to  the  Pall  Mall 
Magazine,  London.  On  May  1,  1902.  he  was  ap- 
pointed consul-general  to  Guayaquil,  Ecuador, 
where  lie  died  on  December  7th  of  the  same  year. 

NASTURTIUM.      See   C'bess;   Trop.eolum. 

NA'SUA.     See  CoATi. 

NATAL,  na-tiil'.  A  colony  of  Great  Britain 
on  the  southeast  coast  of  Africa,  hounded  l)y  the 
Transvaal  Colon}-,  Portuguese  East  Africa,  the 
Indian  Ocean,  ('ape  Colony,  Basutoland.  and 
the  Orange  River  Colony  (Map:  Transvaal 
Colony,  G  8).  Its  area,  including  Zululand  and 
the  portion  of  Transvaal  annexed  in  1902,  is 
31,307  square  miles. 

ToroGUAiMiY.  Natal  occupies  a  part  of  the 
seaward  slojie  of  the  great  South  African  plateau, 
which  falls  in  a  series  of  terraced  escarpments 
running  parallel  with  the  coast  around  the 
southern  end  of  the  continent  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Orange  on  the  west  to  that  of  the  Limpopo 
on  the  east.  The  ranges  culminate  in  the  Dra- 
kensberg  (q.v.),  which  forms  the  natural  bound- 
ary of  the  great  inland  plateau.  The  average 
height  of  the  Draken.sherg  is  9000  feet,  and  its 
highest  point  in  Natal,  the  .Montague  aux 
Sources,  lias  an  altitude  of  ll.lii.T  feet.  Below 
the  last  riilge  of  the  escarpment  is  a  low  coastal 
plain  which  widens  northward,  where  it  contains 
a  series  of  large,  shallow  lagoons,  of  wliich  the 
largest  is  Lake  Saint  Lucia.  .55  miles  long  and 
10  miles  wide.  Natal  is  watered  by  numerous 
permanent  rivers  of  great  volume,  but,  owing 
to  the  enormous  fall  of  8000  to  9000  feet  in  less 
than  ;iOO  miles,  they  are  all  violent  mountain 
torrents  falling  in  a  series  of  cataracts  to  the 
sea.    The  largest  is  the  Tugela. 

Cl.lM.\TK.  The  warm  Jlozaiubiquo  current 
flowing  along  the  southeast  coast  of  .Africa  gives 
off  considerable  amounts  of  moisture,  which  is 
blown  up  the  mountain  slopes,  giving  the  whole 
of  Natal  a  snllicient  rainfall.  The  annual  precip- 
itation along  the  coast  is  about  44  inches, 
while  in  the  elevated  interior  it  is  much  heavier. 
In  regard  to  temperature.  Natal  presents  a  series 
of  climatic  zones,  from  the  subtropical  coastal 
region  with  a  mean  temperature  of  08°  to  the 
frigid  highland  region.  The  former,  however,  is 
tempered  by  cool  southeast  storms,  and  the  latter 
by  the  hot  winds  from  the  interior. 

Flora.  The  flora  is  characterized  in  general  by 
richness  and  variety.  In  the  coastal  region  we 
find  the  tropical  euphorbias,  bamboo,  cotton,  in- 
digo, sugar-cane,  cofTec,  fig,  and  eocoanut:  in 
the  middle  zone  the  common  European  cereals, 
fruits,  and  vegetables  flourish,  while  higher  up 
are  gooil  pasture-lands. 

Fai'Na.  Nearly  all  the  large  wild  animals 
which  formerly  overran  the  country  have  disap- 
peared. Snakes  are  still  found  near  the  coast, 
including  the  python,  the  jiuff-ailder,  and  the 
venomous  cobra. 


Minerals.  There  are  extensive  coal  meas- 
ures, es[)ecially  around  the  headstreams  of  the 
Tugela,  the  out]iut  being  considerable.  Iron  ore 
abounds  in  iiiaiiy  localities,  and  valuable  deposits 
of  argentiferous  lead  and  copper  ores,  as  well  as 
gold,  have  been  found. 

Ar.Rinr.TrHE.  The  interior  of  the  colony  is 
well  adapted  for  agricultural  and  pastoral  pur- 
poses. The  total  area  under  cultivation  in  1900 
was  over  000,000  acres.  The  principal  cereal  is 
corn,  which  constitutes  the  staple  food  of  the 
natives.  Tea  is  extensively  cultivated,  the  annual 
crop  exceeding  1,000.000  pounds.  Sugar  is  also 
increasing  in  importance,  and  tropical  fruits  are 
cultivated  with  success.  The  live  stock  of  the 
colony  consisted  in  1!)00  of  54,485  horses,  349,007 
horned  cattle,  and  580,489  .sheep. 

Commerce.  Natal  is  as  yet  without  manufac- 
turing industries.  Its  maritime  position  in  close 
proximity  to  the  two  interior  colonies  of  Orange 
River  and  Transvaal,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  rail,  naturally  gives  Natal  a  considerable 
transit  trade,  llie  chief  exports  are  w'ool.  sugar, 
coal,  hides  and  skins,  and  gold;  principal  im- 
ports are  haberdashery  and  articles  of  apparel, 
metals  and  metal  prorlucts,  machinery,  bever- 
ages, and  textiles.  The  total  value  of  the  imports 
and  exports  amounted  in  1901  to  $45,855,920  and 
.$23,337,512.  respectively.  This  was  somewhat 
above  the  normal. 

The  sea-borne  trade  passes  entirely  through 
Durban  (q.v.).  The  transportation  facilities  are 
adequate.  The  railway  lines,  all  owned,  with  one 
exception,  by  the  Government  and  operated  by 
it,  had  a  total  length  of  over  000  miles  in 
1901.  The  cost  of  the  lines  up  to  tlie  end  of  1900 
was  .$38,026,012.  Tlie  net  earnings  of  the  Govern- 
ment roads  e.xceed  4  per  cent,  on  the  capital  in- 
vested. 

In  accordance  with  the  jn'ovisiims  of  the  pres- 
ent Constitution,  dating  from  1893,  Natal  is  ad- 
ministered by  a  Governor,  who  is  appointed  by 
the  Crown,  and  is  a.ssisted  by  a  Cabinet  of  six 
ministers  and  a  legislative  council  of  twelve 
members,  appointed  by  the  Governor  for  two 
years  with  the  advice  of  the  Cabinet.  The  Legis- 
lative .Assembly  consists  of  thirty-nine  members 
(including  two  for  Zululand),  elected  for  four 
years  by  a  restricted  sullrage.  In  1899-1900  the 
revenue  and  the  expenditures  of  the  colony 
amounted  to  $9,188,278  and  .$9,093,843,  respect- 
ively. The  chief  item  of  revenue  is  customs 
duties.  The  ]uiblie  debt  ;iniounted  in  1900  to 
$43,023,220. 

Education  is  neither  cominilsory  nor  free,  and 
a  eonsiclerablc  proportion  of  the  European  chil- 
dren are  educated  ill  private  schools.  The  school 
attendance  of  the  Euro|icaii  cliildren  amounts  to 
about  90  per  cent,  of  the  total  school  population. 
In  1900  there  were  18li  schools  for  native  chil- 
dren, with  a  total  attendance  of  over  10.000.  and 
30  schools  for  Indian  children,  with  an  attend- 
ance of  about  2900. 

The  population  of  the  eolonv  increased  from 
301, .'>87  in  1879  to  543.913  in  1.S91.  and  to  929.970 
in  1900.  the  bitter  gain  being  due  partly  to  the 
annexation  of  Zululand  in  IS97.  The  Kuropean 
population  increased  from  22.054  in  1879  to 
04.051  in  1000.  Capital,  Pietermaritzburg 
(q.v.). 

IIi.sTORY.  The  coast  of  Natal  was  first  sighted 
on  Christmas  Day.  1497.  b.v  Vasco  da  Oama, 
who    named    the    country    in    honor   of    the   day 


NATAL. 


257 


NATCHEZ. 


(Nativity).  Tlic  lirst  attonipt  at,  settlement 
made  Ijy  the  Dutch  about  1720  lU'oveil  uiksuc- 
cessful.  In  1S24  Captain  P'arexvell  and  his 
twenty  <'onipanions  eoneluded  a  treaty  with 
C'haka,  King  of  tlie  Aiuazulus,  who  had  overrun 
the  region  during  the  first  deeade  of  the  century, 
but  in  1828  the  English  eolony  was  broken  up 
liy  Dingaan.  the  successor  of  Chaka.  In  18,35 
Captain  (iardiner  ol)taine<l  a  concession  of  land 
from  Dingaan  and  established  himself  with  a 
number  (jf  missionaries  at  Durban.  Two  years 
later  the  Dutch  of  Cape  Colony,  who.  in  disgust 
with  British  rule,  had  set  out  in  1835  on  their 
great  trek  northward,  entered  the  confines  of 
Xatal.  The  first  band  of  pioneers,  numbering 
seventy-nine  men  under  Pieter  JIaurits  Relief, 
were  treaclierously  murdered  by  Dingaan,  but 
the  tide  of  Boer  immigration  continued  un- 
cliccked,  the  Zulu  power  was  broken  in  a  great 
battle  on  the  Bloed  River,  December  10,  18.38,  and 
in  18.3!)  the  Repul)lic  of  Natal  was  organized, 
comprising  the  districts  of  Pietcrmaritzburg, 
Weenen,  and  Durban.  Great  Britain,  however, 
continued  to  regard  the  Afrikander.s  as  her  sub- 
jects, and  annexed  the  Republic  to  Cape  Colony 
in  1843.  The  greater  part  of  the  Boer  population 
trekked  westward  and  northward  to  found  the 
Orange  Free  State  and  the  Transvaal.  In  18.56 
Xatal  was  made  an  independent  eolony.  In  1870 
war  was  carried  on  against  Cetewayo.  King  of 
the  Zulus;  his  territory  was  overrun  and  occu- 
pied; and  in  1897  Zululand  was  annexed  to 
Natal.  In  1881  the  Transvaal  Boers  entered  the 
extreme  northwestern  corner  of  the  colony  and 
defeated  the  British  at  Majuba  Hill  (q.v.).  In 
1899  and  1900  northern  Natal  was  the  scene  of 
fierce  fighting  lietwcen  tho  British  and  the  Boers. 
.\t  Elandslaagte,  Glencoe,  and  Ladysmith,  and 
all  along  the  line  of  the  Tugela,  the  most  obsti- 
nate and  sanguinary  battles  of  the  war  occurred. 
1!u;liogh.\piiy,  Brooks,  .Va/a/;  A  History  und 
Description  of  the  Colom/  (London,  1887)  ;  Peace, 
Our  Colony  of  Xatal  ^(ih..  1884);  Bord.  The 
Annals  of  Xatal,  l.'i95-lH.'iS  ( Pietermaritzburg, 
1888)  ;  Maenab,  On  Veldt  and  Farm  (London, 
1897)  ;  Ingram,  Natalia:  History  of  Xatal  and 
Zululand  (London.  1897);  Robinson.  A  Lifetime 
in  South  Africa,  (ib.,  1900)  ;  Rowell,  Xatal 
and  the  Boers  (ib.,  1900)  ;  Russell,  Xatal. 
the  Land  and  Its  Story  (Cth  ed.,  ib.,  1900); 
Doyle,  The  Great  Boer  War  (ib.,  1900)  ; 
Statistical  Year  Book  of  Xatal  (Pietermaritz- 
burg) ;  Kermode,  Xatal:  Its  Early  History,  Rise, 
Progress,  and  Future  Prospects  (London,  1882). 

NATAL.  The  capital  and  chief  port  of  the 
State  nf  liio  Grande  do  Norte,  Brazil,  situated 
on  the  Atlantic  coast,  140  miles  north  of  Per- 
nambuco  (Map:  Brazil,  K  .'5).  The  estuary  which 
forms  the  harbor  is  obstructed  by  sarid  bars. 
Still  the  port  is  the  chief  outlet  for  the  products 
nf  the  State,  and  it  exports  cotton,  leather, 
rubber,  woods,  and  sugar.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
United  States  consular  agent.  Population,  about 
liOOO, 

NATALIE,  n;-i'ta'le'  (1839—).  A  Queen  of 
Servia,  the  daughter  of  a  Russian  officer 
named  Keshko.  In  1875  she  nuirried  Prince 
ililan.  afterwards  King  of  Servia.  but  their  mar- 
ried life  was  unhappy,  and  in  1888  .Milan  pro- 
cured a  divorce.  .After  King  ^Milan's  abdication 
in  1889  she  returned  to  Belgrade  and  remained 
for  some  time  with  her  son,  King  Alexander,  but 


tlie  National  .\sscmbly  having  requested  her  to 
leave  the  country  in  tlie  interest  of  internal  har- 
mony, she  withdrew  in  1891.  tliougli  with  the 
masses  of  the  people  she  enjoyed  immense  popu- 
larit}',  owing  partly  to  her  beauty.  In  1893 
she  became  reconciled  to  King  Milan.  In 
the  following  year  she  was  restored  by  royal 
decree  to  all  her  rights  as  a  member  of  the  royal 
family,  and  in  1895  she  returned  to  Belgrade 
ami  was  received  witli  great  enthusiasm.  Since 
then  she  has  mainly  lived  in  Biarritz,  France. 
In  1902  she  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
After  the  assassination  of  her  son  Alexander,  in 
1903,  she  was  forbidden  to  enter  the  Kingdom 
of  Servia. 
NA'TANT.     A  term  in  heraldry.     See  Nai- 

ANT. 

NATCHEZ,  nilch'ez  (from  their  native  name, 
Xa'chi).  An  interesting  tribe,  constituting  a 
distinct  linguistic  stock,  originally  residing  in 
nine  villages  in  the  vicinity  of  the  present  city 
of  Natchez,  Miss.,  with  a  total  population 
of  perhaps  2500.  Although  comparatively  a 
small  tribe,  they  exercised  a  commanding  influ- 
ence from  the  Gulf  to  the  Ohio.  Their  greatest 
religious  rites  were  connected  with  the  worship 
of  the  sun.  They  were  sedentary  and  agricul- 
tural, expert  basket-weavers  and  skillful  potters, 
while  their  men  bore  a  deserved  reputation  as 
proud  and  determined  warriors.  In  1710  they 
quarreled  with  the  French,  who  had  without  their 
consent  erected  Fort  Rosalie  in  their  country. 
In  1722  a  fight  occurred  at  the  post,  in  which 
several  were  killed  on  both  sides.  Other  colli- 
sions followed,  until  tlie  Natchez  secretly  or- 
ganized a  combination  of  several  neighboring 
tribes  to  drive  out  the  white  intruders.  On 
November  28,  1729,  the  Natchez  fell  upon  the 
garrison  and  massacred  two  hundred  men,  only 
twenty  escaping,  besides  making  prisoners  of  all 
the  women,  children,  and  negi'O  slaves.  The  war 
rapidly  spread  to  the  outlying  settlements,  but 
after  a  few  weeks  the  Natchez,  unable  to  oppose 
the  French  and  their  Indian  allies,  lied  across  the 
Jlississippi  and  fortified  themselves  in  stockade 
forts  on  Black  River,  La.  Here  they  were  at- 
tacked in  January,  1731,  by  a  strong  French 
force,  which  succeeded  in  taking  nearly  450 
prisoners,  the  rest  escaping  during  a  storm  at 
night.  All  the  prisoners  were  sold  as  slaves  in 
the  West  Indies.  Tlie  remnant,  made  desperate 
by  defeat,  continued  the  war,  but  were  obliged  to 
give  way  before  fi'esh  Spanish  reinforcements 
from  the  west.  This  ended  the  war,  in  w'hich 
they  had  probably  lost  half  tlieir  tribal  popula- 
tion. The  survivors  took  refuge  with  other  tribes, 
some  with  the  Chickasaw,  otiiers  with  the  Creek 
and  Cherokee.  A  part  of  them  under  the  name 
of  "Notchee'  even  found  their  way  to  South  Caro- 
lina and  were  incorporated  with  the  Catawba. 

NATCHEZ.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Adams  County,  Miss.,  100  miles  southwest  of 
Jackson ;  on  the  Mississippi  River,  and  on  the 
New  Orleans  and  Northwestern  and  the  Yazoo 
and  Mississippi  Valley  railroads  (Jlap:  Missis- 
sippi, C  7).  It  is  built  largely  on  a  bluff,  200 
feet  above  the  river,  the  summit  of  which  con- 
tains the  most  costly  residences,  and  the  base, 
or  water  front,  the  principal  shipping  and  busi- 
ness houses.  .Among  noteworthy  features  of  tlie 
city  are  the  fine  Memorial  Park,  Fisk  Library, 
Stanton    College,    Natchez    Institute,    Institute 


NATCHEZ. 


258 


NATICA. 


Hiill.  Temple  Opera  House,  Pearl  and  Xatchez 
hotels,  ami  the  handsome  court  house  anil  city 
hall  buildings.  A  national  cemetery,  on  a  bluff 
adjoining  the  city,  contains  3159  graves,  -2780 
of  unknown  dead.  In  the  cemetery  is  an  observa- 
tory which  commands  good  views  of  the  vicinity. 
Xatchez  has  steamboat  connection  with  the  whole 
Mississippi  Valley,  and  is  tlie  shipping  port  of 
a  large  cotton  region,  exporting  annually  many 
thousand  bales.  There  are  cotton  mills,  cotton 
compress,  cottonseed  oil  mills,  a  foundry,  saw 
and  planing  mills,  an  artificial  ice  plant,  etc. 
The  government  is  administered  under  a  charter 
of  1877,  which  provides  for  a  mayor,  chosen 
biennially,  and  a  unicameral  covnicil  that  elects 
the  school  trustees.  Population,  in  1800,  10,101; 
in  inOO,  12.210. 

In  1710  Bienville  built  Fort  Rosalie  on  Xatchez 
Bluff.  In  November,  1729,  the  place  was  de- 
stroyed, and  most  of  its  inhabitants  were  mas- 
sacred by  the  Xatchez  Indians.  In  1703,  accord- 
ing to  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  the 
Knglish  took  possession  and  renamed  the  fort 
Kort  Parmure.  From  this  jear  dates  the  real 
foundation  of  the  village.  A  (Spanish  force  from 
New  Orleans  dispossessed  the  Knglisli  in  1779, 
and  in  1798  Spain  gave  way  to  the  United  States. 
Xatchez  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1803,  and 
was  the  capital  of  Jlississippi  from  1798  to  1820. 
It  sutlered  considerable  damage  from  a  tornado  in 
1840.  The  city  was  shelled  by  Conunodore  Porter 
in  1862,  and  in  1863,  soon  after  the  fall  of 
Vicksburg,  it  was  occupied  by  Federal  troops,  and 
remained  under  their  control  until  the  close  of 
the  war. 

NATCHEZ,  na'eha',  Les.  A  romance  written 
by  Chateaubriand  during  his  exile  in  England,  and 
printed  in  1825-20.  It  contains  the  author's  im- 
pressions of  America  and  views  of  life,  and  is 
pervadetl  by  a  morl)id  psychology, 

NATCHITOCHES,  nach'I-toch'ez.  A  tribe  of 
the  Cadchian  linguistic  family  of  Indians,  living 
formerly  on  tlie  Red  River  in  Louisiana.  Each 
elan  lived  apart  and  they  were  scattered  among 
the  Sioux  from  Dakota  to  the  Gulf.  Their  habit 
of  life  was  partly  hunting,  partly  agricultural. 
They  dwelt  in  permanent  liouses  covered  with  sod. 
In  some  of  their  kindred  tribes  rude  pottery 
was  also  made.  Tlieir  religion  demanded  under 
certain  comlitions  the  sacrifice  of  human  beings. 

NATCHITOCHES,  nak'i-tosh'.  A  town  and 
tlie  parish  seat  of  Natchitoches  Parish,  La.,  G3 
miles  southeast  of  Shreveport:  on  a  branch 
of  the  Red  River,  and  on  the  Texas  and 
I'acific  Railroad  (Map:  Louisiana.  B  2).  1(  is 
the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  and  has  a 
State  normal  school,  a  State  high  school,  and 
a  Roman  Catholic  convent.  The  town  is  sur- 
rounde<l  by  a  productive  district,  devoted  to 
stock-breeding  and  agricultiire.  its  chief  products 
being  cotton  and  sugar-cane.  Natchitoches  owes 
its  origin  to  a  trading  post  established  in  1714 
bv  the  French.  Population,  in  1890,  1820;  in 
lilOO.  23.SS. 

NATHAN'AEL  (Ileb.  yr-lhan'fl,  Gml  gives). 
A  man  of  (ana  in  (ialilee,  brought  to  .Testis  by 
Philip,  and  d<'clared  by  Jesus  to  be  n  true 
Israelite  and  a  sincere,  open-minded  man.  He 
proved  this  sincerity  by  coming  to  meet  .Tesus, 
nlthough  the  fact  that  .lesus  was  described  ns 
'of  Nazareth'  was  naturally  repugnant  to  him. 
He  accepted  the  claims  of  Jesus  as  Messiah  when 


those  claims  were  brought  clearly  before  him 
(John  i.  45-51 ) .  From  this  time  on  nothing  more 
is  said  of  Nathanael  in  the  Gospels,  except  the 
mention  of  him  as  one  of  seven  to  whom 
.Jesus  manifested  himself  after  the  Resurrection 
(John  xxi.  2).  He  is  not  named  among  the 
Twelve  Apostles.  Tliis  fact  has  led  many  to  at- 
tempt to  identifv  Nathanael  with  liartliolomew 
(q.v.). 

NATHAN  DER  WEISE,  nii'ti/n  der  vi'zc  A 
dramatic  ])oem  by  Lessiiig,  publish<'d  in  1779,  in 
whicli  tlic  author  clothed  in  poetic  form  the  prin- 
ciples underlying  his  controversial  writings.  The 
interest  of  the  drama  concentrates  itself  in  the 
seventh  scene  of  tlie  third  act.  in  whicli  Nathan, 
the  Jew,  summoned  by  Sultan  Saladin,  to  express 
his  opinion  as  to  which  of  the  three  religious 
creeds  professed  in  Palestine  he  holds  to  be  the 
true  one,  recites  the  parable  of  ■"  I'he  Three  Rings," 
]nir|iorting  to  show  that  the  true  religion  is  to 
be  known  only  by  its  fruits.  The  drama  is  based 
upon  the  story  of  Melchincilec  the  Jew.  in  Boccac- 
cio's Deramerone.  The  character  of  Nathan  is  a 
monument  to  Lessing's  friend  Moses  Mendelssohn, 
the  .Jewish  philosopher. 

NAT'ICA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  ML.  natica.  from 
Lat.  iKilix,  buttock).  A  genus  of  gastropod  mol- 
lusks,  represented  by  Xatica  heros  (now  Polynices 
hcrofi).  one  of  the  inost  common  and  largest  of 
the  univalves,  and  to  be  found  in  abundance 
along  our  coast  from  New  .Tersey  to  Maine.  The 
shell  is  large,  composed  of  several  whorls,  with 
a  small  tlattened  spire  or  apex.  The  aperture  is 
large,  lunate  in  shape,  and  can  be  closed  by  a 
large  horny  door  or  oiierculum.  The  animal 
lives  partly  buried  in  the  sand,  near  low-water 
mark.  On  taking  it  up  the  large,  lound  swollen 
'foot'  or  creeping  disk  ejects  a  spray  of  water 
as  if  poured  from  the  'rose'  of  a  watering-pot. 
The  animal  has  two  short,  broad,  flattened 
tentacles,  but,  owing  to  its  burrowing  habits,  its 
ej'es  are  wanting.     Its  eggs  are  laid  in  a  large, 


WHiTK  PSAIL  (Xntlfti  heros). 
n,  Th(!  shfll ;  h.  an  I'^jf  cnsp;  c.  aninml,  witli  distendpd 
foot,  til  the  attitude  of  walkinj^. 

thin  circular  mass,  like  a  miniature  lamp-shade, 
which  is  a  curious  object  and  a  good  deal  of  a 
puzzle  to  young  collectors.  Another  <'onimon  but 
much  smaller  snail  (I'oli/niccs  tiiscriulu)  is 
thought  to  be  the  young  of  this  species.  It  is 
marked  with  three  rows  of  bluish  or  chestnut- 
brown  spots.  A  rather  more  southern  species 
is  Polynices  duplicnin.  in  which  the  umbilicus 
(open  in  the  other  species)  is  closed  or  nearly  so. 


NATICA. 


250 


NATIONAL  AKTS  CLUB. 


Consult  Arnold,  The  Sea  licuch  at  Ehh-Tide  (New 
Voi-k,  UIOl). 

NATICK,  nfi'tik.  A  town,  includinfr  several 
villagi'S  in  Middlesex  County,  Mass.,  17  miles 
west-southwest  uf  Boston ;  on  the  Boston  and  Al- 
bany Railroad  (Map:  ilassachusetts.  E  3) .  It  has 
]iublie  parks,  in  one  of  which  is  a  soldiers'  monu- 
ment, and  in  another  a  monument  to  the  memory 
of  John  Eliot;  the  head  of  Cochituate  Lake,  one 
of  the  sources  of  Boston's  water  supply:  the 
Walnut  Hill  School  for  young  ladies;  the  Morse 
Institute  (public  library  and  reading  room)  ;  and 
the  Bacon  Public  Library.  The  principal  in- 
dustries are  the  manufacture  of  boots,  shoes, 
shirts,  clothing,  baseballs,  boxes,  saws,  etc.  The 
government  is  administered  by  town  meetings. 
There  are  municipal  water-works.  Population, 
in  1890,  9118;  in  I'JOO,  U488.  Xatick  was  founded 
by  John  Eliot,  who  about  1051  brought  hither 
from  Nonantum  a  company  of  'praying  Indians,' 
and  for  many  years  it  was  almost  exclusively 
a  settlement  of  Indian  converts.  It  was  incor- 
porated as  a  town  in  17S1.  Consult:  Bacon,  Ilis- 
•  ton)  of  Xatick  (Boston,  185(i)  ;  llurd.  History  of 
Mi'ddlcsr.r  Coiiiitii.  .U.i.s-.v.  (Philadelphia,  1890). 

NATIONAL  ACADEMY  OF  DESIGN,  The. 
A  society  of  American  painters  and  sculptors, 
whose  headquarters  is  in  New  York  City.  The 
first  Academy  of  Arts  in  New  York  City  was 
founded  in  1802  by  prominent  citizens,  among 
whom  was  only  one  lu-ofessional  artist,  Trum- 
bull, but  it  excited  little  interest  until  1825, 
when  a  secession  of  the  younger  artists  occurred. 
Dissatisfied  with  the  character  of  the  old  so- 
ciety, they  formed  a  new  association,  called 
the  New  York  Drawing  Association,  direct- 
ed by  practical  artists.  The  present  name  was 
adopted  in  1828,  and  the  society,  composed  of 
thirty  members,  was  incorporated.  Prof.  S.  F.  B. 
Morse  (q.v.)  was  the  chief  organizer  of  the  move- 
ment, and  was  twice  president  of  the  National 
Academy,  in  1827-45  and  again  in  1801-62.  In 
this  capacity  he  delivered  the  first  lecture  on  the 
fine  arts  ever  given  in  America.  The  Sketch 
Club,  formed  by  C.  C.  Ingham,  one  of  the  original 
members  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design, 
afterwards  became  the  Century  Club  (1840). 

The  National  Academy  is  founded  on  the 
plan  of  the  Ro^-al  Academy  of  London,  and  its 
active  members  are  divided  into  academicians 
and  associates,  the  number  being  limited  to  one 
hundred,  the  only  qualification  that  they  be 
professional  artists.  There  are  also  honorary 
members  and  fellows  of  the  Academy  who  have 
certain  privileges.  The  society  is  governed  by 
a  council  consisting  of  its  officers  and  six  mem- 
bers, and  the  instructors  in  the  school  of  design 
are  chosen  from  among  its  ranks.  The  Academy 
stands  for  the  conservative,  traditional  element 
in  art.  as  opposed  to  the  more  modern  sentiments 
which  were  represented  in  the  earlier  work  of 
the  Society  of  American  Artists  (q.v.).  It  held 
its  seventy-eighth  annual  exhibition  in  1903.  At 
these  exhibitions  the  Clarke  prize  of  .$300,  and 
the  Ilallgarten  prizes  of  .$300.  .$200,  and  $100, 
respectively,  are  distributed,  and  the  Inness  gold 
medal  for  the  best  landscape.  The  school  of 
design  connected  with  the  Academy  has  been  in 
existence  since  1825,  and  the  instruction  includes 
classes  in  the  antique,  life,  still  life,  anatomy, 
painting,  perspective,  composition,  etching,  and 
medal   and   coin  engraving.     These   classes   are 


open  from  October  until  ilay,  and  are  free  to 
students  admitted  on  the  evidence  of  the  school 
conunittee.  The  average  attendance  of  pupils  is 
about  300.  Consult  Cummings,  Uistoric  Annals 
of  the  Xational  Academy  of  Design  (Philadel- 
phia, 1805) . 

NATIONAL    ACADEMY    OF    SCIENCES. 

An  organization  incorporated  by  act  of  Congress 
on  March  3,  1863,  to  investigate,  experiment,  and 
report  on  any  subject  of  science  or  art,  when 
called  upon  to  do  so  by  any  department  of  the 
United  States  Government.  The  membership 
was  limited  to  fifty  till  1870,  since  when  it  has 
never  had  more  than  one  hundred  members  at  a 
time:  and  at  the  annual  elections  no  more  than 
five  names  are  considered.  The  members  are 
grouped  into  committees  on:  (1)  mathematics 
and  astronomy;  (2)  physics  and  engineering; 
(3)  chemistry;  (4)  geology  and  paleontolog,v ; 
(5)  biology;  and  (0)  anthropology.  Admission 
to  the  Academy  is  through  the  recommendation 
of  the  committee  on  the  subject  in  which  the 
nominee  is  a  specialist.  There  are  also  fifty 
foreign  associates.  Two  annual  meetings  are 
held.  The  Academy  has  prepared  a  number  of 
official  reports  on  subjects  that  call  for  special 
scientific  advice,  among  which  may  be  mentioned: 
On  the  Protection  of  the  Bottoms  of  Iron  Ves- 
sels (1864);  On  the  Preservation  of  the  Writ- 
ing of  the  Original  Declaration  of  Independence 
(1879);  On  the  Forest  Policy  for  the  Forested 
Lands  of  the  United  States  (1897);  and  Con- 
cerning the  Value  of  the  Metric  System  (1002). 
Several  of  the  members  have  left  fimds  to  the 
Academy  for  use  in  research  in  various  branches 
of  science,  and  also  for  medals,  of  which  there 
are  now  four  that  are  awarded  at  intervals.  Of 
these  the  Draper  medal  is  awarded  every  two 
years  for  the  most  important  discovery  in  as- 
tronomical pliysics.  The  Watson  medal  is  given 
for  any  astronomical  discovery  or  any  astronomi- 
cal work  worthy  of  special  reward ;  the  J.  Law- 
rence Smith  medal  is  awarded  to  students  of 
meteoric  bodies;  the  Barnard  medal  is  given  for 
discoveries  in  physical  science.  The  publications  of 
the  Academy  include  seven  quarto  volumes  of 
memoirs  and  four  octavo  volumes  of  biological 
memoirs  and  annual  reports  made  to  the  '  Gov- 
ernment. The  presidents,  who  are  chosen  for 
the  term  of  six  years,  have  been  Alexander 
Dallas  Bache  (1863-67),  Joseph  Henrv  (1867- 
78),  William  B.  Rogers  (1879-82),  0.  C.  Marsh 
(1883-95),  Woleott  Gibbs  (1805-1900),  and  Alex- 
ander Agassiz   (1001 — ). 

NATIONAL  ARTS  CLUB.  An  organization 
fornietl  in  New  I'ork  City  in  1898  "to  promote 
acquaintance  among  art  lovers  and  art  workers 
in  the  United  States,  and  to  stimulate  the  prac- 
tical expression  of  the  artistic  sense  of  the  Ameri- 
can people;  to  provide  proper  exhibition  facilities 
for  such  lines  of  ajiplied  and  industrial  art  as 
shall  be  unprovided  for:  and  to  encourage  the 
publication  and  circulation  of  new  suggestions 
and  discussions  relating  to  the  fine  arts."  A 
regular  feature  of  the  club  programme  is  the 
holding  of  monthly  exhibitions  of  works  of  art. 
The  membership  of  the  club  is  large  and  includes 
men  who  have  won  fame  in  various  walks  of 
art,  and  who  are  in  constant  requisition  for 
advice  by  various  associations  to  whom  are  com- 
mitted public  and  private  enterprises  in  which 
art  largely  enters.    The  principal  executive  office. 


NATIONAL  ARTS  CLUB. 


260 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


that  of  managing  director,  has  been  filled  since 
the  organization  of  the  club  by  Mr.  Charles  de 
Kay. 

NATIONAL  CHRISTIAN  LEAGUE  FOR 
THE  PROMOTION  OF  SOCIAL  PURITY. 
An  urganizaticiu  with  headquarters,  in  New  York 
City.  Its  distinctive  aim  is  the  prevention  of 
the"  extension  of  vice,  (1)  by  the  disscniinivtion 
of  wholesome  literature,  (2)  by  the  supplying 
of  the  physical  needs  of  those  who  are  being 
rescued  from  or  dangerously  exposed  to  vice, 
(3)  by  the  establishment  of  homes  for  working- 
girls,  and  such  other  means  as  opj^irl  unities 
])resent.  The  work  is  carried  on  by  special  com- 
mittees. The  l.<>ague  has  estahlisliid  a  home  for 
self-supporting  women,  where  nominal  rates  only 
are  charged.  The  League  has,  also,  a  hospital 
committee,  whose  duty  it  is  to  visit  the  hos- 
pitals and  assist  special  cases  of  charily,  and 
an  auxiliary,  the  Social  Culture  Club,  to  improve 
family  life  "by  reaching  young  mothers  and  girls. 
Annual  conventions  are  held. 

NATIONAL    CIVIC    FEDERATION.      An 

oriiaiiizal  Inn  tnrnied  of  a  ninulicr  nf  iirominent 
re])resentatives  of  capital  and  labor,  the  direct 
outgrowth  of  conventions  held  in  Chicago  and 
New  York  in  IflOO-Ol.  The  object  of  these  prelim- 
inary meetings  was  to  secure  the  fullest  possi- 
ble infiirmation  as  to  the  methods  and  mcasiues 
of  arlntration  in  lal)or  disputes  throughout  the 
world,  and  to  consider  the  best  means  of  ])romot- 
ing  industrial  peace.  At  the  New  York  con- 
vention, held  Decendjcr  IG,  1901,  a  commission 
of  thirty-six  was  created  to  he  known  as  the 
"Industrial  Department  of  the  National  Civic 
Federation,"  charged  with  full  authority  to  en- 
deavor hy  timely  mediaticm  to  check  labor  dis- 
putes, and  as  "a  last  rescu't  to  end  them  hy 
formal  arbitration.  The  commission,  represented 
ccpially  the  employers,  the  wage-earners,  and 
the  piiblic,  and  an'iong  those  selected  were  ex- 
President  (irover  Cleveland,  President  Eliot  of 
Harvard  University,  and  Archbishop  Ireland, 
representing  the  puhlic:  Jlark  Ilanna  and 
.John  D.  Rockefeller,  .Jr.,  representing  employ- 
ers: and  Samuel  Gonipers,  .John  Mitcliell,  and 
Frank  P.  Sargent,  representing  the  laliorcrs. 
The  objects  to  be  kept  in  view  by  the  connnission 
were  the  adoption  of  the  hest  means  for  the  pro- 
niiilinn  (if  industrial  peace;  the  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  proper  relations  between  em- 
ployers and  workers;  the  prevention  of  strikes 
ami  lockouts;  the  settlement  of  labor  disjuites 
before  an  acute  stage  shall  have  been  reached; 
and,  where  a  rupture  has  occurred,  the  applica- 
tion of  the  hest  means  for  the  restoration  of 
friendly  relations  between  both  parties.  The 
department  assumes  no  power  of  arbitration  un- 
less when  such  power  is  conferreil  >ipon  it  by 
both  parties  concerned  in  the  dispute.  The  com- 
mission was  instrvnncntal  in  settling  eleven 
strikes  from  the  date  of  its  organization  to  the 
breaking  out  of  the  anthracite  coal  strike  in  IfilVi. 

NATIONAL  CONFERENCE  OF  CHARI- 
TIES AND  CORRECTION.  A  boily  composed 
of  the  State  boards  of  ).nblic  charities,  where 
they  exist;  of  delegates  aopointed  by  the  Oov- 
ernors  of  other  States;  nf  eharitv  organization 
societies  and  associated  charities  thro>i"hont  the 
country:  and  of  persons  connected  ofTiclally  or 
unofTtcinlly  with  charily  work.  It  holds  annual 
meetings    in    some    city    determined    upon    at    a 


preceding  meeting  of  the  Conference.     It  has  no 
fornuil  con.^tilutiou. 

NATIONAL  CONVENTION  ( in  French  his- 
tory;.    See  Co.wt.Nilu.N,  Natio.nal. 

NATIONAL  COVENANT.  Tlie  league 
formed  by  the  Scotch  Presbyterians  in  1038, 
being  one  of  the  famous  Covenants  (q.v. ). 
NATIONAL  DEBT.  S<c  DEiir,  Pinuc. 
NATIONAL  EDUCATION,  Systems  of.  A 
system  of  national  education  may  be  said  to 
exist  wherever  the  sovereign  authority  in  a 
nation  takes  part  in  the  establishnu'nt,  mainte- 
nance, or  to  any  considerable  extent  the  regula- 
tion of  the  agencies  for  the  education  of  the  peo- 
ple. In  ancient  times  and  among  the  antique 
civilizations  that  survive  to-day  State  sy.stems 
of  education  are  found.  Such  systems  are  (1) 
theocratic,  where  the  priesthood,  who  form  a  rul- 
ing ca.ste  or  are  intimately  connected  therewith, 
carry  on  education;  (2)  examining,  where  the 
State  conducts  tests  for  citizenship  or  ofTicial  po- 
sition, thus  indirectly  determining  the  character 
of  the  instruction;  "or  (3)  martial,  where  the 
State  aims  to  prepare  its  youth  for  citizenship 
which  is  practically  equivalent  to  membership  in 
its  army.  The  Itoman  Government  regulated  edu- 
cation to  some  extent,  and  the  emperors  endowed 
many  institutions  of  learning.  With  the  fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire  and  the  appearance  of  the  me- 
diaeval ecclesiastical  system,  the  Church  assumed 
control  of  education  in  Europe  and  resented  any 
encroachment  of  the  State  upon  its  domain.  The 
Reformation,  however,  by  placing  wherever  it 
prevailed  the  control  of  religion  in  the  hands  of 
the  State,  transferred  to  the  secular  authority 
the  control  of  education  as  well.  The  modern  em- 
phasis of  the  necessity  of  educatiim  for  all,  not 
only  in  religion,  but  also  in  letters,  led  to  a 
broader  popular  education  than  had  hitherto  ex- 
isted. The  nuiltiplication  of  sects  that  was  an 
outcome  of  the  Protestant  movement  brought 
about  so  much  warfare  regarding  religious  in- 
struction that  in  most  of  the  advanced  nations 
it  has  largely  or  entirely  disappeared  from  the 
curriculum  o"f  the  State  "schools.  Thus  the  mod- 
ern systems,  concerned  principally  with  secular 
instn'iction,  and  controlled  by  the  State,  have 
come  to  exist. 

The  development  of  modern  national  support 
and  control  of  education  has  in  general  followed 
this  order:  first  the  regulation,  then  the  ])ar- 
tial  support,  and  fmally  the  assumjition  by  the 
State  of  almost  the  entire  responsibility  for  the 
ediication  within  its  borders.  To-day  in  Prussia 
!in..">  per  cent,  of  the  elementary  cducati(m  is  car- 
ried on  in  public  schools,  and  all  the  secondary 
and  higher  institutions  are  State  institutions. 
Switzerland  and  Sweden  show  practically  the 
same  conditions.  In  Italy  i)rivate  elementary 
schools  do  10  per  cent,  of  the  work,  and  in  Spain 
thev  are  a  much  more  significant  factor.  In 
England  the  law  of  lim-2  brings  most  of  tfte  ele- 
meiilary  schools  of  the  religious  societies  under 
Oovernment  control  and  provides  for  them  a  con- 
tribution from  public  funds  as  liberal  as  that 
given  to  the  schools  established  by  the  State. 
Secondary  education  is  also  gradually  coming 
under  Slate  stipervision  and  provision  is  being 
made  for  national  secondary  schools.  In  France 
the  private  secondary-  and  ejemenlarv  schools,  the 
larger  tiart  of  which  were  under  clerical  auspices, 
have  been  to  a  great  extent  suppressed  by  the  en- 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


261 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


foreemi'iit  ul  Ihe  Associatiunh  Law  of  UlOl.  In 
tlie  LniluJ  States  S.l  pi-r  cent,  of  all  elementary 
and  secondary  school  attendance  is  in  pi'ivate 
schools. 

The  result  of  the  vigorous  efforts  of  the  most 
progressive  States  within  the  nineteenth  centurj' 
is  the  almost  entire  disappearance  of  illiteracy 
within  their  borders.  Germany,  Switzerland,  and 
Sweden  find  less  than  1  per  cent,  of  their  con- 
scripts unable  to  read  and  write.  In  Holland, 
England,  and  France  the  proportion  of  illiteracy 
grows  greater,  4.0  per  cent,  of  tlie  French  re- 
cruits in  1807  being  ignorant  of  letters.  In  Italy 
the  jiercentage  of  illiterate  conscripts  in  1800  was 
S'S.S,  and  the  marriage  register  shows  that  50 
per  cent,  of  the  women  called  upon  to  sign  it 
were  unable  to  do  so.  In  Spain  the  percentage 
of  illiteracy  was  estimated  as  68  per  cent,  in 
1880.  and  this  proportion  has  probably  not  been 
greatly  reduced  since  that  date.  In  the  United 
Slates  in  1890,  13  per  cent,  of  the  population  over 
ten  years  of  age  could  neither  read  nor  write. 
This  large  proportion,  however,  is  due  to  the 
enormous  negro  population  and  to  extensive  emi- 
gration from  Eastern  and  Snuthern  Europe.  At 
the  same  date  only  seven  per  cent,  of  the  native 
population  over  ten  years  of  age  was  illiterate. 
Doubtless  the  proportion  of  illiterate  adults 
whose  parents  were  native  would  in  America 
(if  we  exclude  negroes)  be  about  as  small  as  that 
of  illiterat-^  conscripts  in  the  European  States 
having  the  most  effective  systems  of  popular  edu- 
cation. To-day  the  great  problem  of  popular  edu- 
cation is  not  the  abolition  of  illiteracy,  but  the 
training  in  vocations. 

In  1890-1000  20.38  per  cent,  of  the  population 
of  the  United  States  were  enrolled  in  elementary 
schools.  Prussia  and  Switzerland  show  about 
tile  same  percentages.  Then  follow  England, 
Sweden,  and  France.  Italy  had  only  7.36  per 
cent,  of  her  populiition  in  elementary  schools  in 
1808,  Avhile  in  Russia  this  percentage  was  in 
1890  only  about  3.  The  United  States  also  leads 
in  the  amount  expended  for  elementary  education, 
whether  we  calculate  the  rate  of  expenditure  per 
capita  on  the  total  population  or  per  pupil  on 
the  enrollment  in  the  schools.  Tlie  average  ex- 
penditure per  pupil  in  1800-1000  was  .$20,  about 
double  that  of  England  and  France,  and  nearly 
three  times  that  of  Prussia.  Italy  and  Russia 
spent  in  1000  $.5.1.5  and  $5.12  per  pupil  respec- 
tively. Tlie  United  States  spent  on  elementary 
education  in  1800-1000  .$2.83  per  capita  on  the 
total  population.  Prussia  followed  w'ith  $1.20 
per  ca])ita.  These  comparisons  are  based  on 
statistics  that  vary  from  year  to  year  and  are 
constantly  becoming  more  reliable.  In  the  series 
•■Our  Eui-opean  Neiglibors"  (  New  York,  1001-03) 
each  volume  contains  a  good  brief  popular  ac- 
count of  the  schools  of  the  respective  European 
countries. 

FRANCE. 

The  French  system  of  education  affords  the 
best  example  of  centraliz.ation  and  uniformity  in 
educational  affairs  that  the  world  has  seen.  It 
has  been  built  up  since  the  Revolution,  and  in- 
stead of  taking  charge  of  existing  schools  (most 
of  which  were  clerical)  the  French  Oovernment 
has  established  its  own  system,  which  has  been 
L'radiially  replacing  other  educational  agencies. 
The  latest  act  in  this  drama  of  rivalry  is  the 
active  suppression  by  the  State  of  a  large  part 


of  the  instruction  carried  on  liy  religious  asso- 
ciations. To  this  reference  will  be  made  later. 
The  present  system  of  elementary  instruction 
may  be  said  to  have  begun  with  Guizot's  law  of 
1833,  by  which  each  commune  was  required  to 
establish  a  primary  school  and  each  department 
a  normal  school.  Not  until  1878,  however,  when 
the  central  Government  began  to  grant  and  loan 
money  to  communes  for  the  constriictiim  of  school 
buildings,  did  this  law  become  really  effective. 
The  present  organic  law  was  jiassed  in   188ti. 

The  sy.stem  of  public  instruction  in  France 
comprises  three  departments,  primary,  secondary, 
and  higher.  They  are  all  under  centralized  con- 
trol. At  the  head  of  the  system  stands  the  Min- 
ister of  Public  Instruction,  who  is  a  Cabinet  of- 
ficer. Each  of  the  great  departments  has  a  spe- 
cial director.  The  central  administration  in- 
cludes, in  addition,  the  Superior  Council  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction,  and  the  general  inspectors.  The 
Superior  Council  consists  of  about  GO  members, 
and  has  advisory  and  judicial  functions.  One- 
fourth  of  its  members  are  appointed  by  the 
President.  Other  vacancies  are  filled  by  the 
Council  itself.  It  has  a  committee  to  consult 
with  the  school  authorities  regarding  school  mat- 
ters. Officials  exist  for  the  inspection  of  every 
phase  of  school  work. 

For  convenience  in  educational  administration, 
France  (including  Algeria)  is  organized  into  17 
academies.  Each  one  comprises  a  university, 
associated  Ij'cees,  and  colleges,  and  the  public 
primary  schools  within  its  limits.  At  the  head 
are  a  rector,  an  academic  council,  composed  of 
professors  and  officers  of  education,  and  an  aca- 
demic inspector.  Under  the  academic  inspectors 
serve  the  primary  inspectors,  who  come  in  direct 
touch  with  the  schools,  each  one  having  super- 
vision of  about  150.  The  departments  of  France, 
of  which  there  are  00,  constitute  the  next  divi- 
sion for  school  administration.  The  prefect  has 
the  ])ower  of  appointing  elementary  teachers,  and 
there  is  an  advisoiy  council  for  primary  schools 
composed  of  teachers,  school  inspectors,  and 
members  of  the  civic  council.  In  the  communes 
the  councils  and  mayors  select  sites  for  school 
buildings,  and  vote  the  funds  for  the  communal 
school  expenditures.  There  are  also  committees 
formed  to  encourage  school  attendance. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  control  of  schools  in 
France  is  highly  centralized.  The  President  of 
the  Republic  appoints  the  Minister  of  Instruction, 
the  general  inspectors,  the  professors  in  the  uni- 
versities, the  rectors  of  the  academies,  the  pre- 
fects of  the  departments.  Of  these,  the  general 
inspectors  have  passed  a  special  examination, 
and  professors  in  the  universities' are  chosen  from 
lists  submitted  by  the  Superior  Council  and  the 
university  council.  The  general  inspectors  and 
the  rectors  are  appointed  on  nomination  by  the 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  and  his  advice  is 
asked  regarding  the  professors.  He  appoints  the 
rest  of  the  officials  of  the  central  department, 
the  central  examination  boards,  the  academy  in- 
spectors, the  primary  inspectors,  the  secondary 
teachers,  the  officials  in  the  normal  schools,  and 
in  the  superior  elementary  schools.  Inspectors 
are  drawn  only  from  the  ranks  of  experienced 
teachers,  who  have  held  important  positions. 
They  are  required  to  pass  a  special  examin.ation. 
So,  too,  are  the  professors  in  normal  schools.  The 
primary  teachers  are  required  to  pass  an  exami- 
nation   or   to   be   graduates   of   normal    schools. 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


262 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


There  are  tlireo  grades  of  certilicates,  elementaiy, 
superior,  and  professional.  I'or  the  last,  stress 
is  laid  on  knowledge  of  professional  matters,  and 
two  years'  teaching  experience  is  required.  The 
examination  includes  a  test  in  actual  teaching 
before  inspectors.  Only  such  as  pass  it  can 
become  principals.  The  elementary'  teachers  are 
appointed  at  tirst  on  probation  by  tlie  academy 
in-*i)ectors,  and  if  successful  are,  on  his  recom- 
iiH'udatioii,  appointed  by  the  departmental  jire- 
fects.  The  entire  l)ody  of  educational  otUcials  i.s 
therefore  practically  in  the-  hands  of  the  Presi- 
dent, the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  and  the 
academic  inspector. 

The  Superior  Council  deals  with  pro-irammes 
for  instruction,  regulations  for  discipline,  teach- 
ing, and  school  management  generally,  and  hears 
appeals  from  the  lower  councils  regarding  schools 
that  have  been  suppressed  or  have  not  been  sanc- 
tioned by  the  lower  authorities.  It  is  the  high 
court  of  appeal  in  all  contentions.  The  academic 
council  oversees  courses  of  instruction  in  either 
higher  or  secondary  schools,  judges  cases  involv- 
ing discipline  of  teachers  or  pupils  therein,  or  the 
establishment  or  suppression  of  secondary  schools. 
The  departmental  council  has  similar  functions 
regarding  the  primary  schools  and  determines 
their  estalilishment,  location,  and  the  number  of 
teachers.     It  also  inspects  them. 

By  the  laws  of  1800  and  lS!Mi  universities  have 
been  organized  in  each  academy.  Preparatory  to 
them  are  State  lyci^es.  or  classical  schools,  of 
which  there  were  in  1000  for  V)oys  100.  and  for 
girls  40;  communal  colleges  for  boys,  of  which 
there  were  220;  and  colleges  for  girls,  numbering 
at  that  date  28.  All  these  institutions  take  both 
boarders  and  day  pupils.  Besides  these,  there 
are  a  number  of  secondary  courses  for  girls.  The 
primary  schools  may  be  grouped  imder  five 
heads:  (1)  The  mnlrrnnl  schools,  which  receive 
children  between  two  and  six  years  of  age.  From 
being  schools  for  taking  care  of  children  whose 
mothers  were  out  at  service,  they  have  become 
part  of  the  educational  scheme.  They  are  sup- 
jilemented  by  infant  classes,  which  prepare  the 
children  for  the  elementary  schools,  and  take  the 
place  of  the  maternal  schools  in  small  conmuini- 
tics.  To  them  are  admitted  children  from  four 
to  seven  years  of  age.  (2)  The  rlimmton/  pri- 
morii  xrhools  ifcolm  jirimairi's  ('U'tntnlnirm) . 
These  take  children  from  six  to  thirteen,  the 
work  Ix'ing  divided  into  three  grades  of  two 
years  each.  (.3)  The  superior  priiinirii  srlinols 
{i'cotcs  primaires  supfririircs) .  The  place  of 
these  may  bo  taken  by  the  'complementary 
courses.'  The  latter  arc  partly  review  courses, 
partly  advanced  with  special  attention  to  train- 
ing for  practical  life.  In  them  instruction  lasts 
two  years.  There  are  two  classes  of  superior 
primary  schools,  the  professional  and  the  non- 
professional. The  first  class  includes  commercial, 
technical,  and  imlustrial  schools.  The  second 
has  an  advanced,  liberal  course  for  three  years, 
supplementing  it  by  considerable  te<'hnical  and 
industrial  work  during  the  rest  of  the  time.  It 
takes  pupils  from  twelve  to  eighteen.  It  was 
originallv  designed  tn  prepare  for  the  secondary 
schools,  but  having  a  somewhat  similar  course, 
and  l>ein'.'  less  aristocratic,  it  failed.  Tt  was 
revived  with  the  addition  of  the  vocntinnal  train- 
ing in  18S0.  (4)  The  npprrtilirr  srhonls.  which 
are  sometimes  classified  as  superior  primary 
schools.      Their   name    indicates   their    function. 


actual  shop  work  being  the  centre  of  the  cur- 
riculum. (5)  The  priiiiari/  normal  schools.  Be- 
sides these,  there  are  two  higher  normal  schools, 
which  prepare  teachers  for  the  primary  normal 
schools  and  the  superior  primary  schools.  There 
are  eighty-seven  primary  normal  schools  for  men 
and  eighty-five  for  women.  They  give  a  three 
years'  course.  The  primary  school  system  is 
further  supplemented  by  courses  for  adults  oller- 
ing  either  elementary,  technical,  or  commercial 
instruction,  or  lectures  on  subjects  of  general  ciil- 
ture. 

In  the  primary  schools  tuition  is  free.  More- 
over, by  the  law  of  18(J7,  a  fund  to  help  pupils 
whose  parents  cannot  supply  them  with  clothes, 
books,  etc.,  was  created.  Its  establisliment  in 
each  commune  was  decreed  in  1882,  the  State 
agreeing  to  contribute.  It  is  distriliuted  by  local 
couunitlees,  and  in  many  cases  chihlreu  at  school 
are  even  provided  with  dinners.  In  the  superior 
primary  schools,  bursaries  exist  to  support  de- 
serving pupils  taking  the  courses.  At  the  age 
of  sixteen  the  holders  of  bursaries  may  be  trans- 
ferred to  secondary  schools  with  a  continuation 
of  their  stipends.  Bursaries  also  exist  in  the 
secondarj'  schools,  awarded  on  examination  to 
students  of  limited  means.  Students  are  ad- 
milted  to  the  normal  schools  on  competitive  ex- 
amination. They  are  supported  while  there,  and, 
when  they  graduate,  are  pleilged  to  teach  ten 
years.  They  receive  positions  in  the  order  of 
merit.  Secomlary  and  higher  schools  charge  tui- 
tion, but,  as  they  are  largely  provided  for  by 
the  State,  the  amount  of  this  is  small. 

The  salaries  of  all  administrators  of  schools, 
inspectors,  and,  except  in  the  case  of  the  communal 
colleges  and  in  cities  having  over  150,000  inliabi- 
tants,  teachers  as  well,  are  paid  by  the  State. 
This  brings  about  general  uniformity.  The  sal- 
aries of  primary  teachers  range  from  $200  to 
if.')(i0  a  year;  of  nornial  school  teachers  from  $500 
to  .$1100;  of  professors  in  the  lycecs  from  $(U0  to 
.$1800;  of  professors  in  the  universities  from 
$2400  to  $:!000.  In  primary  schools  of  all  kinds, 
the  teachers  are  divided,  according  to  length  of 
service  and  efficiency,  into  five  grades,  and  in 
lycC'es  into  four.  Salaries  are  based  on  this  rank- 
ing. The  teachers  may,  when  they  have  served 
thirty  years,  and  have  reached  the  age  of  sixty, 
receive  a  y)ension  which  ammints  to  one-sixtieth 
of  the  average  salary  during  the  last  six  years 
multiplied  by  the  number  of  years  served.  To 
make  up  for  this,  they  contribute  to  ,a  pension 
f\uid  5  [)er  cent,  of  their  yearly  salaries  plus  one- 
twelfth  of  their  first  year's  salary  and  one- 
twelfth  of  each  increase  in  salary  for  the  first 
year  of  such  increase.  In  addition  to  paying 
salaries  and  pensions,  the  State  supports  the 
nornuil  schools,  the  buildings  for  which  are 
erected  and  eiiuipjied  by  the  departments.  The 
departments  also  furnish  the  supplies  for  them, 
and  pay  the  office  expenses  incurred  in  running 
the  departmental  bureaus  and  the  academic  bu- 
reau of  inspection.  The  communes  pay  for  the 
supplies  of  the  primary  schools  and  local  school 
f)niiials.  for  janitors,  and  for  the  builiiins  and 
equipping  of  schools  and  residences  for  Tnasters. 
Tn  the  building  of  iirimary  schools,  however,  a 
State  loan  is  available,  tlie  amount  of  which  de- 
pends on  the  necessities  of  the  commune,  and 
varies  from  15  to  SO  per  cent,  of  the  total  cost 
of  (he  work.  The  State  also  loans  money  to  build 
normal  schools.    The  universities,  since  their  or- 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


263 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


I 


gaiiiziitioii  in  llii'  afiuU'inios  in  ISOli,  have  been 
thrown  soniuwlial  on  tlieir  own  n'sonrees  and 
tliuse  of  tlieir  localitius.  Thu  Stale  no  longer 
equips  laboratories  or  libraries,  nor  maintains 
new  courses,  nor  builds  new  buildings. 

Tlie  fourses  of  stud}-  in  the  primary  schools  arc 
in  general  determined  by  State  laws.  In  addi- 
tion, the  ilinistcr  of  Public  Instruction,  in  con- 
sultation with  the  Superior  Council,  determines 
the  programmes  of  instruction  even  in  details 
of  considerable  minuteness,  and  also  rules  for 
the  conduct  of  the  schools.  In  geiu'ral,  tlie  pri- 
mary schools  give  instruction  in  moral  and  civic 
matters,  reading,  -writing,  arithmetic  (with  sim- 
ple geometry),  history  and  geography  (particu- 
larly of  France),  elementary  science,  drawing, 
.singing,  manual  work  (including  needle-work  for 
girls),  gymnastic  exercises,  and  for  boys,  military 
drill.  The  superior  primary  schools  have,  in 
addition,  algebra  and  geometry,  biological  and 
physical  sciences,  with  applications  to  agricul- 
ture, industries,  and  hygiene.  ])olitical  economy, 
the  French  language  and  literature,  general  his- 
tory, industrial  and  connnerci.al  geography,  iron 
and  wood  work  for  boys,  and  cutting  and  fitting 
for  girls.  One  foreign  language  also  is  taught. 
The  apprentice,  commercial,  and  technical 
schools  emphasize,  of  course,  w-ork  preparing  for 
special  vocations.  The  courses  of  .study  for  the 
secondary  schools  are  laid  down  by  law,  and 
^vere  modified  in  1890  and  1891  in  order  to 
make  them  conform  move  completely  with  modern 
demands.  They  were  again  modified  in  1901  and 
1902.  The  entire  course  occupies  eleven  years. 
Four  years  are  spent  in  the  piimai-y  department 
and  pupils  can  take  this  work  in  the  free  primary 
schools.  They  will,  how-ever,  be  ynder  tlie  disad- 
vantage of  not  taking  a  course  of  three  years  in 
a  modern  language.  The  secondary  school  pro])er 
has  a  eoiu-se  of  seven  years,  divided  into  two 
parts.  During  the  first  four  years  the  work  may 
be  in  either  of  two  courses,  in  one  of  which  Latin 
is  obligator}'  and  Greek  optional,  and  in  the  other 
neither  is  taken.  For  the  last  three  years  there 
are  four  courses  presented  for  choice.  These 
courses  emphasize  respective]}-  Latin-Greek, 
Latin-modern  languages,  Latin-science,  and 
science-modern  languages.  During  the  last  year 
of  the  course  options  in  either  philosophy  or 
mathematics  are  offered. 

The  progranmies  in  all  the  secondary  schools 
of  France  are  rigidly  laid  down  by  statutes  and 
regulations  of  the  central  Department  of  Educa- 
tion, and  general  uniformity  exists. 

The  system  of  inspection  in  France  comes  in 
to  insure  this  uniformity  in  curriculum  and 
methods.  It  extends  to  sanitary  conditions  as 
well  as  to  instruction,  although  such  inspection 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  regular  medical  inspectors 
of  the  localities.  Uniformity  of  results  is 
brought  about  by  a  regular  system  of  examina- 
tions carried  on  by  outside  authorities.  An  ex- 
amination for  a  certificate  of  primary  studies 
may  be  given  to  pupils  at  the  age  of  eleven,  and 
those  ]iassing  are  exempt  from  further  compul- 
sory attendance.  It  is  carried  on  in  the  cantons 
by  examiners  appointed  by  the  rectors  of  the 
acndemies.  A  special  departmental  commission 
holds  yearly  an  examination  for  certificates  in 
hiL'her  primary  studies.  The  secondary  schools 
also  have  their  final  examinations  for  degrees 
conducted  by  outside  examiners.  Indeed,  as  the 
primary  schools  arc  the  product  of  the  central 


republican  governments  of  France,  so  the  lycfies 
are  pari  of  the  imperial  .scheme  of  education  de- 
vised by  Napoleon,  and  both  therefore  are  eliur- 
acterized  by  llie  system,  uniformity,  and  depend- 
ence on  central  authority  that  their  origin  would 
insure. 

Private  schools  in  France  require  the  sanction 
of  the  State,  but  can  receive  no  support  from  pub- 
lic funds.  The  mayor  or  academic  inspector  can 
ojjpose  them  in  the  interests  of  hygiene,  morals, 
or  public  order.  They  are  free  in  regard  to  their 
programmes  and  methods,  but  their  teachers  must 
liave  received  the  eertifieate  of  capacity.  For 
the  most  part,  they  have  been  under  the  control 
of  religious  (.Irders  or  congregations,  and  their 
large  attendance  w-as  due  to  the  demand  for  more 
religious  instruction  on  the  part  of  some  classes. 
These  congregations,  however,  were  alleged  to  be 
in  many  cases  hostile  to  the  Republic.  The  Catlio- 
lic  Orders  w-ere  particularly  aimed  at  in  this 
charge.  The  Ministry  of  Waldeck-Rousseau  at- 
tacked their  independence  in  the  'law-  of  associa- 
tions' that  became  a  law-  July  1,  1901.  By  it 
all  congregations  are  required  to  obtain  official 
authorization  in  order  to  get  legal  recognition 
as  such.  All  unauthorized  congregations  are 
absolutely  forbidden  to  give  instruction.  By 
this  means  a  careful  scrutiny  of  the  conduct 
of  the  affairs  of  such  bodies  is  made  pos- 
sible, and  the  character  of  their  insti-uction 
inspected.  The  law  contemplates  the  su])pression 
of  all  congregations  that  shall  resist  such 
scrutiny.  During  the  year  1901-02  the  Min- 
istr}'  presided  over  by  Premier  Combes  compelled 
many  thousands  of  unauthorized  clerical  schools 
to  elo.se  their  doors.  In  190.3  supplementary 
legislation  to  the  Association  Bill  resulted  in 
practically  closing  all  the  clerical  schools  both 
authorized  and  unauthorized. 

The  universities  of  France  are  discussed  more 
at  length  under  Uxn-ERsiTY. 

GBEAT  BRITAIN. 

The  foundation  of  the  present  system  is  the 
Elementary  Education  Act  of  1870.  It  declared 
that  each  district  where  sufficient  facilities  for 
elementary  instruction  were  not  in  existence 
should  provide  them.  Schools  requiring  denomi-. 
national  instruction  or  charging  more  than  nine- 
pence  a  week  for  tuition  were  not  regarded  as 
providing  sufficient  meiins  for  this  purpose.  The 
Education  Department  w-as  required  to  make  a 
statement  of  w-hat  was  in  each  case  demanded. 
In  ease  voluntary  provision  to  meet  these  de- 
mands was  not  fortlicomiiig.  a  school  board  w^as 
to  be  elected  in  the  district,  which  was  to  pro- 
vide, to  maintain,  and  to  keep  efficient  the 
requisite  elementary  schools.  Children  attend- 
ing board  schools  w-ere  to  pay  a  weekly  fee  de- 
termined by  the  board,  w-ith  the  consent  of  the 
dejiartment,  but  this  was  to  be  omitted  where 
parents  w-ere  regarded  as  imable  to  pay.  School 
boards  w-ere  permitted  to  make  ])rovision  for  the 
compulsory  attendance  of  children  between  five 
and  thirteen  years  of  age.  who  were  not  else- 
where receiving  efficient  instruction,  unless  these 
children  had  attained  the  re(|uisite  standard  of 
scholarship,  or  were  exempt  under  the  Factory 
Acts.  The  board  schools  w-ere  to  give  no  de- 
nominational instruction.  The  funds  for  the  sup- 
port of  elementary  schools  were  to  be  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  boards,  and  w-ere  to  be  derived  from 
Parliamentary  grants,  loans,  fees,  and  local  rates. 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


264 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


Power  was  yivun  to  the  school  boards  to  fix  the 
amount  of  tlie  local  contiihulion  for  school  pur- 
poses. Voluntary  schools,  wherever  they  e.xisteil, 
were  recognized  as  before,  and,  in  case  they  re- 
mained properly  public  and  elementary,  were  to 
receive  grants  not  greater  than  the  amount  con- 
tributed from  other  sources.  Local  rates  were 
not  to  be  levied  for  voluntary  schools.  In  1870 
the  age  of  compulsory  education  was  extended 
to  14  years,  and  provision  was  made  for  the 
more  eti'ective  enforcement  of  the  last  by  punish- 
ing delimiucnts.  This  law  was  also  made  to 
apply  to  districts  where  there  were  no  school 
boards,  and  it  was  enacted  that  children  under 
ten  years  of  age  should  not  be  regularly  cm- 
ployed  at  labor.  In  188C  boards  were  required 
to  make  attendance  compulsory.  Subsequent 
legislation  has  improved  the  evening  schools 
(q.v.).  turning  their  attention  to  teclinical  and 
industrial  education,  has  started  undenomina- 
tional day  training  colleges,  and  has  greatly  de- 
veloped technical  instruction.  The  poorer  rural 
elementary  schools  have  also  received  especial 
help.  In  1890  the  paj'uicnt  of  tuition  fees  in 
elementary  schools  was  abolished.  In  189!)  the 
Kduc:ition  Department  was  replaced  by  a  Board 
of  Kducation  for  England  and  Wales  consisting 
of  a  president,  the  Lord  President  of  the  Council, 
the  principal  Secretaries  of  State,  and  the  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer.  Tn  December,  1902.  a 
far  more  important  measure  for  the  unilication 
of  school  administration  was  passed.  The  occa- 
sion for  this  act  was  the  complaint  on  the  part 
of  the  voluntary  s<'hools  that,  while  they  gave 
instruction  to  more  children  than  the  board 
schools  (in  1898  about  20  per  cent,  more),  they 
received  no  ai<l  ivom  the  local  rate.  The  amount 
that  they  received  from  voluntary  subscriptions 
was  not  sulliciently  great  to  enable  them  to  keep 
pace  with  the  board  schools,  a  large  pcu'ticui  of 
the  support  of  which  was  derived  from  local 
taxes.  The  act  of  1902.  which  ajiplies  every- 
where except  to  London,  changes  this  condition 
by  sweeping  away  the  old  school  boards  ami  at- 
tendance committees,  and  replacing  them  by 
education  authorities,  which  are  empowered  to 
provide  for  all  the  schools  in  their  respective 
districts  out  of  the  local  rates.  Whalever  schools 
receive  such  support  are  under  the  general  super- 
vision of  the  local  educ.-ition  authority.  This 
authority  is  the  council  of  the  county  or  the 
county  borough.  It  retains  the  right  of  levying 
the  local  rate  and  of  borrowing  money  for  .school 
pniposcs.  but  hands  over  to  a  committee  all  other 
educational  functions.  The  Education  Committee 
is  appointed  according  to  a  scheme  determineil 
by  the  local  authority  and  approved  by  the 
Hoard  of  Eilucation.  A  majority  of  its  meiubprs 
arc  in  most  cases  appointed  by  the  council  from 
its  own  number.  Some  of  the  others  must  be 
persons  of  experience  in  education,  and  the  com- 
mittee must  include  women.  The  IMucalion 
Comniiltee  has  power  to  (lel<'rmitie  the  sccidar 
education  to  be  given  in  the  pulilic  elenu'ntarv 
schools,  and  to  fix  the  number  and  educational 
qinilifications  of  the  teachers.  lis  consent  is 
necessary  to  the  appointment  or  dismissal  of 
teachers  except  where  religions  considerations  are 
involved. 

Each  school  is  under  a  l>oard  of  managers,  who 
elect  teachers.  Cftntro]  the  schotil  property,  etc. 
The  schools  provide<l  for  wholly  by  the  education 
authority  are  governed  by  managers  appointed  by 


it  and  by  local  authorities,  iloreovcr,  the  de- 
nominational schools  have  on  their  managerial 
boards  appointees  from  both  these  sources.  No 
school  that  does  not  comply  with  the  reqviirements 
of  the  Education  Committee  can  receive  even  a 
Government  grant. 

Parliament  grants  to  all  schools  a  sura  equal 
to  four  shillings  per  scholar,  and  an  additional 
halfpenny  per  scholar  for  every  coniiiletc  two- 
pence per  seliohir  by  which  the  auuiuut  which 
would  be  proiluccd  by  a  ])enny  rate  in  the  area  of 
the  authority  falls  short  of  ten  shillings  a 
scholar.  Whatever  tuition  fees  are  paid  to 
schools  maintained  by  an  education  authority 
are  turned  over  to  it,  but  a  certain  portion  of 
these,  such  as  may  l)e  agreed  upon,  is  returned  to 
the  managers  of  the  school.  The  proceeds  of 
school  endowments  for  the  aid  of  elementary  edu- 
cation are  primarily  devoted  to  the  care  of  the 
school  ])rnperly.  Whatever  surplus  there  may 
be  is  turned  over  to  the  education  authority. 

The  managers  of  denominational  schools  are 
allowed  to  determine  the  religious  instruction 
given  therein  and  the  religious  qualifications  of 
the  teachers.  But  a  pupil  need  not  attend  such 
instruction,  and  cannot  be  excluded  from  the 
school  for  religious  reasons. 

The  act  of  1902  is  bitterly  opposed  by  the 
Xon-Conformists.  The  voluntary  schools  are 
largely  under  the  control  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  the  use  of  a  local  rate  for  their  support 
was  regarded  as  taxing  Non-Conformists  for  the 
benefit  of  the  institutions  of  the  Established 
Church.  Moreover,  it  was  feared  that  the  new 
education  committees  would  be  more  favorable  to 
the  Church  of  England  than  the  old  school 
boards.  The  schemes  of  the  councils  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  conitnittccs.  however,  give,  in 
general,  far  less  re])rcsentation  to  the  Estab- 
lished Church  than  was  couniionly  expected. 

Eor  the  training  of  elementary  teachers  in 
1898  there  were  forty-four  residential  and  four- 
teen day  training  colleges.  The  latter  are  at- 
tache<l  to  some  university  or  college  of  university 
rank.  Teachers  are  ai>pointed  by  the  school 
boards.  The  average  annual  salary  of  certificated 
masters  is  about  £121  and  of  mistresses  about 
£80.  In  1898  provision  was  made  for  pensioning 
teachers  who  have  reached  the  age  of  sixty-five 
or  have  become  disabled.  The  amount  is  esti- 
mated on  the  basis  of  length  of  service,  and  is 
]iartly  made  uj)  by  an  annual  c(mtribution  on 
the  part  of  men  of  £:i  and  of  women  £2.  In- 
spectors arc  appointed  by  the  Crown  on  recom- 
mendation of  the  Education  Council,  There 
are  for  elementary  education  twelve  chief  in- 
spectors, two  being  for  training  colleges,  one 
.senior  chief  inspector,  ninety  subordinate  in- 
sped  nrs,  and  a  number  of  sub-inspectors.  The 
|)\ipil  t-eachers  constitute  a  large  proportion  of 
tlic  leaching  stalT.  the  law  allnwin;:  three  f<n'  the 
]uinci]ial  teacher  in  each  school,  and  one  for  every 
certificated  assistant  teacher.  The  system  of 
grants  in  aid  of  their  training  still  jirevails. 

For  .secondary  educaticm  England  has  schools 
imder  a  variety  of  authorities.  They  may  be 
classed,  according  to  method  of  control,  as  pri- 
vate enterprise  schools,  subscribers'  schools,  com- 
panies' schools,  endowed  schools,  and  schools 
under  local  authorities.  There  were  (1200  such 
schools  in  I'ngland  in  1897.  They  are  not  or- 
ganized under  any  system,  except  that  the  Char- 
ity and  other  commissions  have  been  revising  the 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


265 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


courses  of  stiiily  in  the  riiduwt'cl  si'liouls.  (See 
K.NDowED  Schools  Acts.)  Tlie  I'uhlii-  Seliools  Act 
of  1S08  revised  tlie  control  anil  orf^aiiization  of 
seven  great  public  boarding  schools  of  England. 
In  1894  a  commission  was  appointed  which  in  the 
following  year  reported  an  elaborate  scheme  for 
the  national  organization  of  .secondary  instruc- 
tion, but  so  far  no  legislation  has  taken  place 
as  a  result  of  this.  Wales  and  Jlonmouthshire 
have  a  system  of  inspection  of  secondary  schools. 
One  of  the  main  purposes  of  the  act  of  1902  was 
the  support  of  secuiidary  education  by  public 
money.  The  educatiim  authorities  are  authorized 
to  consider  within  tlieir  areas  the  needs  of  sec- 
ondary education  and  to  take  such  steps  as  seem 
to  them  desirable,  after  consulting  the  Board  of 
Education,  to  supply  or  aid  in  the  supply  of 
such  instruction.  For  this  purpose  the  county 
authorities  are  empowered  to  raise  a  county  rate 
of  twopence  in  the  pound,  a  sum  that  may  be 
increased  with  the  consent  of  tlie  Local  Govern- 
ment Board.  Tliis  ineasurc  is  calculated  to  i-en- 
der  far  more  efl'ective  and  comprehensive  the  sec- 
ondary schools  under  Government  control  that 
were  initiated  by  the  science  and  art  department. 

The  Scotch  have  had  a  public  elementary  sys- 
tem since  1090,  when  it  was  ordained  tliat  a 
school  should  be  established  in  every  parish 
where  one  was  not  in  existence.  The  masters 
were  elected  by  the  landowners  and  the  min- 
isters, and  held  their  places  for  life  or  good 
behavior.  The  act  was  amended  in  1803  so  as  to 
require  the  salaries  of  masters  to  be  raised,  and 
in  ISUl  their  examination  for  the  right  to  teach 
was  transferred  from  the  control  of  the  presby- 
teries to  that  of  the  universities.  In  the  mean- 
time considerable  support  was  granted  to  the 
schools  from  the  Government.  Among  other 
changes,  the  English  School  Code  of  1861  was  ap- 
plied in  Scotland,  but  was  withdrawn.  In  1872 
an  elementary  education  act  like  the  English  one 
was  passed.  The  Scotch  law  is  the  better  of  the 
two,  however,  school  lioards  being  created  in 
every  parish,  and  the  practical  control  of  all 
elementary  schools  being  given  to  them.  In  189.3, 
after  several  movements  in  that  direction,  all 
children  between  three  and  fifteen  years  of  age 
wei'e  freed  from  school  fees  in  the  pviblic  ele- 
mentary schools.  Education  is  compulsory  for 
children  between  five  and  fourteen  years  of  age. 

The  Government  grants  to  Scotch  voluntary 
and  board  schools  are,  in  general,  similar  to 
those  in  England,  but  only  about  one-eiglith  of 
the  elementary  schools  are  voluntary.  For  tlie 
training  of  elementary  teachers,  denominational 
colleges  had  made  their  appearance  before  18.39. 
These  have  been  aided  by  Government  grants, 
and  at  present  over  four-fifths  of  the  male  and 
tw'o-thirds  of  the  female  teachers  have  graduated 
therefrom.  The  English  pension  act  of  189S  was 
extended  to  Seolland. 

The  secondary  instruction  in  Scotland  is  in 
the  hands  of  five  classes  of  schools:  burgh 
schools,  academies,  parochial  schools,  mixed 
bnrgli  and  parochial  schools,  and  four  puhli(' 
boarding  schools  like  those  of  England.  The 
burgh  schools  are  supported  either  by  endowment 
or  by  burgh  funds.  They  are  under  the  control 
nf  the  authorities  of  the  burgh  and  open  to  the 
community.  l^iitil  1861  the  presbyteries  con- 
trolled them,  but  at  that  date  this  power  was 
transferred  to  the  town  councils,  and  in  1872  to 
the   school   boards.      These   bodies    fix   the    fees. 


The  academies  arose  in  the  middle  uf  the  eigh- 
teenth century  as  a  result  of  a  demand  for  more 
economical  and  scientific  instruction.  In  most 
cases  they  came  ultimately  under  the  joint  con- 
trol of  town  councils  and  proprietors.  In  1892 
Government  grants  were  made  to  secondary 
schools,  and  their  inspection  was  provided  for. 
For  the  universities  of  Great  Britain,  see  Uni- 
versity. 

For  a  further  treatment  of  the  English  edu- 
cational system,  see  Great  Britain,  section  on 
Education. 

HOLLAND. 

The  State  school  system  in  Holland  includes 
public  primary  schools,  normal  schools  and 
cour.ses,  burgher  schools,  higher  burgher  schools, 
or  secondary  schools  proper,  agricultural  schools, 
and  various  professional  institutions,  together 
with  gymnasia,  and  three  State  universities. 
A  few  of  the  primary  schools  are  maintained 
solely  by  the  general  Government.  Jlost  of  them 
are  communal,  but  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
fund  for  their  sup])ort  conies  from  the  State. 
Private  primary  schools  are  also  subsidized  by 
the  Government,  in  case  they  maintain  proper- 
standards.  The  primary  school  system  includes, 
in  addition,  repetition  and  evening  schools,  and 
both  types  are  maintained  by  tlie  same  agencies 
and  methods  as  the  primary  schools  in  general. 
So,  too,  the  normal  scliools  are  either  Government 
schools,  or  communal  schools  with  subsidies,  or 
private  schools  with  similar  support.  The  State 
normal  .schools,  however,  give  instruction  to  the 
majority  of  the  students  taking  such  courses. 
The  higher  burgher  schools  were,  in  1894-95, 
01  in  number.  Of  these  20  were  maintained  by 
the  Government,  28  were  subsidized  communal 
schools,  12  were  communal  schools  without  sub- 
sidies, and  one  a  Roman  Catholic  institution. 
Of  the  29  city  gymnasia,  25  are  subsidized  by 
the  State.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the 
policy  of  Holland  is  to  subsidize  such  private 
and  local  schools  as  conform  to  its  require- 
ments in  character  of  instruction  and  qualifica- 
tions of  teachers,  and  to  found  State  schools 
only  to  supplement  and  complete  the  work  of 
these  agencies. 

The  history  of  this  school  system  will  serve  to 
explain  these  peculiarities,  and  also  to  make 
somewhat  clearer  the  comjilexities  of  the  system 
itself.  In  1784,  a  'Society  of  Public  Good'  was 
fdunik'd  at  Groningcu  by  .John  Nieurenliuy.sen. 
Its  object  was  to  promote  elementary  education : 
and  in  this  it  was  successful,  receiving  help  from 
the  Government.  In  ISOO  an  education  law  of 
great  importance  was  passed.  It  consisted  essen- 
tially of  provisions  for  inspecting  schools  and 
examining  and  certificating  teachers.  School  di.s- 
tricts  were  organized,  over  each  of  which  an  in- 
spector was  placed,  Avhose  consent  was  requisite 
before  any  one  could  teach  or  be  a  menibev  of  a 
school  committee.  The  ins])ectors  received  for  their 
.services  only  an  allowance  for  their  expenses.  A 
principal  duty  was  that  of  examining  teachers  for 
certificates.  The  provincial  and  communal  ad- 
ministrations were  urged  by  the  Government  to 
provide  the  means  of  instruction  in  their  locali- 
ties, to  insure  a  comfortable  subsistence  for  teach- 
ers, and  to  obtain  a  regular  attendance  of  chil- 
dren in  the  schools.  Free  schools  for  the  poor 
were,  as  a  result,  established  in  the  towns  and 
in  the  villages,  schools  to  which  the  poor  were 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


266 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


adiiiiUfd  gratuilouslv.  The  authoritifs  made 
great  and  successful  efforts  to  gain  a  large  at- 
tendance, and  teachers  were  paid  better  salaries 
than  el.-.euhere  in  Kurope.  In  1811  M.  Cuvier 
found  4511  primary  schools  in  existence,  and  one 
in  each  ten  of  the  population  in  school. 

Up  to  lS4ij  only  two  important  stops  had  been 
taken  in  the  further  development  of  the  system. 
Normal  schools  were  established  in  ISIU,  and 
tlie  free  schools  for  the  poor  were  supplemented 
by  institutions  of  a  somewhat  higher  {Trade  where 
a  small  tuition  fee  was  re(piired.  Since  the  free 
schools  could  be  entered  only  by  those  who  pos- 
sessed a  certificate  of  poverty,  the  children  of 
people  with  moderate  means  were  exchuled  from 
them.  The  private  schools  for  such  children  were 
fast  beoominjz  inferior  to  the  free  scliools  which 
•were  under  public  patronage,  and  it  was  to  sup- 
ply this  want  that  the  towns  established  iiiter- 
nu'diate  schools  (ttlsxthcii  srhoolcii) .  In  addition, 
French  schools,  which  emphasized  modern  lan- 
guages and  eomniercial  branches,  and  Latin 
scliools,  preparing  for  the  universities,  were 
founded.  These  higher  schools,  however,  did  not 
compare  so  favoraldy  «ith  those  of  other  coim- 
tries  as  did  the  primary  ones. 

The  Constitution  of  1S4S  established  liberty  of 
instruction.  This  conflicted  with  the  iirovision 
of  tlie  law  of  ISOO  that  the  authorizations  of 
the  nuinicipal  council  and  of  the  insiicctor  were 
necessary  fur  even  tlie  teacher  in  a  private  school. 
In  1857  this  reijuirement  was  removed,  only  the 
general  admission  certificate  being  demanded  in 
such  cases.  The  Constitution  of  1S4S.  also,  by 
placing  all  religious  denominations  on  a  footing 
of  eiiiuility,  gave  to  the  Catholics  and  liberals  a 
chance  to  attack  the  religious  instruction  in  the 
schools,  which  according  to  the  law  of  ISOG  was 
to  have  been  Christian  but  undenominational. 
Their  agitation  led  to  a  strict  eiiforccmcnt  of  tlie 
law.  which  in  turn  roused  the  antagonism  of 
the  orthodox  Protestants.  Tlie  result  of  a  bitter 
contest  was  the  law  of  1857,  which  realTirmed 
that  of  ISO!!,  making  more  explicit  its  provision 
that  religious  instruction,  while  undenomination- 
al, should  yet  inculcate  Christian  virtues.  It  was 
also  provided  that  the  schoolrooms  should  at 
special  hours  be  put  at  the  disposal  of  religious 
comiiiuuions  for  |)urposes  of  instruction.  This 
attitude  has  bei-n  confirmed  by  the  law  of  1S7S. 

The  law  of  1857  also  made  definite  regulations 
reganling  the  niimbej-  anil  su]iport  of  schools,  the 
salary  and  nunilier  of  teachers,  school  fees,  the 
primary  curriculum,  the  si  lection  of  teachers  and 
school  inspectors.  Each  commune  was  required 
to  maintain  at  its  own  charge  what  in  the  opinion 
of  the  State's  deputies  and  the  supreme  Govern- 
ment was  a  sutrieient  number  of  primary  schools. 
If  this  task  was  too  heavy,  tlie  Stale  and  the 
province  were  to  share  equally  in  a  grant  of  aid. 
it  was  provided  that  pupil  teachers  should  aid 
in  the  work  of  instruction.  School  fees  were  to 
be  exacted  only  of  lliose  who  could  afford  to  pay 
lliem.  The  subjects  of  primary  instruction  were 
defined  to  lie  rending,  writing,  arithmetic,  the 
elements  of  geometry,  of  Dutch  grammar,  of 
geography,  of  history,  of  the  natural  sciences,  and 
singing.  The  public  schoolniasler  was  to  he 
selected  Viy  the  communal  coiiniil  from  n  list 
of  Ihiwe  wlio  had  Hcquilted  themsclvis  best  in  n 
competitive  examination.  ,\  salaried  provincial 
inspector  was  substituted  for  the  provincial  com- 
mission   of    district    inspectors.      The    Jlinister 


of  the  Home  Department,  assi-ted  by  a  referen- 
dary, was  made  the  supreme  authority  in  matters 
connected   with   education. 

In  1803  a  law  was  passed  organizing  secondary 
instruction  as  consisting  of  liurglier,  higher 
burgher,  agricultural,  polytechnical.  and  indus- 
trial schools.  Tliis  law  was  amended  in  lS7ii  and 
18711.  The  secondary  schools  are  laider  special 
commissions  and  inspectors,  and  teachers  in 
them  are  required  to  have  special  diplomas,  and, 
except  in  a  few  cases,  to  be  university  graduates. 

The  law  of  1857  has  been  twice  amended,  in 
1878  and  ISSi).  In  1878  the  .school  authorities 
were  cmjiowcred  to  increase  the  curriculum  as 
laid  down  in  1857,  by  French,  German,  English, 
general  history,  mathematics,  drawing,  agricul- 
ture, and  gymnastics  whenever  they  deemed  it 
expedient.  It  was  also  provided  that  each  com- 
mune should  su|)port  the  necessary  number  of 
unsectariau  .schools;  but  30  per  cent,  of  its  edu- 
cational exiicnditures  were  to  be  contributed  by 
the  State,  which  also  undertook  to  subsidize  pri- 
vate schools  under  certain  condit  ions.  An  enor- 
mous increase  in  the  State  contribution  to  popu- 
lar education  was  thus  brought  about.  In  1889 
the  method  of  granting  the  State  subsidy  was 
modified.  If  the  school  ap])lying  for  one  is  found 
on  inspection  to  conform  to  the  State  regulations 
it  will  be  granted  an  amount  dependent  on  the 
attendance,  the  number  of  teachers,  and  extent 
of  the  curriculum.  All  schools  having  more  than 
forty-one  jnipils  must  have  at  least  two  teachers, 
and  an  additional  teaclier  is  reijuired  for  an  aver- 
age addition  of  aliout  fifty  jiupils.  When  schools 
have  more  than  the  minimum  requirement  of 
teachers,  and  when  they  cover  more  than  the  re- 
quired curriculum,  additiimal  grants  are  given. 
The  State  also  furnishes  25  per  cent,  of  the 
amount  necessary  to  establish  a  school,  and 
regulates  the  character  and  hygienic  conditions 
of  the  buildings  and  jiremises.  The  law  of  1878 
iii-tituti'd  a  system  of  pensions  for  teachers  who 
had  reached  the  age  of  sixty-five.  The  annual 
amount  is  one-sixtieth  of  the  annual  salary  for 
each  year  of  service.  The  teachers  contribute  2 
per  cent,  of  their  yearly  salaries  to  a  pension 
fund. 

The  Dutch  classify  their  g,\^nnasia  together 
with  their  universities  under  the  head  of  superior 
instruction.  Such  instruction  is  organized  into  a 
system  by  tlie  law  of  187fi.  The  three  State  uni- 
versities are  supported  and  controlled  by  the  na- 
tional Government.  See  VxivicnsiTY. 
rRfssi.\. 

The  school  system  of  Prussia  may  be  divided 
into  three  departments,  elementary,  secondary, 
and  higher.  The  elementary  system  is  designed 
to  educate  children  of  the  lower  classes  whose 
school  training  is  comideted  with  tlieni.  The 
secondary  schools  are  intended  to  prepare  pupils 
for  the  universities  or  professional  schools, 
which  are  for  the  most  part  classed  as  superior 
schools.  The  elementary  .schools  may  be  grouped 
under  five  classes:  (1)  The  infant  nchooln. 
These  are  not  siniported  by  State  funds,  nor  are 
the  teachers  required  to  have  State  certificates  of 
capacity.  They  are,  however,  under  the  super- 
vision of  local  school  boards.  Their  purpose  is 
to  care  for  children  whose  parents  are  obliged  to 
go  out  to  work.  Children  are  admitted  ordinarily 
only  in  their  third  year,  but  in  some  cases  even 
younger  children  are  cared  for.     (2)    The  Yolks' 


NATIONAL  EDtrCATION. 


267 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


schiilc.  This  takes  cliildnii  lictwi'cn  the  ages  of 
six  and  fuurlccii,  and  diuinf,'  this  period  attend- 
ance is  ooniimlsDi y  tor  all  wliuse  edneation  is 
not  otiierwise  jjiovided.  In  tlie  larger  coninuini- 
tios  the  sexes  are  taught  separately,  but  in  the 
iiiuntry  districts  this  is  usually  impossible,  on 
aecount  of  the  lack  of  teachers  and  facilities. 
The  school  work  occupies  six  hours  a  day  and 
about  forty-two  weeks  a  year.  There  are  three 
grades  and  six  classes,  though  the  work  occupies 
ciglil  years.  The  subjects  of  study  are,  in  the 
lowest  grade,  religion,  (iernum,  arithmetic,  sing- 
ing, gynuiastics,  and  needle-work;  in  the  middle 
grade,  drawing,  science,  history,  and  geograjihj' 
are  added;  and  in  the  upper  grade,  geometry. 
Tliis  course  is  prescribed  by  law,  but  within  its 
limits  selection  and  arrangement  are  left  to  the 
school  board  of  the  district,  subject  to  the  ap- 
proval of  the  general  board  of  the  royal  Gnvern- 
inent.  (3)  The  continuation  schools.  These  are 
usually  evening  schools,  giving  instruction  to 
pupils  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  eighteen. 
They  review  the  work  of  the  Volksschule,  and  give 
some  additional  work  with  sjxjcial  reference  to 
trade  or  industry,  or,  in  the  country  districts, 
agriculture.  Tuition  is  charged,  but  provision 
is  made  for  those  who  cannot  pay.  With  the 
continuation  schools  may  be  classed  various  in- 
dustrial and  trade  schools  which  are  day  schools, 
and  devote  more  time  and  eilort  to  prepare  for 
s]iccitic  vocations.  (4)  Middle  schools.  These 
s|jrang  from  the  old  bvirghcr  schools  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  They  aim  to  jnejiare  the  children  of 
people  with  more  means  for  a  commercial  life, 
although  sometimes  they  are  attended  by  pupils 
pre]iaring  for  tlie  secondary  schools.  Tuition  is 
charged.  Nearly  twice  as  many  of  these  schools 
as  are  public  are  private.  A  considerable  pro- 
portion of  them  are  mixed  schools.  They  take  the 
place  of  the  Volksschule,  but  sometimes  continue 
instruction  imtil  the  seventeenth  year.  (5)  Nor- 
vtal  schools.  In  these  there  is  a  preparatory 
course  of  three  years  to  which  children  of  four- 
teen are  admitted.  This  is  followed  by  a  two 
years'  course  in  the  women's  normals,  and  a  three 
years'  course  in  men's  normals  and  the  one  for 
governesses.  In  1000  there  were  120  of  these  insti- 
tutions, of  which  all  but  about  twelve  were  for  men 
exclusivelj\  Students  are  admitted  on  examina- 
tion and  tTie  attendance  is  limited  to  from  thirty 
to  thirt.v-six  in  each  class.  While  in  the  school 
students  receive  their  support.  On  graduation, 
tliey  are  placed  on  the  list  of  available  teachers, 
and  required  to  take  what  is  given  them,  or  pay 
back  the  expenses  of  tlieir  education.  Before  re- 
cei\ing  permanent  appointment,  however,  a  pro- 
bation of  from  two  to  five  years  is  required,  and 
an  additional  examination  on  educational  matters 
must  be  passed.  The  normal  school  course  con- 
sists of  pedagogies,  religion,  German,  history,' 
arithmetic,  geometry,  geography,  drawing,  writ- 
ing, music,  and  a  foreign  language. 

The  secondary  schools  in  Prussia,  as  in  Ger- 
nniny  generally,  are  the  various  classes  of  gym- 
nasia and  Realschulen.  The  gymnasia  are  the 
classical  schools,  and  have  their  origin  far  back 
in  the  Jliddle  Ages.  They  were  modernized  dur- 
ing the  nineteenth  century  l)y  the  introduction  of 
science  and  modern  languages,  although  they 
have  always  retained  the  humanistic  quality  as 
against  the  Realschulen,  which  emphasize  the  sci- 
entific studies  and  modern  languages,  and  omit  tlie 
classical  languages  altogether.  The  gymnasium 
Vol.  .\IV.— is. 


has  a  nine  years'  course.  To  enter  it  the  pupil 
must  be  nine  years  of  age,  and  have  had  three 
years  of  elementary  instruction.  The  pro-gj'm- 
nasia  give  a  somewhat  shorter  cour.se,  usually 
only  the  six  years  necessary  to  gain  for  tlieir 
graduates  exemption  from  one  year  of  the  volun- 
tary service  in  the  army.  Occupying  a  position 
between  the  gj'mnasium  and  the  Uealschule  is  the 
Kealgymnasium,  which  omits  Greek  and  gives 
more  attention  to  sciences,  etc.  There  are  also 
real  pro-gymnasia.  The  Realschule  proper  gives 
only  a  si.x  years'  course,  but  the  higher  Keal- 
schulen  have  nine  years  of  work.  As  a  result  of 
a  conference  on  secondary  schools  that  met  at 
Berlin  in  1900,  the  three  classes  of  schools  having 
a  nine  years'  course  are  declared  to  be  equal  from 
the  point  of  view  of  general  culture,  and  (ireek 
was  made  optional  in  the  gymnasia.  Tho  jiro- 
gramnie  of  studies  was  somewhat  revised,  and 
greater  latitude  allowed  the  masters  in  adapting 
their  work  to  particular  needs.  For  the  profes- 
sional training  of  secondary  teachers  there  are 
twelve  State  seminaries,  which  aiimit  only  a  few 
candidates.  There  are  also  connected  with  many 
of  the  gymnasia  seminaries  conducted  by  the  prin- 
cipals and  leading  teachers.  These  institutions  all 
give  a  one  ye.ar's  course.  There  are  also  a  number 
of  higher  schools  giving  instruction  to  girls  from 
six  to  fifteen  years  of  age.  They  are  supple- 
mented by  gymnasia  having  a  four  j'ears'  course. 
These  institutions,  however,  are  not  recognized 
as  preparing  for  the  universities,  and  the  higher 
schools  are  controlled  by  the  department  for  pri- 
mary education. 

The  higher  education  of  Prussia  is  given  in 
the  universities,  with  their  four  faculties  of  phi- 
losophy, theology,  law.  and  medicine.  Thev  are 
discussed  in  the  article  on  University.  There 
are  also  various  polytechnic  and  agricultural 
schools  that  may  be  included  with  the  schools 
for  higher  education. 

At  the  head  of  the  Prussian  school  system  is 
the  llinistcr  for  Religious.  EducMtional,  and 
Jledicinal  Afl'airs.  As  Minister  of  Education 
alone,  his  department  is  subdivided  into  two 
parts.  The  first  has  control  of  su])erior  and  sec- 
ondary instruction,  and  the  second  of  the  ele- 
mentary schools.  The  Minister  of  Education 
represents  the  schools  in  the  Prussian  Parliament, 
and  plans  and  oversees  legislation  on  school  mat- 
ters, including  finance.  He  distrilnites  the  State 
school  money,  appoints  the  members  of  provincial 
school  boards,  confers  titles  on  school  ofiicers, 
judges  on  ajipeal  all  cases  involving  dismissal 
from  office  or  other  contentions  in  school  mat- 
ters, besides  fixing  the  normal  course  of  study. 
Each  of  the  thirteen  provinces  of  Prussia  con- 
stitutes a  division  for  school  administration. 
The  immediate  superintendence  of  secondary 
schools  is  in  ch.nrge  of  the  provincial  school 
boards,  consisting  of  from  three  to  five  members 
and  a  chairman,  who  is  the  president  of  the 
province.  One  of  these  men  inspects  the  g>'ra- 
nasia.  another  the  Realscliulen.  and  a  third  the 
Volksschulen.  This  board  has  the  power  of  ap- 
pointing and  dismissing  teachers  in  secon<lary 
schools,  except  in  such  as  are  supported  wholly 
or  partlv  by  private  funds,  where  the  selection 
is  made  by  a  local  board  from  n  list  furnished 
by  the  provincial  school  board.  The  appointment 
of  directors  of  the  schools  requires  the  confirma- 
tion of  the  Minister.  To  the  provincial  scliool 
boards   also   fall   the   control  of  the  seminaries 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


268 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


for  the  tiiuiiiiiji;  ul  set-oinlaiy  IciKhors,  and  tlie 
regiiliitioii,  for  all  the  schools  of  the  |)iovince,  of 
the  school  proyiammes,  regulations,  leaving  ex- 
aminations, and  of  text-books  for  the  higher 
schools.  In  each  province  the  general  superin- 
tendent of  the  Kvangelical  Church  has  the  func- 
tion of  inspecting  the  Protestant  religious  in- 
struction in  the  secondary  schools,  and  a  Catholic 
bishop  has  a  similar  right  regarding  Catholic  in- 
struction. The  provinces  of  I'russia  are  divided 
into  thirty-si.\  governments,  each  of  which  lias 
a  school  board  consisting  of  two  men  a])pointed 
by  the  King  for  life,  fovir  appointed  by  the  pro- 
vincial school  lioard  for  si.x  years,  and  the  presi- 
dent of  the  royal  Government.  In  such  schools 
as  are  supported  largely  by  the  iState,  this  board 
appoints  the  teachers.  Wherever,  on  account 
of  extensive  local  support  or  private  patronage, 
local  authorities  are  given  the  naming  of  teach- 
ers, the  school  board  of  the  Government  con- 
firms their  appointment  or  nominates  a  list  from 
whicli  the  selection  must  be  made.  It  also  over- 
sees the  conduct  and  work  of  the  teachers,  sujK'r- 
intends  the  elementary  schools  generally,  settles 
upon  new  districts  and  text-books  for  local 
schools.  The  governments  are  divided  into  dis- 
tricts, some  of  which  have  inspectors,  whom  the 
Minister  on  examination  appoints  for  life,  and 
who  devote  their  whole  time  to  the  schools. 
Other  districts  have  a  number  of  local  inspectors, 
who  are  clergymen  or  have  some  other  occupation 
besides  that  of  school  ins|iection.  The  district 
has  a  school  board  composed  variously  in  differ- 
ent localities  of  inspectors,  members  of  local 
councils,  and  representatives  of  religions  dentmi- 
inations.  This  hoard  has  the  jiower  of  erecting 
and  organizing  schools,  determining  teachers'  sal- 
aries (the  minimum  being  (ixed  by  the  (iovern- 
ment) .  increasing  pensions,  nn<l  deciding  on  prop- 
erty liable  to  a  school  tax.  Kach  school  has  a 
local  school  board  chosen  in  cities  by  the  central 
school  board.  Sometimes,  however,  it  is  elected 
by  the  cili/ens  of  a  eonnnnnify  or  by  a  church 
organization  or  by  a  patron,  depending  largely 
on  the  .source  whence  the  school  derives  the 
larger  part  of  its  income.  The  local  board  looks 
out  for  repairs,  supplies,  and  attendance.  b\it 
cannot  interfere  with  the  internal  management  of 
the  school.  In  many  cases  it  has  a  voice  in 
electing  the  teacher  or  fixing  his  salary.  JIany 
cities  have  established  secondary  schoids.  the 
funds  for  which  are  largely  contributed  by  them. 
Here  the  local  boards  have  charge  of  fiiiancinl 
matters,  choice  of  teachers,  etc.,  hut  the  work 
of  the  school  itself  is  under  the  supervision  of 
the  provincial  boards.  The  most  extreme  eases 
of  local  control  arise  in  conne<'tion  with  the 
country  Volksschulen.  under  the  patronage  of  the 
nobility.  Here  the  patron  names  the  teacher,  and 
.sometimes  even  interferes  with  the  course  of 
study  and  school  hours. 

Private  schools  in  Prussia  are  required  to 
conform  to  State  regulations,  as  to  minimum 
course  of  study,  school  uielhods.  etc.  They  are 
under  Slate  inspection,  and  can  employ  none  hut 
regularly  certilicated  teachers.  The  nundier  of 
private  elementary  schools  is  insignilicant,  but 
the  pupils  in  middle  .schools  are  one-third  in 
private  institutions. 

Teachers  in  Prussian  elementary  schools  are 
ordinarily  prnduntes  of  teachers'  seminaries  or 
training  colleges.  At  the  end  of  each  year  these 
institutions  hold  an  examination   at  which   the 


school  inspector-^  and  superintendents  of  the  dis- 
trict and  a  commission  from  the  provincial 
school  board  are  present.  Practical  tests  in 
teaching  power  are  required  as  well  as  those  on 
theory.  The  successful  candidate  gets  a  privi- 
lege to  teach  for  three  years.  After  two  years 
of  satisfactory  work  a  teacher  may  take  a  second 
examination,  the  passing  of  which  gives  him  a 
right  to  a  permanent  position  and  a  pension. 
This  examination  is  largely  on  educational  mat- 
ters and  includes  a  practical  test.  Candidates 
who  are  not  graduates  of  teachers'  seminaries 
may  be  admitted  to  it,  and  on  passing  are  al- 
lowed to  teach.  The  director  of  the  seminary 
oversees  the  work  of  its  graduates,  and  can  re- 
quire them  to  supply  defects  by  additional  work. 
Those  who  wish  to  teach  in  the  higher  classes  of 
the  middle  schools  must  pass  an  additional  ex- 
amination given  hy  a  special  commission,  and 
the  same  body  gives  a  still  further  examination 
to  those  who  aspire  to  rectorships.  To  gain  the 
right  to  teach  in  the  secondary  schools  a  candi- 
date, who  is  usually  from  a  university,  often 
with  a  degree,  must  pass  a  State  examination 
given  by  one  of  the  ten  examining  hoards  ap- 
pointed annually  by  the  .Minister.  Those  who 
pass  may  receive,  according  to  the  character  of 
their  papers,  any  of  three  grades  of  certilieates 
in  the  various  subjects,  and  these  entitle  them  to 
teach  such  subjects  in  the  lower  three,  the 
lower  six,  or  all  the  grades  of  the  gymnasia. 
-After  passing  this  examination,  a  candidate 
enters  either  a  State  seminary  (where  he  receives 
a  vahiable  stipend)  or  a  gymnasial  .seminar. 
Here  he  is  under  practical  instruction  for  a 
year,  entering  at  its  successful  conclusion  on  a 
year  of  probationary  teaching,  for  which  he  re- 
ceives no  remuneration.  He  is  then,  provided 
his  work  is  satisfactory,  eligible  to  a  permanent 
appointment. 

Klementarv  teachers  receive  free  rent  and  fuel, 
and  often  a  garden.  Their  annual  salaries  range 
from  450  marks  (in  a  few  ca.scs  even  less)  to  as 
much  as  .3800  nuirks  in  I'.erlin.  or  in  the  case 
of  rectors  even  (iOOO  marks.  The  average  is, 
however,  about  1200  marks,  and  is  smaller  in  the 
country  than  in  the  cities.  Salaries  usually  are 
regularly  graded,  according  to  time  of  service, 
up  to  a  niaxinuini.  Women  are  paid  .soniewliat 
less  than  men,  and  they  constit\ite  about  12  per 
cent,  of  the  total  teaching  force  in  elementary 
schools,  .\fter  tell  years  of  service  the  teacher 
can,  if  disabled  or  sixty-tive  years  old,  retire 
on  a  pensicm  of  one-fourth  of  liis  salary.  This 
amount  increases  by  one-sixtieth  for  each  nildi- 
tioiial  year  of  service  up  to  three-fourths  of  the 
salary.  The  pension  fund  is  d<'rivcd  from  a  State 
and  local  contribution,  together  with  a  small  de- 
duction from  the  salary  of  the  successor.  The 
aiuunil  salaries  of  secondary  school  teachers 
range  from  h'iOO  to  .5100  marks,  and  in  the  ease 
of  rectors  to  7200  marks.  In  addition,  they  re- 
ceive an  nllowance  for  house  rent.  The  same 
rei;ulations  as  to  pensions  that  apply  ti>  primary 
tea<hers  apply  also  to  secondary  ones,  and  in 
fact  to  most  State  oflicials,  an  exception  being 
professors  in  the  universities. 

For  the  support  of  schools  in  Prussia,  there 
are  live  sources  of  income.  The  most  important 
of  these  is  the  State  itself,  which  pays  about  one- 
half  of  the  total  required  for  te.Tchers'  salaries. 
The  other  sources  are  school  societies,  income 
from    inherited    property.    Church    funds,   'local 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


269 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


taxes,  and  tuition.  In  the  city  schools  tlie  local 
taxes  supply  tlic  larger  part  of  the  income;  in 
secondary  schools  the  tuition  furnishes  nearly 
one  half  the  sum  re(piircd  for  support.  Tlu;  coun- 
try schools,  however,  receive  over  two-thirds  of 
their  income  from  tile  State,  the  amount  being 
a  tixed  contribution  of  100  marks  for  each  head 
teacher,  200  marks  for  each  additional  regular 
nuile  teacher,  and  150  marks  for  each  female 
teacher,  with  100  marks  for  each  assistant 
teacher  who  is  in  the  probation  year.  The  nor- 
mal schools  are  supported  by  the  Government, 
as  are  also  the  universities.  In  the  latter  tuition 
is  a  considerable  item.  For  their  organization, 
see   the   article   on   Univeusity. 

F(M-  tlic  development  of  the  German  public 
educational  system,  of  which  the  Prussian  system 
is  taken  as  a  type,  .see  Geumany,  section  on  Edu- 
cutiun. 

SWITZERLAND. 

Each  of  the  twenty-five  cantons  of  Switzer- 
land has  its  own  separate  and  independent 
school  organization,  and  there  are  very  few 
federal  regulations  on  the  subject.  The  Federal 
Constitution  of  1874  empowers  the  Bund  to  es- 
tablish and  maintain  or  assist  a  university 
or  other  institution  for  'higher  education.'  This 
power  has  not  been  used  except  to  continue  the 
support  of  the  Federal  Polytechnic  at  Zurich, 
and  to  subsidize  various  cantonal  higher  insti- 
tutions. The  Constitution  further  states  that  all 
education,  whether  public  or  private,  must  be 
under  the  control  of  the  cantons.  They  must 
provide  for  it,  and  make  it  compulsory 
and  gratuitous.  That  they  do  this  well 
is  evident  from  the  fact  that  in  1898-99  the 
ratio  of  attendance  to  population  was  great- 
er there  than  in  any  other  country  in  the 
world,  while  of  the  recruits  in  1899  only  .23 
per  cent,  could  not  read.  All  attempts  to  estab- 
lish anrthing  like  a  centralized  system  have  met 
with  determined  opposition  by  those  who  feared 
interference  with  linguistic  or  religious  instruc- 
tion in  the  schools.  Indeed,  the  problems  of 
education  in  Switzerland  are  more  complex  than 
in  most  countries.  Some  cantons  are  predomi- 
nantly French,  others  are  German,  others  Italian, 
and  there  is  still  a  fourth  vernacular.  Romansch, 
extensively  spoken.  In  cantons  where  one  lan- 
guage predominates,  another  is  i:sually  the  sole 
one  spoken  by  n  considerable  part  of  the  people. 
Jloreover,  Catiiolieism  and  Protestantism  are 
face  to  face  everywhere,  and  both  fear  that  the 
free-thinkers  might  endeavor  to  exclude  religious 
instruction  from  the  schools  if  their  control  were 
centralized.  The  Constitution  provides,  however, 
that  "it  must  be  possible  for  the  public  schools 
to  be  attended  by  the  adherents  of  all  beliefs 
without  hurting  their  freedom  of  belief  or  con- 
science." That  not  more  than  .3  per  cent,  of  the 
attendance  is  in  private  schools,  which  are, 
moreover,  patronized  almost  entirely  by  children 
of  non-Swiss  parentage,  attests  the  satisfactory 
nature  of  the  religious  instruction  in  the  public 
schools.  A  few  cantons,  as  Geneva,  exclude  it 
entirely  from  the  public  system.  Three  addi- 
tional Fcrleral  regulations  alTect  education.  The 
first  forI)ids  the  labor  in  factories  of  children 
uniler  fourteen,  and  limits  that  of  those  under 
sixteen.  The  second  prescribes  an  examination 
for  every  recruit  on  entering  the  army  at  his 
twentieth  year.     The   results   of  this  are  made 


known,  and  it  stimulates  educational  edort,  be- 
sides bringing  into  existence  improving  schools 
for  recruits,  and  increasing  the  attendance  at 
continuation  schools.  The  linal  regulation  con- 
cerns military  drill,  which  by  the  acts  of  1874, 
1H77,  and  18.S.3  is  made  a  reijuircd  part  of  every 
school  programme,  to  be  given  to  children  be- 
tween ten  and  fifteen  years  of  age. 

At  the  foundation  of  the  school  .system  of 
Switzerland  wp  have  at  present  the  conununal 
primary  schools  taking  children  frcmi  six  to 
eleven  years  of  age.  After  this  they  go  cither 
to  the  cantonal  secondary  schools  |)ro])er.  or  to 
the  advanced  elementary  schools,  the  so-called 
'secondary'  schools,  the  district  for  one  of  which 
embraces  several  couuiiunes.  or  to  the  communal 
continuation  schools,  usually  held  in  the  evening. 
There  are  also  courses  for  adults  given  in  the 
comuuines.  The  .secondary  schools  are  main- 
tained by  the  cantons,  and  include  professional 
and  technical  schools,  with  others  variously 
styled  middle  schools,  gymnasia,  or  pro-gym- 
nasia. These  are  supplemented  by  cantonal  uni- 
versities and  a  Federal  polytechnic.  The  teachers 
are  licensed  by  cantonal  governments  on  examina- 
tion, or  in  some  cantons  on  a  diploma  from  a 
normal  school.  For  the  higher  grades  of  work, 
an  additional  examination  is  required.  There 
were  in  1900  thirty-eight  normal  schools  in 
Switzerland,  most  of  them  public  institutions 
maintained  by  the  cantons.  In  most  cantons 
teachers  are  elected  for  life,  either  by  a  school 
board  or  at  a  general  election.  They  are  also 
usually  pensioned  at  the  end  of  their  term  of 
service.  This  is,  in  general,  partly  provided 
for  by  a  fund  to  which  they  make  regular  con- 
tributions. 

At  the  head  of  education  in  each  canton  there 
is  either  (1)  an  educational  council,  or,  (2)  an 
education  ministry,  headed  by  a  director  of  edu- 
cation, who  is  a  member  of  the  Executive  Council 
of  the  canton,  or  (3)  a  permanent  education 
council,  presided  over  by  a  director  of  education 
who  is  a  political  officer.  The  Canton  of  Bern  be- 
longs to  the  second  type,  and  in  the  control  of  its 
schools  it  represents  the  extreme  of  centraliza- 
tion in  Switzerland.  The  Director  of  Education 
controls  the  inspectors  and  frames  the  educa- 
tional budget.  His  department  determines,  on 
consultation  with  certain  authorities,  the  cvir- 
riculum  and  methods  of  instruction  in  all  public 
schools.  Private  schools  nuist  receive  his  au- 
thorization and  that  of  the  local  school  inspect- 
oi's.  The  communal  council  votes  the  money  for 
its  primary  schools,  ami  nominates  a  school 
board  to  control  the  expenditure  of  this  and  the 
details  of  local  school  management.  Several 
communes  combine  to  form  a  secondary  school, 
the  control  of  which  is  in  the  hands  of  a  com- 
mission, whose  members  are  appointed  by  the 
various  communal  councils  and  the  Director  of 
Education.  The  middle  or  higher  schools  are 
u.sually  Citntonal  schools,  and  .are  controlled  by 
a  commission  appointed  by  the  Educational  De- 
pivrtment.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Canton  of 
Zurich  has  the  least  centralized  of  all  the  Swiss 
systems.  Its  central  government  is  of  the  tliird 
type  above  mentioned.  The  Educational  Coimeil 
is  composed  of  six  men,  four  of  whom  arc  chosen 
by  the  Cantonal  Council,  and  the  other  two  by 
the  whole  body  of  teachers.  It  controls  the  or- 
ganization of  education  in  the  canton.  The  com- 
missions that  direct  the  cantonal  schools,  i.e.  the 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


270 


NATIONAL  EDTTCATION. 


gynmasiuiii,  middle  schools,  higlier  schools,  tech- 
nical institutes,  and  training  colleges,  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  Cantonal  C'onucil  on  nomination 
by  the  Educational  Council  and  Director  qf 
Ktliieation.  J'or  local  organization  and  control 
of  education  there  are  ])rovinces,  districts,  and 
conununes.  Each  province  has  a  committee, 
elected  partly  by  the  teachers  alone,  partly  by 
the  rest  of  the  voters.  Its  function  is  to  visit 
the  schools  and  supervise  their  general  conduct. 
'J'here  is  a  district  committee  elected  by  the 
voters  to  control  the  secondary  school  of  the 
district,  and  determine  the  amount  to  be  raised 
from  local  taxation  for  its  support.  For  the  pri- 
mary scliool  also  there  is  a  district  organization, 
including  usually  several  communes,  the  voters 
of  which  have  a  general  assembly  to  determine 
school  measures.  The  communal  primary  school 
is  controlled  by  its  local  board.  In  Zurich  alone 
of  all  the  Swiss  cantons,  there  are  no  school  in- 
spectors. In  these  two  cantons,  Zurich  and 
Hern,  we  have  illustrated  the  extremes  between 
M  hich  the  systems  of  the  other  cantons  fall. 

In  Switzerland,  generally,  the  support  of  all 
universities  and  higher  secondary  scliools  is  by 
cantonal  funds,  aided  occasionally  by  tlie  cities 
in  which  such  schools  may  be  situated.  The 
district  and  communal  schools  are  supported  by 
local  taxes  with  cantonal  aid.  There  exist  for 
such  support  permanent  connnunal  funds  made 
up  of  fees  and  gifts,  and  in  all  Switzerland  they 
amount  to  over  58,000,000  francs.  ^Moreover, 
twelve  cantons  have  a  permanent  cantonal  fund 
for  Volksschule  purposes.  This  does  not,  how- 
ever, by  any  means  provide  for  the  support  of 
the  schools.  Of  the  total  expenditure  on  pri- 
mary education,  it  is  estimated  that  the  local 
authorities  furnish  about  two-thirds,  the  rest 
coming  from  the  cantons;  but  in  Geneva,  where 
the  French  ideas  prevail,  the  canton  furnishes 
74  per  cent,  of  such  funds.  In  general,  in  the 
wealthier  cantons  the  canton  furnishes  more  and 
the  commune  less  of  the  total  raised.  The  can- 
tonal grants  arc  made  either  in  proportion  to 
the  total  expense  of  the  commune,  or  to  its 
poverty  and  need  for  aid,  or.  as  is  more  commonly 
the  ease,  according  to  both  these  princijdcs.  The 
cantonal  money  goes  largely  as  a  contribution 
for  teachers'  salaries,  the  school  equipment  being 
left  mainly  to  the  communes.  The  canton 
usually  contributes  a  greater  proportion  of  the 
amount  necessary  to  support  the  district  second- 
ary schools  than  of  that  for  the  comnumal  pri- 
mary schools.  In  the  raising  of  school  funds  the 
general  legislative  bodies  of  communes  and  can- 
tons usiially  fix  the  total  amounts,  and  the  dis- 
trili\itiou  of  expenditures  is  left  in  the  hands 
of  the  school  authorities.  In  some  cases,  how- 
ever, as  in  Zurich,  the  communal  school  board 
can  \cvy  the  local  school  taxes.  Of  the  amount 
for  the  support  of  schools  generally,  the  pri- 
mary, higher  primary,  district,  and  continuation 
schools  get  nearly  three-fourths:  higher  second- 
ary' and  technical  education  receives  less.  For 
the  organization  of  Swiss  universities,  see  Uxi- 

\'EBSITY. 

OTHER  EfBOPEAX   SYSTEMS. 

The  systems  already  described  ofTer  ex- 
amples that  are  typical  of  the  education  in 
other  European  States.  Tn  Sweden,  elemen- 
tary' and  socondnrv  sphool^  are  supported  by 
State  subsidies  and  local  taxes,     Manv  schools 


and  universities  have  in  addition  to  euch 
sujiport  the  income  from  endowments.  Con- 
trol of  schools  is  in  the  hands  of  local 
boards,  but  the  central  Government  maintains  a 
system  of  inspection  and  requires  teachers  to  be 
graduates  of  normal  schools,  Puldic  elementary 
ediu'ation  is  gratuitous  and  compulsory  between 
the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen.  In  Austria  the 
ideals  and  methods  of  Prussian  education  pre- 
vail. The  Italian  system  has  the  same  general 
features  of  State  subsidies  and  local  and  pro- 
vincial taxes  for  the  support  of  both  elementary 
and  secondary  education.  The  minimum  number 
of  schools,  the  curricula,  and  the  qnalifieationa 
of  teachers  are  also  laid  down  liy  the  State. 
Public  elementary  education  is  gratuitous  and 
compulsoiy  between  the  ages  of  six  and  nine. 
The  State  inspects  all  public  schools,  and  private 
schools  must  receive  authorization  by  the  Gov- 
ernment. 

In  Spain  attempts  have  been  made  to  establish 
a  complete  and  efficient  .system  of  elementary 
education.  The  Government  determines  pro- 
grammes and  inspects  schools,  but  furnishes  little 
assistance  to  their  support.  The  nuniicipalities 
bear  most  of  the  burden  and  the  ccim]iuls(iry  law 
is  not  enforced.  For  most  of  the  cliildren  educa- 
tion is  free.  In  Russia  about  one  third  of  the  ele- 
mentary education  is  carried  on  by  the  Church. 
Xearly  all  the  rest  is  controlled  and  supported 
by  the  central  Government  acting  tuider  the 
Jlinistry  of  Public  Instruction.  The  Church  also 
takes  part  in  secondary  e<luc.ation.  but  here  the 
Ministry  bears  most  of  the  res])onsibility.  There 
are  a  small  number  of  locally  supported  schools 
and  foundation  schools. 

I'NITED  STATES. 

In  the  United  States,  the  control  and  support 
of  the  education  of  the  people  have  been  left  prac- 
tically to  the  several  State  governments.  The 
central  Government  has,  however,  dealt  with  the 
matter  in  a  few  cases.  The  Ordinance  of  1787 
provided  that  one  section  of  each  township  in 
tlie  Xortliwest  Territory  should  be  designated  as 
school  land,  and  that  the  proceeds  of  its  sale 
.should  go  to  tlie  siipport  of  public  schools.  After 
States  were  organized  in  this  region,  the  funds 
derived  from  these  lands  were  turned  over  to 
them  for  educational  purposes.  Similar  grants 
of  land  were  made  to  other  new  .'^talp'i.  imtably 
in  1S41.  in  1840.  and  in  1S(!0,  Up  to  1000  aboiit 
Sfl,000.00n  acres  had  been  devoted  to  tliis  purpose, 
Theso  grants  were  supplemenlcd  in  IS'ifi  liy  a 
gift  to  the  several  States  of  surphis  funds  in  the 
National  Treasury,  the  sinus  thus  given  being  by 
most  of  (hem  devoted  to  the  support  of  education. 
In  lSfr2  the  Morrill  Act  set  aside  additional 
lands  for  the  maintenance  of  c(dleges,  in  which 
agricultural  and  mechanical  arts  and  military 
tactics  were  to  Iw  tauyht,  and  the  State  univer- 
sities generally  have  lieen  the  recipii-nts  of  these 
gifts.  The  central  Government  established,  in 
18117.  the  Hurean  of  Fdiication,  the  main  objects 
of  which  are  the  collection  of  statistics  and  the 
preparation  of  reports. 

Each  of  the  several  States  maintains  a  system 
of  free  public  schools,  including  elementary,  sec- 
ondary or  high  schools,  and.  in  the  ease  of  twenty- 
nine  of  them,  universities  as  well.  The  older 
States,  where  great  colleges  and  universities  on 
private  foundations  have  for  a  long  time  existed, 
have  not   in   most   cases  added  such   institutions. 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


271 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


For  the  elementary  sehools  three  systems  of  con- 
trol exist.  Tlie  iirst  of  tliesc  is  tlie  district 
systAn.  iiccordiiig  to  wliieh  the  control  of  each 
school  is  left  in  the  hands  of  a  board  elected 
by  tlie  people  of  the  district  in  which  it  is  placed. 
Vnder  the  township  system  all  schools  that  are 
located  within  the  region  of  a  township  are  placed 
under  one  board.  According  to  tlie  county  s.ys- 
tcni,  the  schools  of  a  whole  county  are  under 
the  control  of  county  boards  or  school  commis- 
sions. Tlie  district  system  was  developed  in 
New  Kngland  after  the  scattering  of  the  pojiula- 
tion,  due  to  the  cessation  of  the  early  Indian 
wars.  It  spread  to  the  States  of  the  West. 
Later,  owing  largely  to  the  opposition  of  re- 
formers, like  Horace  Mann,  who  maintained  that 
the  district  system  meant  insuflicient  support 
and  inexpert  supervision  for  the  common  schools, 
Xcw  England  came  to  adopt  the  township  sys- 
tem. The  county  system  has  been  peculiar  to 
the  Southern  States  from  the  first,  and  to-day 
it  exists  in  nine  States,  all  of  which  except  Utah 
are  Soulliern.  The  township  .system  exists  wholly 
or  partially  in  eighteen  States,  and  the  district 
system  in  thirty-three. 

WiVn  the  development  of  more  elaborate  school 
systems,  the  supervision  of  the  State  became  a 
more  and  more  prominent  feature.  Xew  York,  in 
1812,  created  a  superintendent  of  common  schools. 
This  example  was  followed  by  others,  and  to-day 
there  are  State  superintendents  in  all  States.  In 
most  of  thciii  there  is  also  a.  State  board  of  edu- 
cation, which  usually  manages  State  school  funds, 
and  either  directl.v  or  indirectly  determines  the 
qualilications  of  teachers.  For  more  minute  su- 
pervision, there  is  inspection  either  by  a  county 
superintendent  or  by  the  township  or  district 
eonimittees.  In  thirty-five  States  tlie  county  su- 
pervision prevails.  In  New  England  the  town- 
ship school  committees  do  the  supervising.  In 
addition,  at  least  835  cities  have  superintendents 
lor  their  public  sehools.  The  demand  for  greater 
uniformity  and  effectiveness  in  the  schools,  as  a 
whole,  has  led  not  only  to  the  creation  of  larger 
units  for  the  control  or  supervision  of  schools, 
but  also  to  the  establishment  of  Stale  funds,  and 
the  levying  of  State  taxes  to  supplement  local 
contributions  to  the  cause  of  education.  The 
State  taxes  arc  relied  on  to  raise  as  much  as 
three-fourths  of  the  school  money  in  some  States, 
and  the  amount  is  largest  in  the  Southeni  States 
anil  those  of  the  far  West.  The  North  Central 
and  North  Atlantic  States  generally  rely  more 
on  local  taxes.  Massachusetts  having  no  regular 
State  tax.  The  local  taxes  are  raised  either  in 
the  township  or,  as  in  the  far  West  and  South, 
in  the  county.  Where  there  is  a  county  tax,  this 
may  usually  be  supplemented  by  a  district  tax 
levied  by  local  vote.  Tlje  levying  of  this  tax  is 
in  the  hands  of  the  legislative  bodies  of  State, 
county,  or  local  division,  although  sometimes  the 
educational  bodies  have  the  power  of  determining 
the  amount  to  be  raised.  Frequently  State  law 
determines  the  minimum  amount  to  be  raised  by 
local  taxation. 

In  (he  earlier  colonial  period  secondary  in- 
struction was  given  in  what  were  called  grnmmar 
schools.  These  institutions  admitted  children 
who  had  mastered  merely  the  rudiments  of 
English,  and  prepared  them  for  college.  The 
high  schools  were,  however,  preceded  by  acade- 
mies. They  were  introduced  into  the  United 
States    as   a   substitute   for   both   the    grammar 


schools  and  the  colleges.  Many  of  these  acade- 
mics received,  in  addition  to  private  endow- 
ments, large  grants  from  the  States.  Some  of 
them  grew  into  colleges  anil  later  into  univer- 
sities. Academies  for  girls  were  established,  and 
thus  the  way  was  paved  for  the  higher  education 
of  women.  The'  academics  olTered  a  somewhat 
wider  and  more  liberal  course  of  study  than  the 
older  grammar  schools  and  colleges,  which  were 
concerned  mainly  with  the  classics.  In  this  way 
I  hey  led  to  the  more  liberal  high  schools  and  tc 
the  extension  of  the  college  curriculum. 

The  high  school  sprang  up  in  response  to  a 
demand  felt  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century  for  the  secularization  and  State  control 
of  secondary  education.  The  English  Classical 
School,  later  calleil  the  English  High  School,  was 
founded  in  Boston  in  1821.  To-day  a  free  public 
high  school  has  to  be  maintained  in  every  town- 
ship in  Massachusetts.  New  York,  Maryland, 
Wisconsin,  Jlinnesota,  California,  and  other 
States  have  elaborate  State  laws  governing  high 
schools.  In  a  great  number  of  States  their  crea- 
tion and  control  is  left  to  localities,  the  actions 
of  which  in  the  matter  are  not  regulated  by  the 
State.  They  are  found,  however,  in  all  im- 
portant cities. 

The  free  elementary  sehool  may  be  said  to 
exist  in  every  locality  of  the  United  States,  how- 
ever sparsely  inhabited.  In  the  W'estern  and 
Southern  States  the  remoter  districts  are  gi"eatly 
helped  by  the  contributions  from  the  State  funds, 
which  are  distributed  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
favor  especially  the  smaller  schools.  The  high 
schools,  on  the  other  hand,  the  existence  of 
which  is  left  almost  universally  to  local  initia- 
tive, are  dependent  largely  on  local  support. 
Outlying  districts  are,  in  consequence,  frequ<'ntly 
without  them,  and  when  they  exist  there,  the 
territory  that  they  supply  includes  ordinarily 
a  number  of  elementary  school  districts.  Such 
divisions  are  either  townships,  as  in  New  Eng- 
land, or  counties,  as  in  Maryland,  the  South, 
and  occasionally  in  the  West,  or  simply  a  con- 
venient grouping  of  districts  into  what  is  called 
a  union  high  school  district.  The  board  gov- 
erning such  schools  is  usually  a  specially  created 
one,  except  where  the  township  or  county  system 
prevails.  In  these  cases,  as  with  the  district 
high  school,  the  elementary  and  secondary  sehools 
are  both  managed  by  the  same  board. 

The  teachers  in  elementary  schools,  up  to 
the  time  of  the  establishment  of  county  and 
State  supervision,  were  selected  by  the  school 
boards  at  their  discretion.  To-day,  licenses  or 
certificates  are  universally  required  before  one 
can  be  elected  to  a  teacher's  position.  In  New 
England,  however,  these  are  granted  by  the  school 
committees  of  the  township,  and  so  teachers  are 
licensed  by  the  same  board  by  wdiich  they  are 
elected  to  office.  Elsewhere,  throughout  the 
Union,  the  certification  is  in  the  hands  of  city 
or  county  superintendents  or  boards  of  educa- 
tion, or  State  superintendents  or  boards  of  edu- 
cation. Certificates  of  various  grades  are  issued 
in  the  several  States.  High  school  certificates 
are  universallv  distinct  from  those  for  elementary 
te:yhing.  All  are  granted  either  upon  examina- 
tion or  upon  credentials.  T;ocal  certificates  are 
valid  only  in  the  specific  division  where  they 
are  granted,  but  are  frequently  accepted  ns 
adequate  credentials  in  other  localities.  State 
certificates  are   for   longer  periods,  or  even  for 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


272 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


life,  while  the  local  eertilicales  expire  alter  a  few 
years. 

The  qualifications  required  of  teachers  in  both 
elenientarj'  ami  secondary  schools  are  being  made 
coutiiuuilly  higher,  and  this  is  true  not  only  in 
regard  to  scholarship,  but  also  to  professional 
training.  Three  State  normal  schools  were  estab- 
lished in  Massachusetts  under  the  inllueuce  of 
Horace  Mann  in  1839-40.  Since  then  these  in- 
stitutions have  spread  all  over  the  I'nion.  lu 
addition,  teachers'  institutes  and  university  sum- 
mer schools  and  extension  courses  furnish  profes- 
sional training,  wliile  the  leading  colleges  and 
univer-iities  have  departments  of  education.  In 
general,  the  tcndencj'  is  for  a  continually  greater 
proportion  of  elementary  teachers  to  have  at  least 
a  normal  school  training,  and  for  high  school 
teachers  to  bo  college  gradvuites,  who  have  done 
special  work  in  the  educational  departments.  In- 
deed, movements  are  on  foot  in  several  States, 
as  California,  to  abolish  the  system  of  certifica- 
tion or  examination  altogether,  and  to  grant 
certificates  only  to  those  who  are  graduates  of 
normal  schools  or  of  colleges  having  professional 
courses. 

The  ideal  course  of  study  in  the  modern  pri- 
marj'  school  in  the  Lnited  States,  as  outlined 
by  the  "Committee  of  Fifteen'  in  181)4,  includes 
reading,  writing,  spelling,  composition,  arith- 
metic, geography,  simple  lessons  in  natural 
science  and  general  history,  vocal  music,  drawing. 
with  physical  culture,  and  manual  training.  In 
many  schools  such  a  ])rogramnu'  exists,  and  in 
most  an  effort  is  made  to  approximate  it.  The 
greatest  dilhculty  arises  in  the  ungraded  country 
schools,  where  a  single  teacher  is  called  upon 
to  teach  children  from  five  to  eighteen  years  of 
age,  and  representing,  of  course,  all  or  most  of 
the  grades  of  the  elementary  school.  I  he  ideal 
granunar  school  course,  as  outlined  by  the  same 
committee,  in  addition  to  the  subjects  of  the 
primary  grades,  consists  of  Knglish  grammar, 
algebra,  and  lnited  States  history  in  the  last 
two  years,  ami  either  Latin.  Krcncli.  or  German 
in  the  last  year.  Only  in  a  few  cases,  however, 
are  the  foreign  languages  actiiall.v  to  be  found 
in  the  grammar  grades  of  the  elementary  school. 

The  course  of  study  in  the  high  schools  is 
iisually  arranged  with  a  view  to  presenting  to 
the  pupil  from  one  to  four  difrereni  gioups  of 
sul)jects.  any  one  of  which  he  is  at  liberty  to 
choose.  The  first  of  these  groups  constitutes  the 
old  classical  course,  but  includes,  besides  (Jreek 
and  Latin,  modern  languages  or  luiglish,  or  both, 
algebra,  geometry,  and  some  history  and  natural 
science.  What  is  commonly  called  the  liti'rary 
course  drops  the  Greek  and  substitutes  therefor 
more  Knglish,  modern  languages,  or  history. 
The  scientific  cour.se  drops  Greek  and  sometimes 
Latin,  laying  stress  on  the  sciences  and  ma- 
thematics instead.  In  some  cases  the  classical 
languages  are  abandoned  for  the  sake  of  Knglish, 
history,  civics,  pnlilical  economy,  etc.  Another 
course,  which  emphasizes  pri'paration  for  busi- 
ness, and  givi's  insi  ruction  in  bookkeeping, 
stenogra])hy,  typewriting,  commercial  arithmetic, 
and  law  and  business  methods,  is  frequently 
found.  The  tendency  is.  however,  to  hand  over 
such  a  course  to  a  commercial  high  school  or 
business  college.  It  is  a  favorite  line  of  work 
for  evening  high  schools.  Practically,  all  courses 
enibrnce  algebra,  geometry,  civics,  Knglish,  Ignited 
States  history,  and  physics.     The  .sciences  taught 


in  (lie  scientific  course  include  chemistry  and 
often  botany  and  zoology.  Courses  in  solid 
geometry,  liiglicr  algebra,  and  trigonometry  are 
often  offered  in  high  schools. 

Besides  the  ordinary  and  the  commercial  high 
schools,  there  have  growii  up  niunerous  schools 
of  the  high  school  grade,  otlering  instruction 
in  mechanical  and  industrial  lines,  and  extensive 
practice  in  manual  training.  They  represent  a 
demand  that  existed  at  the  time  of  the  establish- 
ment of  tlie  high  schools,  and  is  to-day  extensive 
and  growing.  It  is  that  secondary  education 
should  be  an  innnediate  pre])aration  for  life 
instead  of  merely  for  college.  The  "accrediting* 
system,  which  prevails  in  Michigan  and  Califor- 
nia, and  by  wliicli  high  schools  desiring  to  pass 
students  without  examination  into  the  colleges 
are  inspected  by  the  faculties  of  tlie  State  uni- 
versities, has  been  criticised  for  tending  to  reduce 
the  high  schools  to  mere  "feeders'  for  the  univer- 
sities. On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  said  that 
the  colleges  have  very  extensively  modified  and 
enlarged  the  curriculum  of  the  old  days  of  purely 
classical  instruction,  so  that  each  of  the  courses 
ofTered  in  high  schools,  except  perhaps  the  com- 
men-ial  one,  prepares  for  some  line  of  collegiate 
work.  ^Moreover,  the  'accrediting'  system  has 
been  the  only  system  of  effective  inspection  to 
which  the  high  schools  have  been  subjected,  if  we 
do  iu>t  regard  tlie  college  entrance  examinations 
as  attaining  this  end.  The  method  of  judging 
school  work  by  the  examination  of  pupils  is, 
however,  sometimes  used  even  in  elementary 
schools,  where  examinations  for  promotion  or 
graduation  are  given  by  county  authorities  for 
all  the  schools  of  the  county. 

No  elTective  system  of  pensioning  teachers 
exists  in  the  United  States,  although  some  laws 
have  been  passed  aiming  at  this.  They  have 
relied  on  the  contributions  of  teachers,  who  may 
join  in  or  not  as  they  choose,  and  consequentl.v 
they  liave  never  amounted  to  anything  of  im- 
portance. On  the  other  hand,  the  salaries  of 
teaclurs  in  the  elementary  schools  compare  favor- 
ably with  tliose  abroad,  averaging  .$.18..')!)  a  month 
for  nu>n  and  .$50.;i2  for  women  in  the  West, 
where  they  are  highest,  and  .$35.09  per  month 
for  men  and  $31.43  for  woiiicu  in  the  South, 
where  they  are  lowest. 

Thirty  of  the  States  have  compul.sory  education 
laws.  The  common  period  during  which  some 
instriu-tion  must  Ix"  given  is  from  the  eighth  to 
tlie  fourt<'en(li  year.  These  laws,  though  not 
rigidly  enforced,  are  nevertheless  fairly  efrective. 
and  attendaiu'e  for  at  least  part  of  the  year  is 
nearly  universal  for  children  of  school  age. 

The  evolution  and  present  status  of  higher 
education  in  the  I'nited  States,  the  most  notable 
features  of  wliicli  have  been  the  develnpment  of 
the  State  universities  and  the  transformation  of 
the  colleges  into  universities,  are  dealt  with  in 
the  article  on  I'.mvkbsity.  For  a  treatment  of 
the  .American  elementary  schools,  see  the  article 
on  CoMMo.N   Schools. 

Hiiu.iooK.M'iiv.  (i.  Schmid.  flr.ichichtc  der  Er- 
zirhinifi  (Herlin.  1002);  Harris.  '"Klementary 
Education,"  in  Hutler.  luhirntinn  in  Ihr  TInilfd 
fHiitts  (Albany,  IflOO)  :  Compayn',  L'riiffifjne- 
mrnt  xrcondaire  nux  Ftatn-Vtii.i  (Paris.  1800); 
Rrporl  of  the  Vnitrd  fitntrs  liiirmu  nf  Educn- 
linn:  l^tnlrsman's  Yrnr-Iionk :  Blackinar.  Flintnrii 
of  Frdrral  and  Statr  Aid  to  Tliqhrr  Ediirntion  in 
the  United  States  (Washington.  1890)  ;  Barnard, 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


273 


NATIONAL  HYMNS. 


American  I'ciluyuyy  (Hartford,  1870)  ;  Boone, 
Education  in  the  United  Stales  (New  York, 
l.S'.JO)  ;  Wiiisliip.  Great  Anierivan  f-klucators{C\n- 
cajjo.  lltDO)  ;  Adams,  llistari/  of  tlie  Elementary 
ScIkmI  Cuntest  in  EnyUmd  (London,  ISS'i)  : 
Aronslein,  Englische  titudien  (18!)7);  Balfour, 
Educational  Systems  of  (Ireat  Britain  and  Ire- 
land (Oxford.  18!)8)  ;  lleport  of  the  Committee  of 
Council  on  Education.  ( Enj;land  and  Wales,  1872- 
!)1.  !I2)  ;  Hamilton,  "I'ojiular  Education  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales  since  1882,"  in  ,^tatistical  Society 
of  London  Journal  (18U0);  llazlitt,  Schools, 
School  Hooks,  and  School-nuuiters  ( London,  1888 )  ; 
.Mackenzie.  Treatise  on  the  Elementary  Education. 
Acts  1S70-'J1  (ib.,  18',)2)  ;  Klenim,  "Brief  State- 
ment of  tile  School  System  of  Prussia,"  in  United 
tftates  Education  Bureau,  Jieport  of  the  Commis- 
sioner (1888-90);  Parsons,  Prussian  Schools 
Through  American  Eyes  (Syracuse,  1891)  ;  Paul- 
sen, Ueber  die  gegcnwiirtiye  Lage  des  hoheren 
Schuhresens  in  Preussen  (Berlin,  1893)  ;  Tews, 
Die  preussische  ^'olksschul€  (Bielefeld,  1889); 
Slatislisches  Jahrbuch  der  hoheren  Scliulen 
Deutschlands :  Ccntralblatt  fiir  die  ycsamte  Un- 
ierrichtsierwaUung  in  Preussen:  Compayr^,  27 is- 
toire  critique  de  doctrines  de  Viducalion  en 
prance  depuis  le  seizieme  sicclc  (Paris,  1885)  ; 
(irfiard.  La  legislation  de  I'instruction  pri- 
maire  en  France  depuis  1789  (ib.,  1890-91); 
llcinzig.  Die  Schulen  Frankreichs (Leipzig.lSdS)  ; 
Levasseur,  "Statistique  de  I'enseignement  pub- 
licjue  primaire  au  XIXe  sifeele,"  in  Institut  de 
France  (Paris,  1900)  ;  Jley,  Frankreiehs  Schulen 
(Leipzig,  1901)  ;  Annuaire  de  I'instruction  pub- 
tirjue  et  des  beaux-arts. 

NATIONAL  GALLERY.  An  important  pic- 
ture i;;illiiy  ill  London,  situated  on  the  north  side 
of  Trafali;ar  Square.  It  was  erected  from  de- 
signs bv  Wilkins  between  1832  and  1838.  and 
original'lv  cost  £96,000.  It  was  enlarged  in  1860, 
ls7r,.  aiid  1886.  The  gallery,  formed  in  1824, 
was  rapidly  increased  and  has  received  impor- 
tant collections  of  paintings,  presented  or  be- 
qneatlied  by  Vernon  in  1847,  Turner  in  1856,  and 
Ellis  in  1876.  The  Peel  collection  was  purchased 
in  1871.  It  has  a  valuable  series  of  the  older 
Italian  artists,  and  contains  the  most  costly 
single  painting  in  the  world.  Raphael's  "JIadonna 
deuH  Ansidei."  purchased  from  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough  in  1884  for  £70,000. 

NATIONAL  GUARD  (Fr.  Garde  Nat ionalc) . 
From  17S!i  to  1>^71  the  name  of  the  French 
militia  under  nuuiicipal  control,  recruited  from 
tlu'  Imrgber  class.  The  French  Revolution  really 
brought  about  the  creation  of  the  National  Guard, 
though  guards  of  a  like  nature  had  existed  in 
some  towns  previous  to  1789.  In  that  year,  how- 
ever, they  were  instituted  in  Paris,  on  the  sug- 
gestion of  Jlirabeau,  by  the  Revolutionary  Com- 
mittee, as  a  check  on  the  Royalists.  The  National 
Guard  thus  constituted  numbered  48.000  men, 
and  Lafayette  received  the  command.  Other 
battalions  were  organized  in  the  provinces,  and 
very  soon,  on  paper,  the  total  strength  of  the 
National  Guard  of  France  was  4.000.000 — though 
the  actual  available  force  was  not  more  than 
300.000.  In  1795.  after  the  National  Guard  had 
gone  through  many  of  the  most  eventful  scenes 
of  the  Revolution,  it  was  reorganized  on  a  less 
democratic  basis.  The  result  was  that  it  showed 
Royalist  leanings.  It  rose  against  the  Convention 
shortly  before  the  dissolution  of  that  body,  but 


the  movement  was  promptly  suppressed  by  Bona- 
parte with  grape-shot.  This  was  tlie  insurrection 
of  the  13th  \'endemiaire  (October  5th).  For  a 
time  the  National  Guard  ceased  practically  to 
exist.  In  1805,  however,  the  Emperor  Napoleon 
reorganized  it  and  it  rendered  him  good  and 
elTicient  service,  particularlv  in  the  disastrou.s 
years  1813-14.  After  1815  "the  National  Guard 
was  still  maintained,  but  in  1827  it  was  dis- 
solved by  Charles  X.  Its  members  were  al- 
lowed, however,  to  retain  their  arms,  and 
many  of  them  participated  in  the  .July  Revolu- 
tion of  1830,  at  which  time  the  National  tiuard, 
as  an  institution,  was  revived.  During  the  reign 
of  Louis  Philii)])e  it  was  prominent.  In  1848 
it  helped  do  away  with  the  monarchy  and 
establish  the  Republic.  After  undergoing  va- 
rious reorganizations  in  1848,  1852,  and  1855  it 
again  became  firmly  established.  The  National 
Guard  fought  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War  in 
1870,  and  at  the  capitulation  of  Paris  its 
members  were  allowe<l  to  retain  their  arms.  The 
result  was  that  <iuring  the  Commune  of  1871 
numbers  of  National  (iuardsmen  went  over  to  the 
Communists.  (See  Commune. )  After  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  third  French  Republic  the  Na- 
tional Guard  was  abolished — its  place  being 
taken  bj'  the  system  of  universal  military  con- 
scription. Consult:  Poisson,  L'urmec  et  la  garde 
nationale  (Paris,  1858-62)  ;  Thounias,  Les  a»- 
ciennes  armccs  fran.faises  des  origines  d  1870 
(Paris,  1890).  For  the  National  (;uard  of  the 
United  States,  see  Militia. 

NATIONAL  HYMNS.  It  is  only  within 
comparatively  modern  times  that  patriotism  has 
found  expression  through  the  medium  of  a  na- 
tional song.  In  the  few  cases  where  a  national 
hynm  dates  back  several  hundred  years,  it  will 
be  found  to  have  assumed  its  rejiresentative  char- 
acter recently.  National  music  is  inseparably 
connected  with  folk-music  ( q.v. ) ,  but  is  a  later 
development,  and  instead  of  representing  the 
work  of  individuals  (influenced  by  similar  condi- 
tions and  surroundings)  it  embodies  the  feelings, 
tendencies,  and  ideas  of  a  people.  In  other 
words,  folk-music  is  individual  in  its  character 
rather  than  national.  Needless  to  say,  however, 
it  is  the  forerunner  and  basis  of  national  music, 
which  often  reaches  its  culmination  in  the  na- 
tional hymn.  The  following  list  of  national 
hymns  cov'ers  the  most  im|)ortant  ones.  It  is 
compiled  largelv  from  Sousa's  Airs  of  All  Lands 
(Philadelphia,  1890)  : 

Argentine  Republic — "Oid,  mortales,  el  grito 
sagrado"  (1810)  (Hear,  oh  Mortals,  the  Sacred 
Call).     Music  by  D.  V.  Lopez. 

Austria— "Gott  erhalte  Franz  den  Kaiser" 
(1797).  Words  by  L.  L.  Hasehka;  music  by 
J.    Haydn. 

Belgium — "La  Brabanconne"  (national  air)  ; 
by  F.  Canipenhout. 

Bohemia — "War-song    of    the    Hussites." 

Brazil — "Hymno  da  Proclamaeao  da  Ilepub- 
lica"  (1889)  "(Hymn  of  the  Proclamation  of  the 
Republic).  Words  by  Medeiros  e  Albuqiierque; 
music  bv  Leopoldo  Miguez. 

Burma — "Kayah  Than"  (Sound  the  Trumpet). 

Chile — "Dulee  Patria"  (national  air)  ;  by  Car- 
nicer. 

Costa  Rica — "De  la  Patria."  Music  by  M.  M. 
Gutierrez. 

Denmark — "King    Kristian     stod     ved     hojen 


NATIONAL  HYMNS. 


274 


NATIONAL  NICKNAMES. 


mast"  (Kin;;  Cilli^tiall  stuoU  lifsiilo  the  mast). 
Words  by  Ewald;  luusic  by  Haitiiian. 

Ecuador — "J^^alve,  Uh  Palria." 

Egypt — "Salaam,  Eirendina"  (March  of  the 
Khedive) . 

Finhmd — "Vart  land"  (Our  Land).  Words  by 
J.  L.  Kunubcrg ;  music  by  F.  Pacius. 

France — "La  Marseillaise"  (q.v.).  Words  and 
music  by  Rouget  de  Lisle. 

Germany — "Heil  dir  im  Siogerkranz."  Words 
by  H.  Harries  to  music  of  "God  Save  the  King" 
(q.v.). 

Great  Britain — "God  Save  the  King"  (q.v.). 

Holland — "Wion  Neerlands." 

Hungary — "Istcn  aid  meg  a  Magyart"  (Lord 
Bless  the  Jiungarian). 

Italy — "Koyal  March"  (national  air)  ;  by  G. 
Gabetti. 

Japan — "Kcemefe  gajo"  (May  the  Empire 
Last). 

ilexico — "^lexicanos,  al  grito  <Ie  guerra"  (na- 
tional air)  (Mexicans,  at  the  cry  of  war)  ;  by 
J.  Nuno. 

Nicaragua — National  air.  by  Bias  Villatas. 

Persia — "Sahuiiati  Shah."  Music  by  A.  Le- 
maire. 

Peru — "Somos  libres,  seamoslo  siempre"  (We 
are  free,  let  us  be  so  ever) . 

Rumania— "Traeasca  Regale"  (Long  Live  the 
King)  (1802).  Words  by  V.  Ale.xandri;  music 
by  E.  A.  Hubsch. 

Russia — "Boghe  Zaria  chrany"  (God  Protect 
the  Czar)  (1830).  Words  by  Zhukovsky;  music 
by  A.  Lyoff. 

Salvador — "Saludemos  la  Patria"  (Let  us  Hail 
our  Country).  Words  by  J.  J.  Canas;  music  by 
J.  Aberle. 

Servia — "God  in  His  Goodness."  Music  by  D. 
Jenko. 

Spain — "Himno  de  Eiego."    Music  by  Herta. 

Sweden — "Ur  svenska  hjertans"  (Out  of  the 
Swedish  Heart). 

Switzerland — "Rufst  du,  mcin  Vaterland,"  to 
music  of  "God  Save  the  King." 

United  States— "Star  Spangled  Banner"  (q.v.) 
and  "Hail  Columbia"  (q.v.).  (The  former  is 
played  in  the  United  States  Navy  at  morning 
colors;  the  latter  at  evening  colors.) 

Uruguay — "Himnio  Naiioiial  de  la  Reprtblica 
Oriental  del  Uruguay"  (National  Hymn  of  the 
Republic  of  Uruguay).     Music  by  T).  L  Dcballi. 

Venezuela — "Gloria  al  bravo  pueblo"  (1811) 
(Honor  to  a  Brave  Nation).  Words  by  V.  Sal- 
ias;  music  by  J.  Sandaeta. 

Consult:  Engel,  .In  I itt roducl ion  to  the  Study 
of  Xalioiial  Music  (London.  1800)  ;  Fitzgerald, 
Stories  of  Famous  Songs  (ib.,  1808). 

NATIONALISM.  .A  term  applied  to  the  plan 
of  sori;il  icfiiiiii  Dutlinod  in  I'.i'llainy's  Lonhiiiij 
lincUnaril.  The  scheme  involved  (he  national- 
ization of  the  |)rocesscs  of  production  and  dis- 
tribution. It  is  a  form  of  socialism  which  em- 
phasizes the  social  importance  of  economic 
equality. 

The  first  Nationalistic  .Association  was  organ- 
ized by  a  company  of  Bellamy's  readers  in  Bos- 
ton in"  1889.  .\  statement  of  its  views  condemned 
the  system  of  competition  and  expressed  the  be- 
lief that  it  would  gradually  be  supplanted  by  a 
system  of  universal  brotherhood.  The  move- 
ment spread  rapidly  and  l>y  1891  there  were  in 
the  United  States   102   clubs.     In  some  States, 


notably  California,  an  active  part  was  taken  in 
Ijolitics.  In  -May,  1SS9,  a  magazine,  the  .Ya- 
tionalist,  was  started  which  existed  two  years. 
Its  place  was  then  taken  by  the  Xcw  yution, 
founded  by  Bellamy,  which  also  lasted  two  years. 
The  Nationalists  exercised  a  considerable  inllu- 
ence  upon  the  People's  Party,  but  ceased  to  play 
any  considerable  independent  role.  The  move- 
ment spread  to  England,  where  "The  Nationaliza- 
tion Society'  was  organized  July  3,  1890.  See 
Socialism. 

Consult:  Bellamy,  Looking  Baclirard  (Boston, 
1887)  ;  and  id.,  "The  Programme  of  the  Nation- 
alists," article  in  the  Forum  (March,  1894)  ; 
Elv,  Socialism  and  Social  Reform  (New  York, 
1894). 

NATIONAL  MUSEUM.    See  Uxited  States 

National  Mi  sei  m. 

NATIONAL  NICKNAMES  (ME.  uekename, 
cUenaiitc,  l»y  faulty  liaison  or  sandhi  for  an  eke- 
name,  additional  name,  from  cl.c  -+-  nuine).  Na- 
tional nicknanics  arc  as  a  rule  l^r^.t  enijUoycd  by 
the  jieople  themselves.  By  the  familiar  Jonx 
Bill  is  meant  the  English  nation.  Tlie  name 
was  first  used  in  the  satire  of  Dr.  John  .\rbuth- 
not.  Law  is  a  Jiottomlcss  Pit.  The  sobriquet  of 
Jonathan  or  Bkotiier  Jonathan  has  gone 
through  three  distinct  i)hases.  First,  between 
IT7G  and  1783  it  was  employed,  as  a  mildly  de- 
risive term,  by  the  Loyalists,  and  applied  by 
them  to  the  Patriots:  secondly,  helwecn  1783 
and  1812  it  was  adopted  by  the  Americans  them- 
selves, who  used  it  to  designate  a  country  bump- 
kin ;  and  thirdly,  during  the  war  with  England 
in  1812-15  it  came  into  universal  vogue  as  a 
national  sobriquet.  The  accepted  story,  attribu- 
ting the  origin  of  the  term  to  a  remark  made  by 
Washington  in  allusion  to  Governor  .Jonathan 
Trumbull  of  Connecticut,  originated  in  184(),  and 
has  recently  been  shown  to  be  without  founda- 
tion. Uncle  Sam,  the  familiar  sobriquet  of  the 
I'nited  States  government  or  people,  is  commonly 
stated  to  have  originated  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  with  England  in  1812,  when  some  one.  ask- 
ing what  the  letters  'U.S.'  marked  on  casks  and 
barrels  nu'ant,  was  facetiously  told  that  they 
referred  to  "Uncle  Sam"  or  Sanuiel  Wilson,  an 
obscure  citizen  of  Troy,  N.  Y.,  said  to  have  been 
an  inspector  or  a  contractor.  This  story  has 
not  been  found  earlier  than  1842.  when  it  was 
given  in  .J.  Frost's  Hook  of  the  yarji.  p.  297.  No 
doul)t  Frost  copied  it  from  some  news|)aper,  hut 
the  story  lacks  proof.  The  term  I'ncle  Sam  has 
yet  to  be  traced  earlier  than  the  fall  of  1813, 
"when  we  read  of  "Uncle  Sam's  Men,"  meaning 
United  States  custom  hou<e  oOlcers,  and  are 
told  that  "I'nrlc  Sam,  the  now  ]K)pular  explica- 
tion of  the  U.  S..  does  not  pay  well."_  The 
term  api»ars  to  have  arisen  somewhere  in  the 
North,  perhaps  in  New  Y'ork  or  Vermont:  and 
its  origin  was  presumaVdy  merely  a  jocular  ex- 
tension of  the  abbreviation  U.  S..  then  very 
eonuuon.  For  three  years  it  ran  a  career  in  the 
newspapers,  in  ISlfi  it  api>eared  In  a  book,  and 
by  1817  its  popularity  was  well  established. 
Nicholas  Froo.  the  typical  Dutchman,  was  first 
used  by  Arbuthnot  in  his  Lair  is  a  Hntlomless 
Pit.  Jean  CRAi'Ain  (Toad)  is  the  popular  nick- 
name of  the  French  nation,  collectively  taken, 
and  dates  back  to  the  time  when  the  ancient 
kings  of  France  used  for  their  device  in  herald- 
ry "three  toads,  erect,  saltant,'  or   in  a  leaping 


NATIONAL  NICKNAMES. 


275 


NATRON. 


]i()stuic,  and  i'uiis  was  called  LiiU'tia,  or  'ilud- 
laiid.'  Its  streets  were  so  quaggy  that  tlie  French 
(  Durt,  with  a  point  to  its  pleasantry,  called  its 
inhabitants  'frogs,'  since  they,  like  the  reptiles, 
lived  in  mud.  For  the  French-Canadian  we  have 
Jean  Bai'Tiste,  and.  the  French  peasant  is  fa- 
cetiously called  .jACHiiES  Boniiomme.  Deutscii- 
i.i!  iliciiEL  is  the  facetious  nickname  applied  to 
ihe  (icnnan  people,  and  intended  particularly  to 
satirize  the  weaknesses  and  foibles  of  the  national 
character,  especially  their  proverbial  lethargy, 
heaviness,  and  credulity.  The  name  Jliehael  is 
used  in  German  to  designate  any  simple,  uncul- 
tured countryman, and  it  has  probably  gained  this 
sigiiilicance  by  confusion  of  the  Hebrew  word  with 
the  old  German  niichel-gross.  Sawxev  is  the  sport- 
ive designation  sometimes  applied  by  the  English 
tu  the  Scotch,  and  is  probably  a  corruption  of 
Sandy,  the  abbreviation  of  Alexander.  .Sawney 
has  a  humor  of  his  own,  strong,  and  irrepressible, 
that  will  break  out  in  spite  of  worldly  thrift, 
kirk-session,  cutty-stool,  and  lectures.  It  was 
lirst  gi\'en  to  the  Scotch  by  Coleridge.  Taffy, 
the  \Aelshman,  is  a  corruption  of  David,  one  of 
the  most  common  of  Welsh  names.  Colin  Tam- 
my  is  the  reproachful,  contemptuous  nickname 
:_  I  ven  to  the  Sw'iss  in  ancient  times,  and  supposed 
lu  imitate  the  sound  of  their  guns.  PAonv,  from 
Patrick,  refers  to  the  Irish.  .Joiix  Ciiixaman  is 
the  popular  nickname  for  the  Chinese.  The  first 
1'  cord  of  this  use  was  in  A  Letter  to  the  Com- 
mit lee  of  Management  of  Drurtj  Lane  Theatre, 
London,  in  ISl'J.  Tlie  Russian  nickname,  Ivan 
IvANOVlTcu,  denotes  the  typical  muzhik. 
NATIONAL  EEPtTBLICAN  PARTY.     See 

\AlllG    P.VRTY. 

NATIONAL  STANDARDS  AND  EM- 
BLEMS. See  Stanuakd  and  yuiionul  Coats  of 
Arms   (willi  Plates),  under  Her.videy. 

NATIONAL  UNION.  A  fraternal  beneficial 
ii'iety  organized  for  purposes  of  mutual  help 
ad  improvement,  and  incorporated  in  IS81  under 
the  laws  of  Ohio.  The  number  of  members  at  the 
close  of  ]y02  was  CO.OOO;  the  number  of  coun- 
cils 8.50.  The  insurance  in  force  amounted  to 
$140,000,000,  and  the  death  benefits  paid  since 
the  date  of  organization  to  over  .$15,000,000. 

NATIONAL  WORKSHOPS,  or  Atelier,s 
Xationaux,  a'tf-lyfi  na'syu'nu'.  A  plan  of  giving 
l>ublic  employment  attempted  in  France  in  1848. 
The  Provisional  Government  organized  on  the 
overthrow  of  Louis  Philippe  by  the  February 
Eevolution  passed  a  decree  (February  25th) 
li.  fended  by  its  socialist  members — Louis  Blanc. 
and  a  few  others — declaring  the  'right  to  work' 
and  j)leilging  the  Government  to  guarantee 
employnunt  for  idle  workmen.  A  few  days 
later  'national  workshops'  were  established.  As 
a  matter  of  fact  there  were  no  workshops 
opened :  the  work  ]n-ovidcd  was  in  the  o|ien 
air.  and  consiste<l  largely  in  planting  trees, 
digging,  and  constructing  roads — works  for  which 
few  of  tlie  applicants  were  adapted.  Their  num- 
ber, however,  increased  from  day  to  day  and  at 
one  time  reached  I.'W.OOO.  No  work  could  he 
found  for  many  of  llie  applicants;  these  received 
30  cents  a  day,  while  those  actually  employed 
were  paid  40  cents,  although  the  work  they  per- 
formed was  scarcely  worth  the  additional  10 
cents,  t'nder  these  circumstanci's  niany  workers 
who  were  in  private  employ  demanded  higher 
wages  or  were  content  to  give  up  their  places 


and  remain  idle  so  long  as  they  might  receive 
.'iO  cents  per  day  for  doing  nothii\g.  Several  at- 
tempts were  nuule  to  bring  the  scheme  within 
the  range  of  practical  feasibility;  but  political 
disturbances  and  persimal  jealousies  made  it  im- 
possible to  carry  them  out.  After  four  mouths* 
trial  and  a  total  expenditure  of  14,000,000  francs, 
the  system  was  abandoned  when  (leneral  Cavai- 
gnac  became  Chief  of  the  E.'cecutive. 

The  national  workshops  are  .sometimes  erro- 
neously confounded  with  the  ateliers  sociaux  in 
Louis  Blanc's  plan  of  labor  organization. 

NATIVE  (from  Lat.  nativus,  natal,  inborn, 
from  nasei,  to  be  born ;  connected  with  Gk.  7/7- 
Ko-Oai,  gujncsthai,  Skt.  jan,  AS.  cennun,  archaic 
Kng.  /,(■»,  to  beget).  .\  term  applied  in  chemis- 
try and  niineralogT,'  to  elements,  especially  the 
metals,  when  found  in  nature  in  a  chemically 
free  state. 

NATIVE  BEAR.    The  Australian  koala  (q.v. ) . 

NATIVE     COMPANION.       An     Australian 

Balearic  crane   (q.v.j. 

NATIVITY  (Lat.  nativitas,  birth,  from 
nativus,  natal,  inborn).  The.  A  frecpient  theme 
of  painters.  The  most  celebrated  representation 
of  the  subject  is  the  famous  picture  by  Correg- 
gio  known  as  "La  Notte"  (the  night),  in  the 
Dresden  gallery.  The  whole  picture  is  illumi- 
nated by  the  light  proceeding  from  the  body  of 
the  beautiful  child.  Above  is  a  group  of  angels, 
while  day  is  just  brealdng  in  the  sky. 

NATORP,  na'tOrp,  Paul  Gekhard  (1854—). 
A  German  philosopher  of  the  Xeo-Kantian  type. 
He  was  born  at  Diis.seldorf ;  .studied  in  Berlin, 
Bonn,  and  Strassburg;  and  in  1885  l)ecanie  pro- 
fessor at  ilarburg.  His  works  include:  Des- 
cnrtes's  Erkenntnisstheorie  (1882)  ;  an  edition  of 
Democritus's  Ethics  (1893);  Religion  innerlialb 
der  Grenzen  dcr  Eumanitiit  (1804)  ;  I'latos  Slant 
(1805);  tSocialpadagogik  (1808);  and  Plalos 
Idcenlehre    (1903). 

NA'TROLITE  (from  Eng.  natron,  from  Ar. 
natnln,  nitrfin,  native  carbonate  of  soda,  from 
Gk.  vlrpov,  nitron,  Xlrpov,  litron,  natron,  of  Se- 
mitic origin  (cf.  Heb.  neter,  from  nutar,  to  loose) 
-|-  Gk.  \i8os,  lithos.  stone).  A  mineral  sodium- 
aluminum  silicate  of  the  zeolite  group.  It  crys- 
tallizes in  the  orthorhombic  system,  has  a  vitre- 
ous, sometimes  pearly,  lustre,  is  transparent  or 
translucent,  and  ranges  in  color  from  white  or 
colorless  to  gray,  yellow,  and  red.  Natrolite  is 
found  in  cavities  in  basalt  and  other  igneous 
rocks,  at  various  localities  in  Bohemia,  the  Tyrol, 
Ireland,  and  Scotland,  in  Nova  Scotia,  in  the 
Lake  Superior  region,  and  at  Bergen  Hill,  N.  J. 
It  is  capable  of  receiving  a  high  polish,  and  has 
been  used  as  a  gem  for  rings  and  other  orna- 
ments, especially  in  the  form  of  the  letter  N  in 
initial  jewelry. 

NA'TRON.  .\  hydrous  sodium  carbonate  that 
crystallizes  in  the  monoclinic  system,  and  is 
found  in  nature  only  in  solution,  as  in  the  Soda 
Lakes  of  Eg>pt.  Of  similar  character  is  the 
Tronn,  an  impure  hydrogen  sodium  carbonate, 
which  occurs  as  thin  cni.sts  along  the  margin  of 
lakes  in  Egypt.  Siberia,  Tibet,  and  on  the  br)r- 
ders  of  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas.  These  min- 
erals form  the  source  of  the  soda  salts  of  the  an- 
cient Egj'ptians;  and  were  used  by  them  in  their 


NATBON. 


276 


NATURALISM. 


arts,  especially  in  eiubaliiun^.  Of  like  clianicter 
is  tlie  cailjijiuite  of  soda  t'ouiul  at  the  Ijnttoiii  of 
the  lake  at  Layunillas  near  Meriila,  N'eiiezuela, 
wliieli  is  called  by  the  liidiaus  Lrao.  Similar 
etUoresceiiees  are  found  in  San  IJernardino  and 
Inyo  counties,  California,  where  they  are  formed 
bv  the  spontaneous  evaporation  of  saline  waters. 
NATTER,  mit'ter,  Heixricii  (1840-02).  An 
Austrian  xulptor,  born  at  Graun,  Tyrol.  He 
studied  at  the  I'olytechnieum  in  Augsburg  and 
at  the  Academy  in  Munich.  He  lived  in  Munich 
and  afterwards  in  Vienna.  lie^ides  many  por- 
trait busts  of  celebrities, he  produced  a  number  of 
memorial  statues  and  jri-oups,  notably  the 
■■Z\vinj;li  Moininient"  (188.5)  at  Zurich:  (he 
"Haydn  Monument"  (1887)  in  Vienna;  "Walther 
von  der  Vogehveide"  (188!))  at  Bozen;  and  the 
heroic  statue  of  "Andreas  Uofcr"  (18!)2)  on 
Mount  Iscl.  near  Innsbruck,  his  principal  work. 

NATTERJACK  (from  AS.  iKcdrc,  Goth. 
vudrO,  Ger.  Xnttei;  adder  +  jack).  A  common, 
light-colored,  rather  smooth  toad  (liafo  calam- 
ila ) ,  of  Western  Kurope,  found  in  sandy  dis- 
tricts. Its  active  habits  have  given  it  the  name 
'runniuL,'  toad'  in  some  parts  of  England. 

NATTIER,  na'tyfi',  Je^vn  Mahc  ( l(i83-1766). 
A  French  portrait  painter,  born  in  Paris.  He 
was  the  son  of  the  painter  J.  B.  Nattier,  and  a 
pupil  of  .Jean  .Jouvenet.  He  won  the  Academy 
jirize  in  1700,  became  a  member  of  that  body  in 
171H.  and  professor  in  1752.  He  went  to  Amster- 
liam  in  1715  and  there  painted  jiortraits  of 
I'eter  the  Great,  of  his  wife.  Catharine  I.,  and  of 
members  of  their  suite.  If  Rigaud  is  the  ])ainter 
par  excellence  of  the  men  of  his  time.  Nattier 
iias  done  as  much  for  the  women.  There  are 
many  portraits  by  him  at  Versailles,  such  as 
those  of  Maria  Leszczynska.  Madame  TTenriette 
de  France  (1751-54).  Madame  Adelaide,  Madame 
Victoire,  and  Louise  Henriette  de  Hourbon. 
Madame  de  Chateaurou.\  as  "Dawn,"  and  Ma- 
dame de  Klavacourt  as  "Silence,"  are  two  of  his 
best  known  works.  "Magdalen  in  a  Grotto"  is 
his  only  work  in  the  Louvre. 

NAT  TURNER'S  INSURRECTION.  See 
TiK.NKU.  Nat. 

NATUNA  (naton'na)  ISLANDS.  A  gr.mp 
of  islands  in  the  South  Cliina  Sea,  northwest  of 
Borneo,  belonging  to  Holland  (.Map:  Australasia, 
C  2).  They  are  for  the  most  part  densely 
wooded  and  mountainous,  hut  have  some  culti- 
vated tracts  which  produce  maize,  rice,  sago,  and 
cocoannts.  The  area  is  estimated  at  803  square 
miles,  and  the  inhabitants,  who  are  chiefly  Malay 
Jishcrnicn.  number  about  8000. 

NATURAL  (from  Lat.  naturalis,  according 
to  nature,  frnm  iidliini.  nature,  from  nasri.  to  be 
born:  connected  with  Gk.  ylyi'tirSat,  iiijim sthni. 
to  become,  Skt.  jnii.  to  beget,  .\S.  ccikkiji,  obsolete 
Eng.  Ath.  to  beget) .  In  music,  the  sign  b^.  which, 
placed  l«'fore  a  note,  counteracts  the  efTect  of  a 
previous  S  or  b  iii<l  restores  the  note  to  its  nor- 
mal or  natural  place.  To  counteract  a  double 
sharp  or  a  double  flat  (X-  bb)  a  single  natural 
is  used,  although  it  was  formerly  customary  to 
write  a  double  natural  ( k^  l^  ) .  This  form  is 
superfluous  anil  incorrect.  In  :i  key  with  many 
sharps  or  Hats  a  doiibly  raised  or  lowereil  inter- 
val is  generally  restored  to  the  chromatically 
altered  tone  reipiired  by  the  key  signature.  Thus, 
in  G  flat  n  bte  would  be  restored,  not  to  b,  but  to 


b[),  which  is  indicated  by  bf  b-  Likewise  in  a 
.■^ignature  with  sharps  the  natural  sign  appears 
as  tq  S. 

NATURAL  BRIDGE.  One  of  the  chief  nat- 
ural ijuriusities  in  the  United  States.  It  ia 
situated  in  Rockbridge  County,  Va.,  115  miles 
west  of  Richmond  (Map:  Virginia,  E  4).  The 
bridge  spans  a  deep  chasm,  through  which  a 
small  stream  flows.  It  is  composed  of  a  hard 
siliceous  limestone  in  horizontal  strata,  and  is 
the  renmant  of  the  roof  of  a  great  cave  which 
formerly  covered  liie  gorge.  Tliis  remnant  now 
remains  in  the  form  of  an  arch  215  feet  higli. 
The  sp.ui  of  the  arch  is  from  45  to  00  feet,  and 
the  thickness  of  its  crown  is  about  40  feet, 
while  its  average  width  is  60  feet.  A  public  road 
passes  amiss  it. 

NATURAL  GAS.     See  Gas,  Natural. 
NATURAL  HARMONICS.    See  Harmonics. 

NATURAL  HISTORY.  A  term  used  at  dif- 
ferent times  anil  liy  dillVrcnt  authors  in  a  variety 
of  senses.  It  was  :ipplied  at  lirst  to  the  st\uly 
of  all  n:itural  objects,  including  minerals,  rocks, 
and  all  living  beings.  The  study  of  external 
nature,  and  of  the  jilK'nomena  or  laws  governing 
the  movements  of  natural  bodies,  was  formerly 
opposed  to  metaphysics,  history,  literature,  etc. 
After  a  while  astronomy  and  cheniistry  were 
eliminated  from  natural  history;  then  natural 
philosophy,  or  what  is  now  called  physics,  was 
separated  from  chemistry.  But  naluriil  science, 
as  distinguished  from  physical  science,  has  made 
such  progress  that  we  must  now  know  whether 
our  ii:ituralist  is  a  mineralogist,  a  geologist,  a 
paleontologist,  a  botanist,  a  zoiilogist,  or  a 
specialist  in  some  narrower  dei)artment  of  bio- 
logical study.  At  present  natural  history  is 
confined  to  the  study  of  organic  nature,  or 
biology,  and  students  of  general  physiology  and 
morphology  are  called  biologists.  See  Biology; 
Bionomics. 

NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  SELBOBNE. 
A  work  by  Kcv.  (Jillurt  While  (ITS'.li.  ll  was 
produced  from  letters  written  liy  the  ;i\ith(ir  to 
Thomas  Pennant  and  to  Daines  Harrington  on 
outdoor  life  in  a  Hanqishire  village.  \\  rilten  in 
a  style  simple  and  entirely  free  from  self-con- 
sciousness, it  shows  wonderful  observation  of 
nature,  with  a  ehuni  tliat  made  it  an  English 
classic. 

NATURALISM.  The  name  given  in  philoso- 
phy In  ;iny  system  which  seeks  to  explain  the 
order  of  the  universe  by  elVicient  causation  alone, 
without  calling  in  the  aid  of  conscious  purpose. 
(See  CAtSAl.iTY.)  The  most  jjrevalent  forms  of 
naturalism  li.ave  been  mechanistic,  i.e.  have  at- 
temi)ted  to  reduce  efTicicnt  causation  to  me- 
chanical causation.  For  instance,  the  systems  of 
Democritus.  Epicurus,  and  Lucretius  attempted 
to  account  for  the  universe  as  we  know  it  by  the 
fall  of  atoms.  A  more  elaborate  form  of  the 
same  attempt  is  to  Ix"  found  in  mo<lern  nialerial- 
isn)  ((|.v.).  But  naturalism  need  not  bi>  merely 
mechanistic.  It  nmy  recognize  the  f:ict  that 
psychic  |)henoniena  have  laws  of  their  own  which 
cannot  be  ileduced  from  the  laws  of  motion; 
for  the  recognition  of  unique  psychological  laws 
may  very  well  go  with  a  refusal  to  regard  the 
whole  course  of  nature,  physical  and  psyihi<'al, 
as  in  any  way  controlled  by  an  overruling  pur- 
pose. Many  so-called  materialists,  e.g.  Feuerbach, 


THE   NATURAL  BRIDGE 


Coi'l/rirlliL  10(1(1.  laj  (h.    IIHrnil  I'hnli^lm/iln 


NATURALISM. 


277 


NATURALIZATION. 


are  not  matorialists  at  all,  Ijut  naturalists  in 
this  sense  of  tlie  term.  <Ji>|)osed  to  tlie  naturalists 
are  the  teleologists.  See  Teleology;  Lotze;  and 
consult:  Ward,  Xaturulistn  and  Agtwslicism 
(London,  1899);  KiJnig,  Die  Enticickluiig  des 
Causdiprublems  (Leipzig,  1888-90)  ;  Sigwart, 
"Per  Kanipf  gegen  Zweck."  in  Kleinc  Schriftcn 
(2d  ed.,  Freiburg,  1889)  ;  Erhardt,  Mevhanismtts 
und  Tclcologic  (Leipzig,  1890). 

NATURALISM  (in  Literature).  See  Real- 
ism  A.NO   XaTI  KALISII. 

NATURALISTS,  American  Society  of.  An 
assoeiatioii  urbanized  in  1883,  to  exchange  ideas 
relating  to  the  problems  of  natural  history.  The 
society  now  has  an  active  menil)ership  of  230. 
The  meetings  (if  the  Muiety  are  held  annually. 

NATURALIZATION.  The  act  or  process  by 
which  in  any  country  an  alien  acquires  citizen- 
ship. The  ]>roeess  consists  of  two  parts,  viz. 
the  formal  renunciation  of  the  old  allegiance  and 
the  assiniiption  of  a  new  allegiance.  The  rights 
and  privileges  of  naturalized  citizens  are  enumer- 
ated and  defined  by  the  municipal  law  of  every 
State.  In  few  or  no  eases  are  they  the  same 
js  those  of  native-born  citizens.  In  the  United 
.■states  they  enjoy  the  same  civil  rights  as  natural- 
born  citizens,  and  all  of  the  political  rights  except 
eligibility  to  the  oflices  of  President  and  Vice- 
President.  The  right  of  a  subject  or  citizen  to 
renounce  his  allegiance  with  a  view  to  acquiring 
citizenship  in  another  State  is  now  generally 
recognized.  (See  E.\p.\triation.)  In  order  to 
prevent  possible  conllicts  of  jurisdiction  grow- 
ing out  of  the  practice  of  naturalization  and 
the  return  of  naturalized  citizens  to  their  na- 
tive coiuitry,  it  is  customary  for  States  to 
enter  into  treaties  for  the  regulation  of  matters 
relating  thereto.  Thus,  the  United  States  has 
entered  into  eleven  treaties  with  foreign  pow- 
ers, in  all  of  which,  except  that  with  Great 
Britain,  it  is  provided  that  five  years  of  unin- 
terrupted residence  with  formal  naturalization 
constitutes  citizenship  on  both  sides.  A  major- 
ity of  them  contain  the  provision  that  a  natural- 
ized citizen  returning  to  his  native  State  shall, 
after  an  uninterrupted  residence  there  of  two 
years,  be  presumed  to  have  renounced  his  ac- 
quired citizenship.  It  is  also  a  general  principle 
that  naturalization  does  not  release  an  individual 
from  any  obligations  to  his  native  State  which 
he  may  have  incurred  before  emigration,  as.  for 
example,  military  service;  and  if  lie  returns  to 
such  State  he  may  lie  held  to  the  fulfillment  of 
his  obligations  without  being  able  to  invoke  the 
protection  of  the  LTnited  States,  unless  treaty 
stipulations   provide  otherwise. 

In  the  United  States,  the  whole  matter  of 
naturalization  is  subject  to  the  regulation  of 
t'ongress.  This  power  is  held  to  be  exclusive, 
and  cannot,  therefore,  be  exercised  by  the  States. 
Ilowever.  it  is  not  construed  to  deprive  the  State 
of  the  right  to  restrict  the  civil  and  political 
rights  of  aliens,  nor  does  it  prohibit  thcni  from 
granting  the  suffrage  to  aliens,  or  allowing  them 
to  hold  office.  The  statutes  of  Congress  provide 
that  any  alien,  with  certain  exceptions,  may 
become  a  naturalized  citizen  of  the  I'nited  States 
by  making  a  declaration  on  oath,  before  a  circuit 
or  district  court  of  the  United  States,  or  a 
district  or  supreme  court  of  the  Territories,  or 
a  court  of  record  of  any  of  the  States  having 
common-law  jurisdiction,  at  least  two  years  prior 


to  his  admission,  that  it  i.-~  liis  hi, mi  fidr  intention 
\0  become  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and 
to  renounce  at  the  same  time  all  allegiance  to 
any  foreign  State,  as  well  as  all  hereditary  titles 
of  nobility  which  he  may  hold.  This  step  is 
known  as  the  declaration  of  intention,  and  after 
it  is  made  the  declarant  is  perhaps  morally 
entitled  to  a  qualified  amount  of  protection  from 
the  United  States,  although  it  cannot  be  claimed 
as  an  absolute  right.  (See  KosZT.v  Affaih.  ) 
The  full  admissiim  to  citizenship  follows  after 
due  proof  has  been  furnished  that  the  declarant 
has  resided  in  the  United  States  at  least  five 
years  next  preceding  his  admission,  and  with- 
in the  State  or  Territory  where  the  court 
sits  for  one  year.  By  the  act  of  1790  the  term 
of  residence  required  was  two  years;  in  179")  it 
was  extended  to  five  years;  and  in  1798  it  was 
raised  to  fourteen  years.  Since  1802,  however, 
the  term  has  remained  at  five  jears.  A  niiuor 
alien  who  has  resided  in  the  United  States  for 
a  ])eriod  of  three  years  next  preceding  his  arrival 
at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  and  who  has  continued 
to  reside  there  up  to  the  time  of  his  application, 
may  be  admitted  to  citizenship  without  the  pre- 
vious declaration,  provided  he  luis  resided  in  the 
United  States  for  a  ])eriod  of  five  years.  Any 
alien  seaman  who  has  served  three  years  on  a 
merchant  vessel  of  the  United  States  subsequent 
to  the  date  of  his  declaration  may  become  a 
citizen  by  the  production  of  a  certificate  of  dis- 
charge and  good  conduct.  The  widow  and  chil- 
dren of  an  alien  who  has  declared  his  intention 
of  becoming  a  citizen,  but  dies  before  completing 
the  final  steps  of  naturalization,  are  considered 
as  citizens  upon  taking  the  oath  prescribed  by 
law.  An  alien  woman  who  marries  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States,  and  who  herself  might  be 
lawfully  naturalized,  is  considered  a  citizen. 
Children  born  outside  of  the  limits  of  the  United 
States,  but  of  parents  who  are  citizens,  are  con- 
sidered as  citizens ;  but  the  rights  of  citizenship 
in  such  cases  do  not  descend  to  children  whose 
parents  never  resided  in  the  United  States.  Since 
1870  the  privilege  of  naturalization  has  been 
extended  to  aliens  of  African  nativity  and  of 
African  descent.  Chinese  aliens  ai'e  excluded  by 
statute  of  Congre.ss  from  the  privilege  of  nat- 
uralization. 

In  Great  Britain  formerly  the  naturalization 
of  an  individual  could  be  effected  only  by  special 
act  of  Parliament.  It  was  not  until  1844  that  a 
general  naturalization  law  was  enacted.  This 
was  followed  by  the  comprehensive  act  of  1870, 
which  with  a  few  changes  is  the  law  now  in 
force.  By  this  act  it  is  provided  that  an  alien 
who  has  resided  within  the  United  Kingdom 
for  a  period  of  five  years,  and  who  inteiuls  to 
continue  his  residence  therein,  may  apply  to 
one  of  the  principal  secretaries  of  State  for  a 
certificate  of  naturalization,  jiresenting  such  evi- 
dence as  to  residence  and  character  as  may  be 
required.  It  is  wholly  within  the  discretion  of 
the  .secretary  as  to  whether  the  certificate  shall 
be  granted.  A  naturalized  citizen  in  Great 
Britain  is  entitled  to  all  the  civil  and  political 
rights  and  privileges,  and  subject  to  all  the 
obligations  of  natural-born  citizens,  except  that 
when  in  his  native  State  he  shall  not  be  deemed 
a  BritLsh  citizen  unless  he  has  complied  with  all 
the  laws  of  tliat  State  regarding  expatriation. 
Consult:  Davis.  EUmrnls  of  Internntionnl  Law 
(Xew  York.  1900)  ;  Woolsey,  International  Law 


NATURALIZATION. 


!78     ■ 


NATURAL  LAW. 


(New  York.  IriUDi;  lUii'nd  sinliitcs  of  the 
United  Utates,  title  "Naturalization ;"  ami 
Moore,  Diyest  of  International  Law  (Washing- 
ton, 1903).    See  Alie.v;  Allegiance;  Citizen. 

NATURALIZATION,  lu  biologj-,  the  estab- 
lishmcMit  of  jilaiils  and  animals  in  a  niw  region, 
especially  through  the  agency  of  man.  rrimarily, 
e.\otic  species  soon  become  feral  and  compete  with 
indigenous  species.  They  frequently  never  gain 
a  foothold,  but  if  they  do  they  usually  spread  at 
first  with  extraordinary  vigor,  owing  to  the  ab- 
sence of  their  natural  enemies.  But  later  an  ad- 
justment with  the  other  species  in  the  country 
occurs,  and  after  that  the  disproportionate  num- 
bers of  the  introduced  form  disappear,  i.e.  the 
new  species  becomes  adjusted  or  'naturalized.' 
Compare  Accluiatization. 

NATURAL  LAW.  Greek  Piiii.osopiiy.  Some 
of  the  Orcck  ^^ophists,  and  later  the  Epicureans, 
held  that  law  and  justice  were  arbitrary  con- 
ventions established  by  the  weak  for  self-defense 
against  the  natural  right  of  the  strong.  Socrates, 
in  this  as  in  other  matters,  antagonized  the 
theories  of  the  Sophists;  but  it  was  Aristotle 
who  fornuilated  the  conception  of  natural  justice 
whicli  has  remained  dominant  to  the  present  day. 
In  his  view  justice  is  in  part  legal,  in  part 
natural.  Legal  justice  deals  with  matters  which 
must  1)0  regulated,  but  which  may  be  variously 
regulated.  Natural  justice,  on  the  other  hnn<l, 
is  not  arbitrary;  its  rules  are  everywhere  similar. 
The  Stoics  went  further:  they  asserted  that  the 
rules  of  natural  justice  w'ere  founded  on  reason, 
and  were  therefore  discernible  by  reason ;  and 
the  later  Stoics  termed  this  rational  order  nat- 
ural law. 

KoMAN  .TrRisPEUDENCE.  Tlie  Roman  lawyers 
noted  the  fact  that  many  substantially  identical 
rules  were  observed  by  all  the  ilediterranean 
nations;  and  to  this  common  law  they  gave  the 
name  'law  of  nations'  (/».s  ijentium) .  In  the 
first  e<'ntury  before  Christ  they  began  to  speak 
of  'natural  law.'  In  the  Roman  juristic  litera- 
ture the  terra  is  used  in  four  different  senses: 
(1)  Natural  law  is  identified  with  universal  law 
(jus  gentium).  This  is  practically  the  Aris- 
totelian sense.  ('2)  Natural  law  is  contrasted 
with  the  law  observed  by  all  nations;  e.g.  it  is 
said  that  by  nat\ire  all  men  arc  free,  and  that 
slavery  has  been  introduced  by  the  law  of  nations. 
This  is  the  Stoic  conception  of  natural  law. 
(3)  Sporadically,  the  Kpieurean  idea  ap|iears,  as 
when  it  is  said  that  buyers  and  sellers  have  a 
niitural  right  to  overreach  one  another  as  regards 
price.  (4)  Ulpian  has  a  theory  which  seems  to 
have  been  peculiarly  his  own.  but  to  which 
.lustinian  gave  a  factitious  importance  by  in- 
cluding in  his  Institutes  Ulpian's  definition: 
"Natural  law  is  that  which  nature  has  taught 
all  living  things."  'Hie  illustrations,  which  refer 
to  rudimentary  family  life,  are  biological  rather 
than  legal.  Although  the  Roman  jurists  re- 
ferred to  the  law  of  nature  fur  the  interpretation 
of  their  own  law,  and  even  drew  from  it  sup- 
plementary rules  where  their  own  law  was  silent, 
they  referred  far  more  frequently,  and  for  the 
same  purposes,  to  'natural  reason'  and  to 
'equity;'  and  they  never  ascriliod  to  the  laW  of 
nature  such  authority  as  to  question  the  validity 
of  11  Roman  ruli'  because  it  was  not  in  accordance 
with  natural  law.  Sec  CmL  Law;  Jus  Gen- 
TlfM ;  .lus  Natub.e. 


^Iem.eval  TiiEoi:ii;s.  The  doctrines  of  Aris- 
totle and  of  the  Itonian  jurisprudence  were  gen- 
erally accepted  in  the  Midille  Ages  as  authori- 
tative, and  man}'  attempts  were  made  to  reconcile 
them.  There  was  a  marked  tendency  to  identify 
natural  law  with  the  law  of  God:  in  the  Decretum 
of  (Jratiau  it  is  declared  that  natural  law  is 
identical  with  the  Golden  Rule.  Thomas  .\quinas 
divided  all  law  into  four  classes:  elermil,  divine, 
natural,  and  human.  The  eternal  law  is  the 
controlling  plan  of  tlie  univer.-<e,  existing  in  the 
mind  of  God.  A  part  of  this  eternal  law  has 
been  directly  revealed  to  men;  this  is  tlu;  divine 
law.  Another  part  is  discerned  by  human  rea- 
son; this  is  natural  law.  Except  in  its  funda- 
mental principles,  natural  law  is  not  imnuUable, 
for  "it  seems  to  be  natural  to  the  human  reason 
that  it  comes  gradually  from  the  im]ierfect  to  the 
perfect."  Human  law  is  the  application  uf  nat- 
ural law  to  particular  conditions.  The  practical 
inlluenee  of  these  theories  ujxui  the  development 
of  European  law  during  tlie  Middle  Ages  was 
slight.  In  the  development  of  the  English  com- 
mon law,  as  in  the  development  of  the  Roman 
Imperial  law,  appeals  to  natural  reason  were 
far  more  frequent  than  appeals  to  natural  law. 
In  England,  however,  as  well  as  on  the  Continent, 
the  general  law  merchant,  which  was  jus  ycnliuni 
in  the  Roman  sense,  was  recognized  as  natural 
law. 

Modern  Theories.  Natural  Law  as  a  Factor 
IN  Legal  Reforms.  The  general  elVeet  of  the 
Protestant  Reformation  was  to  free  the  concep- 
tion of  natural  law  from  ecclesiastical  associa- 
tions and  limitations,  and  to  rcenipliasize  it» 
rational  character.  Natural-law  theories  became 
etfective  factors  in  the  reform  of  the  law.  In 
the  seventeenth  century  natur:il  law  was  treated 
as  a  source  of  international  law;  and  many  rules 
which  had  not  yet  become  rules  of  inli'rnationnl 
custom  attained  this  positioii  Ihrougii  the  writ- 
ings of  Grotius,  Pufendorf.  and  otliers  on  'the 
law  of  nature  and  of  nations.'  Later,  during  the 
eighteenth  century  and  the  earlier  years  of  the 
nineteenth,  when  the  groat  national  codes  of 
civil  and  criminal  law  were  drawn  up  in  Prussin, 
Austria.  Prance,  and  other  countries,  natural-law 
theories  helped  to  give  the  legislators  n  more 
independent  attitude  toward  established  law  and 
custom.  In  England  utilitarianism  played  a 
similar  jiart  in  facilitating  hiw  reform. 

Xatiual  KiciiiTS  as  tmk  Masis  m-  Politic.vl 
Revolution.  The  theory  of  Cicero  and  of  Thomas 
Aquinas,  that  laws  in  conlliet  with  natural  law 
are  not  truly  laws,  developed  its  revolutionary 
(not  to  say  anarchistic)  possibilities  when  the  in- 
terpretation of  natural  law  passed  from  secular 
and  ecclesiastical  authorities  to  the  people  at 
large.  The  theory  that  the  popular  consciousness 
is  the  true  inter])rcter  of  that  n:itiiiMl  law  by 
which  all  rulers  are  bound,  found  freipient  ex- 
pression before  the  close  of  the  .Middle  .\ges;. 
e.g.  in  (he  writings  of  Marsiulio  of  I'adua.  W  ith 
the  Protestant  Reformation  these  theories  became 
practical  forces  in  matters  religious  ami  political, 
and  the  tendencies  which  they  represented  first 
obtained  a  tcmiiorary  triumph  in  England  under 
the  Commonwealth.  Those  legal  rights  which 
Englishmen  had  succeeded,  through  centuries  of 
conlliet.  in  asserting  against  the  Crown  were 
brought  by  the  Levelers  into  connection  with 
the  natural-law  theories  of  the  Continent,  and 
thenceforth  the  rights  of  the  individual  to  life. 


NATUBAL  LAW. 


279 


NATUBAL  SELECTION. 


liberty,  and  pro])('i<y  wore  'natural'  rights.  To 
tliese  were  soon  iuidcd  llie  right  to  participate  in 
the  Cdustitution  nf  gcivcrniiR'nt.  As  formulated 
by  Locke  and  refornmlafcd  by  Rousseau,  these 
natural-right  tlieories  legitimized  the  revolutions 
which  established  the  modern  constitutional 
State. 

K]!;actio>-  Against  Natural-Law  Theories. 
The  lirst  notewortliy  philosopliical  reaction 
against  the  revolutionary  natural-law  theories 
was  that  of  llobbes  (q.v.).  Equally  hostile  to 
natural-law  theories  was,  especially  at  the  out- 
set, the  historical  school  of  jurispiudenee.  The 
conception  of  law  as  a  jjroduct  of  historical 
evolution  in  each  nation  led  to  the  assertion  that 
tliere  could  be  no  such  thing  as  eternal  or 
universal  law.  With  the  development  of  com- 
parative study,  however,  it  is  again  ])erceived 
that  beneath  all  the  diversity  of  national  laws 
tliere  is  a  substantially  uniform  element  which 
m.ay  be  called  human  or  universal  or  natural. 
This  natural  law,  however,  is  substantially  the 
jus  grnliuin  of  the  Romans  or  the  'natural  jus- 
tice' of  Aristotle,  and  not  tlie  natural  law  of  the 
Stoics  or  of  the  ^Middle  Ages;  for  it  is  not  dis- 
I  I'rnod  by  reason,  it  is  rather  revealed  by  the 
(onduct  of  the  human  race.  See  Jurisprudence 
,ind  Law. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  more  recent 
works;  in  them  will  be  found  ample  references 
to  the  older  literature.  Ahrens,  ('ours  dc  droit 
iinturcl  (8th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1892)  ;  Anzilotti,  La 
sciiola  del  dirHlo  iidiurale  (Florence,  1892)  ; 
Bergbohui,  Das  XaturrrrJit  der  Cler;riiiritrt  (Leip- 
zig, 18!12)  ;  Gierke,  Johannes  Allhusius  xuid  die 
F.ntioickeluiig  der  ■niitiirrcchtlichcn  Staatsiheo- 
rien  (ib.,  1880)  ;  Lorimer,  Institutes  of  Laic: 
A  Treatise  of  the  I'rinciples  of  Jurisprudence  as 
Determined  hi/  X<iture{2d  ed.,  Edinburgh,  1880)  ; 
!Mendizabal  y  JIartin,  Llementos  de  derecho  natu- 
ral (2d  ed.,  Saragossa,  1897-90)  ;  Meyer,  Jnstitu- 
iion-es  Luris  Xaturalis  Hecurulum  Prin-cipia  H. 
Tliomw  AquiiMtis  (Freiburg,  1900);  Rothe, 
Traite  de  droit  naturel  (Paris,  1884-95). 

NATURAL  BIGHTS.     See  Natural  L.vw. 

NATUBAL  SELECTION.  The  evolution 
idea  is  as  old  as  the  time  of  the  Greek  phi- 
losophers, but  that  form  of  it  called  natural 
selection,  or  Darwinism,  dates  from  18.58,  when 
the  theory  was  stated  by  Darwin  (q.v.)  and  also 
by  Wallace  (q.v.),  each  independently  of  the 
other.  Nearly  a  century  earlier  BufTon.  and 
afterwards  Erasmus  Darwin,  had  suggested  that 
species  were  uuitable.  and  that  all  living  beings 
h.ad  descended  from  some  primitive  type  or  germ, 
the  transformation  having  been  effected  by 
changes  of  climate,  food,  exercise,  and  so  on. 
But  the  real  founder  of  the  modern  theory  of 
organic  evolution  was  Lamarck  (q.v.;  see  also 
Lamarckism)  .  The  chief  agents  or  factors  of 
organic  evolution  which  he  proposed  were  changes 
of  environment,  of  climate,  soil,  food,  tempera- 
ture, use.  and  disuse,  while  he  briefly  mentions 
the  agency  of  competition,  the  results  of  geo- 
graphical isolation,  and  the  swamping  effects  of 
crossing,  besides  use-inheritance.  Although  sup- 
ported by  a  few.  though  well-seleeterj.  facts,  La- 
marck's views  were,  owing  to  the  influence  of 
Cuvier,  and  the  deep-seated  prejudice  of  the 
times,  ignored  and  well-nigh  forgotten,  except 
to  he  called  up  and  ridiculed.  Yet  between  the 
date  of  Lamarck's  death  in  1829  and  shortlv  be- 


fore 18.58  nearly  thirty  naturalists,  most  of 
them  of  eminence,  had  publicly  enunciated  in  a 
tentative  way  evolutional  views — among  them 
Grant,  Wells,  Naudiu,  D'Halhjy,  ScliaalThausen, 
Wallace  in  ISuo,  and  others,  ileanwhile  Hutton 
and  Lyell  had  advanced  uniforniitarian  views  in 
geology.  Progress  in  the  knowledge  of  the  flora 
and  fauna  of  the  earth  had  greatly  increased. 
The  cell  doctrine  had  l)een  advanced ;  the  sciences 
of  paleontology,  eml)ryolog\-.  and  morpliologj-  had 
been  founded  and  were  rapidly  gaining  grcmnd. 

As  early  as  March,  18.32,  Herbert  Spencer,  in 
an  essay  published  in  the  Leader,  advocated  the 
theory  of  the  niodilieation  of  species  by  changes 
of  environment,  and  a  few  years  later  adopted 
the  word  "evolution,'  applying  it  to  psychology, 
and  later  to  sociology  and  comparative  religion. 

HiSTORV  OF  THE   KiSE  OF  THE   SELECTION   'ThE- 

ORY.  Such  was  the  state  of  certain  isolated 
scientific  and  phil()so])hie  minds,  though  the 
rank  and  file  of  naturalists  were  eitlier  in- 
dill'erent  or  opposed  to  the  theory  of  descent, 
when  in  18.58  the  preliminary  essays  of  Dar- 
win and  of  Wallace  were  given  to  the  pul)lic. 
Their  views,  which  were  destined  to  give  such 
a  decided  imjuilse  to  biological  inquiry,  were 
inde]iendently  confiruied  by  several  biological 
experts  after  years  of  experience  and  research 
in  all  parts  of  the  globe.  The  botanist  Sir 
Joseph  D.  Hooker,  when  surgeon  and  natural- 
ist of  the  Errbvs  in  the  Antarctic  expedition  un- 
der Sir  .John  Ross,  published  a  flora  of  New 
Zealand,  a  Flora  Antarctica,  and  in  18.59  pub- 
lished his  Introduction  to  the  Flora  of  Australia, 
in  which  he  advoeateil  the  selection  theory.  Be- 
fore this  (1858)  Wallace  had  spent  four  years 
on  the  Amazon,  and  afterwards  eight  years  in 
the  East  Indian  Archipelago,  making  large  col- 
lections and  careful  observations.  Meanwhile 
Charles  Darwin,  as  the  naturalist  of  the  Beagle 
for  nearly  five  years  (1831-30)  during  her  voyage 
around  the  world,  was  constantly  exercising  his 
marvelous  powers  as  an  observer.  What  chiefly 
led  him,  as  early  as  1839,  to  begin  to  favor  the 
theory  of  descent,  were  his  observations  on  the 
fossil  mammals,  the  colossal  armadillos  and 
sloths,  and  the  like,  of  South  America,  which  ap- 
peared to  be  the  ancestors  of  the  degenerate  forms 
now  living;  also  the  occurrence  of  local  species 
on  each  of  the  Galapagos  Islands,  which  be  found 
to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can coast,  and  yet  slightly  different.  The  result 
was  that  after  twenty  years  of  observations,  ex- 
periments in  his  garden,  and  reflection,  he  elabo- 
rated the  theory  of  natural  sclectioTi. 

On  the  first  of  .Jvdy,  1837.  he  opened  his 
first  note-book  to  record  any  facts  bearing  on  the 
origin  of  species,  but  "did  not  become  convinced 
that  species  were  mutable  until  two  or  three 
years  had  elapsed."  More  than  a  year  after 
(October,  1838) ,  he  says:  "I  happened  to  read  for 
anuisement  Malthus  on  Population,  and  being 
well  prepared  to  ap])reciate  the  struggle  for  ex- 
istence which  evervwliere  goes  on  from  long-con- 
tinued observations  of  the  habits  of  animals  and 
plants,  it  at  once  struck  mo  that  under  these  cir- 
cumstances favorable  variations  would  tend  to  be 
preserved,  and  unfavorable  ones  to  be  destroyed. 
The  result  of  this  would  he  the  formation  of  neto 
species."  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  Malthus 
was  the  father  of  natural  selection,  that  the 
Essay  on  Population  was  the  source  of  inspira- 
tion of  both  Darwin  and  Wallace,  and  that  to 


NATURAL  SELECTION. 


280 


NATURAL  SELECTION. 


this  fact  is  apparently  due  the  exact  similarity 
in,  or  coincidence  of,  tlieir  views.  Darwin's  pre- 
liminarj-  essay,  together  with  tliat  of  Wallace, 
who  had  also  read  Malthus's  Essay  on  Population 
containing  nearly  identical  selection  views,  was 
published  in  1858.  In  the  following  year  ap- 
peared Darwin's  epoch-making  Or'niin  of  Species. 
ilis  theory  was  at  once  accepted  by  (anon  Tris- 
tram. I.yell,  Hooker.  Bates,  Iluxky.  and  others  in 
Great  Britain ;  in  the  United  States  of  America 
by  Asa  Gray  and  .letTries  Wynian,  and  in  Ger- 
many by  Haeckel,  while  Fritz  Miiller,  working  on 
the  same  lines  in  Brazil,  full\-  accepted  and  ex- 
tended his  views.  That  the  time  was  ripe  for 
the  development  and  growth  of  the  evoluticniary 
idea  was  pro\ed  by  its  speedy  and  general  ac- 
ceptance by  nearl}'  all  working  naturalists  and 
thoughtful  minds.  Moreover,  the  selection  phase 
was  easy  to  untlerstand  by  laymen,  and  soon  the 
multitude  accepted  the  new  views. 

The  N.\tlkal  Selection  Theory  Kxpl.\inei). 
The  theory  of  natural  selection  is  based  on  the 
facts  of  variation.  As  to  the  causes  of  variation, 
Darwin  does  not  say  much  in  the  Origin  of  Spe- 
cies. Basing  his  theori,-  on  the  fact  that  vari- 
ations arc  constantly  and  spontaneously  arising, 
he  claimed  that  the  favorable  variations  have 
succeeded  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  while 
those  unfit  or  unfavorable  have  perished. 

He  also  remarked  that  as  long  as  the  cimditions 
of  life  remain  the  same,  we  have  reason  to  believe 
that  a  modification  which  has  already  been  in- 
herited for  many  generations  may  continue  to  be 
inherited  for  an  almost  infinite  nuud)er  of  gen- 
erations. We  are  also  told  that  as  each  land  had 
luidergone  great  physical  changes,  we  might  have 
expected  to  find  tliat  organic  beings  have  varied 
under  nature  in  the  same  way  as  they  have  un- 
der domestication.  "And  if  there  be  any  varia- 
bility under  Nature,  it  would  be  an  unaccount- 
able fact  if  natural  selection  did  not  come  into 
play."  "If,  then,"  he  asks,  "animals  and  plants 
do  vary,  let  it  be  ever  so  little  or  so  slowly,  why 
should  we  doubt  that  the  variations  or  individual 
dilFcrences  which  are  in  any  way  beneficial 
would  be  preserved  and  accumulated  through 
natural  selection,  or  the  survival  of  the  fittest  ? 
If  man  can  by  patience  select  variations  useful  to 
him.  why.  under  changing  and  complex  conditions 
of  life,  should  not  variations  useful  to  Nature's 
living  products  often  ari>e.  and  be  preserved  or 
selected?  What  limit  can  be  ])ut  to  this  power, 
acting  during  long  ages  and  rigidly  scrutinizing 
the  whole  constitution,  structure,  and  habits  of 
each  creature — favoring  the  good  and  rejecting 
the  bad?  1  can  see  no  limits  to  this  power,  in 
slowly  and  beautifully  adapting  each  form  to  the 
most  complex  relations  of  life.'' 

(iKOMETRICAI,  R.VTU)  OF  In<REA.Si:  OF  ORGAN- 
ISMS. "A  struggle  for  existence."'  says  Darwin, 
"inevitably  follows  from  the  high  rate  at  which 
all  organic  Ixdngs  tend  to  increase."  There  is  a 
vast  destruction  of  seeds,  eggs,  embryos,  and 
young.  Were  this  not  the  case  the  earth  would 
soon  become  covered  with  the  progeny  of  a  single 
pair.  LinnC'  pointed  out  that  an  annual  plant 
producing  two  seeds  only — and  there  is  no  plant 
nearly  so  unproductive  as  this — and  these  each 
producing  two  in  the  following  year,  and  so  on. 
would  in  twenty  one  years  produce  over  a  million 
plants.  The  elephant  is  regarded  as  the  slowest 
breeder  of  all  known  animals,  yet  a  single  pair 
would  become  in  the  course  of  about  seven  and  a 


half  centuries,  if  all  lived  to  the  close  of  the 
breeding  age,  the  ancestors  of  nearly  10,000,000 
elejjhants. 

The  rate  of  increase  of  an  animal,  each  pair 
producing  ten  pairs  annually,  and  each  animal 
living  ten  years,  is  shown  in  the  following  table, 
coi)ied   from   ilarshall's   Lectures: 


YEAR 

Pairs 
produced 

Pairs  alive  at  end  ot  year 

1 

10 

no 

1.210 

13,310 

146,il0 

2 

121 

3 

4 

14  &4I 

6 

10 

25.937.424.i;00 

Over  700,ooo,ooo.ooo,uo().oou.iH)0 

20 

hnmense  numbers  of  eggs  are  laid  by  certain 
animals,  and  yet  there  are  probably  no  more 
individuals  now  than  centuries  ago,  the  miniber 
of  individuals  remaining  as  a  whole  stationary. 
The  queen  bee  lays  during  her  whide  life  a  mil- 
lion eggs,  the  conger  eel  is  estimated  to  deposit 
1.5,000,000,  the  oyster  from  500,000  to  10.000,000, 
and  a  very  large  oyster  may  |)roduce  e\en  (iO,- 
000,000  of  eggs.  "Supposing,"  says  Marsliall, 
"we  start  with  one  oyster  and  let  it  juoduce 
10,000,000  eggs,  the  average  American  yield,  and 
let  half,  or  8,000,000.  be  fcnuiles  ami  "go  on  in- 
creasing at  the  same  rate:  in  the  .second  genera- 
tion we  shall  have  sixty-four  millions  of  millions 
of  female  oysters.  In  the  fiftli  generation — i.e.  the 
great-great-grandchildren  of  our  first  oy.stcr — 
we  should  liave  thirty-three  millions  of  millions 
of  millions  of  millicms  of  millions  of  female  oys- 
ters. If  Me  add  the  same  nuudicr  of  males  we 
should  have  in  all  66  +  .33  naughts.  If  we  esti- 
mate these  as  oyster-shells,  we  shoulil  have  a 
mass  more  than  eight  times  the  size  of  the 
world." 

Darwin  also  claimed  that  natural  selection 
"acts  solely  by  accumulating  slight,  successive, 
favorable  variation,"  and  <'an  produce  no  great  or 
svulden  modification.  It  can  act  only  by  short 
and  slow  steps,  hence  "the  canon  of  \alura  non 
facit  .siilhnii.  which  every  fresh  addition  to  our 
knowledge  tends  to  make  truer,  is  on  this  theory 
intelligible." 

r.sE  AXD  Disuse.  Darwin  in  some  cases  ad- 
mits the  action  of  use  and  disuse.  In  both 
varieties  and  species,  he  says,  use  and  disuse 
seem  to  have  produced  a  considerable  elTcct.  His 
exani]iles  are  blind  cave  animals,  the  burrowing 
South  American  'tueutueu,'  which  is  occasionally 
blind,  and  certain  moles;  also  the  logger-headed 
duck,  which  has  wings  incapable  of  flight,  in 
nearly  the  same  condition  as  in  the  domestic 
duck.  Instincts  he  regards  as  having  been  slow- 
ly acquired  through  natural  selection.  S<'e  FiSE- 
Iniieritance. 

The  (Jeolooicai,  Kecord.  lie  then  dwells  on 
the  geological  record,  which,  although  it  is  very 
imi)erfeet,  yet  the  facts  strongly,  he  claims,  sup- 
port the  theory  of  descent  with  modification. 
The  extinction  of  species  and  of  whole  groups  of 
species  almost  inevitably  follows  from  the  prin- 
ciple of  natural  selection;  for  old  forms  arc 
supplanted  by  new  and  improved  forms.  The 
fact,  he  says,  that  the  fossil  remains  of  each  for- 
mation are  in  some  degree  intermediate  in  char- 
acter lietween  thosi-  in  the  strata  above  and  l)e- 
low.  is  simply  explained  by  their  intermediate 
position  in  the  chain  of  descent.    The  grand  fact 


NATURAL  SELECTION. 


281 


NATURAL  SELECTION. 


tliat  all  I'xtiiK't  beings  can  lie  classed  with  all 
recent  beings  naturally  follows  from  the  living 
and  the  extinct  being  the  oll'sjiring  of  common 
parents.  Species  have  generally  diverged  in 
character  during  their  long  course  of  descent  and 
modification,  and  thus  tlie  more  ancient  types  are 
in  some  degree  intermediate  between  existing 
groups.  Keeent  forms  are  more  imi)roved  and 
generally  more  specialized  than  the  earlier  ones. 
Vet  certain  forms  have  retrograded,  ^\■hile  others 
have  retained  "simiilc  and  little  improved  struc- 
tures,' Ix'ing  what  are  called  'persistent  types.' 

(lEOdiiM'iiicAL  DisTiilitiTloN.  The  facts  of 
geographical  distribution  are  also  utilized  by 
Darwin,  who  calls  attention  to  the  past  migra- 
tions of  animals  from  one  part  of  tlie  world  to 
another  owing  to  former  climatic  and  geographi- 
cal changes.  They  also  explain  why  on  the  same 
continent  under  the  most  diverse  conditions  most 
of  the  inhabitants  within  each  great  class  are 
plainly  related,  the  reason  being  that  they  are 
the  descendants  of  the  same  progenitors  and  early 
colonists.  They  explain  why  oceanic  islands  are 
inhabited  by  only  few  species,  most  of  these,  as 
those  of  JIadagascar,  being  peculiar  or  endemic 
species.  Moreover,  the  existence  of  closely  allied 
or  representative  species  in  any  two  areas,  as 
Europe  and  North  America,  implies  that  the 
same  parent  forms  formerly  inhabited  both  areas. 
It  is  also  the  rule  that  nearly  all  the  inhabitants 
of  islands  have  been  derived  from  ancestors  which 
lived  on  the  nearest  mainland.  Thus  the  plants 
and  animals  of  the  Galapagos  Archipelago,  of 
Juan  Fernandez  and  t!ie  otlier  American  islands, 
are  closely  related  to  those  of  the  neighboring 
American  mainland,  while  those  of  the  Cape  de 
Verde  Archipelago  and  other  African  islands  were 
derived    from    the   opposite    African    coast. 

Facts  of  Morphology,  F^MRRyoLooY,  the  Doc- 
trine OF  HoxtoLOGlES,  These  were  also  drawn 
upon  by  Darwin.  He  maintained  that  adaptive 
characters,  though  of  paramount  importance  to 
the  beings,  are  of  hardly  any  importance  in  clas- 
sification, while  vestigial  characters  are  often 
of  higli  classiflcatory  value,  the  most  valuable 
of  all  often  being  embryological  characters.  "The 
real  allinities  of  all  organic  beings,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  their  adaptive  resemblances,  are  due 
to  inheritance   or  community  of  descent." 

N.VTURAL  Selection  Not  the  Exclusive 
Means  of  ^MoniFiCAXiON.  It  should  be  observed 
that  Darwin  frankly  expressed  the  conviction  that 
natural  selection,  though  the  most  important,  has 
not  been  the  exclusive  means  of  modification. 
He  allowed  that  the  alisence  of  eyes  in  cave  ani- 
mals is  not  the  result  of  natural  selection,  say- 
ing:   "I   attribute   their   loss   wholly   to   di.suse." 

The  Cau.se.s  of  Variation.  In  the  first  edi- 
tion of  his  Ynriation.  of  Animals  and  Plants 
Vndrr  Ttnmpsticaiion,  Darwin,  after  defining 
the  definite  action  of  the  environment,  added: 
"A  new  sub-variety  would  thus  be  produced 
without  the  aid  of  natural  selection,"  but 
this  passage  was  omitted  from  the  second  edi- 
tion. Besides  the  Origin  nf  Sprcics  Darwin  pub- 
lished a  nundicr  of  other  wru-ks.  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  was  The  Variation  of  Animals  and 
Plants  under  Domestication  (1868).  Toward  the 
end  of  his  life  he  gave  more  attention  to  the 
causes  of  variation.  Avliich  at  first  he  said  were 
unknown,  and  in  the  work  just  cited  he  says: 
"Changrs  of  any  kind  in  the  conditions  of  life, 
even   extremely   slight  changes,   often   suffice   to 


cause  variability"  (2  ed.,  ii.,  ji.  2.j8)  ;  and  again: 
"Variations  of  all  kinds  and  degrees  are  directly 
or  indirectly  caused  by  the  conditions  of  life  to 
which  each  being,  and  more  especially  its  an- 
cestors, have  been  exposed,"  adding:  "To  put  the 
case  under  another  point  of  view,  if  it  were 
possible  to  expose  all  the  individuals  of  a  species 
during  many  generations  to  absolutely  uniform 
coiulitions  of  life,  there  would  be  no  variability' 
lii.,  pp.  2.53,  255-250).  He  attril)utes  the  dif- 
ferences in  races  of  cats  living  in  Paraguay,  at 
Mombasa.  East  Africa,  and  in  Antigua,  "to  the 
direct  action  of  dillcrent  conditions  of  life"  (i., 
p.  4!))  ;  .so  with  the  liorses  of  the  South  American 
pampas  and  of  Puno.  He  refers  to  Dr.  .J.  A. 
Allen's  conclusions  relative  to  the  direct  action  of 
the  climate  in  producing  geographical  varieties 
of  birds,  and  concludes  that  "these  differences 
must  be  attributed  to  the  direct  action  of  tem- 
perature'' (ii.,  p.  271).  So  also,  accepting 
the  results  of  Meehan's  comparisons  on  the 
leaves  of  29  kinds  of  American  trees  with  their 
nearest  Euroiiean  allies,  Darwin  candidly  admits 
that  "such  ditl'crence  cannot  have  been  gained 
through  natural  selection,  and  must  be  attributed 
to  the  long  continued  action  of  a  difTerent  cli- 
mate" (ii.,  p.  271 ) . 

The  objections  to  his  theory  raised  b}"  Darwin 
himself  he  discusses  with  his  usual  candor.  Of 
these  the  most  important  is  the  absence,  to  use 
his  own  words,  of  the  "interminable  number  of  in- 
termediate forms,"  which  must  have  existed, 
"linking  togetlier  all  the  species  in  each  group 
by  gradations  as  fine  as  are  our  present  va- 
rieties." He  says  he  can  only  answer  this  objec- 
tion "on  the  supposition  that  the  geological 
record  is  far  more  imperfect  than  most  geologists 
believe."  The  other  objection  is  the  existence  of 
two  or  three  castes  of  worker  or  sterile  ants  in 
the  same  community. 

Status  of  Darwinism  at  the  Present  Day. 
Such  are  the  views  of  Darwin,  as  published  in 
his  Oriflin  of  tSpecies.  Although  he  pushed  the 
special  form  of  evolution  to  what  one  would  sup- 
pose to  be  its  furthest  limits,  yet  as  we  have  seen 
he  somewhat  modified  his  views  later  in  life. 
Tlie  views  of  probably  a  large  proportion  of  the 
moderate  Darwinians  at  the  present  time  have 
been  expressed  in  a  broad  and  can<li<l  w;iy  by 
Romanes,  an  able  and  careful  commentator  and 
expounder  of  the  doctrine  of  natural  selection. 
In  his  Dantin  and  After  D<irn-in  (1S92),  the 
most  clear  and  readable  expose^  of  the  doctrine, 
the  doctrine  is  thus  stated.  All  plants  and 
animals  are  perpetually  engaged  in  the  strug- 
gle for  existence.  This  strife  consists  in  the  fact 
that  in  every  generation  of  every  species  a  great 
many  more  individuals  are  born  than  can  pos- 
sibl.v  survive.  Now  nature  "selects  the  best  indi- 
viduals out  of  each  generation  to  live."  ".\nd 
not  only  so,  but  as  these  favored  individuals 
transmit  their  favorable  qualities  to  their  oil- 
spring  according  to  the  fixed  laws  of  heredity, 
it  further  follows  that  the  individuals  composing 
each  successive  generation  have  a  general  tend- 
ency to  be  better  suited  to  their  surroundings 
than  were  their  forefathers.  .  .  .  And  this 
follows  not  merely  because  in  every  generation 
it  is  only  the  'flower  of  the  flock'  that  is  allowed 
to  breed,  but  also  because,  if  in  any  generations 
some  new  and  beneficial  qualities  happen  tn  arise 
as  sliglit  variations  from  the  ancestral  type,  the.y 
will  (other  things  permitting)  be  seized  upon  by; 


NATURAL  SELECTION. 


382 


NATURAL  SELECTION. 


nntural  sikctioii,  and,  litiny  tiaiisiuitted  by 
heredity  to  subsequent  generations,  will  be  added 
to  the  previously  existing  type."  At  the  present 
day  an  increasing  number  of  evolutionists  do  not 
regard  natural  selection  as  an  active  cause,  but 
rather  as  the  result  of  the  action  of  a  number  of 
other  agents,  comprising  the  J.amarckian  factors 
of  change  of  environment,  use,  disuse,  isolation, 
and  so  on.  Undoubtedly,  as  tlie  result  of  compe- 
tition, animals  have  been  driven  to  migrate,  to 
adopt  new  habits,  and  thus  to  undergo  modifica- 
tion. Many  agree  with  Uerbcrt  iSpeucer  as  to 
the  inadequacy  of  natural  selection  to  account 
for  the  origination  of  new  forms.  From  probably 
a  third  to  nearly  one-half  of  the  species  of 
plants  and  animals  now  existing  are  climatic, 
local  forms,  resulting  from  the  direct  action  of 
changes  in  the  conditions  of  life,  such  as  climate, 
soil,  food,  and  the  like.  The  great  number  of 
species  of  parasitic  animals  are  the  result  of  the 
young  adopting  a  fixed  or  a  more  or  less  .sta- 
tionary mode  of  life.  Xatural  selecticm  is  in- 
operative in  the  case  of  blind  or  eyeless  cave  and 
deep-sea  animals. 

OujECTioxs  TO  Xatural  Selectio.v.  The  ob- 
jections now  being  urged  to  the  special  doctrine 
of  natural  selection  are  that,  ( 1 )  to  use  Herbert 
Spencer's  words,  it  is  'inadequate';  (2)  the  fa- 
vorable variation  may  be  destroyed  by  the 
swamping  etlects  of  crossing;  (3)  natural  selec- 
tion is  not  analogous  to  artilicial  selection;  na- 
ture is  continually  eliminating  monstrosities, 
sports,  variations,  instead  of  preserving  fliem; 
they  are  constantly  being  bred  out  in  wild  plants 
and  animals,  or  those  living  under  natural  con- 
ditions of  existence.  The  otter  or  ancon  sheep, 
which  umler  the  breeder's  care  and  watchfulness 
became  a  peculiar  variety,  when  permitted  to 
mingle  or  cross  with  normal  sheep  became  ex- 
tinct. Xatural  .selection  accounts  for  the  preser- 
vation rather  than  tlie  origination  of  new  or  in- 
ci])ient  forms  and  structures.  Vur  the  causes 
of  variation,  it  is  maintained,  we  must  look  to 
the  action  of  the  primary  factors  of  organic  evo- 
lution, namely  to  the  effects  of  changes  in  light, 
temperature,  heat,  moisture,  drj-ness,  altitude, 
food,  and  so  on. 

(4)  It  is  not  necessarily  the  fittest  or  most 
u.seful  structures  or  individuals  which  survive. 
Carnivorous  animals  in  seizing  or  swallowing  im- 
mense numbers  of  eggs,  embryos,  and  adult  ani- 
mals do  not  select  this  or  that  indiviilual.  but,  on 
the  contrary,  old  and  young,  the  fit  and  the  unfit, 
weak  and^  strong,  are  engulfed  in  the  maw  of  the 
whale  as  it  swims  fhrouali  a  shoal  of  minute 
Crustacea;  or  hundreds  of  small  fishes  are  indis- 
criminately, without  reference  to  their  fitness, 
swallowed  by  sharks.  So  with  aphiiies  existing 
in  hundreds  of  thousands  on  some  tree,  the  birds, 
like  old  Time  of  the  New  Kngland  Primer,  in- 
di>criniinatcly  pick  o(T  "all.  both  great  and 
small."  'Jhis  niatter  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest 
and  the  extinction  of  the  unfit  has  perhaps  been 
somewhat  exaggerated,  although  it  is  granted 
that  competition  acts  unceasingly  in  the  biologi- 
cal environment. 

(.'■>)  Darwinians  acknowledge,  as  does  Wallace 
in  his  nnnrifiifini,  that  no  one  ever  saw  a  spe- 
cies oriL'inated  bv  natural  selection;  Weismaim 
has  frankly  afiirmed  that  '"it  is  rcallv  very 
dinicull  to  imagine  this  process  of  natural  selec- 
tion in  its  details;  and  to  this  day  it  is  impos- 
eible  to  demonstrate  it  in  any  one  point"   (Con- 


temporary /iciicir,  1893,  p.  322).  Yet  a  number 
of  temperature  species,  races,  or  breeds  have  been 
cxi)erinu'ntally  produced  by  changes  of  tempera- 
ture. The  cases  of  seasonal  dimorphism  existing 
in  nature  have  been  exactly  paralleled  by  varia- 
tions in  moths  and  butterllies  subjected  in  the 
pupa  slate  to  cold,  or  extreme  heat;  and  dry- 
season  and  wet-season  as  well  as  summer  and 
winter  forms  have  been  produced  aitificially.  be- 
sides other  variations  supposed  to  be  extinct 
phylogenetic  species. 

((i)  The  view  peculiar  to  Darwinism  is  that 
some  individual  variation  was  nursed  and  pre- 
served, while  all  the  others  less  favorable  died. 
Some  naturalists  claim  that  the  better-founded 
view  is  that  of  Lamarck,  that  the  changes  of  en- 
vironment simultaneously  atTected  great  numbers 
of  individuals  in  a  given  region,  which  became 
modified  by  changes  of  climate,  and  so  on,  en 
masse.  This  certainly  appears  to  be  the  case  in 
local,  insular,  or  geogra])hical  races,  varieties,  or 
species.  What  affects  one  affects  all  the  indi- 
viduals in  a  given  area  isolated  b\-  mountain 
barriers  or  other  natural  boundaries.  Where  nat- 
ural selection  appears  to  act  is  in  the  case  of 
protective  mimicry.  The  initial  causes  are 
changes  in  the  amount  of  light,  of  shade,  heat, 
and  other  physical  agents,  yet  natural  selection 
appears  to  be  oi)erative  in  bringing  out  the  won- 
derful cases  of  mimicry  so  well  known.  (See 
MniiCKY.)  While  therefore  the  Xeo-T.amarckian 
readily  acknowledges  that  natural  .selection  re- 
sults after  new  variations  have  arisen,  there  are 
those  who,  like  the  Kev.  Mr.  Henslow,  maintain 
that  in  the  case  of  seedlings  natural  selection  is 
not  concerned  in  bringing  about  the  survival  of 
the  fittest,  adding:  ".l  seedling  survives  among 
others  soleli)  because  it  is  vigorous."  He  claims 
that  as  soon  as  a  large  number  of  seedlings  ap- 
pear above  groun<l,  "natural  selection  at  once 
steps  in,  so  to  say.  with  the  result  that  all  those 
with  too  weak  a  constitution  to  maintain  them- 
selves fail  to  withstand  the  struggle  for  existence 
and  to  come  to  maturity,  the  stnmger  plants  only 
proving  themselves  the  best  fitted  to  survive. 
This  process  of  selection,  however,  is  quite  in- 
dependent of  any  modifications  in  morphological 
structure,  by  which  'varieties'  or  subspecies  are 
alone  recognized."  The  fact  that  the  majority 
of  olTspring  always  perish  in  infancy  he  calls 
'const it ul  ional  select ii m.' 

(7)  Darwin  ex|)ressly  regarded  most  varia- 
tions as  indetinite.  chance,  fortuitous,  spontane- 
ous or  promiscuous,  'survival  of  the  fittest.'  as 
liomanes  expressed  it,  "bec<miing  the  winnowing 
fan,  whose  fimclion  it  is  to  eliminate  all  the  less 
fit  in  each  generation,  in  order  to  preserve  the 
good  grain.  <nit  of  which  to  constitute  the  next 
generation,  .^nd  as  this  process  is  supposed  to 
be  continuous  through  successive  generations, 
its  ai'tion  is  supposed  to  be  cumulative,  till  from 
the  eye  of  a  worm  there  is  gradually  develr}pcd 
the  eye  of  an  eaj;le."  dther  variations  Darwin 
called  'definite.'  In  the  chapter  of  his  f'arinlion 
of  .Animals  and  Plants  Vnder  Domesfiration.  en- 
titlerl  ••Direct  and  IVfinite  Action  of  the  External 
Conditions  of  Life."  he  says:  "By  the  term 
(h'finite  action,  as  tised  in  this  chapter.  T  mean 
an  action  of  such  a  nature  that,  when  many  in- 
dividuals of  (he  same  variety  are  exposed  during 
several  ;;enerations  to  any  ])artieular  clinnge  in 
their  conditions  of  life,  all  or  nearly  all  the  in- 
dividuals are  modified  in  the  same  manner." 


NATURAL  SELECTION. 


283 


NATURAL  THEOLOGY. 


Thi.s  appears  to  be  pi-actically  tlic  siiiiic  view  as 
that  whicfi  was  advaiiopd  bj'  Lamaick,  and  which 
is  caUiMl  by  Kinici'  '(iitliogcnosis'   (q.v.). 

Variation  as  the  result  of  obaiigod  conditions 
is  ill  nearly  every  case — perhaps  four-llflhs  of  all 
that  occur,  lluis  Icaviiio;  very  little  scope  for  the 
plaj"  of  chance  or  fortuitous  variations — due  to 
causes  of  wliich  we  are  ignorant.  Fortuitous 
variations,  in  fact,  are  an  almost  iic;;lif;ible  quan- 
tity. Hence  the  primary  postulate  of  natural 
.selection  that  variations  are  in  general  fortuitous 
is  in  the  nature  of  an  assumption,  and  not  based 
on  observed  facts.  As  the  result  of  recent  in- 
vestigation we  are  coming  more  and  more  to  the 
view  that  variation  in  general  is  the  result  of 
the  action  of  clianged  conditions  of  life,  condi- 
tions both  physical  and  biological,  and  that  nat- 
ural .selection  is  not  an  active  agent. 

(8)  Since  Darwin  called  attention  to  the  lack 
of  long  series  of  intermediate  links  between  sjie- 
cies,  naturalists-  have  been  more  and  more  in- 
clined to  the  liclief  that  such  series  of  connect- 
ing variations  have  never  existed,  but  that  na- 
ture makes  leaps,  that  species  often  arise  by  sud- 
den or  'quick'  or  saltatorial  evolution.  Certainly 
neither  in  the  Paleozoic  or  later  strata,  nor  at  the 
present  time,  do  we  observe  these  series  of  minute- 
ly graduated  numberless  anneetent  forms  postu- 
lated by  Darwin,  tliere  still  being  gaps  between 
the  known  connecting  links.  Hyatt.  \V.  H.  Dall, 
Galton.  De  Vrics.  and  many  others,  have  advo- 
cated the  view  of  the  rapid  or  sudden  modifica- 
tion of  struiture  involving  the  sudden  appear- 
ance of  species,  especially  in  Paleozoic  times. 
This  is  seen  by  the  results  of  the  examination  of 
the  Steinheini  forms  of  Planorbis.  and  of  the 
Tertiary  forms  of  Austrian  Paludina.  where  there 
are  often  wide  gaps  even  between  the  connecting 
links.  The  new  species  of  evening  primrose 
raised  by  De  \'ries  originated  suddenly,  w^ithont 
preparation  or  intermediate  forms.  Even  in  tlie 
great  variations  observed  by  C.  C.  Adams  in  the 
forms  of  the  fresh-water  snail  lo,  jieculiar  to 
the  upper  tributaries  of  the  Tennessee  River 
above  Chattanooga,  the  variations  are  evidently 
due  to  the  varying  nature  of  the  bottoms  of  the 
streams,  the  rapidity  of  the  current,  and  the 
forced  isolation  of  the  varieties,  the  different 
forms,  from  smooth  to  very  spiny,  being  closely 
correlated  to  the  varying  nature  of  each  stream, 
and  different  sections  of  each  stream  from  the 
headwaters  to  the  month.  In  this  case  there  is 
apparently  no  action  of  natural  selection,  but  a 
direct  response  to  the  environment,  and  the  gaps 
may  thus  be  either  marked  or  slight.  In  the 
hundreds  of  sub-varieties  of  Helix  iiritioralis,  the 
gaps  or  intervals  between  such  forms  are  dis- 
tinct and  well  marked. 

(9)  Xatural  selection  is  manifestly  inadequate 
to  account  for  the  origin  of  the  principal  types 
or  classes  of  plants  and  animals.  They  must 
have  appeared  with  comparative  suddenness,  as 
the  result  of  clianges  of  the  conditions  of  life, 
inducing  new  needs,  new  habits,  and  the  origin 
by  exercise  of  new  organs.  Thus  the  types  of 
co>lenterates,  echinoderms,  Crustacea,  flying  in- 
sects, amphibia,  reptiles,  birds,  and  mammals 
were  the  result  of  the  action  of  the  changed  en- 
vironment, of  effort,  use.  isolation,  and  heredity, 
at  a  time  when  the  ancestral  forms  were  more 
plastic  than  their  descendants. 

(10)  Xatural  selection,  it  has  been  claimed, 
could  not  have  begun  to  act  until  the  earth  had 

Vol.  XIV.— lu 


liccome  sufficiently  well  stocked  with  plant  and 
animal  life  to  afford  materials  for  competition 
and  survival  of  the  fittest.  The  first  forms  of 
life  must  have  arisen  through  the  operation  of 
the  Lamareki'an  factors.  In  conclusion  it  may 
be  said  that  it  still  remains  an  open  question 
whether  natural  selectiim  is  an  active  or  by  any 
means  universal  agent  in  evolution.  Finally  it 
may  be  observed  tliat  the  processes  of  evolution 
are  in  kind  like  those  of  simple  growth  of  the 
individual  organism,  and  due  to  the  same  factors, 
and  as  in  ontogenesis  there  is  no  one  predomi- 
nant factor,  so  in  phylogenesis  there  is  no  one 
predominant  factor,  no  preponderating  mechan- 
ism such  as  has  been  ascribed  to  natural  selec- 
tion. In  the  opinion  of  some  expert  working 
naturalists,  the  greater  number  of  known  species 
have  been  produced  without  its  aid.  It  is  not 
of  the  same  nature  as  artificial  selection.  Yet 
the  theory  is  widely  accepted,  and  by  its  aid  Dar- 
win converted  the  world  to  a  belief  in  evolution 
in  general. 

The  views  'widely  accepted'  as  to  the  relation 
of  natural  selection  to  the  other  factors  of  or- 
ganic evolution  may  be  tabulated  thus: 

I.  Primary  factors. 

Direct. — Changes  of  cosmical  environment, 
changes  of  climate,  light,  darkness,  tempera- 
ture, dryness,  and  humidity,  physical  and 
chemical  constitution  of  the  soil  and  of 
waters,  mechanical  .state  of  the  miliett,  winds, 
currents  of  water,  biological  environment, 
food,  competition,  parasitism,  symbiosis. 

Indirect. — P.eaction  against  cosmical  environ- 
mental conditions:  adaptation,  convergence, 
reaction  against  biological  conditions,  mim- 
icry. 

II.  Secondary  factors. 

Heredity,  vital  concurrence,  natural  and  sexual 
selection,  segregation,  geographical  isolation, 
amixia,  hybridity. 

For  bibliography,  see  Evolution. 

Germinal  Selection.  This  doctrine,  founded 
by  Weismann.  is  an  extension  of  the  general  idea 
of  natural  selection.  To  'superorganic'  selection, 
ordinary  'individual'  or  'personal'  selection, 
Roux's  theory  of  histological  ('histonal')  or  in- 
tracellular struggle  for  existence.  Weismann  has 
added  the  idea  of  a  struggle  among  the  hypo- 
thetical 'determinants'  within  the  germ,  or  ger- 
minal selection.  J.  A.  Thompson  has  indicated 
the  importance  of  a  form  of  struggle  lying  be- 
tween Roux's  histonal  selection  and  Weismann's 
germinal  selection,  namely,  the  struggle  between 
gametes  or  polential  gametes,  e.g.  between  young 
ova.  between  sperms,  even  between  ova  and 
sperms.  "A  vivid  realization  of  this  visible 
struggle."  says  Thompson,  "and  the  sometimes 
discriminate  selection  which  it  implies,  may  lead 
naturally  to  an  appreciation  of  germinal  selec- 
tion, which  deals  with  the  wholly  invisible."  Al- 
though opinions  may  differ  as  to  the  existence  of 
this  hypothetical  phase  of  selection,  the  writer 
jusk  quoted  claims  that  the  theory  "justifies 
itself  provisionally  as  a  formula  unifying  a  large 
numher  of  otherwise  unrelated  facts  of  inherit- 
ance."   See  \Veism.\nnism. 

NATURAL  THEOLOGY.  The  systematic 
arrangement  of  that  knowledge  as  to  God  and 
man  and  their  mutual  relation?  which  can  be 
gained  from  the  study  of  natiire  to  the  exclusion 
of   revelation.      Such,   at    least,   is   the   ideal  of 


NATUBAI,  THEOLOGY. 


284 


NATUSE-STUDY. 


natural  tli<:ol(i;.'\  ;iik1  its  ellorl.  as  it  was  pursued 
for  a  laryu  part  of  tlie  last  century.  But  it 
never  maintained  the  actual  independence  of 
revelation  which  it  was  supposed  to  maintain. 
The  proofs  for  the  existence  of  Gotl  (q.v. )  really 
presuppose  the  idea  of  a  holy  first  cause,  and 
this  idea  is  historically  derived  from  the  Chris- 
tian revelation.  Without  this  suggestion  the 
jiroofs  are  inconclusive.  But  with  this  allowance 
to  revelation,  natural  theology  has  a  place  and 
a  work  in  the  development  and  defense  of  Chris- 
tian doctrine.  It  exhibits  the  conformity  of  the 
iilea  of  God  to  the  highest  reason  of  man.  The 
proper  founder  of  the  discipline  among  English- 
speaking  theologians  was  .\rehdeacon  Paley,  who 
published  his  S'alural  Theoloyy  in  1802.  The 
merits  of  tliis  work  have  been  lately  overlooked, 
and  it  has  l>een  the  fashion  with  many  who  never 
read  him  to  sneer  at  Paley "s  arguments.  In  fact, 
the  lK)ok  was  a  very  able  one.  and  anticipated 
the  lines  of  reply  by  which  the  tirst  attacks  of  the 
more  recent  jjropounders  of  evolution  ui)on  the 
existence  of  God  have  been  met.  In  .\merica 
the  rationalizing  spirit  of  the  New  England 
Theology  (<|.v. )  led  it  to  lay  much  weight  upon 
natural  theology,  and  it  was  generally  ostensibly 
made  the  basis  of  the  system  of  tlieology  by 
theologians  of  this  school,  and  by  most  others, 
during  a  large  ]iart  of  the  century.  The  ar- 
rangement of  topics  in  the  l)est  forms  of  the 
ecience  were  somewhat  as  follows:  Begin- 
ning was  made  with  the  prin(i|)le  of  causation, 
which  was  established  as  a  necessary  truth,  or 
primal  intuition  of  the  human  mind.  Then  came 
the  arguments  for  the  existence  of  God,  predomi- 
nantly or  exclusively  the  n  ponterinri  arguments. 
for  a  contriver,  governor,  creator.  ])reserver.  and 
moral  governor.  Then  followed  the  natural  at- 
tributes of  God.  In  making  the  transition  to 
the  moral  ittributes.  it  was  sometimes  the  custom 
to  interpose  the  doctrine  of  the  innuortality  of 
the  soul,  and  discussions  as  to  the  consistency 
of  the  existence  of  sin  in  the  world  with  the 
divine  gOixlness,  in  order  antecedently  to  remove 
the  most  difficult  objections  to  the  divine  benevo- 
lence. Where  the  moral  attribtites  of  God  were 
reduced  to  the  one  attribute  of  benevolence,  it 
was  next  customary  to  introduce  the  theory  of 
human  virtue,  and  to  argue  from  benevolence  as 
the  ultimate  object  of  the  oliligation  of  the 
human  conscience  to  the  nature  of  the  divine 
virtue,  since  man  is  made  in  the  image  of  God. 
Finally,  the  benev<dence  of  God  having  been 
proved,  the  argument  could  advance  to  the  Scrip- 
tures, the  inspiration  of  which  was  proved  by 
the  need  of  num  for  revelation,  and  the  certainty 
that  a  benevolent  God  would  supply  so  grievous 
a  need.  This  line  of  discussi<in  was  largely 
broken  up  at  the  end  of  the  century  by  infbienccs 
emanating  from  the  more  subjective  schools  of 
German  theology,  especially  from  l''rank  and 
Ritschl.  Besides  Palev.  consult:  Chadbourne, 
}i(itur<il  Thrnlofiji  (Boston.  IHtlT);  I'Tint,  Thrism 
(Edinburgh,  1878)  ;  id.,  AntiTheistic  Theories 
(ib.,  187!!);  .Innct,  Final  Catixrs  ( Eng.  trans., 
ib.,  1878)  ;  Browne,  Stmliv/i  in  Thcuim  (New- 
York,  1879):  id.,  Plnlnsophu  of  Theism  (ib., 
1887):  Harris.  The  f'hilosophiral  Unsis  of  The- 
ism (ib.,  ISS;))  :  Fisher,  flrotiiiils  of  Theistie  and 
Chrislirni  It.lirf   (ib..  18S3). 

NATURAL    TONES.      .\    nnisical    tenn    ap- 
plieil    to    those   tones   of   wind    instruments    that 


are  produced,  williout  altering  t)ic  length  of  the 
tube  (by  valves  or  slides),  by  increased  or  di- 
minished force  of  the  air-current.  The  tones  thus 
l)rodueed  are  always  overtones  of  the  funda- 
mental tone.  But  this  fundamental  tone  can  be 
produced  only  iipon  instruments  having  a  wide 
bore  in  |>roportion  to  their  length,  like  the  tuba 
or  trombone ;  whereas  tlie  fundamental  cannot 
be  proihiced  upon  the  trumpet,  which,  conse- 
quently, yields  onlv  the  higher  overtones  as  nat- 
ural tones.     !Sec  H.vh.mo.nics. 

NATURE  PRINTING.  A  process  by  which 
engr:ivings  or  |ilati-s  are  produced  bv  taking 
direct  impressions  of  the  objects  themselves,  and 
printing  from  them.  The  process  was  invented 
in  184!)  bv  .\lois  Auer.  director  of  the  State 
printing  estalilishment  of  the  .\ustrian  Empire, 
and,  though  very  simple,  it  cannot  be  a])plicd  to 
any  objects  except  those  with  tolerably  Hat 
surfaces,  such  as  dried  and  pressed  plants,  em- 
broidery and  lace,  and  a  very  few  animal  pro- 
ductions. The  (il>ject  is  place<l  between  a  plate 
of  steel  and  another  of  lead,  l)oth  of  which  are 
smooth,  and  polished.  They  are  then  drawn 
through  a  pair  of  rollers  under  considerable 
pressure,  and  when  the  plates  an;  separated  it 
is  found  that  a  most  beautiful  and  perfect  im- 
pression of  the  object  has  been  made  in  the 
leaden  plate.  This  may  be  used  <lirectl.v  as  an 
engraved  plate,  if  only  a  very  few  impressions 
are  wanted :  but  it  is  too  soft  to  resist  the 
action  of  the  presses  for  practical  ])urposes:  a 
facsimile  to  be  used  as  the  printing  plate  is 
made  in  copi)er  b.v  the  electrotype  ])rocess.  The 
inventor  published  a  description  of  his  work  in 
1854  at  Vienna,  in  which  is  given  a  detailed 
account  of  (be  method. 

NATURE-STUDY.  A  modern  development 
of  the  movenu  nt  of  elementary  education  toward 
the  study  of  real  objects  rather  than  synibols. 
It  arose  in  resjionsc  to  a  demand  voiced  as  early 
as  the  year  1845  in  this  country  by  Horace  Mann 
(q.v.)  for  early  training  in  the  inductive  method 
of  thought  and  in  the  field  of  nature. 

-Vccording  to  generally  accepted  ideas  on 
naturestud.v.  it  uuist  concern  itself  with  the 
common  objects  of  the  child's  environment.  These 
the  child  nuisl  be  led  to  examine,  to  work  with 
himself.  The  work  must  be  carried  on.  so  far  as 
possible,  to  strengthen  independence  of  thought 
and  judgment.  The  begiimings  of  the  study 
must  be  based  u)ion  the  innnediatc  surroundings 
of  the  child,  and  the  field  of  in(|uiry  may  l)e 
extended  further  abroad  as  the  later  years  of 
the  scluiol  are  approached.  The  tasks  in  the 
earlier  years  should  be  chielly  observational. 
Xevertheless,  the  experimental  method  of  study 
should  not  be  neglected.  .\s  far  as  possible, 
luganie  forms  should  be  regarded  as  living 
things  capable  of  activity  and  change;  the  point 
of  view  should  therefore  be  dynamic,  a  matter 
of  great  pedagogic  importance.  The  i)lan  of  the 
work  may  properly  be  made  out  so  as  to  include 
the  connnoner  animals  and  plants,  and  the  every- 
day phenomena  of  inorganic  nature.  Duplication 
of  work  should  be-  avoided  by  increasing  the 
dillicnlty  of  the  problems  and  basing  them  on 
diirereiit  material.  It  is  better  to  study  the 
materials  comparatively  as  far  as  possible,  .so 
that  pupils  may  learn  to  discriminate  and  to 
form  general  notions.  The  exhaustive  study  of 
one  type  is  of   nuich   less   value.      Outdoor   work 


NATUBE-STTJDY. 


285 


NATURE-WORSHIP. 


sliDuId  be  done:  in  addition  to  f,'iudeiiiiip,  studies 
of  I  lie  hal)its  and  haunts  of  animals,  the  appear- 
and' and  disappearance  of  the  birds,  the  relations 
of  insects  to  phint  life,  the  appearance  of  tl'ees 
in  suniMier  and  winter  dress,  and  numerous 
other  similar  topics  may  form  the  basis  of 
study.  It  is  highly  im|)ortant  that  the  materials 
should  be  abundant,  that  the  teacher  be  not  too 
closely  tied  to  a  detailed  plan  of  work,  and  that 
he  be  resourceful  in  the  matter  of  making  the 
most  of  what  is  available.  It  is  important,  too, 
that  the  pupils  should  provide  their  own  ma- 
terial, and  to  this  end  both  the  excursion  and  the 
garden  should  be  turned  to  account.  It  would 
seem  best,  on  the  whole,  to  devote,  at  any  rate, 
two  periods  (one  to  two  hours)  a  week,  or  its 
equivalent,  throughout  the  course.  The  school 
garden  has  in  some  eases  been  provided  for  after- 
school  hours,  and  this  seems  to  be  a  reasonable 
adjustment  of  the  matter. 

t'onsult:  Carss.  Course  in  Xatiire  Study  (in 
the  Horace  Mann  School)  ;  Teachers  College 
llcvard,  vol.  i.,  No.  2,  for  March,  1900  (New 
York,  with  an  e.xtensive  bibliography)  ;  Miller, 
Course  in  Xature  Study  for  I'uhlic  Schools 
(Ithaea,  HIOO,  to  be  obtained  through  the 
State  Secretary!  ;  Hodge.  Xature  Study  and  Life 
(New  York.  1902)  :  .Jaekman.  Xature  Study  for 
the  Common  Schools  (ib.,  1894)  ;  id.,  Xature 
Study  for  the  Grades  (ib.,  1899)  ;  Lange,  Hand- 
hook  of  Xature  Study  (ib..  1899)  ;  Scott,  Nature 
Study  and  the  Child  (Boston,  1901)  ;  Wilson, 
Xature  Study  in  the  Elementary  School  (New 
Y'ork,  1899)  ;  Bailey,  Garden  Making  (ib.,  1901). 

NATURE-WORSHIP.  The  worship  of  all 
objective  phenomena  which  man  regards  as  liable 
to  hurt  or  help  him,  and  which  even  when  life- 
less are  deprecated  or  invoked  as  powers  hav- 
ing volition.  Nature-worship  is  based  on 
spiritism,  but  this,  not  being  in  itself  a  religion, 
but  a  philosophy,  does  not  imply  \xorship.  In 
many  cases  the  savage  simply  regards  rocks  and 
trees  as  volitive  powers  only  when  they  act  in  a 
way  suggesting  volition.  So  long  as  a  stone,  for 
example,  does  not  interfere  with  him,  he  is  apt 
to  disregard  it  altogether:  but  when  it  injures 
liim.  or  he  wishes  to  use  it.  he  assumes,  like  a 
<-hild.  that  it  possesses  spiritual  power  expressed 
by  will.  Whether  then  the  savage  deprecates  or 
placates,  the  cult  of  such  an  object  is  a  religious 
phase.  Even  in  the  lowest  stages  of  human 
evolution,  it  may  happen  that  some  one  object, 
like  the  village  tree  of  the  Aryan,  or  the  clan 
mountain  of  the  Munda,  or  the  family  snake  of 
some  Dravidians,  is  regarded  as  tutelary,  and 
offerings  and  prayers  are  made  to  it.  although 
other  natural  phenomena  are  either  ignored  or 
treated  only  as  inimical  spirits.  This  may  be  said 
to  be  a  stage  between  dem(molatry  and  nature- 
worship,  though  a  more  general  cult  of  phe- 
nomena usually  accompanies  the  worship  of  any 
one  side  of  nature.  Nature-worship,  manifold 
as  nature,  shows  aspects  which  may  be  grouped 
in  categories,  but  in  no  classification  can  a  sharp 
line  be  drawn  between  the  different  divisions.  In 
arranging  the  objects  of  worship  only  a  rough 
classification,  therefore,  will  here  be  attempted. 
As  parts  of  objective  nature  on  a  par  with  others 
must  be  included  both  man  and  animals,  though 
these  are  often  put  into  special  categories. 

Worship  of  Elements.    As  constituents  of  all 
nature  the  elements  are   worshiped   by   philoso- 


phers, but  it  is  qviite  iloublful  whether,  as  has 
often  been  claimed,  the  elements  were  ever  wor- 
shiped as  such  by  savages,  or  even  by  more  ad- 
vanced people  till  a  late  period  in  their  ilevelop- 
ment.  Mother  Earth  is  a  very  early  divinity,  but 
in  this  case  she  is  not  the  element,  but  a  local 
ground,  generally  a  hill.  Water  is  certainly 
not  worshiped  as  divine  till  long  after  the  local 
stream  or  spring  is,  or  contains,  a  divinity. 
Thus  the  American  Indians  worshiped  Niagara 
as  a  spirit,  but  did  not  regard  water  as  a 
divinity.  Ganges  and  Tiber  were  local  tutelary 
gods  long  before  abstract  (elemental)  water  was 
revered.  So  air  is  unknown  as  an  early  divinity, 
but  as  wind  personified  it  was  worshiped  as 
Huracan  in  America  and  as  Wodan  in  Germany. 
East  Wind  is  a  modern  malevolent  Hindu  god, 
while  to  the  Mexicans  the  East  Wind  was  a 
a  beneficent  deity.  Even  fire  is  revered  as  a  local 
form  before  fire  in  general  is  regarded  as  divine. 
Of  all  the  elements,  fire  has  been  most  universally 
worshiped,  partly  on  account  of  its  force  and 
mystery  of  birth  in  threefold  form,  on  earth,  in 
the  sky,  and  in  the  air  (lightning),  and  partly 
because  of  its  purificatory  nature.  The  cult  of 
this  element  became  the  chief  religious  observance 
of  Mazdeism.  Mystic  association  between  mental 
and  physical  attributes  helped  to  increase  the 
reverence  for  elemental  gods.  Fire  and  force 
were  associated,  water  ancl  wisdom,  etc.  The  fish 
god  of  Babylonia  and  the  fish  god  of  Polynesia' 
both  tA'pify  the  union  of  water  and  wisdom,  found 
also  in  the  worship  of  the  Hindu  Varuna.  See 
Astrolatry,  below. 

LiTHOLATRY.  There  are  in  all  four  forms  of 
litholatry  or  stone-worship,  the  stone  appearing 
to  be  in  general  one  of  the  earliest  forms  of 
divinity.  (1)  Of  these  the  most  primitive,  judg- 
ing by  the  fact  that  it  is  found  among  the 
lowest  savages,  is  the  worship  expressed  by  show- 
ing religious  (superstitious)  awe  for  any  re- 
mai-kable  stone.  There  are  three  varieties:  (a) 
the  worship  of  a  huge  rock.  s<arcely  to  be  diflfer- 
entiated  from  the  worship  of  a  mountain  (see 
below)  ;  (b)  the  worship  of  a  stone  peculiar  in 
shape,  especially  if  it  suggests  a  i-esemblance 
to  the  shape  of  an  animal  or  of  man:  (c)  the 
worship  of  a  heavenly  stone.  All  three  varie- 
ties are  found  among  the  Finns  and  Lapps, 
among  the  negroes  of  Africa,  and  among  the 
South  Sea  Islanders.  To  a  less  degree  this  form 
of  worship  is  shared  by  the  Peruvians,  but  with 
theiB  it  has  been  overlaid  with  later  forms.  In 
antiquity,  remarkable  stones,  especially  aerolites, 
were  worshiped  by  the  Greeks  and  Komans.  and 
they  are  to-day  an  object  of  reverence  to  all 
savages — as,  for  example,  the  Eskimo — while 
even  among  civilized  people  the  'Thunder-stone' 
is  regarded  with  more  or  less  superstitious  awe. 
Any  strangely  shaped  stone  is  reverenced  by  the 
Hindus,  especially  those  in  South  India,  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Hebrides,  of  the  Pyrenees,  and 
by  the  redskins,  to  mention  oidy  a  few  of  the 
races  that  worship  stones.  The  Semites.  Greeks, 
and  Romans  in  antiquity,  and  the  Teutons  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  all  worshiped  stones  by  anointing 
them,  making  offerings  ( sometimes  human  sacri- 
fices), and  saying  prayers  to  them.  (2)  By  im- 
perceptible degrees  the  plain  stone  becomes  an 
idol;  that  is,  it  represents  a  divinity  or  a  divine 
power.  Two  forms  may  be  distinguished:  (a) 
when  a  fetish-stone  is  discarded  from  personal 
use,    but    is    preserved    as    imbued    with    divine 


NATURE-WORSHIP. 


2S6 


NATURE- WORSHIP. 


(mysterious)  power  in  an  African  'godliut.' 
This  sliaiwlcss  elfigj-  leads  to  (b)  pure  idol- 
worsliip;  that  is.  where  the  ethgy  is  due  to 
an  attempt  to  shape  tlie  stone  to  a  divine 
form  human  or  beastly  in  attributes.  Images 
of  gods  are  recognized  by  Homer  and  seem 
to  be  referred  to  in  the  Rig-Vcda.  but  these 
works  represent  an  advanced  stage  of  culture. 
Idols  are  not  found  among  the  lowest  races. 
Savages,  such  as  the  Bushmen,  Patagonians.  Es- 
kimo, Andamanese,  have  no  idols.  But  theists 
like  the  Finns  and  Pol.vnesians  are  idohiters.  as 
are  still  more  advanced  races,  the  -Me.vicans, 
Kgj'ptians,  Babylonians,  (ireeks,  and  Hindus. 
(3)  The  fetish',  often  a  stone,  is  worshiped. 
.\ecident.  precedent,  any  peculiarity  prompt- 
ing the  fancy  that  the  object  will  be  benefi- 
cent is  sufficient  to  make  a  fetish.  When  no 
longer  regarded  as  useful  the  fetish  is  flung 
away  or  laid  aside  in  a  god-hut.  The  fetish-wor- 
shiper scarcely  makes  a  distinction  between  the 
divine  ])Ower  in  a  fetish  and  the  inherent  divinity 
of  a  fetish.  There  are  certain  clans  in  Africa 
whicli  believe  that  there  is  a  divine  power  in.  but 
separate  from,  the  object;  but  most  fetish- 
worshipers  probably  make  no  distinction  between 
the  power  and  the  "thing.  (See  Feti.shism.)  (4) 
A  stone  is  often  worshiped  also  either  as  a  totem 
or  as  the  result  of  totemism  (q.v. ).  The  latter 
stage  of  worsliip  is  so  far  advanced  beyond 
totemism  as  to  be  a  new  form  of  nature-worship. 
It  arises  in  this  way.  When  a  totemist  sacrifices 
to  his  totem  he  sheds  blood  near  or  on  a  stone 
which  was  originally  the  temporary  habitat  of 
the  ancestral  spirit'.  The  stone  itself  in  the 
first  stage  is  revered  only  incidentally ;  but  when 
successive  generations  have  thus  hallowed  a  stone, 
the  divinity  Incomes  gradually  extended  to  the 
stone  itself,  and  the  ])rimitive  tomb-altar  becomes 
itself  a  thing  prayed  to  as  a  divinity. 
So  the  Australian  Cliiiringa  sticks  are  revered 
as  homes  of  the  ancestor  spirits  and  the 
redskin  totem-poles  are  themselves  divinities.  So 
bun-stones.  symbols  of  tlie  sun,  such  as  the  white 
sun-stone  of  the  Scandinavians,  become  divinities, 
even  when  the  synibol  does  not  (as  is  often  the 
ca.se)  merely  conceal  an  older  form  of  worship. 
But  many  worshiped  stones  were  originally  only 
monuments.  The  long-famed  .Tupiter  Lapis  or 
'stone  .Tupiter'  is  now  known  not  to  have  been  a 
'stone  god,"  a  fact  which  indicates  that  other 
stone  gods  also  may  have  been  misinterpreted. 
As  the  huge  stone  is  revered,  so  is  a  huge  cliff 
or  mountain,  generally  as  a  local  tutelary  divin- 
ity. Mountains  are  believed  to  have  an  in- 
dividual life  and  may  beget  offspring  on  rivers, 
being  thus  regarded  as  divine  powers,  though 
they  usually  take  animal  forms  when  acting  as 
animate  beings.  Very  old  and  widespread  is  the 
belief  that  a  man's  indiviilual  life  may  be  de- 
posited in  a  mountain  or  tree,  and  be  destroyed 
only  when  the  divine  object  is  overthrown  by 
a  higher  divinity. 

DENnROLATBY.  Under  this  word  mnyhe  included 
the  'worship  of  trees.'  in  the  strict  sense,  and  the 
worship  of  plants,  phytolatry,  in  the  general 
sense  of  worship  of  objects  of  the  vegetable 
world.  The  terms,  however,  are  not  quite  coter- 
minous, since  plants  are  revered  only  as  totems 
or  as  useful  objects,  while  trees  are  worshiped 
for  a  variety  of  reasons,  either  because  they  are 
totems,  or  because  they  arc  useful,  or  beautiful, 
or  fearsome,  or  as   symbols.      Tn   this   pliase   of 


worship  it  is  .sometimes  difiioult  to  decide  whether 
the  divinity  resides  in  the  oliject  or  is  the  object. 
Both  views  were  lield  by  dilfereiil  members  of 
some  races.  Thus  this  question  became  a  sub- 
ject of  debate  between  the  Brahnians  and  the 
Buddhists.  The  former  held  what  is  undoubtedly 
the  more  primitive  belief,  that  tlie  tree  itself  was 
an  animate  person.  The  Buddhist  held,  as  did 
tlie  tireek,  that  there  was  a  spirit  (dryad)  in 
the  tree.  The  worship  of  some  form  of  the 
vegetable  creation  was  general  in  antiquity,  and 
has  existed  almost  to  the  present  day  in  Europe. 
Only  a  few  hundred  years  ago  the  Teutons,  for 
example,  worshiped  plants  and  trees,  as  they 
did  rocks,  rivers,  and  mountains.  Traces  of  this 
belief  are  still  visible  in  popular  rites  and  su- 
])erstitions.  Both  men  and  gods  were  supposed 
to  have  sprung  from  trees.  Thtis  the  .\lgonquin 
Indians  and  the  Teutons  both  regarded  the  ash 
as  the  divine  progenitor  of  men.  and  the  mother 
date-palm  was  worshiped  by  the  Semites,  as  other 
mother  trees  are  to-day  worshiped  by  the  Dra- 
vidians.  There  are  four  varieties  of  plant  and 
tree  worship.  The  vegetable  god.  tree,  or  plant 
is  revered  (a)  for  its  peculiar  virtues  or  quali- 
ties. Thus  in  India  the  snmn  plant  was  regarded 
as  divine  because  of  its  intoxicating  qualities,  as 
is  the  ciica  plant  in  Peru :  and  the  modern  peyotr 
cult  of  Mexico  has  the  same  origin.  Or  (b)  the 
vegetable  is  a  totem,  examples  of  which  are 
found  in  the  divine  corn  and  cocoanut  of  America 
and  Samoa,  respectively.  Thirdly  (c),  the  tree 
or  ])lant  is  worshiped  as  a  spirit  in  the  material, 
as  is  the  case  in  dryad-worshi|i  in  Greece  and 
India.  Kinally  (dl.  the  spirit  revered  is  that  of 
reproduction  as  sliown  in  the  vegetable,  of  which 
class  are  the  corn  mother  of  the  Teutons  an<l  the 
mother  date-iialin  of  the  Babylonians.  To  these 
must  be  added  the  sacred  grove,  as  revered  by 
Dravidians,  Teutons.  Greeks.  Romans,  etc.  The 
trees  of  the  grove  are  collectively  sacred  and 
may  be  individually  divine:  but  the  grove  itself 
is  really  a  temple  of  divinities,  not  a  divinity 
prr  fsc.  Tree-marriages,  still  common  among  the 
wild  tribes  of  India,  are  a  s\irvival  of  totemism. 
To  avoid  the  ill  hu'k  of  a  third  marriage,  even 
civilized  Hindus  wed  a  tree  as  a  third  wife. 

TiiKKi<)i..\TKYOR  Zooi-.VTRY.  Animal  godsalready 
have  human  characteristics  and  are  quite  anthro- 
popathic.  Love  or  fear,  as  in  the  ease  of  binnan 
gods,  prompts  that  greater  respect  which  with 
savages  constitutes  worship.  This  is  especially 
easy  in  the  case  of  animals,  for  savages  establish 
no  barrier  of  soul  and  reason  as  peculiar  posses- 
sions of  man  between  themselves  and  beasts.  A 
very  early  belief  in  metempsychosis  (q.v.)  taught 
primitive  man  to  believe  that  beast  soul  and 
human  soul  were  interchangealde.  Thus  the  tiger 
is  worshiped  not  only  from  fear,  but  because  a 
special  tiger  is  often  Itelieved  to  possess  the  soul 
of  a  de])arted  chief.  Some  animals  become  divine 
as  totems,  liut  not  all.  Ordinary  pests  are  depre- 
cated by  prayer  and  offerings.  Some  animals 
are  wiirshipi'd  merely  becatise  they  are  useful.. 
The  best  (leveloped  systems  of  thiriolatry  are 
found  among  the  Egyptians.  Babylonians,  an(f 
American  Indians.  But  some  of  the  monstrous 
l>easta  of  Babylon  are  adored  through  symbolism 
rather  than  because  of  totemistie  survivals. 
Reverence  alone  prompts  man  to  make  the  image 
of  god-hensts  more  powerful  and  mysterious  than 
the  natural  boasts,  and  .some  of  the  beast  forms 
are  clearly  symbolic,  as  in  the  portrayal  of  the 


NATUBE-WORSHIP. 


287 


NATURE- WORSHIP. 


sun  as  a  swift  horse  or  as  a  winged  bull,  or  of 
sijriii<»  as  a  winged  snake.  Of  all  forms  of  beast- 
worship,  ophiolatry  or  serpent-worship  seems  to 
'  be  must  widespread.  Other  animals,  horse,  ass, 
reindeer,  bear,  tiger,  boar,  together  widi  a  few 
cases  of  divine  fishes  are  worshiped  by  dilfercnt 
raecs;  but  the  snake  appears  to  have  been  wor- 
.shi])ed  in  every  land,  either  as  a  soul-reeeptacle  or 
friendly  house-snake,  in  whose  body  resides  the 
soul  of  an  ancestor  (as  in  Rome  and  India),  or  as 
a  healing  and  mantie  power  of  wisdom  (as  in  the 
cults  of  Babylon  and  Greece) ,  or  as  an  evil  spirit, 
world-snake  or  dragon.  The  negroes  of  Africa,  the 
Dravidians  and  redskins  among  savages,  the 
Mexicans  and  Peruvians  on  a  liigher  ])lane,  and 
the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Semites  (in- 
cluding Hebrews)  regarded  the  snake  in  one  or 
another  of  these  forms  as  a  divine  animal.  Some- 
times the  same  snake  is  conceived  difTerently 
at  different  times.  In  Sayce's  opinion,  Nina,  the 
Babylonian  serjient  daughter  of  Ea,  the  water- 
god  of  Hisd<un,  was  at  first  typical  only  of  divine 
wisdom,  and  the  transference  to  the  conception 
of  the  guile-loving  evil  serpent  was  due  to  the 
influence  of  the  parallel  conception  of  Tiamat, 
the  dragon  monster  of  chaos  and  evil.  The  drag- 
on of  the  Eddas  is  evil,  he  is  the  Midgardswurni 
that  embodies  destruction,  like  the  rain-prevent- 
I  ing  dragon  Vritra  of  the  Rig-Veda,  but  beside 
I  the  latter  stands  the  figure  of  the  'Dragon  of 
the  Deep,'  to  whom  the  Vedic  Aryan  prays  as 
to  a  beneficent  divinity.  So  Apollo  as  a  healing 
god  is  associated  with  .-Esculapius's  snake,  but 
destroys  the  Pytho  dragon.  Among  the  Jlon- 
goloid  Naga  tribes,  as  among  the  Chinese,  the 
dragon-snake  is  a  world-divinity.  Special  aspects 
of  snake-worship  are  the  close  connection  with 
tree  and  phallic  worship,  as  found  among  certain 
Dravidian  tribes,  who  worship  snakes  with  phallic 
rites,  and  the  ditch-snake  or  mound-snake,  a  sym- 
bolic snake  among  the  American  wild  tribes. 
Further,  and  perhaps  most  fundamental,  is  to  be 
noticed  the  close  connection  between  snakes  and 
treasures,  which  they  secrete  or  guard,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Hesperides  and  many  fairv-stories  in 
the  West  and  East.  So  in  Egypt,  Osiris  in  snake- 
form  is  associated  with  wealth,  as  is  the  Chaldean 
Hoa.  This  trait  may  be  due  to  the  fdet  that 
serpents  actually  hoard  jewels  and  other  bright 
objects.  Probabl.y  the  beauty,  poison,  and  un- 
canny motion  of  the  snake  all  combined  to 
make  it  revered.  Under  zoijlatry  must  also  be 
noticed  the  worship  of  birds,  according  to  more 
or  less  definite  racial  lines  of  demarcation.  Thus 
the  dove  is  Semitic,  and  is  Greek  onlv  as  belong- 
ing to  a  Semitic  deity:  the  goose  is  the  most 
universall.v  revered  bird,  being  worshiped  Ijy  the 
Egyptians  (sacred  to  the  god  Seb),  the  Japanese, 
the  early  Britains.  the  Romans,  and  especially 
by  the  Dravidians,  from  the  remotest  antiquity. 
Among  the  Arvans  it  .yielded  to  the  eagle  (also 
the  Hittite  emblem),  but  it  is  still  regarded  as 
emblematic  of  the  highest  soul  in  the  races  to 
the  east  of  India  (Chinese  and  .lapanese). 
whereas  in  India  itself  it  has  been  displaced 
among  the  higher  classes  by  the  swan.  The  cock 
also  was  widely  revered  and  was  sacred  to  Mars, 
^seulapius,  Osiris,  and  to  the  Hindu  battle-god, 
Kartikeya. 

Anthropoi^atrt.  Man  is  worshiped  like  other 
animals.  Some  forms  of  anthropolatry.  however, 
represent  decadent  aspects  of  theism.  Thus  in 
Finland  and   in   Persia  the  national   heroes   are 


ilccayed  goils,  and  get  a  sort  of  secondary  rever- 
ence iu  their  new  guise.  Ordinarily  any  hero  or 
great  man  is  revered  as  being  more  powerful 
than  other  men,  and  in  the  primitive  mind  wor- 
ship and  respect  are  synonymous.  So  priests  are 
divine  and  all  kings  ipso  facto  are  divine  in 
India,  China,  and  Japan  to-day  as  they  became 
in  Rome,  and  are  said  to  be  among  the  South  Sea 
Islanders.  Sacrifices  made  to  men  who  have  be- 
come gods  are  recognized  in  the  old  Hindu  law- 
books. The  only  rarity  in  anthropolatry  is  where 
the  man-god  conception  embraces  former  beast- 
gods  and  is  enlarged  to  that  of  an  all-god.  Thus 
Krishna  in  India  amalgamates  with  animal  ava- 
tars of  Vishnu  to  make  an  all-god  who  appeals  in 
human  or  aninuil  form. 

AsTROLATRY.  This  'worship  of  the  heavenly 
bodies'  is  a  general  term  (here  including  for 
convenience  the  worship  of  heaven  itself)  for 
what  used  to  be  called  Sabaism.  Sun  and  moon 
gods  are  not  always  early  divinities.  Thev  were 
unknown,  for  example,  to  the  older  Roman  cult, 
though  the  Romans  worshiped  earth  and  sky. 
The  Arvan  Hindu  worsliiped  the  s\in  before  he 
did  the  moon;  the  Dravidian  feared  the  sun  as  a 
malignant  demon:  while  his  Miuida  neighbor 
worsliiped  the  same  power  as  a  beneficent 
divinity.  The  Babylonians  perhaps  worshiped 
Sin,  the  moon,  before  Bel,  the  sun ;  the  Hot- 
tentots worshiped  the  moon  and  not  the  sun, 
though  they  revered  Dawn.  On  the  other 
hand,  reversing  the  Roman  order,  the  Aztecs 
and  American  Indians  wor.shiped  the  sun  and  not 
the  sky.  There  is  no  general  principle  of  pro- 
gression, such  as  has  often  been  sought.  The 
stars,  again,  are  in  some  cases  the  last  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  to  be  worshiped:  in  other  eases, 
a  stellar  m.ytholog.y  antedates  solar  or  lunar  gods. 
It  is  especially  in  connection  with  star-worship 
that  the  wildest  theories  of  mythologists  have 
been  evolved.  According  to  some  scholars,  all 
Semitic  and  Aryan  mythology  reverts  to  star- 
worship,  and  this  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  chief  religion  of  the  Accadians  and  Hit- 
tites.  about  whose  religion,  however,  we  know  in 
fact  very  little.  It  is  often  claimed  that  sun- 
worship  is  posterior  to  ghost-worship,  and  in 
some  cases  it  is  probable  tliat  a  fully  developed 
sun-worship  was  superimposed  upon  a  more 
primitive  cult,  as  among  the  Aztecs;  but  the 
Polynesian  sun-light  spirit  is  as  antique  as 
any  god  in  the  South  Pacific,  and  sun-wor- 
ship appears  not  only  among  the  earliest  Hindus, 
but  also  among  the  savage  Jlongoloid  ilunda 
tribes.  Probabl.y  in  some  races  sun-worship 
was  as  early  as  any  form  of  nature-worship,  and 
may  be  as  old  as  ghost-worship.  The  beginnings 
of  the  worship  of  heavenly  phennnu^na  ma.v  be 
seen  even  among  the  Central  Australians,  who  in- 
voke the  sun  and  liglitning  as  living  ])owers.  The 
most  remarkable  development  of  sun-wor<hip  is 
to  be  found  among  the  Mexicans  and  the  Peru- 
vians, where  it  has  eclipsed  all  other  forms:  the 
Babylonians,  where  the  highest  gods  were  identi- 
fied with  the  sun  and  moon :  the  Dravidians, 
among  whom,  as  among  the  related  .Mongolians, 
sun-worship  is  generally  found;  and  the  Persians, 
especiall.y  in  the  Mithracult  developed  out  of 
decadent  Zoroastrianism.  In  Greece  sun-worship 
is  represented  by  Apollo,  and  in  India  by  Vishnu, 
but  in  a  rather  perfunctor.y  wa.v.  Neither  of 
these  gods  can  be  said  to  be  worshiped  as  the 
sun,  tiiough  both   retain  traces  of  their  earlier 


NATTTBE- WORSHIP. 


288 


NAUGATTTCK. 


conception  in  the  disk  symbol  and  mythological 
I'haractciization  as  arrow-shooting,  pest-bringing, 
and  yet  kindly  disposed  divinities.  Tlie  sun  is 
represented  in  many  religions,  as  in  India,  under 
the  figure  of  a  bull  or  horse,  or  bird,  or  as  riding 
in  a  car  dragged  by  seven  steeds,  or  as  having 
rays.  .Sun  and  moon  are  the  goal  of  souls  in 
several  religions,  such  as  the  Polynesian  an<l 
Hindu. 

All  worship  of  phenomena  tends  to  personifi- 
cation. The  question  how  far  the  thing  and  how 
far  the  spirit  in  the  thing  is  worshiped  cannot 
!«?  answered  cati'gorically.  for  the  answer  depends 
on  time,  plaee,  and  object.  Kventually.  as  in 
(ireece  and  Germany,  in  Zeus  and  Wodan,  the 
physical  background  almost  vanishes,  and  only 
spirits  remain,  conceived  as  <)uitc  human.  Even 
in  the  earliest  stages  of  phenomenolatry,  there 
does  not  appear  to  be  any  worsliip  of  the  object 
as  a  physical  thing,  but  only  as  a  spirit-holding  or 
spirit-iinbue<l.  i.e.  spiritualized  object,  though  in 
this  stage  spirit  and  life  may  not  l)e  distinguished. 
.-\s  to  wiiether  man  first  worshiped  major  or 
minor  objects  of  nature,  opiniim  is  dividi'd,  as  it 
is  in  regard  to  animism  prceciling  nature-wor- 
ship. (Jenerally  speaking.  English  scholars  hold 
to  animism  as  the  earliest:  German  scholars  to 
nature  in  its  grander  aspects ;  and  the  l'"rench  to 
minor  nature-worship.  From  an  ethical  point  of 
view,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  pure  naturc-worshij) 
cannot  be  sharply  sundered  from  'ethical  reli- 
gions.' Even  tabdo  (q.v.)  is  ethical,  and  lofty 
ethics  is  found  in  connection  with  purely  physical 
gods.  The  'eye  of  heaven'  that  marks  the  sin  of 
man  is  a  natural  interpretation  of  the  all-seeing 
sun  as  soon  as  a  man  evolves  ethical  ideas  and  at- 
tributes them  to  his  gods. 

Consult:  Tylor.  Primitive  Culture  (Boston, 
1874):  Max  Miiller.  Natural  Reliction  {2d  ed., 
London,  ISSG)  :  Lang,  Matiic  and  Ifclifiion  ( ib., 
1001):  Saussaye,  Krlifiioiisfieschiihtr  (Freiburg, 
1887)  ;  Brinton,  Mj/tlis  of  the  Xeir  World  (New 
York,  1868)  :  Moorehead,  I'rimitivr  Man  in 
Ohio  ( ih.,  18n2):  Fergusson,  Trie  and  (Serpent 
"Worship,  and  Rude  ^lone  Monumnitu  (London. 
1872)  :  Sayce,  Kelifiion  of  the  Ancient  liabji- 
lonians  (ib.,  1887):  .Tastrow,  Rrliijion  of  liahji- 
Ionia  and  Assyria  (Boston,  18!)8)  :  Reville,  Na- 
tive Religions  of  Mexico  and  Peru  (London, 
1884)  :  Crooke,  Popular  Reliqion  and  Fnlk-Lore 
of  \orthern  India  (Westminster.  I8!1(!)  :  D'.\l- 
viella.  La  minnilion  des  siiwhohs  (Paris,  1801)  : 
Lefevre,  La  religion  (ib..  1802)  :  Waring,  7'orHis 
of  Solar  and  \alurc  Wor.ihi/)  (London.  1874); 
Buckland.  AnthrnpoUiqienl  Studies  ( ih.,  1801); 
Frazer,  tUddm  Hough    (ib..  1000). 

NAUBERT,  nou1)ert,  Fnip;i)nu'i[  August 
(  lS:iO-07).  .\  (ierman  composer,  bom  at  Schkeu- 
ditz.  Province  of  Saxony.  He  studied  at  the 
Stern  Conservalorium  of  Berlin,  and  became 
organist  and  instructor  in  vocal  uuisic  in  the 
gymnasium  of  N'eubrandenburg.  Mecklenburg- 
Sfrelitz.  He  attained  a  considerable  reputation 
as  n  vocal  composer  of  the  school  of  Robert 
Kranz.  His  publications  incluile  .soli,  duets,  trios, 
quartets,  and  choral  works  for  four,  si.\,  and 
pi*;ht    vniccj. 

NATJCK,  miuk.  August  (1822-02).  A  Ger- 
man ela.ssical  scholar.  He  was  born  at  Auer- 
atedt.  and  after  studying  at  the  University  of 
Halle,  taught  at  several  gymnasiums  at  Berlin 
until    about     18,'iO.    when    he    became    member 


extraordinary  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences at  Saint  Petersburg,  lie  remained  in  that 
city  until  his  death.  His  best-known  works  arc: 
Aristophanis  By::antii  Uramnialiei  Alexundrini 
Fragmentu  (1848)  ;  the  complete  works  of  Euri- 
l)ides,  with  the  fragments  (1854)  :  an  annotated 
edition  of  Sophocles  (Suphoclis  Traga-dice) ,  based 
>ipon  Schneidewin  ( 1867 )  ;  Homer's  Odyssee 
(1874)  and  llias  (1877-79);  lamblichi  de  Vita 
I'ythagoricu  Liber  (1884)  :  select  works  of  Por- 
phyrius,  Porphyrii  Philosophi  Opuscula  Tria 
(1800;  2d  enlarged  ed..  Opuscula  iielecta,  1886)  ; 
and  his  greatest  work,  Tragicorunt  Grweorum 
Fragment  a  (1856;  2d  ed.  1889;  with  the  Trugica 
Diclionis  Index,  1892).  The  last  work  is  con- 
sidered the  standard  edition.  Consult  Zielinski, 
August  Xauch  (Berlin,  1894),  where  his  writings 
are  enumerated, 

NAU 'GRATIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  XacitpaTts ) . 
An  ancient  city  of  Egypt,  situated  on  the 
Canopic  branch  of  the  Nile,  near  the  modern 
Nebireh,  53  miles  southeast  of  Alexandria  by 
rail.  It  was  under  King  Amasis  II,  the  only 
place  in  Egypt  whcie  tireeks  were  allowed  to 
settle  and  trade,  and  thus  became  a  very  flourish- 
ing (ireek  colony.  On  the  successful  excavations 
of  Petric.  consult  his  Xaucratis  (Ixmdon,  1886- 
87).  Pctrie  thinks  tliat  the  Greek  settlements  at 
Naucratis  may  date  from  as  early  a  period  as 
n.c.  050. 

NAXJCY'DES  (Lat..  from  Gk.  Xou/cMt,!,  Xau- 
kydes)  (called  OF  AnGOS).  A  Greek  sculptor  of 
the  fifth  century  B.C.  He  was  trained  in  the 
manner  of  Polyclitus  1.,  and  was  the  master  of 
his  brother  Polyclitus  11.  A  Discobolus,  now  in 
the  Vatican,  is  believed  to  be  a  copy  of  a  work 
by  him,  A  gold  and  ivory  Hebe,  and  statues  of 
Hecate,  Hermes,  Erinna  the  poet,  and  some 
groups  of  athletes  arc  mentioned  by  writers  of 
his  time,  and  later,  as  works  of  this  sculptor. 

NATJDET,  n.Vda'.  .Tosepii  (1786-1878).  A 
French  historian,  born  in  Paris.  He  was  made 
professor  of  l.iitin  ])octry  at  the  College  of  France 
in  1821  and  was  director  of  the  Royal  Library 
from  1840  to  1860.  He  was  also  a  member  of 
the  Ac:idemy.  His  works  include:  Histoire  de 
la  guerre  des  esclares  en  Sicile  (1807)  :  Histoire 
de  I'^tablissenicnl,  des  progrcs  et  de  la  decadence 
de  la  monarchic  des  (loths  en  Italic  (1811)  :  La 
conjuration  d'Etienne  Marcel  (1815);  and  De 
I'lidminislralion  des  postes  die::  Ics  Roninins 
(186.3). 

NATIE,  nouV.  .Tui.irs  (1834—).  A  German 
painter  and  archicologist.  born  at  Kilthen.  An- 
lialt.  He  studied  in  Nuremberg  and  in  Munich 
(1861-66).  His  liest-known  works  include:  "The 
Fairy-talc  of  Emperor  Henry  I.  and  Princess 
Use"  (1865-67).  in  water  colors:  "Germania." 
'■Roma,"  and  six  other  great  frescoes  (1868),  for 
a  villa  near  Lindau:  "The  Myth  of  Prometheus" 
(1872-73).  in  water  colors;' "The  Fate  of  the 
(iods"  (1875-77),  cycle  in  fresco;  .ind  seven 
paintings  in  tempera  from  flic  epic  "Ilelgi  anil 
Sigrtin"  (1870).  Subsequently  he  took  up  the 
stuily  of  Bavaria's  prehistoric  period,  made  nu- 
merous excavations  of  moimds.  and  published 
Die  priihistorischen  Sehucrtcr  (1S8.'J):  Die  Uil- 
gctgrnhcr  zu'ischcn  Ammcr-  und  Staff  elsee 
(1887):  and  Die  lironze:eit  in  Obcrbaycrn 
(1804  1. 

NAUGATTTCK,  n«'gft  tuk.  A  (own  and  bor- 
ough (coexfcnsive)  in  New  Haven  County.  Conn., 


NAUGATUCK. 


289 


NAUPLIA. 


17  miles  northwest  of  New  Haven;  on  the  Nauga- 
tuck  River,  and  on  the  Naugatuck  Division  of 
the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Rail- 
load  (Map:  Connecticut,  C  4).  It  has  the 
Whitteniore  Memorial  Library,  Salem  School, 
Whittemure  High  School,  and  notewortliy  busi- 
ness blocks,  and  is  engaged  extensively  in  manu- 
facturing india-rubber  goods,  knit  underwear, 
malleable  iron,  and  paper  boxes.  Naugatuck  was 
first  incorporated  in  1844  as  a  town,  and  in  1893 
as  a  borough;  consolidation  was  effected  in  1895. 
The  government,  under  the  charters  of  1893  and 
1895,  is  administered  by  a  board  of  warden  and 
burgesses,  annuallj-  elected,  which  has  powers  of 
appointment  in  all  borough  offices  excepting  the 
board  of  etlucation,  chosen  bv  popular  vote.  Pop- 
ulation, in  1890,  6218;  in  1900,  10,541. 

NAUHEIM,  nou'him.  A  noted  watering- 
place  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse,  Germany,  on 
the  Usa,  17  miles  north  of  Frankfort  (Map: 
( iermany.  C  3  I .  The  Kurhaus  is  surrounded  by 
beautiful  grounds.  The  waters,  ranging  in  tem- 
perature from  86°  to  95°  F.  and  containing  salt, 
iron,  and  carbonic  acid,  are  used  for  both  drink- 
ing and  bathing,  and  are  especially  efficacious  in 
eases  of  intestinal  and  cutaneous  diseases,  gout, 
rheumatism,  and  heart  diseases.  Considerable 
quantities  of  water  and  salt  are  exported.  The 
place  is  visited  annuallv  bv  about  6000  patients. 
Population,   in    1900,   4505. 

NAULETTE,  no'let'.  A  cavern  on  the  Lesse 
in  the  Commune  of  Furfobz.  near  Dinant.  Bel- 
gium. Here,  in  1866,  Dupont  found  a  human 
lower  jaw"  associated  with  bones  of  the  elephant 
and  rhinoceros.  The  Naulette  man  is  now  as- 
signed to  the  Mousterian  epoch  (q.v. ).  Consult 
Mortillct.  Le  prchistoriquc   (Paris,   1900). 

NAUMACHIA,  na-ma'ki-ii  ( Lat.,  from  Gk. 
vavimxia,  naval  battle,  from  vai^.  naus.  sjiip  + 
^dxfffSai,  machesthai,  to  fight).  Among  the  Ro- 
mans, a  mock  naval  b:ittle;  also,  the  place  used 
for  this  purpose.  Julius  Caesar  was  the  first  to 
introduce  a  naumachia  into  Rome  ( B.C.  46) ,  caus- 
ing a  portion  of  the  Campus  ilartius  to  be  trans- 
formed into  a  lake,  on  which  the  spectacle  came 
off.  .\uaiistus  made  an  artificial  lake  (xtapiiion) 
near  the  Tiber  for  the  same  purpose,  which  was 
afterwards  frequently  used  for  naumachite. 
Claudius  also  gave  an  exhibition  of  the  kind  on 
Lake  Fueinus.  in  which  nineteen  thousand  com- 
batants took  part.  These  naumachia"  were  not 
sham  fights,  any  more  than  ordinary  gladiatorial 
combats.  Both  sides  fought  in  real  earnest  until 
one  was  utterly  overpowered.  The  crews  con- 
sisted of  gladiators,  prisoners,  or  condemned 
criminals. 

NAUMANN,  nou'man,  .Toh.\?jx  FniEnRicir 
( 1780-1  S.'iV  1 .  .\n  eminent  German  ornithologist. 
He  was  born  at  Ziebigk,  worked  on  a  farm  witli 
his  father,  a  skilled  ornithologist,  and  became 
inspector  of  the  ornithological  museum  of  the 
Duke  of  Anhalt-Kiithen.  He  was  a  clever 
draughtsman  and  himself  engraved  the  plates  for 
the  illustrations  of  his  Xntiirfirnchichte  der  Yiigcl 
DeutftcMnnds  (12  vols..  1822-44),  a  standard 
work.  Naumann  wrote,  besides:  Tn^ridennir 
(1815;  2d  ed.  1848);  Ufber  doi  nnii.ihnlt  drr 
tiiirdlirhrn  fieeviifjel  Eiiropax  (1824);  and,  with 
Buhle,  Die  Eier  der  Vhqcl  Deiituchlnnds'  (1819- 
28).  In  his  honor,  the  German  Ornithological 
Society  named  its  journal  Nmimnnnia. 


NAUMANN.  A  family  of  German  musicians. 
•lou.v.N.N  Gottlieu  (1741-1801),  the  most  impor- 
tant inember,  was  born  at  Blasewitz,  near  Dres- 
den. He  studied  under  Tartini,  Padre  Martini, 
and  others,  and  became  Court  composer  at  Dres- 
den in  1764.  In  1766  he  was  appointed 
kapellmeister  at  Dresden.  He  produced  many 
operas,  and  in  1777  organized  the  royal 
orchestra  of  Stockholm,  Sweden.  He  made 
several  tours  throughout  Italy  and  Prussia 
and  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant composers  of  his  time.  He  wrote  over 
20  operas,  10  oratorios,  18  symphonies,  and  nu- 
merous smaller  works,  instrumental  and  vocal. 
Consult:  ileissner,  liruclutilvhc  rius  Xaumanns 
Ijebciitijicfichichle  (Prague,  1803-04). — His  grand- 
son, E.MIL  (1827-88),  studied  under  Von  War- 
tcnsee  and  ilendelssohn,  and  at  the  Leipzig 
Conservatory.  He  was  chiefly  famous  for  his 
valuable  and  scholarly  writings,  particularly 
with  reference  to  church  music;  and  was  also  the 
composer  of  an  oratorio  CJiristiis  der  Friedens- 
bote  ( 1848) ,  and  the  opera  J»rfj«/i(  1848) .  Among 
his  more  important  works  are  Die  'rotik'iinst  in 
der  Kultiirgescliiehte  (Berlin,  1869-70)  and 
iliisiLdrarna  odrr  O/jrr  ( 1876) .  He  lectured  on 
musical  history  at  the  conservatory  at  Dresden. 
— Karl  Ernst  (1832 — ),  another  grandson  of 
•Tohann  Gottlieb,  became  favorably  known  for 
his  writings  and  compositions.  He  was  bo4'n 
in  Freiberg,  Saxony,  and  received  his  musical 
education  in  Leipzig,  completing  his  musical 
studies  with  a  two  years'  period  of  organ  study 
under  Schneider  of  Dresden.  His  compositions 
are  principally  chamber  music,  and  so  far  as 
is  known  lie  may  be  said  to  have  written  the  first 
sonata   for  viola  and  pianoforte. 

NAXJMANN,  K.VRI,  FRTEmucii  (1797-1873). 
A  German  mineralogist,  born  in  Dresden.  He 
studied  at  tlie  Freiberg  School  of  Mines,  and  at 
the  universities  of  .Tena  and  Leipzig,  and  in 
1821  made  a  journey  to  Norway  for  scientific 
purposes.  After  his  return  he  became  an  in- 
structor at  .Tena.  A  year  later  he  was  called  to 
Leipzig  as  professor,  and  in  1826  he  accepted 
a  similar  position  at  Freiberg,  but  in  1842  he  re- 
turned to  Leipzig,  where  he  remained  until  his 
retirement,  thirty  years  later.  Among  his  writ- 
ings are:  Aytfanfisqri'inde  der  Krixtnllngraphie 
(2d  ed.  1854)  ;  Eleiiiente  der  theoretischen  Kris- 
tnUoqrdphie  (1856);  and  Elemente  der  Miner- 
alogie  (12th  ed.  1885). 

NATJMBURG,  noum'boorK,  or  N.\rMiiURG-ON'- 
Tin;-S.\ALE,  The  capital  of  a  circle  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Saxony,  Prvissia,  situated  on  the  Saale, 
30  miles  southwest  of  Leipzig  (Map:  Prussia, 
D  3),  Its  cathedral  of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul 
is  an  interesting  biiilding  with  four  towers  and 
many  statues,  paintings,  monuments,  and  other 
specimens  of  earl^'  <ierm;in  art.  There  are  a  g>nn- 
nasium  and  a  Rcalsch\ilc.  The  town  manufac- 
tures woolens,  soap,  leather,  combs,  and  sausages. 
Glass  and  porcelain  painting  is  also  an  important 
industry.  The  trade  in  wine  is  extensive.  In 
1029  Naumbnr;;  became  the  seat  of  the  bishopric 
of  NaumburgZeitz.     Population,  in  1900,  23,187. 

NATJPLIA,  n,T'ple-,a.  A  towm  of  Greece, 
the  capital  of  theNomarchy  of  Argolis,  seven  miles 
southeast  of  Argos,  on  the  Argolic  Giilf  (Map: 
Greece,  D  4).  It  has  railroad  connection  with 
Corinth.  The  impregnable  situation  of  its  harbor, 
protected    by    strong    fortresses,    renders    it    of 


NAUPLIA. 


290 


NAUTILUS. 


great  stratc<;ic  iinpoitanfe.  Tlic  I'alaiiiiili.  a 
fortification  originally  constructed  by  tl'c  lurks 
anil  lalor  slrcn^llicnud  by  the  \inctians.  is  at 
j)rcsc-nt  utilized  as  a  prison.  Owing  to  itt  ad- 
vantageous situation  and  .spacious  harbor,  Nau- 
plia  is  of  sonic  prominence  coniniorcially.  From 
1824  to  1834  it  was  the  capital  of  Greece.  In 
mediaeval  times  Nauplia  was  one  of  the  leading 
cities  of  the  IVdoponnesus.  Here  in  1831  Capo 
d'Istria,  the  President  of  the  Uepublic,  was  as- 
sassinated. Population  of  coniinune,  in  1889, 
10,879. 

NAUPLIUS  (Lat.,  sort  of  shell-fish,  wliieli 
sailed  in  its  shell  as  in  a  ship,  from  Gk.  laCs 
»irt«s,  ship  +  r\€ti>,  plein,  to  sail).  A  larval 
stage  in  the  development  of  certain  crustaceans. 
See  Mct.^moki'iiosis;  and  Plate  of  Barnacles. 

NAU'SEA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  raurla,  iiausia, 
seasiekiiess.  disgust,  nausea,  from  vaOs.  iiaiis, 
ship).  A  distressing  sensation  always  referred 
to  the  stomach.  It  is  unattended  by  i)ain,  but  is 
usually  accompanied  by  a  feeling  of  general  lan- 
g:!or  or  debility,  a  small  and  often  irregular 
pulse,  a  pale,  cool,  and  moist  skin,  general  muscu- 
lar relaxation,  an  increased  flow  of  saliva,  and  a 
.sensation  that  vomiting  will  supervene.  It  is 
most  commonly  a  direct  symptom  of  disease  or 
disorder  of  the  stomach,  but  snmelimes  it  is  a 
very  important  indirect  .synii>tom  of  disease  of 
sonu'  part  at  a  distance  from  the  stomach — as, 
for  e.\ample,  the  brain  or  the  kidney.  The  nau- 
sea which  is  so  troublesome  to  pregnant  women 
is  due  to  the  irritation  excited  by  the  enlarged 
uterus  being  relleeted  by  nervous  agency  to  the 
stomach.  Among  the  more  common  causes  of 
nausea  (which  nuiy  or  may  not  be  followed  by 
vomiting)  may  be  mentioned  fainting  spells,  the 
taking  of  a  "gi'neral  ana-sthetic,  and  surgical 
shock.  It  nujy  be  provoked  by  blows  upon  the 
head,  abdomen,  testicles,  or  ovaries,  or  by  power- 
f\il  mental  impressions  sucli  as  revolting  sights, 
odors,  or  sounds,  and  smlden  fright.  Other 
c'luses  are  discussed  under  Vomiting. 

NAUSHONT,  na'shSn'.  One  of  (he  Klizabeth 
Islands-    (i|.v.). 

NAUSIC'AA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Nowotda,  Xaii- 
.'ci7.««).  In  tlie  Odi/ssc/i,  the  daughter  of  the 
Phicaeian  King  Alcinous.  When  Odysseus  is 
wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Schcria,  she  discovers 
liim  and  eonduels  him  to  her  father's  court. 

NAUTCH,  uiuh  (Hind,  m'lch.  from  Skt.  nSttia. 
dance,  from  iiart.  to  dance).  The  term  applied 
especially  in  Northern  India  to  the  dancing  girls 
attached  to  the  temples.  The  corresponding  word 
in  the  south  of  India  is  bayailere  (q.v.).  The 
presence  of  these  girls  at  temples  and  their 
double  role  of  attendants  on  Die  deity  and  of 
courtesans  is  undoubtedly  a  s\irvival  of  the  cus- 
tom formerly  widespread,  especially  in  the  East. 
of  sacred  prostitution.  The  daughters  of  nautch 
girls  are  generally  trained  as  successors  of  their 
mothers.  As  in  like  religious  customs  elsewhere, 
no  social  odium  attaches  to  these  women.  The 
nnutch  dancers  are  completely  enveloped  in  wind- 
ing clrajicry.  and  move  with  slow  and  rhythmic 
motions  of  the  body,  while  the  hamls  are  busied 
in  graeoful  gesturing  and  in  managing  the  drap- 
ery. The  feet  are  little  \iscd.  The  nautch  dance 
IS  primnrily  erotic  in  character,  and  now  is  often 
rppnrdcd  by  the  natives  as  symbolizing  the  loves 


of    Krishna     ('(.v.)     and    the    milk-maids.      See 
Bayaueke;  Da.ncing  Gibls. 

NAUTICAL  ALMANAC  (from  Lat.  nau- 
tilus, from  (ik.  vavTiKds,  iioKtikus.  pertaining  to 
sliips  or  .sailors,  from  ^ain-jjs,  iiuiilis,  sailor,  from 
yaOi,  naiis,  Skt.  ntlii,  ship).  A  volume  issued 
annually,  and  containing  primarily  the  astronom- 
ical data  required  by  navigators  in  the  com- 
])utation  or  reduction  of  the  sextant  observations 
by  which  the  shi])'s  position  at  sea  is  ascertained. 
The  preparation  and  piiblication  of  these  alma- 
nacs is  very  costly,  and  is  therefore  undertaken 
as  a  work  of  |)ul)lic  utility  by  several  dilferent 
governments.  Thus  the  United  States  issues  the 
Anil  rim )i  /v'/j/i cmc?  is  and  \autical  Almanac; 
Germanv.  the  Berliner  AstrunomiscUes  Jakrbuch  ; 
I'rance,  "the  Vonnuissance  des  letups;  and  Great 
Britain,  Hie  \iiutical  Alinauuc.  To  the  astrono- 
mer, the  Xuiiliciil  Almanac  furnishes  a  great 
mass  of  important  data:  it  gives  the  position  of 
the  moon  in  right  ascension  and  declination  for 
every  hour,  and  the  sun's  latitude  and  longitude 
for  every  day  in  the  year;  it  shows  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic,  the  sun's  and  moon's  parallax, 
aberration,  etc.,  at  ditrerent  times  :  it  supplies  the 
neces.sary  data  for  the  determination  of  the  real 
or  apparent  size,  position,  and  motion  of  the 
planets  and  their  satellites;  it  fixes  accurately 
the  places  of  the  more  important  stars,  and  gives 
full  details  concerning  eclipses,  occultations.  tran- 
sits, and  other  celestial  phenomena  occurring  dur- 
ing the  year.  It  is  generally  issued  two  or  three 
.years  in  advance  of  its  date  for  the  sake  of 
mariners  going  on  long  voyages.  See  Almanac. 
NAUTICAL  SCHOOLS.    See  Naval  Schools 

OF   iNSlRri'TION. 

NAUTICAL    SURVEYING.      See    IIydrog- 

KAl'IIY. 

NAUTILOI'DEA  ( Xeo4,at..  from  Lat.  nau- 
tilus, from  Gk.  vavrO.of,  sailor,  nautilus,  from 
I'atic,  nau.i,  ship  -f  EliJof,  eidos.  form).  An  order 
of  fossil  Cephalopoda,  equal  in  rank  to  the 
Animonoidea.  cimtaining  about  2.'>no  species  that 
range  from  Cambrian  to  recent  time,  and  are 
represented  at  jireseiit  by  only  (wo  or  three  liv- 
ing species  of  the  genus  Nautilus.  The  most  an- 
cient forms  were  straight  conic  shells  (Ortlioceras) 
which  soon  became  coiled  like  the  modern  forms. 
Many  of  the  extinct  genera  and  species  are  most 
important  horizon-markers  or  index  fossils.  See 
Cefiiai.opoiia  :   Naitilus:  Ortiiockra.s. 

NAUTTILUS  ( Lat..  from  Gk.  raiViXos,  nau- 
tllos.  sailor,  from  raOs,  tiaus.  ship).  The  pearly 
nautilus  (genus  Nautilus)  is  the  only  living 
representative  of  an  immense  assemblage  of 
shelled  eephalopods  of  the  subclass  Tetrabran- 
chiata,  which  flourished  during  past  geological 
ages.  The  shell  is  coiled  in  one  iiliine.  divided 
into  chambers  by  (lartitions  or  se|)ta,  the  outer- 
most being  called  the  'living  chamber.'  as  it  con- 
tains the  animal :  the  .septa  are  perforated  by  the 
sipluincle.  which  is  central  or  nearly  so,  and  the 
aperture  is  wide  and  spacious.  The  shell  con- 
sists of  two  layers,  the  outer  being  porcellanous, 
the  inner  pearly,  or  nacreous,  whence  the  name 
'pearly'  nautilus.  The  initial  chamber  consists 
of  an  obtuse  incurved  cone,  marked  on  (he  outer 
surface  of  its  posterior  wall  by  a  small  scar 
called  the  rieiitri.r.  It  is  suiiposeil  that  a  perish- 
able embryonic  shell  ( protoconcli )  was  formed, 
the  presence  of  which  is  indicated  by  the  cicatrix. 


NAUTILUS. 


291 


NAVAHO. 


Tlie  body  is  slioit  and  tliick,  diviiled  into  a 
largu  obtusely  conical  head  bearing  eyes,  ten- 
tacles, ears  (otocysts),  an<l  a  rounded  sac-like 
trunk.  The  mouth  is  surrounded  by  abuul  90  ex- 
ternal filiform  tentacles.  The  pair  of  tentacles  on 
the  inner  or  dorsal  side  are  fused  so  as  to  form  a 
hoodlikc  lobe  by  which  tlu'  aperture  of  the  shejl 
is  closed  when  the  animal  is  withdrawn  into  the 


PKABLY   NAUTILUS  (Anutllu.^  i-..,.., ( 

Seen  in  section  showing  the  chambers  and  eiphuucle, 
8ize. ) 

living  chamber.  Beneath  is  the  funnel  (hypo- 
nome ) ,  not  forming  a  completely  closed  tube 
as  in  the  squids,  but  a  locomotive  organ, 
through  which,  as  in  other  cephalopods,  the  water 
is  ejected  with  sufficient  force  to  throw  the  ani- 
mal backward.  In  swimming  forward,  says  Kent, 
the  tentacles  are  extended  radially  from  the  head. 

The  mouth  is  in  the  centre  of  the  lobes  and 
groups  of  tentacles,  armed  with  a  tongue  (ra- 
dula)  and  a  pair  of  remarkably  powerful  horny 
jaws  tipped  with  carbonate  of  lime.  Olfactory 
organs  and  osphradia  are  present.  The  animal 
is  attached  within  the  living  chamber  by  two 
oval  muscles.  The  compartments  of  the  .shell 
are  usually  said  to  be  filled  with  air  or  gas, 
but  according  to  Verrill  they  are  filled  with  sea- 
water,  which  may  be  taken  in  or  expelled  so  as  to 
equalize  pressure  at  varying  depths. 

Until  recently  the  living  nautilus  was  exceed- 
ingly rare,  though  the  empty  shells  are  cast 
ashore  in  great  quantities  in  the  Pacific  and 
Indian  oceans.  Yet  they  have  been  for  a  long  time 
trapped  in  baskets  like  lobster-traps  by  the  na- 
tives of  sojue  of  the  Melanesian  and  Fiji  islands 
and  used  as  food.  Willey  at  Ralnm.  in  Xew 
Britain,  succeeded  in  trapping  the  nautilus  in 
70  fathoms  of  water.  He  also  succeeded  at  Lifu, 
one  of  the  Loyalty  Islands,  in  capturing  speci- 
mens at  a  depth  of  only  three  fathoms.  These  he 
kept  in  a  large  submerged  cage,  feeding  them 
daily  until  his  efforts  were  rewarded  early  in 
December,  1894.  by  finding  that  they  had  spawned 
in  the  cage,  yielding  an  abundance  of  eggs. 
These  are  not  laid  in  bimches.  as  is  the  case  with 


(Half  natural 


Fossil  N.\utili.  Although  the  family  Xautilidas 
dates  from  the  Jurassic  period,  the  genus  Nauti- 
lus is  doubtfully  referred  to  the  Tertiary'.  The 
order  Nautiloidea.  however,  originated  as  early 
as  the  Ordovician;  the  earlier  types  were  straight 
and  uncoiled,  like  Orthoceras.  \  ery  striking, 
says  Hyatt,  is  the  uuirvelously  sudden  rise  of  the 
Xautiloidea  as  a  group;  it  reached  its  maximum 
in  the  Silurian,  followed  by  a  decline 
extending  from  the  Devonian  to  the 
Triassie  period.  Then  the  forces  acting 
unfavorably  upon  their  existence  were 
arrested,  or  their  violence  lessened,  and 
the  group  has  been  affected  by  only 
very  slight  changes  and  an  exceedingly 
slow  process  of  retrogression,  until  the 
present  time. 

Bibliography.  Owen,  Memoir  on  the 
['early  Kaiitilus  (London.  1832)  ;  Par- 
ker and  Haswell,  Text-bonk  of  Zoology 
(New  York,  1898)  ;  Cooke,  Jlollusks 
(Cambridge  Natural  Historj',  ib.,  1895)  ; 
Hyatt,  in  Zittel-Eastman.  Textbook  of 
f'aleuntoloijy  ( ib.,  1900)  ;  Willey, "Pearly 
Nautilus"  (Zooloyieal  Results  Based 
on  Material  from  Xew  Britain,  Xew 
Guinea,  etc..  Cambridge,  England,  1902 ; 
vi..   Zoology). 

NAUVOO,  na-voo'.  A  city  in  Han- 
cock County,  111.,  12  miles  north  of 
Keokuk,  Iowa ;  on  the  Mississippi 
River,  at  the  head  of  the  lower  rapids  (Map: 
Illinois,  A3).  It  is  in  a  highly  productive 
fruit-growing  country,  where  the  leading  occu- 
pations are  wine-making  and  the  culture  and 
shipment  of  fruit  for  market,  particularly  grapes 
and  berries.  Saint  Mary  Academy,  conducted  by 
the  Benedictine  Sisters,  is  in  Nauvoo.  The  most 
interesting  features  in  this  vicinity  are  the 
remains  of  the  old  ilormon  buildings.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890.  1208:  in  1900,  1321.  Nauvoo  was 
founded  by  the  Mormons  in  1840,  and  rapidly  in- 
creased in  size  until  in  1846  it  had  a  population 
of  15,000.  In  this  year  the  settlement  was 
broken  up  by  the  people  in  the  neighborhood. 
(See  MoRiiON.s.)  .\n  imposing  temple,  130  feet 
long  by  90  feet  wide,  left  unfinished  by  the  Mor- 
mons, was  destroyed  partly  by  tire  in  1848  and 
partly  by  a  tornado  in  1850.  In  18.50  a  company 
of  French  socialists,  called  Icarians  (q.v.),  under 
the  leadership  of  M.  Cabet,  occupied  Nauvoo,  but 
their  experiment  jn-oved  a  failure,  and  the}' 
abandoned  the  place  in  1857. 

NAVA,  nii'vi'i.  A  seaport  of  .Japan.  See 
Nafa. 

NAVAHO,  or  NAVAJO.  Sp.  proii.  na-va'H.V 
An  important  tribe  of  Athapascan  stock  (q.v.). 
Their  present  reservation  in  n(utheastern  .Ari- 
zona and  extending  into  New  Mexico  and  Utah 
comprises  nearly  ten  million  acres,  but  it  is 
almost  entirely  an  arid  desert  of  sand  and  rock, 
unfit  for  any  purpose  except  scanty  grazing.  Like 
other  tribes  of  the  same  stock,  they  call  them- 
selves simply  Dine,  'people;'  they  are  called 
Apaches  dc  Navajo  in   Spanish   records   at   least 


those  of  the  squid,  but  are  deposited  separately     as  early  as  1G30.     They  came  originally  from  the 


by  the  female.  Each  egg  is  as  large  as  a  grape. 
There  are  said  to  be  three  species  now  living  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  while  the  number  has  been 
(arried  up  to  even  four.  The  two  better  known 
species  are  yautiUis  pompilius  and  Nautilus  urn- 
hiliratus. 


far  northern  home  of  their  kindred,  but  have 
incorporated  elements  from  all  the  neighboring 
tribes.  They  were  roving  and  predatory  in  their 
habits,  and  were  continually  at  war  with  the  LHe 
and  the  Plains  tribes.  They  were  alternately  at 
war  or  peace  with  the  Spaniards  during  the  early 


NAVAHO. 


292 


NAVAL  ACADEMY. 


colonization  period,  but  laler  became  so  trouble- 
some tliat  in  1705  and  again  in  1713  it  was 
necessary  to  bring  llioni  to  terms  by  vigorous  in- 
vasions 01'  their  country.  In  1744  I'lanciscan 
missionaries  attempted  to  civilize  tliem,  but  in  a 
few  years  the  effort  was  abandoned.  In  ISOo,  in 
consc(|Uence  of  continued  raids,  a  8i)anish  force 
penetrated  their  stronghold  in  Tseyi  (Clielly) 
t'afion  and  inllicted  a  severe  defeat,  killing  115 
men,  women,  and  children.  The  lesson,  however, 
was  soon  forgotten,  and  between  the  fall  of  the 
Spanish  power  about  1S15  and  the  American 
occupation  of  the  country  thirty  years  later  they 
made  the  stealing  of  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses 
from  the  Mexican  settlements  a  steady  and 
profitable  business.  With  their  booty  they  were 
enabled  to  become  a  pastoral  tribe,  and  they 
adopted  from  the  more  civilized  Pueblos  a  well- 
developed  weaving  art.  From  the  Mexicans  they 
learned  the  simpler  forms  of  metal-working,  espe- 
cially in  silver.  In  1S46  a  number  of  prominent 
chiefs  made  their  first  treaty  with  the  American 
Government,  but,  on  account  of  the  unfortunate 
killing  of  the  principal  signer  three  years  later, 
the  trilje  again  lieeame  hostile.  Hostilities  com- 
tinued  with  but  short  intermissions  until  l.'ifiS, 
when  it  was  determined  to  deport  the  entire 
tribe  to  the  Bosque  Redondo  resei-vation  on  the 
Pecos  River,  near  Fort  Sumner,  in  eastern  New 
Mexico.  In  the  ensuing  winter  a  mixed  force 
of  whites  and  Ute  Indians  under  Kit  Carson  in- 
vaded the  Navaho  country  and  forced  their 
caiion  stronghold.  Within  a  year  nearly  8500 
hud  been  deported  to  the  Bosque  Redondo.  and  it 
was  supposed  that  not  more  than  2000  remained 
at  large  in  their  own  country,  but  later  develop- 
ments proved  tluit  not  more  than  half,  and  tliese 
not  the  most  troublesome,  had  been  removed.  The 
experiment  jiroved  a  failuie.  The  stock  of  the 
Navaho  died  or  was  stolen,  their  crops  failed,  and 
their  numbers  decreased  from  disease,  escapes,  and 
attacks  by  the  Plains  tribes.  In  .June.  1S08,  a  new- 
treaty  was  made,  under  which  the  captives,  then 
numbering  7.'J0O.  were  returned  to  a  reservation  set 
aside  in  their  old  country,  and  were  given  sheep 
and  cattle  with  which  to  begin  life  anew.  Since 
then  they  have  remained  quiet,  steadily  increasing 
in  wealth  and  population.  In  18S4  the  reservation 
was  extended  to  its  present  dimensions  to  accom- 
modate their  rapidly  increasing  herds. 

The  Navaho  have  a  fully  developed  clan  sys- 
tem, including  some  fifty  clans,  with  descent  in 
the  female  line.  Their  government  is  democratic 
and  local,  rather  than  centralized,  since  the 
nature  of  their  country  and  occupation  prevents 
the  formation  of  large  organized  bodies,  so  that 
each  family  shifts  for  itself  in  the  search  for 
temporary  ])asturage  and  water  -upijly.  They  are 
agricultural  to  a  limited  extent.  They  make 
some  pottery  and  baskets,  but  derive  their  main 
subsistence  from  their  herds  of  sheep  and  goats, 
together  with  horses  and  some  cattle.  They  arc 
well  known  for  the  beautiful  and  durable  blank- 
ets \Mliich  they  weave  from  the  wool  of  their 
flocks,  and  for  their  artistic  silver  ornaments. 
Although,  like  ipost  pastoral  peoples,  they  are  no- 
madic, they  build  at  each  regular  halting  place 
permanent  hoiiiiiifi.  or  circular  houses,  of  logs 
covered  with  earth,  with  a  short  covered 
entrancew.iy  and  smoke-hole  at  the  top.  Men 
and  women  alike  are  almost  constantly  at 
work  caring  for  their  herds,  weaving,  or  labor- 
ing   at    the    forge.      They    have    elaliorate    and 


spectacular  ritual  ceremonies  and  an  abundant 
mythology,  with  hundreds  of  sacred  songs  in  the 
keeping  of  their  priests.  Aside  from  the  indus- 
tries which  tliey  have  made  their  own  they  have 
adopted  but  little  of  the  white  man's  civilization 
or  teaching.  They  are  estimated  now  at  20.- 
000,  less  than  half  of  whom  arc  within  the 
reservation  limits,  the  rest  ranging  on  outside 
pastures  or  working  in  tlie  white  settlements. 
Consult  Matthews,  Xaiaho  Legends  (Boston, 
1897).     See  Colored  Plate  of  Indians. 

NAVAHO  BLANKETS.  See  BL.\NKBr, 
with  Ciihired  Plate. 

NAVAL  ACADEMY,  United  States.  The 
school  at  whicli  are  educated  the  executive  officers 
of  the  L'nited  States  Navy.  It  was  founded  as 
the  'Naval  School"  in  1S45,  at  Annapolis,  Mil.,  with 
a  course  fixed  at  five  years,  the  first  and  last 
of  whicli  were  to  be  spent  at  the  school:  but  this 
plan  was  not  strictly  adhered  to  even  at  first, 
and  was  subsequently  changed.  In  1849  the 
course  was  changed  to  seven  years,  the  first  two 
and  last  two  being  spent  at  the  school,  and  the 
three  intervening  years  at  sea,  and  the  name  of 
the  instituti(m  was  changed  to  United  States 
Naval  .\c:idemy.  In  1S51  the  four  years  of  study 
were  made  consecutive,  and  annual  practice 
cruises  were  commenced.  In  18til  the  academy 
was  removed  to  Newport.  R.  1..  on  account  of 
the  war.     It  returned  to  .\nnapolis  in   18()5. 

In  187.'?  the  course  for  cadet  midshipmen  was 
extended  to  six  years,  the  last  two  to  be 
spent  at  sea.  In  1882  the  title  of  cadet  mid- 
siiipman  was  changed  to  naval  cadet,  which  in  1902 
was  replaced  by  that  of  midslu|)man.  -Appoint- 
ments to  the  different  corps  were  made  by  the 
Seeretarv  of  the  Navy  upon  recommendation  of 
the  academic  board:  but  only  enough  ap])oint- 
ments  were  made  to  fill  vacancies,  all  other 
graduates  being  honorably  discharged.  In  1889 
the  law  provided  that  the  cadets  of  the  first  class 
(seniors)  shcmld  be  separated  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year  into  two  divisions,  and  those  des- 
tined for  the  line  and  the  engineer  corps  should 
pursue  .separate  courses  of  study  during  the  first 
class  year.  In  1889.  also,  the  age  of  candidates 
at  date  of  admission,  which  had  been  from  four- 
teen to  eighteen  years,  was  changed  to  fifteen  to 
twenty  years.  In  1899  the  act  of  March  3d  con- 
solidating the  engineer  corps  with  the  line  abol- 
ished the  separate  line  and  engineer  divisions  at 
the  .\cademy.  The  same  act  increased  slightly 
the  numbers  in  all  grades  of  the  service  and  very 
much  increased  the  lower  grades.  The  number 
of  graduates  thus  became  insulficient.  anil  in  1900 
the  number  of  cadets  at  the  Academy  was  in- 
crea.sed  by  an  act  authorizing  appointments  to 
the  .\cademy  every  four  years  instead  of  every 
six.  The  nuinlier  of  officers  in  service  subsequent 
to  the  Spanisli-.Vmcriean  War  was  wholly  in- 
adequate to  the  increasing  ilcmands  of  the  fleet, 
and  as  the  only  means  of  adding  to  the  number 
is  through  the  Naval  .Academy,  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  cadets  was  proposed.  This  increase, 
made  by  Congress  in  1002.  provided  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  cadet  every  two  years  by  each 
Senator.  Congressman,  and  Delegate  in  Congress, 
and  11  by  the  President. 

The  course  of  study  and  instruction  at  the 
institution  is  much  more  advanced  than  the  term 
Academy  would  imply,  and  approximates  that 
of  many  post-graduate  technical  schools.  The 
course  for  the  first  year   (fourth  class)    includes 


NAVAL  ACADEMY. 


293 


NAVAL  OBSERVATORY. 


mechanical  liiawing,  ul},'ebia,  geometry,  descrip- 
tive geometry,  trigonometry,  English  studies, 
French,  Spanish,  and  hygiene,  and  practical  ex- 
ercises and  instruction  in  seamansliip,  Iroats, 
ordnance,  target  practice,  infantry,  artillery, 
battery  drill,  fencing,  gynniastics,  dancing,  and 
swimming.  Tlie  course  for  the  second  year  ( third 
class)  includes  trigonometry,  conic  sections,  dif- 
ferential and  integral  calculus,  mechanical  draw- 
ing, physics,  chemistry,  naval  history,  French 
and  Spanish,  and  i)racti(al  exercises  and  in- 
struction in  seamansliip,  boats,  signals,  ordnance, 
target  practice,  infantry,  artillei'jt,  battery  drill, 
fencing,  and  steam  engineering.  The  course  for  the 
third  year  (second  class)  includes  seamanship, 
principles  of  mechanism,  mechanical  processes, 
mechanical  drawing,  marine  engines  and  boilers, 
integral  calculus  anil  mechanics,  physics,  chemis- 
try, and  electricity,  and  practical  exercises  and 
instruction  in  seamanship,  boats.  stea7n  tactics, 
signals,  ordnance,  infantrj-,  artillery,  battery 
drill,  target  practice,  fencing,  and  steam  engi- 
neering. The  course  for  the  fourth  year  (first 
class)  includes  seamanship  and  naval  tactics, 
gun  and  tor])edo  drills,  naval  ordnance  and  gun- 
nery, navigation,  theory  of  compass  deviations, 
marine  surveying,  boilers,  naval  construction, 
engineering  materials  and  designing,  physics, 
electricity,  and  Spanish,  and  practical  exercises 
and  instruction  in  seamanship,  boats,  steam  tac- 
tics, battery  drill,  target  practice,  torpedo  prac- 
tice, ordnance,  artillery,  infantry,  fencing,  com- 
pass correction,  navigation,  surveying,  steam 
engineering,  practical  electricity,  turret  drill,  etc. 
From  tiie  first  of  June  until  the  first  of 
September  the  cadets  are  embarked  on  practice 
vessels  for  the  summer  cruise,  when  thev  are 
instructed  practically  in  the  various  duties  of 
their  profession.  For  several  j'ears  since  the 
Spanish-American  War  one  of  the  practice  ves- 
sels has  been  a  battleship  temporarily  detached 
from  the  fleet,  the  upper  classes  spending  half  the 
summer  on  her  and  half  on  the  sailing  training- 
ship  Chesapeake.  Until  1808  most  of  the  build- 
ings of  the  Academy  were  very  old.  many  of  them 
dating  from  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, and  the  accommodations  for  the  cadets 
inadeqiiate  as  well  as  unsuitable.  The  neces- 
sary expansion  of  the  institution  was  brought 
to  the  attention  of  Congress  by  the  war.  and  a 
very  liberal  plan  of  rebuilding  the  Academy  was 
adopted.  The  expenditure  authorized  was  $8,- 
000.000.  and  the  result  will  be  the  finest  naval 
institution  of  learning  in  the  world.  About  one- 
half  till'  bnililings  wei'e  under  construction  in 
1902.  Consult :  Soley,  Hiatory  of  the  Vaval  Acad- 
emij  (Washington.  1876)  :  Benjamin,  The  United 
Ktatex  \fiial  Aeadenn/  (New  York.  1000). 

NAVAL  APPRENTICE.  See  section  on 
ynnil  A  /ijiri  nlirr.  under  .\|'I'REXTICE. 

NAVAL  ARCHITECTS  AND  MARINE 
ENGINEERS,  The  Society  of.  An  association 
incorporated  under  the  laws  of  New  York  State, 
with  headquarters  in  New  York  City.  The  object 
of  the  association  is  the  promotion  of  the  art  of 
shipbiiilding.  The  society  holds  annual  meetings, 
and  ha-  a  uienit«'rslii|>  of  over  five  hundred. 

NAVAL  ARCHITECTURE.  See  Shipbotld- 
ixr,. 

NAVAL  CADET.     See  C.\det.  N.a^v.vl. 
NAVAL  CONSTRUCTORS.     Officers  of  the 
United    States    Xavy    charged    with    the    design, 


building,  and  repair  of  ships.  Tlu'  corps  of  naval 
constructors  is  tilled  by  appointment  of  gradu- 
ates of  the  Naval  Academy  who  are  sent  (after 
graduation)  to  special  technical  schools  for  an 
additional  course  in  shipbuilding,  in  1902  there 
were  twenty-one  naval  constructors  and  twenty 
assistant  constructors.  The  constructors  are  not 
allowed  a  free  hand  in  designs,  as  the  general 
features  are  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  Construc- 
tion Hoard,  which  consists  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
bureaus  of  the  Navy  Department.  The  working 
out  of  the  design,  however,  is  left  wholly  to  the 
construction   corps, 

NAVAL  CROWN.  In  heraldry,  a  rim  of 
gold  around  which  are  placed  alternately  prows 
of  galleys  and   square   .sails. 

NAVAL  INSTITUTE,  UxiTEn  States.  An 
organization  founded  at  Annapolis  in  1873  by  the 
oltieers  then  on  duty  at  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy.  It  has  for  its  object  the  promulgation 
of  knowledge  concerning  naval  affairs  among  the 
otticers  of  the  naval  service.  During  the  first 
years  of  its  existence  it  issued  occasional  num- 
bers of  its  Proceedinys,  but  in  a  short  time  the 
publication  was  made  quarterly,  and  this  has 
since  continued.  In  addition  to  papers  sub- 
mitted by  otiicers,  the  Proceedings  contain  a 
quarterly  review  of  the  naval  work  of  the  world 
in  the  "Professional  Notes,''  which  aim  to  give 
all  available  information  concerning  new  ships, 
guns,  torpedoes,  etc.,  which  has  become  available 
during  the  [last  quarter.  Each  year  the  Insti- 
tute otTers  a  gold  medal,  a  life  membership,  and 
a  prize  of  $100  for  the  best  essay  on  any  subject 
of  int'crest  to  the  service,  reserving  the  right  to 
withhold  the  offer  if  no  worthy  essay  is  presented. 

All  officers  of  the  Navy  and  persons  holding 
positions  under  the  Navy  Department  are  eligible 
to  membership,  and  other  persons  interested  in 
naval  affairs  may  be  elected  as  associate  or  hon- 
orary members.  The  present  membership  of  the 
Institute  includes  about  two-thirds  of  all  the 
officers  in  the  navy  and  is  rapidly  increasing. 

NAVAL  LAW.     See  Military  Law. 

NAVAL  OBSERVATORY.  A  Government 
institution  situated  at  Washington,  D,  C,  a  di- 
vision of  the  Bureau  of  Equipment  in  the  Navy 
Department.  Its  functions  are  "to  determine 
accurately  the  positions  of  the  sun,  moon,  planets, 
and  stars  for  use  in  preparing  the  Nautical  Al- 
manac: to  test  chronometers;  to  issue  correct 
standard  time  daily;  ...  to  distribute  to 
vessels  of  the  Navy  instruments  of  precision  for 
navigating  purposes;  to  conduct  astronomical  in- 
vestigations of  general  and  special  scientific  in- 
terest; and,  since  1894.  to  publish  the  Nautical 
Ahnnnar."  It  had  its  origin  in  a  depot  of  charts 
and  instruments  established  by  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment under  the  charge  of  Lieut.  L.  M.  Golds- 
borough  in  1830.  At  this  depot,  "in  a  small  cir- 
cular building,  on  a  brick  pier  with  a  foundation 
20  feet  below  the  surface,  he  moinited  a  3inch 
transit  instrument  made  bv  E.  Patten  of  New 
Y'ork  City."  In  1833  Lieutenant  Wilkes,  U.  S.  N.. 
moved  the  depot  to  another  site  on  Capitol  Hill, 
and  at  his  own  expense  built  an  observatory  con- 
taining a  transit  instrument  of  3'!j  inches  aper- 
ture and  63  inches  focal  length;  a  Borda's  circle; 
a  SV.-foot  achromatic  portable  telescope;  a  port- 
able transit  instrument;  and  a  sidereal  clock.  In 
the  summer  of  1838  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 


NAVAL  OBSERVATORY. 


29-i 


NAVAL  RESERVE. 


directed  tlie  >ii|>ciiiiteiiJeiit  'lo  make  a  constant 
series  of  observations  in  astronomy,  nia^'nitisui, 
and  nioteoroloj;y,  ordering  an  additional  number 
of  assistants  (naval  otticers),  and  granting  au- 
thority for  the  purchase  of  all  necessary  instru- 
ments." Tnder  these  instructions  l.icut.  J.  M. 
Gilliss,  U.  S.  X.,  began  systematic  observations  in 
astronomy  with  additional  instruments  as  fol- 
lows; A  sidereal  clock  and  a  mean  time  clock;  a 
meridian  circle  of  ,5.5  inches  apertun'  furnished 
with  circles  ;iO  inches  in  diameter;  a  portable 
achromatic  telescope  of  3V4  inches  aperture  and 
42  inches  focal  length.  The  work  done  under  his 
direction  at  the  Capitol  Hill  depot  between  1838 
and  1842  was  published  in  1840  as  Astronomical 
Observations  ilade  at  the  Xaral  Observatory, 
being  the  first  American  volume  of  this  nature. 

A  building  for  this  depot  was  authorized  by 
Congress  in  1842  through  the  efforts  of  Lieuten- 
ant (Jilliss.  Taking  the  report  of  the  Xaval  Coni- 
niittee  which  accompanied  tlie  bill  as  the  expo- 
nent of  the  will  of  Congress,  he,  after  consulting 
American  and  Euroj)ean  scientists,  prepared 
plans  and  erected  the  Xaval  Observatory.  Soon 
after  the  instruments  were  in  place  Lieut.  M.  P. 
Maury  succeeded  to  the  charge  of  the  observatory, 
remaining  as  superintendent  until  ISIil.  and  in 
addition  to  astronomical  work  devoted  much  of 
his  personal  attention  to  the  study  of  ocean  cur- 
rents and  other  hvdrographic  and  nautical  sub- 
jects, which  gave  him  international  reputation. 
He  was  followed  as  superintendent  by  such  men 
as  Gilliss,  Davis,  and  Rodgers.  Among  the 
earliest  of  the  scientific  achievements  of  the  new 
observatory  were  the  observations  of  Xeptune 
secured  in  1846  immediately  after  the  dis- 
covery of  that  planet,  which  enabled  Sears  C. 
Walker,  by  identifying  two  older  foreign  observa- 
tions, to  discuss  the  elements  of  Xeptune  <luring 
his  short  connection  with  the  Observatory.  The 
adaptation  of  electricity  lo  record  ot>servations 
bv  Prof.  .John  Locke,  formerly  lieutenant  in  the 
Navy,  resulted  in  the  installation  of  the  first 
practical  chronograph  at  the  Observatory  in 
184!).  With  the  0.6-inch  equatorial  Assi.stant 
Astronomer  .lames  Ferguson  discovered  several 
planetoids  between  1854  and  1860.  The  26inch 
lens  made  by  .Alvan  Clark,  at  the  time  the 
largest  refracting  telescope  in  the  world,  enabled 
Prof.  .Asaph  Hall  to  discover  the  satellites  of 
Mars  in  1877.  In  1803  new  buildings  were  com- 
jileted  on  a  more  favorable  site  on  Georgetown 
Heights,  comprising  a  commodious  oflice  build- 
ing occupied  by  the  offices  of  the  astronomical, 
nautical  instrument,  time  service,  and  yaiitiral 
Almiinar  departments,  while  the  26inch  equa- 
torial, a  0  inch  and  a  6-ineh  transit  <ircle.  and  a 
5-inch  prime  vertical  instrument  are  disposed  in 
suitable  dome  and  houses  nn  the  south,  east,  west, 
and  nortli  of  a  cloikhouse.  the  longitiide  of  which 
is  .Jh.  8m.  15.78s.  W.,  and  the  latitude  S,"*"  55'  14.0" 
N.  In  addition  to  the  instruments  named  there 
are  a  I2inch  equatorial,  a  6-inch  altazimuth,  a 
B  inch  transit,  a  5-inch  photoheliograph.  and  nu- 
merous others.  The  library  contains  about 
twenty  thousand  volumes,  and  is  the  most  com- 
plete astronomical  collection  in  the  country.  The 
publications  of  the  Ob.servatory  comprise  more 
than  fifty  large  quarto  vobimes.  which  contain 
full  details  f)f  the  work  executed,  with  many 
valuable  scientific  memoirs  by  Professors  .Asaph 
Hall.  Simon  Vcu.nmh.  William  Harkness,  and 
others. 


NAVAL  ORDER  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES.  An  hereditary  patriotic  society  or- 
ganized in  Boston,  Mass.,  on  Xovember  10,  "l8U0, 
having  for  its  objects  the  perjictuation  of  the 
deeds  of  the  American  Xavy  through  the  en- 
couragement of  research  in  naval  arts  and  science 
and  the  preservation  of  historic  memorials  relat- 
ing to  the  Xavy  of  the  Lnited  States.  There  are 
two  classes  of  companions.  The  first  class  in- 
cludes veteran  olliccrs  and  tlieir  male  descend- 
ants; and  the  second  class,  enlisted  men  who 
have  received  the  United  States  naval  medal  for 
bravery  in  the  face  of  the  enemy.  The  badge  of 
the  order  is  a  gold  ilallese  cross  coated  with 
blue  enamel  and  edged  with  gold.  In  the  centre 
of  the  obverse  is  the  insignia  of  the  Xavv  of  the 
I'nited  States  with  the  motto,  'Fide'litas  et 
Patria';  on  the  reverse  is  the  insignia  of  the 
Marine  Corps.  There  are  State  commandcries  in 
Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania.  New  York,  Cali- 
fornia. Illinois,  and  "the  District  of  Coliunbia. 
Representatives  from  these  commanderies  meet 
triennially  as  a  general  coinmandery.  The  total 
membership  is  about  500. 

NAVAL  RESERVE.  In  all  the  more  impor- 
tant navies,  in  addition  to  the  regular  forces 
serving  contiiuiously  with  the  (leet.  there  are 
certain  others  wliicli  are  drilled  and  instructed 
in  order  to  be  able  to  supplement  the  personnel 
of  the  fleet  in  time  of  war.  In  jieace  these  men 
are  largely  em|jloyed  in  the  merchant  marine,  in 
yachts,  in  auxiliary  Government  services,  or  are 
pensioners  or  others  who  have  served  the  requi- 
site length  of  time  for  pensi(m  or  discharge,  but 
are  still  within  the  limit  of  age.  In  some  coun- 
tries a  portion  of  the  naval  reserves  have  not 
served  either  in  the  mercantile  marine  or  the 
navy,  but  receive  a  certain  amount  of  train- 
ing for  such  .service;  while  in  coiuitries  in  which 
service  in  the  army  and  navy  is  compulsory  the 
greater  part  of  the  reserve  is  madi'  up  of  men 
who  have  completed  the  requisite  length  of  active 
service  with  the  fleet. 

The  naval  reserve  of  the  United  States  is  small 
(at)out  4000  olliccrs  and  men)  and  consists  of 
battalions  or  divisions  of  State  naval  militia 
organized  at  various  ports  on  the  seacoast  or  the 
(ireat  Lakes.  These  olliccrs  and  men  served  in 
the  war  with  .Spain,  and.  considering  their  oppor- 
tunities for  training,  they  acquitted  themselves 
with  great  credit  and  were  a  most  important 
addition  to  the  strength  of  the  navy  personnel. 
The  defects  of  the  sy.stem  of  training  and  organ- 
ization were,  however,  so  clearly  shown  that  the 
establislunent  of  a  national  naval  reserve  under 
the  direct  control  of  the  X'avy  Department  has 
been  under  continuous  consideration  and  is  likely 
to  be  etrcctcd.  especially  as  the  luimlier  of  men 
likely  to  be  obtained  from  the  naval  militia  is 
inadequate  to  the  demands  of  a  strong  war  fleet. 

In  Great  Hrit;iin  the  naval  reserve  consists  of 
(1)  the  royal  naval  reserve.  (2)  the  royal  fleet 
reserve,  and  (3)  the  .pensioners.  On  .January  1. 
1003.  the  total  of  these  three  classes  was  411.540 
men ;  in  addition,  there  were  4200  men  in  the 
coast-guard,  who  are  included  in  the  regular  ef- 
fective force  of  the  na^^•.  but  are  employed  in 
coast-guard  duties.  The  reserves  are  ilrilled  on 
board  special  drill  ships,  on  board  vessels  of  the 
regular  fleet,  at  various  barracks,  etc.  They  re- 
ceive a  snnill  retaining  pay  and  full  pay  when 
actually  serving.     The  reserve  of  the  French  and 


NAVAL  KESERVE. 


295     NAVAL  SCHOOLS  OF  INSTRUCTION. 


German  navies  are  ilerived  chiell3'  from  lionorably 
diseluirjred  men  who  have  served  tlio  required 
term  of  enlistment  and  then  pass  into  the  reserve. 
To  tliese  may  lie  added  the  men  who  have  not  yet 
been  called  upon,  hut  who  will  he  re()uired  to 
serve  in  time  of  war,  such  as  fishermen,  merchant 
sailors,  and  others  pursuing  such  callings  as  are 
useful  in  the  war  lieet,  also  those  who  may  elect 
to  serve  in  the  navy  rather  than  the  array.  On 
January  1,  100.3.  the  efl'ectives  of  the  French  re- 
serve were  about  .)0,000  in  ninnber,  and  of  the 
German  about  T4.()()n,  The  Russian  naval  reserve 
is  somewhat  similarly  derived,  but  contains  a 
greater  jjroportion  of  untrained  men  who  are 
imfamiliar  with  nautical  life.  Its  numbers  are 
not  definitely  known  and  the  requirements  of 
entry  are  being  changed;  a  fair  estimate  is 
tiO.OOO — of  whieli  not  more  than  half  have  re- 
ceived much  training.  The  Italian  reserve,  like 
those  (if  France  and  Oermany,  consists  of  men 
who  have  completed  the  term  of  acti\e  service 
and  have  passed  to  the  reserve  list.  The  number 
has  at  times  exceeded  32,000  and  is  now  probably 
not  less  than  that.    See  Navies. 

NAVAL    SCHOOLS    OF    INSTRUCTION. 

In  the  L'nited  States  the  naval  schools  consist  of 
the  Xaval  Academy  (q.v. ),  Naval  War  College, 
Naval  Torpedo  School,  apprentice  training 
schools,  and  gunnery  training  schools.  1  he 
Naval  War  College  is  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  and  per- 
forms the  double  function  of  preparing  plans  of 
naval  operations  and  instructing  officers  in  spe- 
cial lines.  The  torpedo  school  for  both  officers 
and  men  is  located  at  the  Torpedo  Station  on 
Goat  Island.  Newport  Harbor,  R.  I.  The  principal 
training  station  for  enlisted  men  is  the  one  for 
apprentices  at  Newport ;  but  tliere  are  others 
at  Port  Royal,  S.  C.  and  San  Francisco.  The 
school  for  seamen  gunners  is  divided  between  the 
naval  gun  factory  at  \\'ashington  and  the  torpedo 
station  at  Newport.  C;un  captains  are  trained  on 
the  gunnery  training  ships,  which  usually  have 
headquarters  at  Port  Royal,  S.  C. 

Foreign  Naval  Schools.  The  naval  school  of 
Argentina  is  at  Buenos  Ayres.  The  age  at  date 
of  admission  is  fourteen  to  seventeen  years  and 
the  course  is  four  years.  The  instruction  is  very 
good  in  theoretical  branches,  but  the  practical 
nautical  exercises  are  verj'  few. 

The  greater  part  of  the  executive  officers  of  the 
Atistro-Hunf/aiiun  na\yare  graduates  of  the  naval 
academy  at  Fiume ;  the  others  are  appointed  pro- 
visiimally  and  serve  in  the  tleet  until  able  to  pass 
a  satisfactory  examination.  The  age  at  date  of  ad- 
mission to  the  academy  is  fourteen  to  sixteen  years. 
The  course  is  four  years,  three  months  of  every 
year  being  spent  on  board  a  practice  ship.  There 
are  also  gunnery  training  schools,  torpedo  schools, 
and   sailing  training  vessels  for  men  and  boys. 

Tlie  executive  officers  of  the  Brazilian  navy  are 
recruited  from  the  gradiiates  of  the  naval  school 
at  Rio  de  .Tanciro.  The  limits  of  age  at  entrance 
to  the  academy  are  thirteen  and  seventeen  years 
and  the  course  is  three  years.  The  graduates  are 
transferred  to  the  naval  college  (Rio  de  .Janeiro) 
for  an  additional  course  of  four  years. 

There  is  a  naval  academy  for  the  education  of 
officers  of  the  Chilean  na\'y  at  Valparaiso.  The 
course  is  six  years,  previous  to  which  the  cadet 
must  have  completed  three  years  at  the  military 
academy  at  Santiago. 

There  is  a  naval  school  for  the  instruction  of 


"llicers  in  the  I'hincsr  navy  at  Nanking,  but  only 
a  part  of  the  officers  are  educated  tliere.  It  may 
be  said  that  in  the  appointment  of  officers,  as  in 
everything  connected  with  the  navy,  there  is  no 
system.  The  course  at  the  academj'  is  four  to 
six  years. 

In  Denmark,  each  year  there  are  ten  admis- 
sions to  the  naval  school  for  officers,  situated  at 
Copenhagen.  The  candidates  must  be  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  years  of  age  and  have  served  nine 
months  in  the  navy  or  eighteen  months  in  the 
merchant  marine.  After  a  preliminary  cruise  of 
three  months  they  are  reexamined  and  six  of  the 
ten  selected,  tlie  others  being  discharged.  The 
course  of  instruction  is  four  years. 

The  training  of  officers  and  men  for  the  French 
navy  is  undergoing  some  changes.  The  principal 
naval  schools  are  the  Polytechnic  School  (partly 
naval ) ,  Naval  School,  superior  training  school  for 
executive  officers,  training  school  for  engineer  offi- 
cers, medical,  torpedo. machinist,  gunnery,  and  ord- 
nance schools.  The  naval  school  proper  is  on  the 
old  line-of-battle  ship  Bord((  at  Brest.  The  re- 
quirements for  entrance  are  high,  and  the  range  of 
suljjects  quite  wide.  The  age  at  entrance  is  from 
fourteen  to  eighteen  years.  The  course  is  two 
years.  After  completing  the  course  at  the  naval 
school  the  cadets  are  promoted  to  aspirants  second 
class,  and  sent  on  board  a  cruising  training  ship 
where  their  instruction  is  continued  for  a  year. 
They  are  then  promoted  to  aspirants  first  class 
and  their  training  ceases.  The  .school  for  engineers 
is  a  school  of  engine  design  and  construction. 
The  medical  schools  are  three  in  number  and  are 
located  at  Brest,  Rochefort,  and  Toulon.  The 
course  of  study  is  two  years.  The  torpedo,  gun- 
nery, and  ordnance  schools  are  for  the  practical 
and  theoretical  education  of  those  officers  who 
incline  to  become  specialists.  The  machinist 
school  is  for  the  training  of  warrant  and  petty 
officers  of  this  branch  for  higher  grades. 

The  GeriDim  naval  academy  is  located  at  Kiel. 
The  candidates  for  admission  must  not  be  more 
than  seventeen  years  old  and  must  possess  cer- 
tificates of  (jualification  for  the  upper  classes  of 
a  royal  high  school  (Realgynmasiuni) ,  or  pass 
an  examination  in  the  equivalent  subjects.  After 
entering  they  receive -four  weeks'  practical  in- 
struction on  shore;  the  cadets  are  then  sent  on 
board  a  cadet  training  ship  and  pass  the  winter 
abroad.  Upon  their  return  in  the  spring  they 
are  examined  and,  if  qualified,  pi'omoted  to  en- 
sign (Fahnrieli  ~iir  See).  They  are  then  em- 
barked for  another  full  year's  course  of  practical 
training  and  theoretical  and  practical  instruction 
on  one  of  the  cadets'  and  boys'  training  ships. 
The  young  ensigns  are  then  transferred  to  the 
naval  academy  for  one  year's  course  of  theoretical 
instruction.  At  the  close  of  the  year  the  prin- 
cipal examination  takes  place:  after  which  the 
ensigns  are  sent  for  half  a  year  to  the  gunnery 
and  torpedo  ships  and  to  the  marine  infantry 
school  for  special  practical  and  theoretical 
courses  in  gunnery,  torpedo,  and  infantry  in- 
struction. After  this  they  are  examined,  and 
upon  passing  are  sent  for  two  years'  practical 
training  on  board  battleships  or  large  cruisers; 
but  they  are  promoted  to  lieiitenant  {Lieutenant 
zur  See)  at  the  end  of  the  first  year. 

The  naval  school  of  the  British  navy  is  located 
at  Dartmouth  on  hoard  the  old  line-of-battle  ships 
Britannia  and  Hindostan.  though  academic  build- 
ings  on   shore    were    commenced   in    1002.      The 


NAVAL  SCHOOLS  OF  INSTRUCTION.     296    NAVAL  SCHOOLS  OF  INSTRUCTION. 


CDUiM'  is  two  vfar.--  and  includes  iii^tnioliuii  in 
M'anmnship,  navigation,  mathematics,  and  tech- 
nical subjects.  On  completing  the  Hritunniii  course 
the  cadets  or  midshipmen  are  appointed  to  sea- 
going ships  carrying  a  naval  instructor  who,  in 
conjunction  with  an  officer  of  the  line  and  an 
engineer,  supervises  their  instruction.  After 
passing  the  necessary  examinations  and  complet- 
ing the  required  amount  (about  live  years,  in- 
cluding time  spent  on  the  Britannia)  of  sea 
service  the  midshipmen  undergo  an  oral  examina- 
tion in  seamansliip  carried  out  by  three  captains. 
Upon  passing  this  they  undergo  a  college  exam- 
ination at  (Greenwich,  receiving  certificates  of 
the  hrst.  second,  or  third  class,  according  to 
qualifications.  This  certificate  materially  affects 
promotion  to  lieutenant.  After  leaving  tlie  col- 
lege the  acting  sublieutenants  go  through  courses 
in  pilotage,  gunnery,  and  torpedo  instruction. 
The  men  of  the  Royal  Xaval  Reserve  arc  drilleil 
on  board  widely  distributed  ships  for  the  greater 
convenience  of  the  merchant  sailors  who  form 
the  principal  part  of  the  reserve.  The  training 
of  firemen,  machinists,  etc.,  is  carried  out  on 
vessels  attached  to  the  different  dockyards. 

The  Italian  naval  academy  is  located  at  I^eg- 
horn  (Livorno).  The  instruction  is  in  two  parts: 
(a)  the  normal  course,  and  (b)  the  superior 
course.  The  limits  of  age  at  admission  are 
thirteen  and  fifteen  years.  The  normal  course  is 
five  years  in  length,  the  theoretical  instruction 
continuing  during  eight  months  of  each  year  and 
the  practical  work  on  board  the  practice  ships 
about  three  months.  At  the  end  of  the  course, 
having  passed  all  examinations,  the  cadets  are 
a])pointed  midshipmen.  They  then  are  sent 
aboard  cruising  vessels  for  at  least  a  year,  after 
which  they  are  commissioned  as  sublieutenants 
and  are  sent  to  the  academy  for  the  superior 
course  of  instruction,  which  comprises  two  ses- 
sions. The  first  session  is  obligatory  for  all  sub- 
lieutenants, and  the  examination  which  takes 
place  at  the  end  fixes  the  rank  of  the  officers  in 
their  grade  and  affects  greatly  the  question  of 
their  advancement  by  selection  (one-third  are 
promoted  to  lieutenants  by  .selection  and  two- 
thirds  by  seniority!.  To  the  second  session  only 
those  are  admitted  who  have  attained  a  certain 
standard  in  their  examinations,  and  these  more 
fortunate  young  men  receive  a  diploma  which  has 
an  important  inlluencc  upon  their  naval  carix-r 
and  their  eventual  promotion.  The  naval  con- 
structors, ecmstructing  ongitieers,  and  commissary 
officers  are  also  grad\iates  of  the  naval  academy. 
The  schools  for  the  enlisted  men  are  five  in  num- 
ber.    There  are  also  training  ships  for  seamen. 

Officers  are  supplied  to  the  Japanexr  fleet  in 
four  ways:  first,  from  the  naval  academy  at 
Kure;  second,  by  cadets  sent  to  foreign  naval 
sehools;  third,  by  promotion  from  the  ranks 
(rare)  :  fourth,  by  appointment  from  the  marine 
school  for  merchant  masters  at  Tokio.  There  are 
also  torpedo,  engineering,  and  gunnery  schools, 
and  several  training  ships  fur  seamen  and  boys. 

The  naval  school  for  the  Dutch  navy  is  located 
at  Willemsoord.  The  age  at  entrance  is  fourteen 
to  seventeen  years  and  the  course  is  four  years. 
At  the  end  of  the  course  of  four  years  the  cadets 
pass  examinations  and  are  ajipointed  as  cadets  of 
the  f]rst  class.  After  two  years'  service  iti  ships 
of  the  nnvy  they  are  again  examined,  ami.  if  found 
qiialifjed,  commissioned  as  second  lieutenants. 
The  school  for  naval  engineers  is  at  Hellevoets- 


luis.  There  are  also  gunnery  and  torpedo  schools 
and  school-ships  for  training  seamen  and  boys. 

The  Suriciyiun  naval  school  furnishes  not  only 
the  ollicers  of  the  regular  service,  but  also  those 
of  the  reserve.  Candidates  for  admission  to  the 
school  must  not  be  over  nineteen  years  of  age 
and  must  have  served  for  twenty-one  months  in 
the  merchant  marine.  The  course  at  the  school 
is  in  two  parts,  inferior  and  superior.  The  in- 
ferior course  is  three  years  long  and  at  the  end 
the  cadets  become  ensigns.  Tliose  ensigns  who 
are  not  destined  to  form  ])arl  of  the  regular  navy 
arc,  after  two  years  of  ordinary  service,  made 
lieutenants  of  the  reserve.  The  superior  course 
has  two  terms  of  eight  months  each.  After  eigh- 
teen months  of  additional  service  the  graduates 
of  the  superior  school  are  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  lieutenant.  There  are  also  gunnery  and  tor- 
l)cdo  schools  and  training  ships  for  I  lie  enlisted 
force. 

The  naval  school  of  PortiKjal  is  a  polytechnic 
institution.  The  course  for  executive  officers  con- 
sists of  three  months  on  a  training  vessel,  one 
year  at  the  naval  school,  three  months  on  the 
training  vessel  again,  and  la.stly,  another  year 
at  the  school.  The  gradiuites  are  then  appointed 
midshipmen,  and  after  two  years  of  service  are 
conmiissioned  as  ensigns.  There  are  gunnery  and 
torpedo  schools  for  both  officers  and  men  and 
training-school  shi])s  for  boys. 

The  pri!ici]>al  source  of  supply  of  officers  for 
the  Russian  navy  is  the  naval  academy  at 
Saint  Petersburg.  The  candidates  for  entry  must 
be  between  fourteen  and  eighteen  years  of  age. 
The  course  is  four  years.  At  the  conclusion  of 
the  course  the  cadets  become  midshipmen.  There 
is  also  at  the  academy  a  post-graduate  course  for 
instruction  of  officers  in  strategj',  tactics,  inter- 
national law,  etc.  The  other  source  of  supply  of 
officers  is  the  school  of  navigation  and  ordnance  at 
Kronstadt.  The  course  is  fo\ir  years  and  the  in- 
struction similar  to  that  given  at  the  naval 
academy.  There  are  also  training  schools  for 
the  enlisted  men  with  several  training  ships. 

The  executive  officers  in  the  Spanixh  navy  are 
graduates  of  the  royal  naval  school.  The  age 
of  candidates  at  entrance  is  from  thirteen  to 
eighteen  years.  The  course  is  three  years,  after 
which  the  cadets  become  midshipmen,  and  then 
serve  one  year  on  board  a  ship  detailed  as  the 
school  of  application,  one  year  on  board  the 
sailing  vessel  \aulilus.  and  one  year  on  vessels 
in  service,  .\fter  a  final  examination  they  are 
connuissioned  as  sublieutenants.  There  are  also 
floating  gvinnery  and  torpedo  schools  and  ves- 
sels for  the  training  of  seamen  and  of  boys. 

The  executive  officers  of  the  active  list  of  the 
f^iredixh  navy  are  graduates  of  the  naval  acad- 
emy at  Stockholm.  The  limits  of  age  of  candi- 
dates at  entrance  are  thirteen  and  sixteen  years. 
The  coiirse  at  the  naval  academy  is  six  years 
(eight  months  in  each  year  at  the  school  and 
four  months  on  a  practice  ship).  I'pon  gradu- 
ation the  cadets  are  made  sublieutenants.  They 
are  then  sent  for  six  nmnths  as  instructors  in 
a  school  ( ICxrrrixskoIan) .  where  the  enlisted  men 
receive  their  naval  instruction.  This  is  followed 
by  six  months'  service  of  various  kinds,  including 
some  time  spent  at  the  dockyard.  They  then 
>pend  terms  with  the  mobile  defense  of  the  coast 
and  the  gunnery  school,  and  after  eight  or  nine 
months  in  cruising  ships  they  are  commissioned 
as  ensigns.    There  are  also  schools  of  the  mobile 


NAVAL  SCHOOLS  OF  INSTRUCTION.     297 


NAVARRE. 


deft'iisc,  and  a  sclionl  for  ciilistfcl  men  (Eur- 
fisskolun)  :ihea(ly  iii<'iiti(]m-cl,  and  a  gunnery 
selu)(jl. 

In  the  Turkish  navy  the  course  of  instruction 
is  supposed  to  hist  ten  years;  four  j'cars  at  the 
priniaiy  silmol  of  Kassimpasha.  four  years  in 
the  preparatory  school  on  the  island  of  Plalki, 
and  two  years  at  tlie  naval  school  proper,  also 
on  the  island  of  llalki.  Frnni  tlie  naval  school 
the  cadets  graduate  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant 
{mulazim  ) . 

Consult :  the  Proceedings  of  the  United  States 
Xaial  Iiistilute  (Annapolis)  ;  Journal  of  the 
Ttoyal  United  Service  Institution  (particularly 
the  number  for  October,  1901)  (London)  ;  Bras- 
sey's  ^'<n^<ll  Annual  (  Portsnuaith,  1880  et  seq. )  ; 
Annual  Reports  of  the  Ofjicc  of  Naval  Intelli- 
gence (particularly  the  volume  for  1888)  (Wash- 
ington) ;  Soley,  Foreign  Stistems  of  Naval  Edu- 
cation (United  States  Navy  Department,  Wash- 
ington. 1880):  Buchard,  Marines  ctrangcres 
(Paris,  1891).  See  Naval  Academy;  Cahet, 
N.wal;  N.wies;  and  section  on  Naval  Appren- 
tice under  Apprentice. 

NAVAL  SIGNALS.    See  Signals,  Marine. 

NAVAL  TACTICS.     See  Tactics,  Navai.. 

NAVAL  VETERANS,  Nation.\l  Associa- 
tion OF.  A  patriotic  society  organized  in  New 
York  City  in  January,  1887,  having  for  its  chief 
purpose  the  preservation  of  the  traditions  and 
memories  of  the  United  States  Na^-y  during  the 
Civil  War.  It  admits  to  membership  any  officer, 
appointed  or  enlisted  man  who  served  in  the 
United  States  Navy,  United  States  Marine  Corps, 
or  United  States  Revenue  Marine  Service  during 
any  portion  of  the  time  between  April  12,  1861, 
and  August  25,  1865,  and  who  has  been  honor- 
ably discharged  or  resigned  by  an  honorable  ac- 
ceptance of  resignation.  The  organization  is 
divided  into  thirty-nine  local  associations,  and 
has  a  membership  of  nearly  10,000. 

NAVAL     WAR     COLLEGE.       See     Naval 

Schools  of  Instruction. 

NAVARINO,  nli'varO'no.  .\  town  of  Greece, 
in  the  Morea  and  in  the  Nomarchy  of  Messenia, 
at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Bay  of  Navarino. 
It  is  at  present  officially  called  Pglos.  The  an- 
cient Pylos  was  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
bay,  and  is  now  called  Pakrolastro  and  Palwo- 
Navarino.  Population,  about  3000.  Along  the 
front  of  the  bay  stretches  the  island  of  Sphagia, 
or  Sphaeteria  (q.v.).  In  1492  the  Turks  cap- 
tured Navarino.  and  held  it.  with  two  or  three 
short  periods  of  interruption,  till  1821,  when  it 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Greeks,  In  1825  it 
was  taken  by  Ibrahim  Pasha,  and  on  October  20, 
1827,  in  the  Bav  of  Navarino,  the  allied  British, 
French,  and  Russian  fleets,  numbering  twenty- 
four  ships  and  commanded  by  the  British  Ad- 
miral Sir  Edward  Codrington,  defeated  the  com- 
bined Turkish  and  Egyptian  fleets,  comprising 
eighly-nine  ships  of  war.  In  this  battle  sixty  of 
the  Ottoman  ships  were  destroyed  outright,  and 
the  rest  were  driven  ashore  in  a  shattered  condi- 
tion. Tlie  Turks  lost  0000  men,  while  less  than 
200  of  the  allies  were  killed.  The  battle  of  Na- 
varino brought  about  the  achievement  of  Greek 
independence.  Consult  Memoir  of  Sir  Edward 
Codrinritiin.  by  his  daughter    (187.S). 

NAVARRE,  na^vjir'.  A  former  independent 
ki-ngdom  on  both  sides  of  the  western  Pyrenees, 


now  constituting  the  Spanish  Province  of  Na- 
varra  (capital  Pamplona),  and  part  of  the 
French  Department  of  Basses-Pyrenfes.  The 
I'rovinee  of  Navarre  has  au  area  of  about  4050 
square  miles.  A  large  portion  consists  of  wooded 
mountains  and  well-watered  valleys.  The  region 
alxiut  Pamplona  is  a  treeless  plateau.  In  the 
south,  in  tlie  valley  of  the  Kbro,  is  a  fruitful 
district,  called  the  Kibera  (sliore).  In  tlie  south- 
east is  a  barren  salt  steppe.  The  region  is  drained 
by  the  Ebro,  its  alHuents,  tlie  Ega  and  Aragon, 
the  Arga,  an  affluent  of  tlie  Aragon,  and  the  Bi- 
dassoa.  The  population  of  the  province  is  about 
300,000. 

History.  This  territory  was  occupied  in  an- 
cient times  by  the  ^'ascones,  the  present  stock  of 
the  Basques,  and  Uiey  were  never  entirely  subju- 
gated by  the  Romans.  The  Visigoths  met  with 
sturd3'  resistance  from  the  Basques,  and  had  to 
content  them.selves  with  a  nominal  overlordship. 
The  Basques  were  enabled  to  maintain  some  in- 
dependence even  during  the  Saracen  conquest. 
Charles  the  Great,  toward  the  close  of  the  eighth 
century,  conqueretl  their  country  and  made  it  a 
part  of  the  Spanish  mark.  It  soon  became 
independent  of  the  Franks  and  for  a  time 
its  history  is  very  imperfectly  known.  Apparent- 
ly Sancho  (iarcia  (905-925).  who  wrested  the  re- 
gion of  the  Upper  Ebro  from  the  Saracens,  was 
the  first  to  bear  the  title  of  King  of  Navarre.  In 
the  form  of  government  the  Basque  influence  and 
tlie  tribal  feelings  were  strong,  and  the  govern- 
mental institutions  were  primitive.  The  King 
was  elected,  and  limited  in  his  power  by  a  council 
of  twelve  nobles.  The  kingdom  developed  rapidly 
by  conquests.  Sancho  III.,  the  Great,  who  died  in 
1035,  was  also  King  of  Castile,  and  Aragon  was 
under  his  control  as  a  dependency  of  Navarre, 
He  divided  his  kingdom  among  his  three 
sons.  Sancho  IV.  of  Navarre  was  murdered  in 
1076  and  the  nobles  chose  King  Sancho  of  Aragon 
as  their  ruler.  Until  1134  Navarre  was  united 
with  ,\ragon  (q.v.);  In  that  year  the  King  of 
Aragon,  Alfonso  the  Battler,  bequeathed  his  king- 
doms to  tlie  Templars  and  Hospitalers.  The  peo- 
ple of  Navarre,  dissatisfied,  chose  the  son  of 
Sancho  IV.  as  King  and  recovered  their  independ- 
ence. The  country  continued  under  this  dynasty 
for  a  himdred  years,  but  Navarre,  shut  in  by  Cas- 
tile and  Aragon,  was  prevented  from  developing 
by  conquests  from  the  Moors.  In  1234  Navarre 
passed  by  inheritance  ,  to  Champagne.  Queen 
.loanna  of  Navarre  married  Philip  IV.  of  France 
in  1284,  and  from  that  time  until  the  extinction 
of  the  Capetian  dynasty,  in  1328,  the  history  of 
Navarre  was  intimately  connected  with  that  coun- 
try. Then  the  kingdom  went,  as  a  tlowry,  to 
Philip  of  Evreux,  who  married  Joanna,  daughter 
of  Louis  X.  Her  son  was  Charles  the  Bad.  (See 
Charles  II.  of  Navarre.)  His  grand-daughter 
Blanche  married  King  .Tohn  of  Aragon.  and  Na- 
varre was  connected  with  Aragon  from  1458  until 
1479.  .John's  daughter,  Eleanora,  who  succeeded 
to  the  throne  of  Navarre  in  1479,  was  married  to 
Gaston  de  Foix,  Viscount  of  B6arn,  and  thus 
Beam  was  united  with  Navarre,  Eleanora  died 
soon  after  her  accession  and  was  succeeded  by 
Francis  Plucbus.  His  successor.  Catharine  de 
Foix,  married  in  1484  a  French  noble,  Jean 
d'Albrct.  In  1512  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  con- 
quered what  is  now  the  Spanish  portion  of  Na- 
varre. The  kingdom  was  thus  reduced  to  .a  small 
district,  to  the  north  of  the  Pyrenees.     Jeanne 


NAVARRE. 


298 


NAVE. 


d'Albret  niarripil  iu  1548  Antoine  de  Bourbon. 
Their  son,  Uunry,  ascended  tlie  throne  of  Na- 
varre in  lo72,  and  in  1.589  became  King  of  France 
as  licnry  IV.  Navarre  was  united  to  France  by 
decree  in  1007,  but  down  through  Charles  X.  all 
French  kings  bore  also  tlie  title  of  King  of  Na- 
varre. Consult  Uordenave,  Ilistoirc  dc  Beam  et 
yaviirn    (Paris,   1873). 

NAVARBETE,  na'va-ra'ta,  Domingo  Fer- 
NANUKZ  (ItilOSlI).  A  Spanish  missionary.  He 
was  born  at  i'euafiel.  Old  Castile;  entered  the 
Dominican  Order,  and  in  1047  went  to  the  I'hilip- 
pine  Islands,  where  he  became  professor  of  theol- 
ogy at  ilanila.  Later  he  made  a  missionary 
journey  into  the  interior  of  China  and  resided 
there  for  a  number  of  years,  becoming  in  time 
the  head  of  his  Order  in  China.  During  a  perse- 
cution he  was  imprisoned  at  Canton,  but  escaped 
and  reached  home  in  167.3.  In  1R77  he  became 
Archbishop  of  Santo  Domingo,  lie  published  the 
fir.st  volume  of  his  work,  Tratados  hixtoricos, 
politicos,  /licos  y  religiosos  dc  la  monarquia  de 
China  (IG7G);  but  tlie  second  volume  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  Inquisition.  A  projected  third 
volume  was  never  published.  Consult  Navarrete's 
China,  in  Churchill's  Colled  ion  of  Voyages  and 
Travels,  vol.  i.   (London,  1744). 

NAVARRETE.  Fr.\xcisco  JL-vniel  de  ( 1768- 
l.Sdil).  A  ^le\iran  poet,  born  at  Zamora.  He 
entered  the  Franciscan  Order  and  ultimately  be- 
came professor  of  Latin  at  the  L'liiversity  of 
Valladolid.  He  attained  some  reputation,  espe- 
cially for  his  bucolic  poetry.  A  collection  of 
some  of  his  works  was  printed  as  Entreteni- 
micntus  pocticos  del  P.  Xavarrete  (1823). 

NAVARRETE.  .Juan  Fernandez,  properly 
Fkhnandez-X.^vakette  (c. 1.520-79) .  surnamed 
Kl  .\Iuiio  (the  Mute).  A  Spanish  biblical  paint- 
er. l)orn  at  Longrono.  He  studied  in  dill'erent 
parts  of  Italy,  especially  at  Venice  under  Titian, 
and  returned  to  Spain  after  twenty  years,  with 
his  reputation  well  established.  In  1568  he  was 
made  painter  to  the  King,  and  em])loyed  on  the 
decorations  for  the  Fscorial.  Among  those  still 
surviving  are  a  "Saint  .Terome,"  "Christ  at  the 
Pillar,"  "The  Nativity,"  "The  Martyrdom  of 
Saint  .James,"  and  a  "Holy  Family."  In  1570 
he  painted  his  most  famous  picture,  "Abraham 
and  the  Three  Angels,"  for  the  Escorial,  and  in 
1577  78  he  further  painted  eight  pictures  repre- 
senting the  "Apostles,"  the  "Evangelists,"  "Saint 
Paul,"  and  "Saint  Barnabas."  Among  his  other 
works  are  "Saint  .lohn  in  Prison."  Hermitage, 
Saint  Petersburg,  and  "The  Holy  Family."  Wei- 
mar Museum.  Navarrete's  manner  shows  the  in- 
fluence (if  his  master.  Titian,  and  he  plays  an 
important  part  in  the  technical  develnpinent  of 
the  Spanish  school.  He  died  at  Toledo.  March 
28,  1570. 

NAVARRETE,  Marti.n  Fkk.va.nkez  de  ( 1765- 
1844).  A  Spanish  navigator  and  author,  born 
at  .\valos.  I.ogrofio.  Spain.  He  entered  the  Span- 
ish navy  in  1781.  served  in  the  West  Indies  and 
in  the  Sleiliterranean.  and  took  part  in  the  com- 
bined French  and  Spanish  attack  on  Oibraltar 
in  1782.  He  became  a  lieutenant  in  17Sfl,  and. 
having  already  attracted  attention  by  his  writ- 
ings on  naval  questions,  was  commissioned  to  col- 
lect documents  relating  to  the  history  of  the 
Spanish  navy.  From  1706  to  ISOl!  he  was  de- 
tailed on  .special  .service  in  the  Department  of 
Marine,  resigning  in  the  latter  year  rather  than 


recognize  Joseph  Bonaparte.  He  again  took  of- 
lice  after  the  restoration,  became  a  recognized 
authority  on  naval  all'air.s,  and  in  1823  was 
appointed  director  of  tlie  hydrographic  office. 
Subsequently  he  was  chosen  Senator  and  made 
a  Councilor  of  State.  His  greatest  work  was  his 
Colecc'idn  de  los  viajes  y  dexcuhrimientos  que 
hicieron  por  mar  los  espariolcs  licsde  fines  del 
siglo  XV.  (7  vols.,  1825-05).  He  also  wrote  a 
Life  of  Ccrrantcs.  published  with  a  new  edition 
of  Don  (Quixote  (1820);  and  left  material  for 
two  posthumous  works.  Diserlacinn  sohrr  la  his- 
toria  de  la  ndutica  (1840)  and  llibliolcca  mart- 
tima  rspafiola   (1851). 

NAVAR'RO,  Madam.     See  Anderson,  Mary 

Antoinktie. 

NAVARRO,  na-va'ro.  Pedro  (1440-1528).  A 
Spanish  general,  who  greatly  developed  the  use 
of  mines  in  war.  His  early  life  is  obscure.  In 
1500  he  was  employed  by  (ionsalvo  de  Cordova 
in  the  campaign  against  Najiles.  He  was  very 
successful  in  his  use  of  mines  against  the  famous 
Castello  Nuovo  in  1.503.  and  was  made  Count 
of  Alvetto  by  Ferdinand  of  Aragon.  Navarro 
joined  the  French  army  after  the  battle  of 
Ravenna  (1512),  and  fonfrihuted  largely  to  the 
success  of  the  campaign  of  Jlarignano  (1515). 
In  Lautrec's  disastrous  campaign  against  Naples, 
Navarro  was  captured,  taken  to  that  city  and  im- 
prisoned there.     His  death  followed  immediately. 

NAVAS  DE  TOLOSA,  nii'vas  da  tolo'sa, 
Las.  a  village  of  Andalusia.  Spain,  37  miles 
north  of  .Jaen,  noteworthy  as  the  scene  of  a  bat- 
tle (.July  16,  1212)  between  Alfonso  Vlll.  of 
Castile,  "aided  by  a  large  army  of  Crusaders, 
chiclly  French  and  Knglisli.  and  an  army  of 
Moors  under  Mohammed  ibn  .Midallali.  The 
Christians  were  victorious  and  pernuincntly 
broke  the  Mohammedan  power  in  Spain.  Here 
also,  in  1812.  a  battle  took  place  between  the 
Spanish  and  French. 

NA'VE  (ML.  naris.  nave  of  a  church,  ship. 
Lat.  naris.  ship).  .\  term  used  most  conunonly 
in  connection  with  church  architecture,  and  with 
two  meanings.  In  the  first  place  it  denotes  the 
higher  middle  division  where  there  are  three  or 
five  divisions;  as  in  a  churcli  of  the  type  estab- 
lished in  the  lifth  century  in  the  Christian  basili- 
cas of  Italy.  The  side  divisions  are  called  aisles, 
and  nearly  all  large  Christian  churches  have  hail 
•three  aisles;'  the  word  aisle  in  this  case  covering 
nave  as  well.  A  few  large  buildings  are  five- 
aisled,  and  the  Cathedral  of  Antwerp  is  a  sevcn- 
aisle<l  chiirch.  but  the  nave  is  nearly  always  the 
middle  and  much  the  broadest  and  highest  jiart. 
There  are  some  churches,  especially  of  the  later 
(Jothic  period,  which  have  aisles  and  nave  of  the 
same  hidght ;  such  are  the  cathedrals  of  Carcas- 
sonne and  Krfurt.  and  of  Vienna  in  .\ustria;  but 
the  central  division  remains  the  widest  and  is 
still  the  nave.  In  the  ordinary  form  of  church, 
where  the  nave  is  nnich  higher  than  the  aisle,  the 
uppermost  part  of  it  is  called  the  clearstory,  and 
the  large  windows  in  the  clearstory  walls  trans- 
mit much  the  largest  amount  "f  daylight  to  the 
interior. 

The  same  use  of  the  term  for  the  midilli'  and 
widest  and  highest  division  exists  in  the  descrip-. 
tion  of  a  Roman  basilica,  or  bath  establishment 
(tliernne;  see  Bath  I .  or  any  buiUling  which 
is  lighted  in  part  by  windows  in  the  wall  of  a 
higher   division    rising   above    the    roofs   of   the 


NAVE. 


299 


NAVIES. 


lower  divisions;  thus  it  is  disputed  whptlicr  tlie 
middle  part  of  the  L'lpian  basilica  at  Koine  was 
roofed,  and  was  a  real  nave,  or  open  to  the  sky 
like  a  court. 

The  original  meaning  of  the  word  was,  how- 
ever, ditl'erent.  it  applied  to  all  that  part  of  a 
church  whicli  was  farthest  from  the  sanctuary, 
that  is.  that  part  into  which  the  people  entered 
from  out  of  doors,  excluding,  however,  the  nar- 
tliex  or  porch.  For  convenience,  and  because  the 
majority  of  Christian  churches  in  the  West  are 
oriented  (see  Oriext.\tion)  ,  this  may  be  called 
tlie  Western  part. 

In  the  churches  of  the  basilica  ty])e.  tlien.  all 
to  the  east  of  the  great  transept  was  the  nave; 
and  this  use  of  the  term  continues.  Thus,  if  we 
are  speaking  of  a  cruciform  church,  we  speak 
of  the  eastern  i)art  as  the  cliuir:  tlu-  middle  part, 
which  has  its  greatest  length  athwart  the  )nain 
lines  of  the  church,  we  call  the  transept,  and  all 
west  of  the  transept  (except  porch  or  tower)  is 
the  nave.  In  this  sense,  the  nave  includes  the 
middle  division  and  the  side  divisions,  and  we 
are  compelled  to  say  of  the  cathedral  of  Le  ilans. 
for  instance,  that  the  nave  consists  of  a  nave  and 
two  aisles,  while  the  choir  has  a  nave  and  four 
aisles.  Tliese  are  difliculties  only  to  be  overcome 
by  the  use  of  explanatory  phrases. 

NAVESINK  (nav'e-sink)  HIGHLANDS. 
A  chain  of  hills  forming  a  bold  headland  inside 
of  Sandy  Hook,  in  Monmouth  County,  New  .Jer- 
sey (ilap:  New  Jersey,  D  .3).  They  are  im- 
portant landmarks  to  ships  approacjiing  New 
York.  On  them  are  located  two  first-class  light- 
houses, tifty-three  feet  high,  both  of  which  show 
fixed  white  lights.  The  adjacent  region,  which 
is  very  beautiful  and  easily  accessible  from  New 
York  City,  attracts  many  visitors. 

NAVEZ,  na'va'.  Francois  (1787-1869).  A 
Belgian  bil)lical  and  genre  painter.  He  was  born 
at  C'harleroi,  November  10,  1787,  and  first  studied 
under  Isidore  and  .Joseph  Francois.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  the  Academies  of  Brussels  and  tihent, 
and  studied  with  David,  in  whose  manner  his 
works  are  executed.  From  1817  to  18^2  Navez 
was  at  Rome,  after  wliich  he  settleil  permanently 
in  Belgium.  He  was  made  director  of  tlie  lirus- 
sels  Academy,  and  died  at  Brussels,  October  12, 
ISfiO.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  "Nymph 
Salmacis  and  Hermaphroditus"  (1820).  Ohent 
Museum;  ■'Elijah  Raising  the  Shvuiamite's  Son" 
(1821).  and  the  "Jlecting  of  Isaac  and  Rebecca" 
(182G),  Haarlem  Pavilion;  "The  Holy  Family" 
(18,51).  Antwerp  ^Museum ;  "The  Spinning 
Women  of  Fondi"  (184.5),  New  Pinakothek, 
-Munich;  and  "'llagar  and  Ishmael  in  the  Desert," 
Brussels  Museum. 

NAVICULAR  DISEASE  (Lat.  nariculuna, 
relating  to  ships,  from  nurlriihi.  diminutive  of 
iK/ri'.s-.  shiji).  A  disease  of  the  horse,  consisting 
in  strain  of  the  strong  flexor  tendon  of  the  foot, 
at  the  point  within  the  hollow  of  the  fetlock 
where  it  |)asses  over  the  navicular  bone.  It  is 
most  common  among  the  lighter  breeds  of  horses, 
and  especially  where  the  pasterns  are  upright, 
toes  outturncd,  and  work  is  early  and  severe  on 
hard  roads.  It  soon  gives  rise  to  a  short  trip- 
ping yet  cautious  gait,  undue  wear  of  the  toe 
of  the  shoe,  wasting  of  the  muscles  of  the  shoul- 
der, and  projecting  or  pointing  of  the  a  fleeted 
limb  while  standing.  Give  rest,  remove  the  shoe, 
shorten  the  toe.  and  apply  hot  poultices,  changed 

Vol,.  XIV.— 20. 


every  few  hours.  Laxative  medicine  and  bran 
mashes  may  be  ordered.  After  a  few  days,  and 
when  the  heat  and  tenderness  abate,  cold  appli- 
cations should  be  given ;  after  another  week  the 
animal  may  be  placed  for  two  months  in  a  grass 
field,  where  tlie  ground  is  soft  and  moist;  or,  if 
sulliciently  strong,  at  slow  farm  work  on  soft 
land.  Division  of  the  nerve  going  to  the  foot 
removes  sensation,  and  consequently  lameness, 
and  hence  is  useful  in  relieving  animals  intended 
for  breeding  purpo.ses  or  for  slow  work.  The 
operation,  however,  is  not  to  be  recommended 
where  fast  work  is  required,  for  the  animal,  being 
insensible  to  pain,  uses  the  limb  as  if  nothing 
were  amiss,  and  the  disease  rapidly  becomes 
worse.    See  Horse. 

NAVIES  (OF.  navie.  from  Lat.  navia,  ship, 
variant  of  navis,  Gk.  vavs,  itatis,  Skt.  nau,  Olcel. 
)iOr,  ship,  naust,  naval  .station;  connected  with 
Gk.  vetv,nein,  to  swim).  Tlie  term  navy  is  ap- 
plied to  the  armed  force  of  a  country  which  oper- 
ates on  the  water  or  in  coast  and  harbor  <lefense. 
The  history  of  navies  goes  back  to  the  earliest 
days  of  ships,  for  no  sooner  were  such  craft  built 
tlian  their  value  as  weapons  of  war  was  at  once 
seen.  The  Chinese  were  among  the  earliest  of 
navigators,  but  little  is  known  concerning  their 
ancient  fighting  craft.  The  most  ancient  war  ves- 
sels of  which  tlie  details  are  known  were  those  of 
the  Egyptians,  and  the  date  assigned  to  them  is 
B.C.  3000.  At  the  same  time  it  is  evident  that 
there  were  many  other  peoples  that  possessed 
fighting  vessels,  and  that  the  Eg\'ptians  were  far 
from  paramount :  for  they  had  repeated  naval 
combats  with  the  Mysians,  Phocoeans.  and 
Phamicians,  and  probabl.y  also  with  the  Pelas- 
gians.  Daunians,  Oscans,  Cretans,  and  Sicilians. 
It  is  therefore  impossible  to  fix  any  sort 
of  priority  to  the  possession  of  naval  de- 
fense. Herodotus  says:  "These  Phoca-ans  were 
the  first  of  all  the  Greeks  who  undertook  long 
voyages,  and  they  are  the  people  who  discovered 
the  Adriatic  and  Tyrrhenian  seas,  .and  Iberia  and 
Tartessus  (a  part  of  modern  Spain).  They  made 
their  voyages  in  fifty-oared  galleys  and  not  in 
merchant  ships."  At  this  time,  and  for  a  long 
time  subsequent  and  anterior,  the  shapes  of 
merchant  and  war  vessels  were  quite  diflerent, 
the  former  being  broad  and  suitable  for  carrving 
cargo  and  the  latter  narrow  and  sharp  so  as  to 
make  speed.  In  addition,  the  war  vessels  were 
built  with  rams  and  other  warlike  appurtenances, 
while  the  merchant  vessels  made  a  much  greater 
use  of  sails. 

The  command  of  the  sea,  so  far  as  the  Mediter- 
ranean was  concerned,  finally  passed  to  the 
Phoenicians.  Of  their  cities,  Tyre  soon  took  the 
lead  in  wealth  and  power,  reaching  its  zenith 
about  B.C.  1000,  when  the  expression  'a  Tyrian 
sea'  became  '"a  proverbial  expression  for  a  sea 
whose  navigation  was  prohibited  to  all  but  those 
who  claimed  the  ownership  thereof."  After  a 
nioi'e  or  less  complete  naval  supremacy  lasting 
many  centuries  the  power  of  the  Phoenicians  be- 
gan to  wane  through  the  ve])eated  assaults  of  the 
As.syrians.  who  attacked  Phoenicia  by  land.  Not- 
withstanding great  numerical  inferiority,  the 
Pho'uicians  managed,  though  defeated,  to  pre- 
serve their  independence,  though  in  870  they  were 
compelled  to  pay  tribute.  In  724-720  Tyre  w.as 
captured,  but  not  destro.yed.  and  in  0.50  the 
Tyrians  threw  ofT  the  foreign  yoke.     But  the  de- 


NAVIES. 


300 


NAVIES. 


vastating  wars  of  the  past  two  Inmdred  years 
had  so  reduced  the  population  that  soon  after 
their  reassertion  of  independence  their  slaves 
rose  and  mastered  the  city.  Xeiy  soon  after  this 
the  Egyptians  made  themselves  masters  of 
Pha-nicia,  but  in  liOo  the  Chaldeans  drove  them 
out.  The  naval  power  of  the  Phmiician  father- 
land had  now  become  of  little  importance,  but 
her  colonies  were  wealthy  and  nourishing.  In 
the  si.\th  century  Carthage  declared  its  inde- 
pendence, and  though  it  never  attained  the  mas- 
terful position  of  the  parent  State,  for  a  century 
or  more  it  was.  upon  the  water,  the  most  power- 
ful of  the  Mediterranean  States. 

The  decline  of  the  Phoenician  naval  power  per- 
mitted the  rise  of  that  of  the  Greeks  and  Per- 
sians. The  confederated  Greek  fleets  completely 
defeated  the  Persians  at  Salamis  (B.C.  480).  The 
naval  supremacy  of  .\thens  was  destroyed  in  the 
Peloponnesian  War   (B.C.  431-404). 

The  Romans  found  it  necessary  to  build  a  war 
fleet  when  they  came  in  conflict  with  the  power 
of  Carthage.  Their  first  success  was  tlie  defeat 
of  the  Carthaginian  fleet  at  Myla?  (B.C.  2G0). 
With  the  fall  of  Carthage  the  naval  power  of 
Rome  became  paramount  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Finally  the  battle  of  Aetiura  (B.C.  31 )  cut  off  the 
last  opposing  naval  force  in  the  Mediterranean, 
that  of  Kgypt. 

Early  in  the  Jliddle  Ages  the  countries  about 
the  Baltic  and  North  seas,  which  had  been  send- 
ing out  their  rovers  in  every  direction,  began  to 
develop  organized  naval  power.  The  predatory 
expeditions  of  the  Norsemen  show  organized  pow- 
er, though  the  actual  warfare  was  mostly  upon 
land.  The  songs  and  stories  of  the  Scandinavians 
and  Danes  contain  many  accounts  of  sea  lighting. 
but  the  accounts  are  so  intermixed  with  fable  and 
poetic  imagery  that  it  is  hard  to  separate  fact 
from  liction.  It  is  not  until  the  ninth  or  tenth 
century  that  we  begin  to  reach  anything  approach- 
ing reliable  history.  The  first  great  .sea  fight  of 
which  we  have  a  full  account  is  that  between  King 
Olaf  Tryg\asson  of  Norway  and  tlie  allied  Power.s 
of  Denmark  and  Vendland,  which  were  assisted 
by  the  Norwegians  of  the  Province  of  Viken 
(from  which  tlie  name  of  Viking  is  derived). 
Notwithstanding  his  brave  and  able  defensive 
tight.  Olaf  was  overcome  by  weight  of  num- 
l«-rs,  defeated,  and  killed.  This  was  in  the 
year  1000.  In  1014  Olaf  the  Saint  assisted 
the  Saxons  to  capture  London,  which  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Danes.  This  fight  is  interesting  from 
the  fact  that  it  was  won  by  a  fleet  fighting 
against  land  forces.  The  culmination  of  the 
naval  power  of  Norway  was  reached  soon  after- 
wards under  llarald  TTardrada.  About  five  years 
before  the  landing  of  \\illiam  the  Conqueror  in 
Kngland.  llarald  destroyed  the  Danish  fleet  in  a 
fiercely  fought  action  at  Nisaa.  In  lOfifi  he 
Marted  witli  a  fleet  and  army  to  assist  Earl 
To>tig.  brother  of  Harold  of  England,  who  was 
in  rebellion  and  had  fled  to  Norway.  The  ambi- 
tion of  the  Norwegian  King  in  this  instance 
caused  his  death,  for  he  was  killed  in  battle 
at  Stamford  Uridge.  September  2.i.  lOtJfi — three 
days  before  the  landing  of  the  Normans  and  less 
than  three  weeks  l)efore  the  battle  of  Hastings. 
After  the  death  of  llarald  Hardrada  the  Norse 
sen  power  ileclined. 

When,  after  the  fall  of  Rome,  there  ceased  to 
be  any  dominant  power  in  the  Mediterranean. 
there  was  an  increase  of  piracy  and  robbery  on 


the  sea  and  along  unprotected  coasts.  The  geo- 
graphical position  of  Italy  caused  it  to  be  the 
natural  doorway  to  merchandise  entering  Europe 
from  the  East  or  moving  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. The  development  of  maritime  trade  thus 
brought  about  caused  the  Italian  commercial 
cities  to  be  the  heaviest  losers  by  piracy,  and 
made  it  necessary  for  them  to  establish  naval 
forces.  Of  the  Italian  States.  Venice.  Pisa,  and 
Genoa  took  the  lead  in  commerce,  and  all  grad- 
ually developed  powerful  navies.  The  army  of 
Venice  was  composed  chiefly  of  mercenaries  and 
connnanded  by  one  because  it  was  feared  that 
a  native  might  use  its  power  to  overturn  the 
Government ;  but  the  navy,  from  which  nothing 
of  the  kind  was  feared,  became  the  ])ride  of  the 
])CopIe.  The  Senate  encouraged  the  nobles  to 
trade  and  .serve  in  the  fleet  and  they  became  mer- 
chants and  admirals. 

In  the  ninth  ccnt\ny  the  Saracens  had  become 
|)owerful  and  troublesome  in  the  Mediterranean, 
where  their  piratical  armed  vessels  and  strong 
fleets  were  the  terror  of  every  merchant  who  had  a 
venture  on  the  sea.  They  carried  their  dejjreda- 
tions  to  the  coast  of  Italy,  so  that  in  842  the 
Venetians  coojierated  with  the  Greeks  in  sending 
a  naval  expedition  against  them.  The  hostile 
fleets  met  at  Cortona.  The  (irecks  fled  at  the 
first  attack  of  the  enemy,  but  the  Venetians 
fought  against  vastly  superior  numbers  until 
their  loss  was  so  great  as  to  make  further  resist- 
ance impossible,  when  the  few  survivors  endeav- 
ored to  make  their  escape.  For  a  quarter  of  a 
century  the  humiliation  of  defeat  rankled  in  the 
\'enetians,  and  finally  they  sent  out  a  new  force 
which  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  their  enemies 
on  the  same  spot.  During  the  next  six  or  seven 
centuries  the  Pisans.  Genoese,  and  Venetians 
strove  for  naval  and  conunercial  supremacy  with 
each  other  and  with  the  Saracens  and  their 
natural  successors,  the  Turks,  (ienoa  and  Venice 
profited  by  the  Crusades,  furnishing  ships,  muni- 
tions of  war.  and  provisions  to  the  Crusaders. 
Pisa  succund>ed  to  Genoa  in  the  great  sea  fight 
otr  Meloria  in  1284.  Previous  to  this  (Jenoa  and 
Venice  had  entered  ui)on  their  great  struggle  for 
su|)remacy.  Both  rei)ublics  extemled  their  terri- 
tories by  land  and  sea.  and  Wnice  held  most  of 
hers  until  the  rise  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  when 
she  lost  many  of  her  islands  and  seaports,  which 
constituted  an  almost  unirlerrupted  territory 
from  the  head  of  the  .Vdriatic  to  .\sia  .Minor  and 
the  Bosporus,  including  CS'prus,  Crete,  and  the 
Morea.  The  contest  between  Venice  and  Genoa 
for  control  of  the  Mediterranean  continued  at 
intervals  iintil  1380.  when  the  (Jenoese  fleet  and 
army  which  had  threatened  X'cnice  were  captured 
at  Chioggia  by  the  \'cnetians  under  .\dmiral 
Vettor  Pisani.  one  of  the  greatest  of  naval  com- 
manders. .\fter  the  battle  of  Chiocrgia  the  mili- 
tary and  naval  power  of  Genoa  de<'lined  quite 
rapidly.  Venice,  on  the  contrary,  continued  to 
grow  in  wealth,  power,  and  extent  of  territory 
until  at  the  close  of  the  Middle  .Ages  the  Turks  be- 
came ilominant  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  Republic  had  to  with- 
stand the  combined  arms  of  the  covetous  Chris- 
tian powers. 

The  Turks,  who  had  firmly  established  them- 
selves in  Eiirope.  dreamed  of  universal  eon- 
quest  and  were  expanding  their  territory  at 
I'verv  opportunity.  .At  last  in  1571  Venice, 
I'liilip  11.  of  Spain,  and  Pope  Pius  V.  uniled  in  a 


NAVIES. 


301 


NAVIES. 


I 


great  effort  to  put  an  end  to  the  aggressive  naval 
jjouer  of  the  iloslems,  and  the  combined  fleet, 
under  Don  John  of  Austria,  dealt  an  irreparable 
blijw  to  Turkish  prestige  in  the  battle  of  Lepanto. 
This  victory  did  not  arrest  the  decline  of  \eniee, 
whose  commercial  prosperity  was  greatly  atlected 
by  the  change  in  the  channels  of  trade  which  had 
been  brought  about  by  the  discovery  in  1497-98 
of  the  water  route  to  India. 

S|)ain  made  a  strong  efl'ort  to  become  a  great 
maritime  nation,  but  ultimately  failed,  partly 
from  governmental  mismanagement,  partly  from 
various  causes  connected  witli  the  temperament 
of  her  people  or  with  the  country's  environment. 
In  1588  she  sustained  a  crushing  blow  in  the  de- 
feat of  the  Invincible  Armada,  which  was  to  con- 
quer England. 

Though  the  fact  was  not  yet  recognized,  Nep- 
tune's sceptre  was  passing  to  northern  nations, 
the  English  and  the  Dutch.  But  good  sailors 
as  the  Dutch  were,  they  were  too  few  in 
number  and  too  poor  long  to  cope  with  their 
great  rival,  and  Britain  became  mistress  of 
the  waves.  Alfred  the  <!reat  is  commonly  re- 
ganled  as  the  founder  of  the  British  navy.  Be- 
fore his  time  the  various  petty  kings  had  naval 
forces,  but  Alfred  combined  them  into  an  English 
fleet  and  took  command  of  it  against  the  Danes 
in  jierson,  and  England's  first  naval  victory  was 
gained  in  his  reign  oft'  the  coast  of  Essex.  Alfred's 
grandson  Athelstan  fostered  the  maritime  spirit 
of  his  people  as  regards  both  connuerce  and  naval 
aft'airs.  He  granted  the  title  of  'thane'  to  any 
merchant  who  had  made  three  voyages'  on  the 
high  seas  in  his  own  ship  freighted  at  his  own 
expense,  though  this  was  a  title  (previously  con- 
fined to  men  of  noble  rank  and  extensive  landed 
possessions.  Edwy  the  All  Eair  is  said  to  have 
had  large  fleets,  and  under  Canute  the  Great 
English  maritime  commerce  assumed  large  di- 
mensions. After  the  Xornians  had  firmly  estab- 
lished their  rule  they  also  encoviraged  the  growth 
of  shipping  and  provided  for  its  defense.  Henry 
II.  and  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  are  both  known  to 
have  had  strong  naval  forces,  and  under  .lolm  it 
was  decreed  "that  any  ships  of  other  nations, 
though  at  peace  and  in  amity  with  England, 
should  be  made  lawful  prizes  if  they  refused  to 
strike  to  the  royal  Hag."  Such  an  arrogant  as- 
sumption is  not  likelv  to  have  been  made  unless 
the  ))ower  to  carry  it  out  existed,  and  we  know 
that  .lohn's  fleet  gained  a  victory  over  the  French 
in  the  harbor  of  Dannne.  During  the  century 
which  followed  a  sort  of  piratical  war  existed  be- 
tween England  and  France  and  the  coasts  of 
both  were  ravaged  by  the  freebooters  on  either 
side.  At  length,  in  l.'i40.  the  English  fleet,  com- 
manded by  Edward  III.  in  person,  won  the  great 
victory  of  Sluis.  the  French  losing  nearly  their 
whole  force  of  three  hundred  vessels  and  20.000 
men  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners.  According 
to  Charnock.  this  was  the  first  action  in  which 
beaked  galleys  were  wholly  laid  aside  and  vessels 
propelled  chiefly  by  sails  relied  upon.  From  this 
time  there  was  no  particular  improvement  in  the 
British  nav^  (except  that  heavy  gtins  were 
placed  on  board  ship)  until  (he  reign  of  Henry 
VIIT.,  who  gave  great  attention  to  the  fleet, 
building  several  relatively  very  large  vessels,  of 
which  by  far  the  greatest  was  the  Hrnry  Grarr  (fe 
Dieu.  She  carried  72  gims  and  700  men  and  her 
tonnage  is  variouslv  stated  at  from  1000  to  1  fiOO. 

Henry  VIII.  was  the  first  sovereign  in  Europe 


to  establish  a  corps  of  officers  for  sea  service 
only;  and  he  did  more  for  the  navy  than  any  pre- 
ceding monarch,  using  improved  models  for  his 
ships  and  employing  numy  Italian  shipwrights 
(then  the  best  in  the  world)  in  their  construc- 
tion. He  greatly  increased  th<>  number  of  vessels 
and  established  the  arsenals  at  Portsmouth, 
Woolwich,  and  Deptford.  Eilward  VI.  and  Mary 
paid  little  attention  to  the  fleet,  but  Elizal)etli 
recognized  its  vital  importance  and  increased  the 
number  of  ships  and  their  size,  besides  improving 
the  condition  of  the  officers  and  gathering  vast 
quantities  of  naval  stores.  From  her  reign  to 
the  present  day  the  British  navy,  though  not 
without  rivals,  has  never  been  equaled. 

In  this  brief  review  of  the  liistory  of  ancient 
and  mediaeval  navies  only  those  are  considered 
which  have  lx>en  of  greatest  importance  in  the 
dift'erent  periods.  This  has  excluded  a  very  large 
number  from  mention  except  so  far  as  their  his- 
tories are  bound  up  with  the  histories  of  others. 
The  greatest  apparent  omission  is  in  the  case  of 
France.  Her  navy  has  always  been  respectable 
and  occasionally  very  powerful,  but  it  has  never 
been  paramount,  and  its  prestige  sufTered  at  dif- 
ferent times  from  defeats  brought  about  by  gov- 
ernmental neglect  and  mismanagement.  It  has 
not  been  to  France  what  that  of  Great  Britain 
has  been  to  the  British  Islands  and  Empire,  an 
absolute  necessity.  Her  fleet  has  been  b\iilt  up 
or  neglected  according  to  the  i)revailing  policy  of 
the  Government. 

Modern  naval  develo|)ment  may  be  said  to 
have  begun  with  the  rapid  increase  in  the  size  of 
ships  Avhich  took  place  at  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth centuiy  (see  Gt'xs.  Naval)  ;  and  me- 
diaeval history  finally  closed  with  the  battle  of 
Lepanto  in  1571.  the  last  great  action  in  which 
rowing  galleys  played  an  important  part.  From 
this  time  the  sail-propelled  nuin-of-war  was  grad- 
ually improved  until  early  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, when  sails  began  to  give  way  to  steam. 
During  this  period  the  British  navy  managed  to 
retain  its  general  suprenuicv.  though  the  tempo- 
rary rise  of  the  Dutch  naval  power  seriously 
threatened  it:  and  for  a  few  years  Louis  XIV. 
managed  to  maintain  a  French  fleet  which  was 
superior  to  the  British,  and  with  which  .\dmiral 
Tourville  defeated  the  condjincd  British  and 
Dutch  forces  off  Beachy  Head  (  l(i90).  Two  years 
later  the  French  fleet  was  destroyed  at  La  Hogue 
by  the  allied  British  and  D\itch.  From  this  time 
forward  the  superiority  of  the  British  na\y  was 
undoubted.  Though  it  lost  many  single-ship 
actions  with  the  French  and  .\mericans.  no  for- 
eign navy  could  stand  before  its  full  strength. 

After  the  close  of  the  Napoleonic  wars  the 
great  naval  Powers  were  (Jreat  Britain  and 
France  alone.  In  the  second  rank  were  Spain, 
Russia,  the  Netherlands.  an<l  Turkey.  In  the  third 
were  Austria.  Denmark,  the  I'nited  States,  the 
Two  Sicilies.  Sardinia.  Portugal,  aiul  Prussia.  In 
1860  the  conditions  were  much  the  same,  except 
that  the  United  States  had  risen  to  the  second 
category,  the  Netherlands  had  sunk  to  the  third, 
the  Kingdom  of  Italy  was  forming,  and  that  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  tottering  to  its  fall:  while 
Greece.  Brazil.  Peru,  and  Chile  had  organized 
naval  forces. 

During  the  American  Civil  War  the  navy  of 
the  I'nited  States,  whose  history  and  present  con- 
ilition  will  be  found  fully  treated  under  U.vited 
States,  became  greatly  expanded,  but  from  1805 


NAVIES. 


302 


NAVIES. 


to  1881  it  steadily  declined,  until  it  reached  the 
point  of  almost  alisolute  uselessness  so  far  as  the 
ships  were  coiiceriicd.  and  ceased  to  be  a  factor 
anion-;  the  naval  armaincnls  of  the  Powers. 
In  1806  the  North  Uernian  Confederation  took 
over  the  l'nis>ian  navy  and  made  some  addi- 
tions; and  the  lleet  ayain  received  some  increase 
of  strength  in  the  decade  following  the  forma- 
tion of  the  German  Empire.  Italy  began  to 
develop  a  fleet  as  soon  as  the  Kingdom  was 
established,  but  the  disastrous  battle  of  Lissa 
in  1800  caused  a  tenii)orary  check,  and  it  was 
not  until  1872  that  she  adopted  the  building 
policy  that  in  a  dozen  years  brought  lier  up 
into  the  first  rank  of  naval  Powers.  Rus- 
sia began  to  reconstruct  her  (leet  after  the  close 
of  the  Crimean  War  and  has  |)ursued  a  steady 
and  unwavering  policy  of  naval  increase  from 
that  date  to  the  present.  In  1881  the  United 
States  began  to  rebuild  the  navy,  but  it  was 
not  until  18!)0  tliat  liattleships  of  the  first  class 
were  commenced.  After  completing  four  large 
armorclads  in  1878-80.  Germany  added  little  to 
her  lleet  until  1888-89.  when  a  programme  was 
adopted  which  included  tlic  construction  of  28 
ships  of  various  types.  ,Iapan  organized  its  navy 
on  a  modern  footing  soon  after  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War  in  the  I'nited  States,  and  slowly  added 
to  it  until  after  the  battle  of  the  Yalu  "(1894), 
wlien  she  began  to  l)uild  the  fine  vessels  that  have 
made  her  navy  the  most  powerful  outside  of 
Europe,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  the  I'nited 
Slates.  Of  the  Powers  of  the  second  rank,  Aus- 
tria-Hungary is  first.  After  the  War  of  1806  she 
dill  little  for  se\eral  years,  and  then  (1872-78) 
built  only  tlirec  ships  of  much  importance.  In  1887 
she  launched  two  small  armorclads.  and  in  1895- 
Oli  three  coast  defense  vessels.  Then  was  insti- 
tuted a  shipbuilding  policy  which,  if  persisted  in, 
may  soon  place  her  among  the  great  maritime 
Powers,  lurkey.  which  had  a  jjowcrful  navy 
about  1880.  has  allowed  it  to  fall  into  decay,  and 
had  not  in  UlflU  a  single  ship  of  the  first  or  even 
of    the    -econd    class. 

So  far  as  the  collective  strength  of  their  heavy 
fighting  ships  is  concerned,  navies  are  considered 
to  rank  as  follows  in  1903:  1.  British;  2.  French; 
.3,  Russian;  4,  United  States;  5,  CJerman:  6,  Ital- 
ian: 7.  .Japanese:  8.  Austrian.  To  the  lesser  Pow- 
ers it  is  (lifTieult  to  assign  places.  The  relative 
positions  of  the  United  States  and  (iermany  are 
disputeil,  though  all  authorities  agree  that  their 
forces  are  very  nearly  equal.  .\t  the  opening  of 
the  twentieth  lentniv  the  French  and  Italian 
navies  have  been  falling  behind  their  rivals,  and 
the  Hii^sian  is  hardly  holding  its  own.  If  the 
present  conditions  remain  unchanged,  it  seems 
likely  that  in  a  very  few  years  the  United  States 
ami  (lermany  will  be  superior  .at  sea  to  all 
other  Powers  except  Great  Britain,  and  will  he 
striving  with  each  other  for  seccmd  place. 

The  eon<lition  of  the  various  navies  in  1901-02 
was   as   follows: 

.MOIIERN   NAVIES. 

.Arckntina.  The  .\rgentine  navy  is  the  most 
powerful  one  possessed  bv  a  South  American 
State.  In  May.  1902.  the  lleet  consisted  of  4 
higli'spi'i'd  armored  cruisers  of  fi840to7l80  tons 
(launched  IS9r.-9S),  1  third-class  battleship  of 
4267  tons  (launched  1880,  but  recently  rebuilt), 
2  armored  coast-defense  vessels  of  2.1.36  tons 
(launched  1890-91),  2  armored  coast-defense  ves- 
sels of  l."i.")8  ton'*  (launched  1874-7:'>,  hut  being  re- 


constructed), 3  high-speed  protected  cruisers  of 
3200,  3570,  and  4780  tons  (launched  1890-95),  1 
small  partially  protected  cruiser  of  1442  tons 
(launched  1874).  2  torpedo  gunboats  of  1070 
and  520  tons  (launched  1890-93 1,  3  gun  ves- 
sels of  550  to  820  tons,  I  cruising  school-ship 
of  2750  tons  (launched  1897).  1  torpedo  school- 
ship  of  1 100  tons  (launched  1880),  4  torpedo- 
boat  destroyers  of  280  tons,  2  torpedo  boats 
of  no  tons,  G  of  85  tons,  4  of  52  tons,  10  of 
Iti  tons,  and  1  torpedo  mining  boat.  In  addi- 
tion there  were  building  in  Europe  two  high-speed 
armored  cruisers  of  8500  tons,  and  in  Buenos 
jVyies  a  submarine  boat  was  reported  as  under 
construction.  The  former  by  a  treaty  signed  in 
1903  between  .\rgentina  and  Chile  were  to  be 
disposed  of,  while  further  disarmament  was  con- 
templated. The  naval  academy  is  located  at 
Buenos  Ayres.  There  is  a  small  naval  station 
at  La  Plata  and  a  torpedo  school  and  torpedo- 
boat  station  at  Buenos  Ayres,  but  the  principal 
navy  yard  will  be  at  Bahia  Blanca  when  the 
works  wliich  were  un<ler  construction  in  1902  are 
completed. 

Austria.  The  navy  of  Austria  is  in  power  of 
its  fighting  ships  eighth  in  rank  among  the 
navies  of  the  world  and  sixth  among  those  in 
Europe.  For  many  years  no  new  vessels  of  im- 
portance were  added  to  the  fleet,  but  in  1893  the 
armored  cruiser  Kaiscrin  Maria  Thercsia  was 
launched  and  three  small  battleships  were  com- 
menced: and  since  that  time  the  annual  building 
]irogramme  has  steadily  increased.  As  reorgan- 
ized in  1901  the  Navy  nei)artiiient  forms  an 
autonomous  section  in  the  Ministry  of  War  under 
the  control  of  a  vice-admiral,  who  is  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  fleet  and  marine  forces,  and  who 
represents  the  Minister  of  War  in  the  discus- 
sions of  the  budget  of  the  Navy  Department.  The 
department  consists  of  the  marine  cabinet,  the 
general  staff,  and  three  administrative  sections 
divided  into  eight  bureaus.  The  naval  budget  for 
1901  02  amounted  to  46,090.820  crowns  ($9,478,- 
2:i<).40:  1  crown  —  .$0,203).  an  increase  of  3,200,- 
000  crowns  on  that  for  the  previous  year.  The 
piiiicipal  navy  yard  is  at  Pola  (which  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  fleet),  but  there  is  another  at 
Triest.  and  several  small  stations  along  the 
Dalmatian  coast.  The  tabular  statement  later  in 
this  article  gives  the  strength  of  the  Austrian 
fleet. 

Belghm.  The  .seacoast  of  Bclghim  is  only  42 
miles  long,  and  there  are  no  very  important  sea- 
ports except  the  interior  one  of  .\nlwerp.  For 
fishery  protection  there  is  a  small  armed  steamer 
of  084  tons,  but  there  is  no  navy  properly  so 
called. 

Brazil.  Among  the  navies  possessed  by  South 
.\incrican  nations  the  navy  of  Brazil  is  third  in 
power.  The  principal  navy  yard,  together  with 
the  naval  academy  and  apprentice  school,  is 
located  at  Rio  de  .laniero.  but  there  are  other 
naval  stations  at  Pernainhuco,  Santa  Catalina, 
and  Bahia.  The  fleet  consists  of  2  small  battle- 
ships of  5700  and  4950  tons  (launched  1883-85, 
but  rebuilt  in  1893-90).  2  new  coast -defense 
armorclads  of  3162  tons  (launched  1898  99),  4 
protected  cruisers  of  4.537.  34.50.  2750,  and  1.300 
tens  (launched  1890-96).  3  cruisers  of  1414  to 
1911  tons  (launched  1877-90).  5  torpedo  gun  ves- 
sels of  .500  to  1030  tons  (launched  1892  98),  1 
(d<l  monitor  of  1000  tons,  6  small  river  monitors 
of  340  to  470  tons,  15  fir.st-class  torpedo  boats, 


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303 


NAVIES. 


I 


k 


7  second-class  toipedu  boats,  C  third-class  torpedo 
boats,  2  submarine  boats  (Goubet  tvpe — Paris, 
1895),  2  new  submarines  (projected),  6  armed 
niercliant  steamers,  16  small  gunboats  of  137  to 
726  tons,  2  old  armorelads  of  about  1500  tons 
used  as  lloating  batteries,  ,'i  small  transports,  and 
several  small  vessels  used  for  river  service. 

Bulgaria.  The  navy  of  Bulgaria  consists  of 
one  small  gunboat  and  four  royal  yachts;  the  per- 
sonnel is  variable  and  uncertain. 

Chile.  Of  the  navies  of  South  American  coun- 
tries, the  nav}'  of  Chile  is  second  in  power,  be- 
ing exceeded  only  by  that  of  Argentina.  The 
naval  sehool  for  officers  is  at  Valparaiso.  The 
principal  dockyard  is  at  Talcahuano,  though  there 
are  naval  stations  at  V'alparaiso  and  Llica  and 
smaller  ones  elsewhere.  The  lleet  consists  of  1 
third-class  battleship  of  6900  tons  (launched 
ls:iO),  1  fourth-class  battleship  of  .3500  tons 
.(hiunched  1874,  but  rearmed  about  1S90),  1  old 
monitor  of  1870  tons  (launched  1865),  2  high- 
speed armored  cruisers  of  7000  and  8500  tons 
(launched  1890-97),  1  protected  cruiser  of  4500 
tons  (building  in  1902).  4  protected  cruisers  of 
3600,  4420,  2080.  and  2080  tons  (launched  1890- 
96),  1  new  steel-slu'athed  cruising  training  ship 
of  2500  tons  (launched  1898),  3  torpedo  gun- 
boats of  750  to  860  tons  (launched  1890-96).  4 
torpedo-boat  destroyers  of  300  tons  (launched 
1896),  6  torpedo  boats  of  J30  tons,  13  smaller 
torpedo  boats,  several  small  vessels  and  old  gun- 
boats, and  a,  number  of  merchant  steamers  which 
are  held  at  the  disposal  of  the  Government  in  case 
of  war.  In  1902-03  negotiations  were  concluded 
with  Argentina  by  the  terms  of  which  the  war 
vessels  under  construction  in  Europe  were  not 
to  be  added  to  the  fleet,  and  the  reduction  in 
vessels  and  armament  was  provided  for. 

China.  The  navy  of  China  was  never  an  or- 
ganized force.  The  fleet  was  made  up  of  squadrons 
supported,  officered,  and  manned  by  different  sec- 
tions of  the  Empire,  and  the  squadrons  were 
called  the  Pe-chi-li  squadron.  Fu-chow  squadron, 
and  Oanton  squadron.  The  war  with  .Tapan 
swept  away  all  the  armored  vessels  and  many  of 
the  unarmored  ones  and  left  the  navy  in  a  de- 
plorable state,  from  which  it  has  not  yet  recov- 
ered. There  is  not  now,  and  there  has  not  been 
at  any  time,  any  well-considered  plan  of  supply- 
ing officers  to  the  fleet,  although  there  has  been 
for  many  years  a  naval  school  at  Nanking  at 
which  a  few  officers  are  educated  by  foreign  in- 
structors. What  officialism  and  corruption  failed 
to  do  in  weakening  the  fleet,  incompetency 
in  the  older  officers  accomplished.  The  principal 
dockyard  is  at  Fu-chow.  but  there  is  a  naval 
arsenal  at  Shanghai  ami  small  yards  at  Tien-tsin 
and  Canton.  The  vessels  possessed  in  1902  in 
the  different  squadrons  were  2  protected  cruisers 
of  24  knots  speed  and  4300  tons  (launched  1897- 
98),  5  protected  cruisers  of  2500  to  2950  tons 
(launched  1883-97),  3  cruisers  of  2200  tons 
(launched  1883-90).  9  cruisers  of  1200  to  2100 
tons  (launched  1875-87),  1  steel  screw  training 
ship  of  1800  tons  (launched  1895),  6  torpedo 
gun  vessels  of  850  to  1030  tons,  12  gunboats  of 
340  to  580  tons  (launched  1869-95).  1  special 
service  vessel  (cruiser  and  cable  ship)  of  1400 
tons,  1  armored  gunboat  of  200  tons  (launched 
1875).  6  small  wooden  floating  batteries  for  river 
operations,  22  gimboats  belonging  to  river  and 
customs  service  of  120  to  850  tons,  4  dispatch  ves- 
sels  and   training   ships   of    1200   to    1500   tons 


(launched  1869-79),  3  armed  transports,  1  sail- 
ing training  vessel  of  400  tons,  and  21  torpedo 
l)uats  of  27  to  120  tons  (laimched  1885-99).  Four 
tiiipcdoboat  destroyers  built  Ijy  Scbichau  in 
1898-99  were  captured  by  the  allied  forces  at 
Taku  in  1900  and  added  to  the  British,  French, 
German,  and  Russian  navies. 

Colombia.  The  navy  of  Colombia  consists  of 
2  gunboats  of  about  400  tons,  2  armed  yachts,  1 
liarquc-rigged  sailing  vessel  of  315  tons  register, 
and  2  sailing  cutters  used  in  the  revenue  service. 

Costa  Rica.  The  only  war  vessel  possessed 
by  Costa  Rica  is  a  small  torpedo  boat  built  by 
Yarrow  in   1892. 

Denmark.  Though  necessarily  small,  the  Dan- 
ish navy  has  an  excellent  reputation  as  regards 
organization  and  elliciency.  \t  the  head  of  it  is 
the  Minister  of  Marine,  who  is  assisted  by  a  su- 
perior officer  (usually  a  vice-admiral  or  rear- 
admiral)  who  has  the  title  of  "director-general.' 
The  Navy  Department  is  divided  into  four  prin- 
cipal sections:  (1)  Secretariat;  (2)  Admiralty; 
(.3)  Commissariat  and  Accounts;  (4)  .Justice. 
The  chief  of  the  secretariat  is  the  director-gen- 
eral ;  of  the  admiralty,  a  captain  in  the  naxy. 
The  other  two  sections  have  civilian  heads. 
The  only  dockyard  is  the  royal  arsenal, 
Copenhagen.  The  fleet  consists  of  2  armored  ves- 
sels of  3470  tons  ( 1  launched  1899,  1  building  in 
1902),  1  fourth-class  battleship  of  5370  tons 
(launched  1878,  undergoing  reconstruction),  6 
armored  vessels  of  2080  to  3290  tons  (launclied 
1808-96 — older  vessels  rebuilt  recently).  3  pro- 
tected cruisers  of  1290  tons  (launched  1890-92), 
2  protected  cruisers  of  2580  and  2900  tons 
(launched  1882-88),  4  small  cruisers  of  560  to 
1.570  tons  (launched  1862-76).  6  gunboats  of  215 
to  360  tons,  4  surveying  vessels  of  95  to  145  tons, 
1  torpedo  mine  boat  of  389  tons,  1  royal  yacht  of 
770  tons,  about  20  special  service  vessels,  receiv- 
ing ships  and  hulks,  9  first-class  torpedo  boats 
of  90  to  143  tons.  4  second-class  torpedo  boats  of 
50  to  82  tons,  15  third-class  torpedo  boats  of  15 
to  44  tons. 

Ecuador.  The  navy  of  Ecuador  consists  of 
one  small  cruiser  of  811  tons  (launched  1885, 
repaired  1900),  two  iron  steamers  lightl.y  armed, 
and  one  torpedo  boat  of  about  85  tons. 

Egypt.  Egypt  has  no  navy,  properly  speaking. 
The  armed  vessels  possessed  by  the  (Joverninent 
are  sixteen  steam  and  sailing  vessels  of  the  coast 
guard  service  of  10  to  450  tons,  three  dispatch 
vessels  of  330  to  700  tons,  one  transport  of  3700 
tons,  thirteen  shallow-draught  river  gimboats. 
and  three  royal  yachts,  which  carry  small  guns. 

France.  The  success  of  the  French  niivy  in 
war  has  never  been  proportional  to  its  strength. 
This  has  been  due  to  disorganizing  forces  from 
without  the  service  whidi  have  prevcnfed  effi- 
ciency. Since  the  fall  of  the  Empire  the  navy 
has  greatly  improved,  and  seems  to  be  at  present 
highly  efficient ;  certainly,  the  ships,  armaments, 
and  equipments  are  of  the  best,  and  the  per- 
sonnel of  apparently  equal  excellence.  At  present 
the  French  na^'y  is  second  to  that  of  Great 
Britain  only,  but  for  financial  rea.sons  the  num- 
ber of  new  ships  now  in  hand  and  proposed  is 
insufficient  to  enable  France  to  maintain  her 
present  relative  lead,  and  it  is  likely  that  within 
the  next  decade  her  navy  will  be  surpassed  by 
those  of  both  Germany  and  the  United  States. 
It  seems  likely  that  the  Frencli  naval  aiithorities 
have  realized  the  drift  of  naval  matters  for  sev- 


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304 


NAVIES. 


cral  years,  ami  tliat  the  special  attention  that 
has  been  l)aiJ  to  the  development  of  suhmarine 
boats  is  due  to  the  hope  of  obtaininjj;  a  defensive 
naval  weapon  whieh.  at  little  exix'nse,  would 
enable  the  French  coasts  to  be  adequately  pro- 
tected. The  French  Xavy  Department  is  presided 
over  by  a  ilinister  of  Marine,  a  civil  oHiecr  who 
is  a  ineml>er  of  the  governmental  Cabinet.  Until 
1'.I02  the  executive  head  was  the  chief  of  the 
naval  •;eneral  start",  but  this  was  changed,  and 
the  chiefs  of  bureaus  are  directly  .subordinate  to 
the  Jlinister  of  llarine.  the  chief  of  the  stall' 
sinkin";  to  the  level  of  a  bureau  olliccr.  The 
sections  or  bureaus  of  the  department  are:  (a) 
(General  Start';  (b)  Oilice  of  the  ilinister  of 
Marine;  (c)  Personnel;  (d)  Material:  (c)  Ord- 
nance: (f)  Submarine  Defenses;  (g)  Hy- 
drography; (h)  Central  Control  (financial  in- 
spection); (i)  Accounts;  (j)  Pensions.  There 
are  in  addition  six  consultation  or  advisory 
boards:  (a)  Superior  Xaval  Council ;  (b)  Board 
of  (ieneral  Inspectors;  (c)  Council  of  Works; 
(d;  CVinnnission  on  K(piipment;  (el  Couunission 
on  Machinery  and  Plant;  (f|  Board  to  Classify 
Ollicers  for  Promotion.  The  principal  naval 
arsenals  (seeABSEXAL)  are  located  at  Cherbourg. 
Lorient,  Brest,  Rochefort,  and  Toulon,  but  there 
are  others  at  Saigon  (Cochin-China) ,  Bizerta 
(Africa),  Fort  de  France  (West  Indies),  etc.  By 
far  the  greater  part  of  the  executive  officers  are 
graduates  of  the  Xaval  Academy  at  Brest,  but 
many  are  now  obtained  from  other  schools,  espe- 
cially those  promoted  from  the  enlisted  force. 
The  men  are  enlisted  voluntarily  or  drafted  from 
the  conscription  maritime.  The  strength  of  the 
ticet  is  shown  in  the  statistical  table  later  in  this 
article. 

(;EKiM.\NV.  The  navv  of  Germany  is  of  com- 
paratively recent  origin.  The  Prussian  navy  and 
that  of  the  North  German  Confederation  were 
both  weak.  After  tlie  formation  of  the  Empire 
a  number  of  armored  ships  of  importance  were 
built,  but  it  is  only  within  the  last  dozen  years 
that  (icrmany  began  to  take  rank  as  a  great 
naval  power.  From  ISflO  to  the  present  the 
building  of  powerful  new  ships  has  proceeded 
steadily.  -After  completing  the  vessels  of  sev- 
eral small  building  programmes,  the  Government 
in  I  SOS  |)rcpared  a  'sexennate"  programme,  which 
was  approved  by  the  Reichstag.  This  provided 
for  the  constrtiction  of  7  new  battleships,  li 
armored  cruisers,  and  5  small  cruisers,  besides 
replacing  vessels  which  had  become  antii|uatp(i. 
The  bill  laid  down  the  principle  that  the  life  of 
a  battleship  an<l  of  a  coast-defense  ship  should 
be  considered  as  twenty-five  years,  that  of  a 
large  cruiser  as  twenty  years,  and  of  a  small 
crui-ser  as  fifteen  years;  after  which  times  the 
vessels  are  to  be  considered  as  anti<|uated  and 
replaced.  In  1900  a  much  more  comprehensive 
law  was  passed.  This  proviiled  that  not  later 
than  l!H(!  the  German  fleet  should  consist  of 
38  battleships.  20  large  cruisers.  4.'>  small 
cruiMTs,  and  Id  divisions  of  torpedo  boat-. 
Should  the  finances  of  the  Government  ])ermit.  the 
])rogramnie  will  l)e  completed  earlier  than  llMti. 
and  it  now  seems  probable  that  this  will  be  the 
case.  In  1002  the  Government  also  proposed  to 
ask  legislative  authority  to  construct  two  liattle- 
Bhips,  five  cruisers,  and  a  torpedo  division  (six 
boats)  in  excess  of  the  programme  provisions.  In 
1880  the  administration  of  the  (Jernian  navy 
was    reorganized:    all    matters    connected    with 


pcrtsoiinel.  command  of  the  lleet,  mobilization, 
strategy,  tactics,  etc.,  were  ])laced  undiT  the 
Oberkommuiido.  and  all  matters  connected  with 
construction,  dockvards.  and  mutcriil  were  put 
imder  the  llciclismtiriiicamt.  The  Obrrl,ommando 
was  presided  over  by  the  commanding  admiral 
of  the  navy,  and  the  h'<?iclismariiiriiiiit  by  a  vice- 
admiral  acting  as  Xaval  Secretar.v  of  State  under 
the  Chancellor  of  the  Empire.  The  two  sections 
were  wholly  disconnected  and  were  brought  into 
harmony  with  each  other  bv  the  Marine  Cabinet 
acting  advisory  to  the  Kmperor.  In  ISflO  this 
organization  was  changed.  The  title  of  Ol>cr- 
hommdinlo  was  changed  to  Ailmiralstub.  and  the 
oilice  of  Ohrrkomniiiiiiloiil.  or  commanding  ollicer 
of  the  navy,  abolished,  .\clditional  authority  was 
given  the  keichsmariiieamt.  and  the  Emi)eror  and 
his  advisers  in  the  Xaval  Cabinet  exercised 
direct  control  of  naval  atl'airs. 

The  Imperial  naval  arsenals  are  at  Kiel.  W'il- 
helmshavn.  and  Danzig:  the  Xaval  School  and 
Xaval  .\eademy  are  at  Kiel.  The  composition  of 
the  fleet  is  given  in  the  comparative  tables 
further  on. 

Great  Brit.un.  The  British  navy  has  been 
the  most  powerful  navy  in  the  world  for  three 
centuries,  and  it  is  to-dav  more  than  equal  to 
the  combined  forces  of  any  two  Powers — probably 
equal  to  any  four  in  actual  warfare,  as  allied 
forces  never  can  develop  their  full  strength  from 
lack  of  one  supreme  directing  authority.  The 
Xaval  Department  is  administered  by  the  Board 
of  .\dmirally  of  six  persons,  consisting  of  the 
first  lord,  first  sea  lord,  second  sea  lord,  junior 
sea  lord,  controller,  and  civil  lord.  Tiieoretically, 
the  members  of  the  board  are  equal  in  authority; 
practically,  the  first  lord  is  supreme.  He  has 
supervision  over  all  departments,  prepares  the 
naval  budget  and  programme,  and  is  respcmsible 
to  Parliament  for  the  afl'airs  of  the  navy;  he  is 
therefore  necessarily  a  memlx>r  of  Parliament. 
The  first  sea  lord  (a  flag  ollicer)  has  charge  of 
movements  of  the  Heel,  detail  of  executive  offi- 
cers, ilisciplinc.  naval  intelligence,  deputy  adju- 
tant-gcner;il  of  marines,  gunnery  training  estab- 
lishments, naval  reserves,  hydrngraphic  oilice,  etc. 
The  second  sea  lord  (a  Hag  t>Hicer)  has  charge 
of  the  intelligence  department  as  far  as  it  affects 
mobilization,  manning  the  navy,  training  schools 
for  boys,  engineer  oHicers.  personnel  of  naval  re- 
serves, etc.  The  junior  sea  lord  (us\ially  a  Hag 
ollicer)  has  charge  of  transjiorts,  medical  depart- 
ment, coal  for  tlie  fled,  certain  oHiccr>'  allow- 
ances, chaplains,  and  naval  instructors,  and  the 
intelligence  department  as  regards  mobilization 
so  far  as  it  atl'ects  the  preceding.  The  controller 
la  llag  olficer)  has  charge  of  naval  construction, 
dockyards,  ordnance  material,  stores  (except  eoal 
for  fleet),  and  expense  accounts.  The  civil  lord 
has  charge  of  naval  works,  general  accounts, 
(ireenwich  Hospital,  civil  personnel.  The  first 
lord  is  assisted  by  the  financial  secretary  and 
the  pi'rnuini'nt  secretary.  The  former  deals  with 
all  tinanii:il  i|m'stions,  assisti^l  by  the  accountant- 
geni'ral  and  the  dire<>lor  of  navy  contracts,  the 
latter  being  also  under  the  superinten<ling  lords 
as  regards  purchases  made  for  their  several  de- 
[lartna-nls.  The  financial  secretar.v  is  a  member 
of  Parliament  and  of  the  party  in  power,  and 
thrcmgh  him  all  Parliamentary  statements  are 
nnule  in  the  House  of  Commons,  unless  the  first 
lord  he  a  mend)er  of  that  House.  The  permanent 
secretary  superintends  all  correspondence  in  the 


NAVIES. 


305 


NAVIES. 


name  of  the  board,  prevents  the  various  depart- 
ments from  acting  independently,  and  provides 
for  the  due  execution  of  orders. 

The  total  [)ersoniiel  of  the  British  navy  on 
April  1,  11102,  amounted  to  118,025:  it  wiU  be 
increased  durin<r  1!10203  to  122..500.  The  sum 
total  of  the  naval  budget  for  l!)02-03  was 
£31,255,.500. 

The  principal  dockyards  are  at  Bermuda,  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  Chatham,*  Devonport,*  Esquimalt 
(British  Columbia  I,  (iibraltar,  Halifax,  N.  S., 
Jtaulbowline  (Cove  of  Cork),  Hong  Kong,  Ja- 
maica. JIalta,  Pembroke.*  Portsmouth.*  Sheer- 
ness,*  Sydney.  Of  these,  the  ones  marked  with 
a  star  are  tirst-class  yards  in  all  respects.  Sec- 
ondary yards  and  naval  stations  exist  at  Ascen- 
sion Island.  Bombay.  Calcutta.  Colombo.  Dart- 
mouth, Delagoa  Bay,  Deptford,  Greenwich,  Plym- 
outh. Portland,  Sydney,  Trincomali,  Wei-hai- 
wei,  and  London  (West  India  Docks),  \aval 
cadets  of  the  line  are  educated  at  the  Roj'al 
Xaval  School  at  Dartmouth.  The  Royal  Naval 
College  at  Greenwich  is  for  post-graduate  courses. 
The  engineering  college  is  at  Keyhani.  and  there 
are  engineering  schools  at  all  the  principal  dock- 
yards. The  gunnery  and  torpedo  schools  are 
both  located  at  Portsmouth.  (See  Xaval  Schools 
OF  I.N.STBUCTION.)  The  strength  of  the  British 
fleet  is  given  in  the  table  on  a  following  page. 

Greece.  The  navy  of  Greece  is  naturally  small, 
but  it  is  by  no  means  insignificant.  The  quality 
of  its  officers  and  men  and  their  organization 
and  training  have  never  been  tested  by  war, 
as  practically  no  use  was  made  of  the  fleet 
during  the  war  with  Turkey.  In  1901  the  Gov- 
ernment decided  to  expend  annually  the  sum 
of  2,500,000  drachmas  (.$482,500)  for  the  pur- 
pose of  repairing  and  adding  to  the  fleet.  The 
fleet  consists  of  3  small  battleships  of  4885 
tons  (launched  1889-90.  rebuilt  1897-1900).  1 
old  armorclad  of  1774  tons  (launched  1868.  re- 
engined  1897),  4  small  cruisers  of  1000  to  1800 
tons  (launched  1879-85).  1  old  school-ship  of 
1300  tons,  11  gunboats  of  380  to  410  tons 
(launched  1859-84),  1  torpedo  depot  ship  of 
1100  tons,  1  old  training  ship  of  2030  tons 
(launched  18G9,  reengined  1897),  3  torpedo 
mining  vessels,  several  smaller  vessels  of  no 
particular  military  value,  31  torpedo  boats  of 
18  to  85  tons  (launched  1878-85),  2  old  Nor- 
denfeldt  submarine  boats,  purchased  in  1886 
(probably  useless),  20  torpedo  vidette  boats. 

H.\ITI.  The  Haitian  navy  consists  of  one  steel 
giuiboat.  260  tons;  one  iron  corvette,  1200  tons; 
two  iron  sloops  of  from  500  to  900  tons;  and 
one  gun  vessel  of  900  tons.  The  steel  gunboat 
Crete  a  Pierrot.  940  tons,  was  sunk  by  the  Ger- 
man gunboat  Panther,  as  a  punitive  measure, 
September  7,  1902. 

Italy.  Tlie  modern  Italian  navj'  dates  from 
1860.  when  the  fleets  of  Sardinia  and  the  Two 
Sicilies  were  combined.  Immediately  after  the 
formation  of  the  Italian  Kingdom  the  construc- 
tion of  a  powerful  na\-y  was  commenced.  Tlie 
newly  constructed  fleet  received  a  severe  setback 
at  Lissa  in  1866,  but  it  was  continually  added 
to.  and  in  1890,  so  far  at  least  as  ships  were 
concerned,  it  was  the  third  naA-y  in  the  world. 
It  then  reached  the  limit  of  size  permitted  by 
the  national  finances.  Since  1890  it  has  pre- 
served about  the  same  strength  of  fleet,  but  the 
increases  in  the  navies  of  the  United  States,  Rus- 
sia,   and    Germany    have    forced    Italy    to    sixth 


place  in  naval  rank.  The  head  of  the  navy  is 
the  Minister  of  Marine  (an  admiral),  who  is 
assisted  by  the  'superior  council'  of  the  navy, 
ccnnposed  of  1  vice-admiral  (or  admiral),  presi- 
dent; 3  vice-admirals  (or  rear-admirals),  1  di- 
rector-general of  the  civiLj personnel,  members; 
1  rear-admiral  (or  captain),  who  is  a  member 
and  secretary;  and  lastly  the  chief  of  the  l)ureau 
or  office  whose  affairs  are  under  consideration. 
By  the  law  of  November  23,  1889,  the  Navy  De- 
jiartmcnt  is  divided  into  10  sections,  as  follows: 
(1)  General  StafT  and  Cabinet,  which  consists  of 
(a)  cabinet  of  the  minister,  which  coordinates 
the  ditTerent  branches;  (b)  questions  of  a  gen- 
eral military  kind,  strategy,  and  tactics,  au.x- 
iliary  fleet,  defense  of  the  coast,  and  fleet 
manoeuvres;  (e)  rules  and  arrangements  con- 
cerning the  service,  discipline,  dress,  etc.  (2) 
Direction  of  the  service  as  regards  personnel. 
(3)  Xaval  Construction.  (4)  Armament  and 
Equipment.  (5)  Merchant  ilarine.  (6)  Hydro- 
graphic  vService.  (7)  Medical  Department.  (8) 
.Military  Engineering  (fortifications,  works,  etc.). 
(  9  I   Otlice  of  Revision.     ( 10  I   Accounts. 

The  Xaval  Academy  and  College  is  located  at 
Leghorn.  The  principal  dockyards  are  at  Cas- 
tellamare.  Spezia,  Venice,  Taranto,  and  Naples; 
naval  stations  at  Genoa,  Messina,  Licata,  Ca- 
gliari,  and  Palermo.  The  Italian  fleet  as  it  ex- 
isted in  1902  is  summarized  in  the  table  given 
later  in  this  article. 

.Japan.  The  modern  Japanese  navy  may  be 
said  to  have  commenced  with  the  ])urchase  of  the 
armored  ram  HtoneiraU  (renamed  Ad~uma) , 
which  was  built  for  the  Confederate  navy  and 
sold  to  .Japan  at  the  close  of  the  Civil  War. 
Since  then  the  strength  of  the  waxy  has  steadily 
increased,  but  it  was  not  until  1894  that  it  began 
to  take  rank  among  the  navies  of  the  great 
Powers.  In  that  year  two  large  battleships  were 
ordered,  and  during  the  next  eight  years  four 
more  battleslijps  and  six  large  armored  cruisers 
were  built.  These  accessions  placed  the  .Jap- 
anese navy  in  1902  seventh  among  the  naval 
forces  of  the  world.  The  principal  navy  yards 
are  at  Yokosuka,  Kure.  Saseho.  Onohara,  and 
Nagasaki.  The  comparative  tables  show  the 
strength  of  the  fleet. 

Mexico.  Until  1001  the  navy  of  Mexico  con- 
sisted of  a  small  cruising  training  ship  of  1200 
tons  (launched  in  1891).  and  four  gunboats  of 
425  to  450  tons  (launched  1874-75).  In  1901  a 
building  programme  was  laid  down  providing  for 
the  construction  of  eight  gunboats  of  1000  tons 
and  16  knots,  and  two  torpedo  boats.  Two  of 
the  giuiboats  in  1902  were  nearly  completed. 

Morocco.  The  navj'  of  Jlorocco  consists  of 
a  small  cruiser  of  1200  tons  (launched  1892)  and 
one  gunboat  of  450  tons  (launched  1898). 

Netherlands.  In  the  days  of  sailing  vessels 
the  navy  of  the  Netherlands  was  a  powerful  one, 
but  the  great  cost  of  modern  fighting  ships  has 
prevented  the  Nctherlanders,  a  miturally  sea- 
faring race,  from  maintaining  a  powerful  fleet. 
The  navy  is  represented  in  the  Cabinet  by  the 
Minister  of  Marine.  The  administration,  presided 
over  by  the  .Minister,  consists  of  a  chief  (a  cap- 
tain) of  the  general  staff,  1  director  of  naval 
construction,  1  director  (commander)  of  the  per- 
sonnel, 1  director  (captain)  of  pilotage.  1  di- 
rector (captain)  of  the  hydrographic  service.  1 
inspector  of  pay,  provisions,  and  clothing.  1 
medical  inspector. 


NAVIES. 


306 


NAVIES. 


The  executive  officers  are  educated  at  the  Royal 
Naval  Academy  at  Willeiiisoord,  while  the  en- 
gineers arc  educated  at  the  special  enjjincer 
Kcliuul  at  Uellevoetsluis.  The  naval  arsenals  are 
four  in  nundxT  and  located  at  Anislcrdam,  Uclle- 
\oetshiis,  Willcnisoorjl,  and  Kijcnoord.  There  are 
small  stations  abroad  in  Surinam,  Curasao.  Hor- 
neo,  Sumatra,  .Java,  and  Celebes.  The  Heel  con- 
sists of  3  small  battleships  of  4i)50  tons  (build- 
ing in  1902),  1  battleship  of  5400  tons  (launched 
1874),  2  coast-defense  ships  of  3375  and  24ilO 
tons  (laonched  180(5  and  1891),  3  coast-defense 
ships  of  3520  tons  ( launched  1894 ) ,  13  monitors  of 
1520  to  2200  tons  (launched  1808-78),  5  armored 
river  gunboats  of  352  to  388  tons  ( huinilicd 
1870-79),  1  armored  cruiser  of  4(j0ll  Imis 
(launched  1892).  0  protected  cruisers  of  3900  to 
4033  tons  (  huuulicd  1890-99),  3  cruisers  of  3400 
terns  (launched  1870-82),  1  ])rotected  cruiser  of 
1703  tons  (launched  1890),  04  gunboats  of  175 
to  1298  tons  (launched  1S74-1900),  5  surveying 
vessels  of  300  to  800  tons,  42  special  service 
vessels,  receiving  ships,  school-shijjs,  etc..  39  tor- 
pedo boats  of  45  to  90  tons,  3  torpedo  boats  of 
140  tons,  33  torpedo  boats  of  29  to  37  tons. 

Norway.  The  navy  of  Norway  is  entirely 
separate  from  that  of  Sweden,  though,  of  course, 
both  fleets  would  be  combined  in  case  of  war. 
With  the  possible  exception  of  that  of  Sweden 
or  Dennurrk.  the  Norwegian  navy  is  the  oldest  in 
Kurope.  In  proportion  to  its  piipulati<m.  Norway 
has  a  greater  mercantile  marine  and  furnishes 
more  mariners  than  any  other  country,  but  the 
great  expense  of  modern  fighting  sliips  pre- 
vents the  nuiintcnance  of  a  large  naval  force, 
or  an  attempt  to  do  more  than  defend  tlie  coast. 
The  government  of  the  navy  is  conlhled  to  the 
commanding  officer  of  the  navy  and  the  Minister 
of  .Marine  and  Posts.  The  last-named  is  an  ad- 
ministrative office  and  constitutes  the  ministry 
proper:  both  branches  have  their  headquarters  at 
Christiahia.  The  commanding  olliwr  of  the  navy 
is  a  rear-admiral,  and  he  is  assisted  by  a  captain, 
while  a  second  cai)tain  is  stationed  at  Stockholm 
as  naval  ai<l  to  tlie  King. 

The  executive  ollicers  of  the  active  service  and 
those  of  the  reserve  are  educated  at  the  royal 
naval  school.  Norway  possesses  but  a  single 
military  port,  that  of  Horten,  near  Christiania. 
There  are  five  naval  establishments,  of  which 
that  of  Karljohansvorn  at  Horten  is  tlie  cmly 
shipbuilding  yard;  the  others  at  licrgcnsun<l, 
Trondhjem.  Frcdriksvaern,  and  Christiansund  are 
naval  depots  and  sup)dy  stations.  The  (leet  con 
sists  of  four  small  liattleships  of  3400  to  3850 
tons  (launched  1890-99).  4  monitors  of  1448  to 
200(1  tons  (launched  18(i(i-72— rebuilt  1895-98), 
1  protected  cruiser  of  1113  tons  (launched  1891), 
1  cruiser  of  1370  tons  (hiunclied  IS9(i),  1  torpedo 
gun  vessel  of  380  tons  (launchid  lS9(i).  2  wooden 
eriiisers  of  lOOfi  and  1010  tons  (launched  18(;2- 
80),  12  gunboats  of  190  to  035  tons,  several 
small  gunboats,  sailing  training  ships,  etc..  10 
torpedo  boats  of  90  tons  (lannchcil  1897-1001), 
21  tiirpedo  boats  of  27  to  05  tons  (launched 
1882- 1901),  and  C  .submarine  boats  (building  in 
1 902 ) . 

Pkhsia.  The  na\y  of  Persia  consists  of  an 
armed  dispatch  vessel  of  1200  tuns  (launched 
1R85 — remodeled    from    merchant    steamer). 

Perc  Previous  to  the  war  with  Chile  the 
Peruvian  navy  was  of  some  importance,  but  a 
large    sea-gning    monitor    was    captured    by   the 


Chileans,  au  old  mouitor  (purchased  in  the 
United  Stales)  was  sunk,  and  an  armorcil  frigate 
was  wreckeil  wliile  chasing  a  I'liilcan  gunboat. 
The  naval  force  in  1902  consistcil  of  a  wooden 
cruiser  of  1058  tons  (purchased  in  France  in  1900 
— launched  1877  ),  1  cruiser  of  1700  tons  (launched 
1881 — a  sister  to  the  U.  S.  S.  Tuiichii) .  I  gunboat 
of  420  tons  (launched  1883),  1  small  iron  cruiser 
(launched  1891),  1  screw  frigate  (training  sliip) , 

1  armed  transport  of  1400  net  tons  measurement 
(launched  1803),  and  several  jiaddle  steamers. 

I'OKTIOAL.  From  time  to  time  plans  have  been 
made  for  increasing  the  strength  of  the  Portu- 
guese licet,  but  aside  from  an  occasional  crui.ser 
llie  liiianeial  resources  of  the  country  have  been 
unable  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  naval  pro- 
gramme. The  Navy  Department  forms  part  of 
the  Ministry  of  the  Marine  and  Colonies.  It  is 
jiresided  over  bj'  a  vice-admiral  with  the  title  of 
director-general,  and  consists  of  the  divisions  of 
(a)  personnel  and  (b)  material.  The  only  naval 
arsenal  is  at  Lisbon,  where  is  also  located  the 
naval  c(jllege,  a  sort  of  polytechnic  institute  in 
whicli  all  tlie  olli<'ers  of  the  navy  are  educated — 
even  the  medical  ollicers  having  a  final  course 
there.  The  Heel  consists  of  1  old  armored  coast- 
defense  shii)  of  2480  tons  (launched  IS75).  1  pro- 
tected cruiser  of  4280  tons  (launched  1898).  2 
protected  cruisers  of  1800  tons   (launched  1898), 

2  cruisers  of  1000  and  1705  tons  (launched  1890- 
99),  4  small  cruisers  of  1110  to  1429  tons 
(launched  1804-84).  21  gunboats  of  100  to  729 
tons  (launched  1873-1902),  25  river  guidioals  of 
34  to  300  tons  (launched  1888-1902),  1  transport 
of  3000  Ions,  3  training  sliips,  a  number  of  small 
craft,  1  armed  royal  yacht  of  950  tons  (launched 
1899),  and  11  torpedo  boats  of  31  to  00  tons 
(launched  1880-93). 

HiMANiA,  The  Navy  Department  in  Uuinania 
is  a  branch  of  the  Jlinistry  of  War.  The  officers 
hold  military  titles  and  are  overshadowed  by  the 
army  in  every  way.  There  is  a  naval  school  for 
the  instruction  of  petty  officers,  but  a  military 
education  is  apparently  sufficient  for  the  higher 
olheers.  There  is  a  small  navy  yard  at  (Jalatz  at 
which  gunboats  are  occasionally  built.  The  fleet 
consists  of  1  protected  cruiser  of  1325  tons 
(lauiiclied  1887).  4  gunboats  of  104  to  400  tons 
( laiiiielwd  1802-80).  1  armed  vaclit  of  350  tons, 
0  torpedo  boats  of  ,55  tons  (launched  1888-95).  S 
second  class  torpedo  boats  and  launches  of  10 
to  32  tons  (launched  1882-95).  and  12  gimboats 
and  coastguard  vessels  of  45  to  1 10  tons  i  launeheil 
1873  93). 

IvissiA.  The  Russian  navy  really  dates  from 
the  time  of  Peter  the  Great,  tho\igh  the  dwellers 
in  till'  lands  now  belonging  to  Itussia  along  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic  have  been  seafaring  ]ieople 
from  time  immemorial.  The  navy  and  Navy  De- 
pa  riment  are  presided  over  by  the  general  ad- 
miral, who  is  always  one  of  the  Imperial  family. 
He  has  under  his  orders  an  t'nder-Secrelary  of 
State  having  the  rank  of  vice-minister  and  called 
the  ilirector  of  the  Ministry.  The  general  ad- 
miral is  assisted  and  advised  by  a  board  of  ad- 
miralty consislingof  4  admirals.  5  vice  (or  rear) 
admirals,  and  1  liciitenantgcneral  of  naval  corps. 
The  Minister  of  Marine  or  director  of  the  Min- 
istry is  an  admiral  appointed  hv  the  Kmperor. 
The  subdivisions  of  the  Ministrv  are:  (1)  fien- 
eral  SfafT;  (2)  Chief  Naval  .Iiidicial  Court:  (3) 
Material  and  Supplies:  (4)  Technical  Commit- 
tee;  (5)  Scientific  Committee;   (0)   Hydrographic 


NAVIES. 


307 


NAVIES. 


Bureau:  (7)  Medical  Bureau;  (8)  Cliancellerie; 
(it)  Adniiiiistralioii  of  Courts-jlartial;  (10) 
Areliives. 

The  naval  schools  arc  the  naval  academy,  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  naval  college  (higher  course 
at  the  naval  academy),  school  of  navigation, 
ordnance,  and  naval  construction  at  Kronstadt, 
and  marine  engineering  school.  The  present 
plans  are  to  combine  all  the  schools  in  one  es- 
laldishmcnt.  The  principal  dockyards  are  the 
New  Admiralty  Works  at  Saint  Petersburg,  Ga- 
lernaya  Island  Yard  at  Saint  Petersburg,  Kron- 
stadt arsenal,  -Xicolayev  dockyard,  Sebastopol 
arsenal,  Windau  docl<yard,  Libau  dockj'ard,  Port 
Artliur  (Liao-tung  Peninsula  ),  Vladivostok,  Svea- 
biirg,  Kevel,  Archangel,  Baku,  Batuni,  Nicolayevsk 
(Amur),  and  Kagala  (Oxus).  The  number  and 
displacement  of  the  vessels  of  the  fleet  are  given 
in  the  table.  The  transport  service  between  Rus- 
sia and  Eastern  Siberia  is  carried  on  by  the  Rus- 
sian ^'olunteer  Fleet,  which  receives  a  large  sub- 
sidy from  the  Russian  Government.  It  consists 
of  IS  steamers  of  7G50  to  12,000  tons  (launched 
1801-1900),  and  1  of  2700  tons  (launched  ISO.")). 
The  vessels  of  the  Black  Sea  Steam  Navigation 
Company,  12  in  number,  mostly  of  about  2400 
tons,  are  fitted  to  receive  armaments  and  act  as 
auxiliar}'  cruisers  or  transports  in  time  of  war. 

Santo  Domingo.  The  naval  force  of  this  little 
republic  consists  of  1  small  gimboat  of  322  tons 
(launched  1894),  1  cruiser  of  1000  tons 
(launched  189(3),  1  cruiser  of  about  1000  tons 
I  rebuilt  in  1890-97). 

Sarawak.  The  na\'y  of  this  little  Bornean 
State  consists  of  three  small  gunboats  of  118  to 
.'SOO  tons   (Launched  1875-84). 

SlAM.  The  navy  of  Siam  consists  of  1  pro- 
tected cruiser  of  2500  tons.  8  gunboats  of  260  to 
SOO  tons,  1  old  floating  battery  of  950  tons,  1  old 
depot  ship  of  545  tons,  G  dispatch  vessels  of  100 
l(j  700  tons,  1  torpedo  boat  of  45  tons  (launched 
1888),  and  43  small  steamers  for  river  and  coast 
service. 

Spain.  The  navy  of  Spain  received  a  serious 
setback  in  the  Spanish-.\merican  War,  losing 
about  half  the  fleet.  During  1901  the  navy  was 
reorganized,  and  soon  after  it  was  proposed  to 
construct  a  new  and  powerful  fleet  of  8  battle- 
ships of  12,000  tons,  4  cruisers  of  8000  tons,  and 
a  limited  number  of  smaller  cruisers  and  torpedo 
vessels.  All  the  old  vessels  not  actually  needed 
have  been  or  are  to  be  sold,  the  arsenals  and 
nnval  establishments  are  being  reorganized,  and 
other  improvements  are  contemplated.  It  is  hoped 
by  these  means  so  to  reduce  the  unnecessary  ex- 
penses that  a  fine  fleet  can  gradually  be  built 
and  maintained  without  adding  greatly  to  the  ex- 
jienscs  of  the  (government.  The  navy  is  pre- 
sided over  by  a  Minister  of  Jlarine,  formerly  a 
naval  officer,  but  the  incumbent  in  1902  was  a 
civil  ofl^icial.  He  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  9 
persons,  of  whom  5  are  officers  of  the  navy,  1  is  a 
Senator.  1  a  Deputy  of  the  Cortes,  1  an  inspec- 
tor-general of  engineers,  and  1  a  field  marshal  of 
artillery.  The  central  administration  consists 
of:  (1)  Section  of  Personnel;  (2)  Section  of 
K(pii|iment :  (.3)  Section  of  Navigation  and  Mari- 
time Industries;  (4)  Section  of  Naval  Construc- 
tion: (5)  Section  of  Naval  Ordnance;  ((!)  Sec- 
tion of  Accou7its;  (7)  Section  of  .Administrative 
Affairs.  The  reorganization  of  the  navy  in 
progress  in  1902  may  effect  considerable  changes 
in  these  arrangements.     The  principal  dockyards 


arc  located  at  Fcrrol,  Cadiz  (La  Carraca),  Trubia 
(army  gun-factory  where  naval  guns  are  made), 
Bilbao,  and  Cartagena.  There  are,  in  addition, 
several  naval  stations  and  supply  depots.  The 
naval  school  is  located  on  the  old  wooden  frigate 
.IfliiridS.  -Vll  executive  olficers  are  required  to 
pass  through  the  school ;  the  course  is  three 
years,  after  which  the  cadets  serve  as  midship- 
men for  further  instruction.  The  fleet  in  19()2 
consisted  of  1  battleship  of  9900  tons  (launched 
1887 — partly  rebuilt  1897-98  and  1900-01),  2 
old  battleships  of  7000  tons  (launched  1803-05 — 
rebuilt  as  armored  cruisers  1897-98),  1  armored 
cruiser  of  9090  tons  (launched  1895),  3  armored 
cruisers  of  7000  tons  (launched  1890-1900),  1 
protected  cruiser  of  5372  tons  (building  in  1902), 
2  jirotecled  cruisers  of  5000  tons  (launched  1891- 
92 ) ,  2  ])rotected  cruisers  of  1875  and  2030  tons 
(launched  1898-1900),  1  small  protected  cruiser 
of  1040  tons  (launched  1890),  2  cruisers  of  3090 
and  3342  tons  (launched  1879-87),  3  cruisers  of 
1152  tons  (launched  1885-88),  10  torpedo  gun- 
boats of  570  to  830  tons  (launched  1889-97),  1 
torpedo-boat  destroyer  of  380  tons  (launched 
1880),  4  torpedo-boat  destroyers  of  370  to  400 
tons  (launched  1890-97),  1  armed  yacht  of  1800 
tons  (purchased  1898),  7  training  ships  of  800 
to  4000  tons,  1  trans])ort  of  2000  tons,  42  gun- 
beats  of  37  to  525  tons  (laimehed  1877-95),  10 
torpedo  boats  of  05  to  108  tons  (launched  1885- 
1901). 

Sweden.  The  navy  of  Sweden  has  been  very 
much  increased  during  the  last  fifteen  years,  and 
now  pos.sesses  many  cfTective  coast-defense  ships. 
The  navy  is  presided  over  by  a  Minister  of  Ma- 
rine with  headquarters  at  Stockholm ;  the  Min- 
ister is  either  a  naval  officer  or  civilian.  The 
department  comprises  four  bureaus,  viz.:  (a) 
The  Cabinet  of  the  Minister :  ( b )  The  Bureau  of 
Personnel;  (c)  The  Naval  Staft';  (d)  The  Bu- 
reau of  Material.  The  school  for  executive  of- 
ficers (there  are  no  marine  engineer  officers  in 
the  navy)  is  located  at  Stockholm;  the  full 
course  is  six  years. 

There  are  two  naval  arsenals,  one  at  Stock- 
holm and  one  at  Karlskrona.  The  fleet  consists 
of  4  small  battleships  of  3050  tons  (building 
in  1902),  7  small  battleships  of  3100  to  3450  tons 
(launched  1S8G-98),  4  single-turret  monitors  of 
1500  to'  1580  tons  (launched  1865-75 — recon- 
structed 1898-1902).  9  very  small  single-turret 
monitors  of  240  to  460  tons  (launched  1869-76 — 
nearly  all  recently  rebuilt),  3  cruisers  of  1530 
to  2000  tons  (launched  1870-86).  7  torpedo  gun- 
boats of  670  tons  (launched  1896-99),  15  gun- 
boats of  190  to  640  tons  (launched  lS(il-84),  12 
miscellaneous  vessels,  12  vessels  of  170  to  2858 
tons,  used  as  school-ships,  training  ships,  and 
floating  barracks,  1  torpedo-boat  destroyer  of  320 
tons  (building  in  1902).  5  torpedo  boats  of  44 
to  85  tons  (building).  15  torpedo  boats  of  60 
to  85  tons  (launched  1884-1900),  and  13  second- 
class  boats  of  34  to  44  tons  (launched  1882- 
1 902 ) . 

Turkey.  The  reduction  of  revenue  entailed 
by  the  Turco-Russian  War  of  1877-78  caused 
Turkey  to  let  her  navy  become  wholly  inefTective 
for  purposes  of  war.  .Miout  1890  it  was  decided  to 
rebuild  some  of  the  most  available  vessels  of  the 
fleet,  and  now  all  the  old  ships  have  either  been 
rebuilt  or  are  in  process  of  recon.struetion.  The 
Navy  nepartment,  however,  needs  reconstriiction 
more  than  the  ships,  for  so  long  as  present  prac- 


NAVIES. 


308 


NAVIES. 


Number  inn  DiaPLAnEsiEST  of  Vessels  of  Differkxt  ri,AS»Es.  IHii.t  and  Buildixg.  foh   the  I'rintipal  Natal 

Powers.  November  30.  1902. 


United  .States. 

Great  Britain, 

Type. 

a 

X 
Q 

s 

1 

z 

5C 

1 

Battleships,  flrstplatw  (above  10.000  tons) 

10 

112.329 

41.002 

17,415 

14,750 

47.100 

32,111 

4,020 

5,259 

3,913 

285 

9 
2 
8 
3 
6 

4 
S 

131,200 
6.428 

111.800 
28,880 
18,600 

41         5.11,  IIW 

11          lfi7  7.ilt 

10 

2 

2 

12 

23 

6 

12 

25 

6 

1 

20 

4 
2 

23 
9 

"9 

1? 
21 
52 
48 
84 

108 
19 

151 

158,300 

201.950 

228.480 

10.1.630 

70.645 

35.066 

2.971 

6.076 

205,700 

Protected  cruisers,  second  class  (3000  to  6000  tons) 

17,760 
1,140 

rnt»rntecteil  and  partially  protected  cruisers  (above  1000).. 

OunBoats  (below  1000  tons  and  of  or  above  400  tons) 

Toriiedo-hoat  destrt^ivers 

1.620 
1.116 

11,455 
1,746 

840 

l.SOli 

Total  displacement 

109 

278.259 

44 

300.484 

546 

1.401.018 

78 

406.856 

Total  bnilt  and  building:  United  .^itates,  153—578,743  tons.    Great  Britain,  624—1.807.874  tons. 


Ttpe. 


France. 


Germany. 


Battleslii|is.  first  class  (above  lO.tKX)  tonsi 

Other  battleships  and  coast-defense  ironclads 

Armored  cruisers 

Protected  cruisers,  ttrst  class  (above  6000  tons) 

Protecte<l  cruisers,  second  class  (3000  to  6000  tons) 

Unj)rotected  anti  partiall.v  i)rotected  cruisers  (above  1000).. 

Gunhttnts  (below  liX)i>  tons  and  of  or  above  400  tons) 

Tort>edt)-boat  destroyers 

Torpedo  boats,  first  class  (above  100  tons) 

Torjieilo  boats,  second  class  (below  100  tons) 

Submarine  boat.s 


20 
19 
15 
4 

17 
18 
25 
16 
38 
186 
12 


225.667 

87.303 

105.324 

31,513 

68.783 

32.840 

14,151 

4,764 

5.6(;5 

13,379 

l,.-.,i3 


Total  displacement 370 


,'590.942    '  83 


110,546 
5,595 


5,388 


2,319 
1,704 


10 
30 
10 
35 
47 
38 


100,969 
110,886 
28.146 

'50.120' 
61,2.50 
9,029 

ii.ms 

7,080 
3.420 


213.332 


205 


62,779 
"i8,'2S8 

" 's.'iso 

13.446 

900 
2,100 


Total  built  and  building :   France.  453—804.274  tons,    (ierman.v.  225 — 483,428  tons. 


Battleships,  first  class  (above  10.000  tons) C 

Other  bat  tlesliips  and  coast-defense  ironclads 2 

Arniiired  cruisers 7 

Protei^ted  cr1iis«'rs.  first  class  (above  6000  tons) 

Pri>tecled  cruisers,  sw'oud  class  (3000  to  6000  tons) 10 

Uu[»rnt«*cted  and  jiartirtllv  protect«'il  cruisers  (above  1000)..  14 

Gunboats  (below  liHK)  tons  and  of  or  above  400  tons) ,  12 

Tori)edo-bout  destroyers '  15 

Ton)edo  boats,  first  class  (above  100  tons) 1  18 

Torpedo  boats,  second  class  (below  100  tons) 58 

Submarine  boats 


Japan. 


Total  displacement.. 


142 


84.300 
9,287 


41.226 
26.570 
6.906 
4.597 
1.240 
4,302 


6.730 


1,600 
900 
850 


11 
13 
8 
5 
S 
8 
11 
27 


238.028    I  22 


9.980       220 


124,231 

72,982 

70,193 

33,330 

18,612 

10,067 

0,277 

7,222 

4,670 

4,826 


Total  built  and  building:  Japan,  IIH— 248,008  tons.    Russia.  275— 509.5IW  tons. 


105,754 


26,340 
15,200 


9,374 
1,600 


168,168 


.\U8tria-Hung 

ary. 

Italy. 

TVPK. 

4i 

S 
CO 

if 

a 

"5 
a 

X 

c 
0 

si 
a 

a 
0 

Rnttleslilps,  first  da-ss  (above  10.000  tons) 

"9 

2 

"2 
8 
10 

"8 
63 

2 
2 
1 

21.200 
16,600 
7,300 

9 
2 
6 

"e 

15 
16 

9 
13 
134 

1 

116,590 
19,290 
31.891 

7 

"i 

"2 

4 

"i 

88.553 

Other  battleships  and  coiist-defense  Ironclads    

S7,430 
11.520 

7,294 

Protert4'd  rruist*rs.  fiivt  class  (above  6000  tons)       ..     

8,128 
15.«20 
6,670 

30,554 
30,209 
12,774 
2,833 
1,706 
8,140 
106 

rjipnitected  and  parllally  protei't<*<l  iTuisers  (above  1000).. 
Giinhnats  (behiK  luDl)  tons  and  of  or  above  400  tons) 

650 

888 
3,769 

5(10 

Submarine  boats  

Total  displacement 

100 

102,985 

6 

45,100 

200 

244.098 

16 

9r.067 

Total  butlt  and  butlding:    AuHtrto-Uungary,  105— U8.0H5  tons.     Italy,  215— 341.15fi  tons. 


N.  B. — VpswIh  launched  hefopp  1878,  nnltrnti  nvonrttnirted  htuI  rpanned,  are  not  Included  In  theHP  lIstM. 
tect«d  crutntTH  nu*]  tfniibntitH  dit  not  Inoludp  convprttM]  niercliant  vi>t(Ht>U  or  yachttj. 


Unpro- 


NAVIES. 


309 


NAVIGATION. 


lices  prevail  the  vessels  will  suon  become  useless 
for  lack  of  care.  The  Minister  of  Marine  is  au 
admiral  appointed  by  the  Sultan,  The  depart- 
ment is  divided  into  four  bureaus,  viz.:  (1) 
Personnel;  (2)  .Material;  (3)  Construction; 
(4)  Medicine  and  Hygiene.  Tlie  only  great 
dockyard  is  the  arsenal  of  Constantinople ;  this 
is  a  large  and  very  excellent  establishment  as 
regards  ])lan  and  arrangements,  but  is  not  prop- 
erly kept  up,  and  much  of  the  machinery  and 
liltings  cannot  be  used.  The  personnel  of  the 
lleet  consists  of  6  vice-admirals  and  11  rear- 
admirals  with  the  rank  of  pasha;  130  captains, 
■lo  commanders  of  superior  grade,  55  commanders 
of  inferior  grade,  300  lieutenant-commanders — 
all  with  the  rank  of  hci/ ;  2.50  lieutenants,  and 
200  sub-lieutenants — with  the  rank  of  effendi ; 
400  engineers,  00  surgeons,  100  eommissarj-  offi- 
cers, 1 10  pay  officers.  The  enlisted  force  on 
paper  is  about  15.000  men;  in  fact,  it  rarely 
exceeds  3000,  and  sometimes  is  considerably 
less.  For  many  years  the  larger  vessels  of  the 
na\y  swung  around  their  buoys  in  the  Golden 
Horn  without  moving  and  without  sufficient  men 
on  board  to  move  them.  The  (lect  consisted  in 
1002  of  1  battleship  of  10,1)50  tons,  which  has 
been  under  construction  at  the  ar.senal  of  Con- 
stantinople for  nearly  ten  years,  and  in  1902 
was  still  far  from  being  ready  to  launch;  7  old 
battleships  of  5600  to  9120  tons  (launched  1804- 
74.  and  very  thoroughly-  rebuilt,  modernized, 
and  rearmed'  1895-1902)'.  5  old  battleships  of 
2050  to  2720  tons  (launched  1808-72,  but  in 
11102  undergoing  thorough  reconstruction).  1 
aiiuored  coast-defense  gunboat  of  330  tons 
(launched  1804),  3  protected  cruisers  of  3250 
tons  (building  in  1902  at  Philadelphia,  Elswiek, 
and  Kiel),  2  protected  cruisers  of  4050  tons 
(building  at  arsenal  in  Constantinople — work 
])ractically  suspended  for  many  years),  6  small 
cruisers  of  043  to  1815  tons  (launched  1892- 
00 ) ,  3  torpedo  gunboats  of  450  to  900  tons 
(launched  1890-92),  4  torpedo-boat  destrovers 
of  180  to  270  tons  (launclied  1894-1900)"  22 
torpedo  boats  of  42  to  150  tons  (launched  1884- 
92),  6  gunboats  of  200  tons  (2  completed  1894— 
others  building),  about  25  special  service  ves- 
sels. 

United  States.  The  head  of  the  Navy  De- 
partment is  the  Secretary  of  the  Na\-y,  a  civil 
officer,  and  a  member  of  the  Cabinet ;  and  the 
Assistant  Secretary  is  also  a  civil  officer.  The 
department  is  divided  into  eight  bureaus.  Navi- 
gation, Ordnance,  Equipment,  Construction  and 
Repair,  Steam  Engineering,  Yards  and  Docks, 
Supplies  and  Accounts,  and  Medicine  and  Sur- 
gery; and  there  is  in  addition  the  office  of  the 
Judge  Advocate-General.  The  Bureau  of  Navi- 
gation has  charge  of  the  personnel  and  the 
direction  of  the  Heet;  the  duties  of  the  other 
bureaus  are  indicated  by  their  titles.  Under 
the  Bure.au  of  Navigation  are  tlie  Office  of  Naval 
Intelligence  and  the  Naval  Academy;  under  the 
Bureau  of  Equipment  are  the  Hydrographic 
Office,  the  Compass  Office,  the  Naval  Observa- 
tory, and  the  Nautical  Almanac  Office,  The 
Board  of  Construction,  which  passes  on  the  gen- 
eral features  of  new  ships,  is  made  up  of  the 
chiefs  of  the  Bureaus  of  Navigation.  Ordnance, 
Equipment,  Construction  and  Repair,  and  Steam 
Engineering.  Strategical  and  tactical  matters 
are  controlled  by  the  General  Board,  which  is 
similar  to  the  general  staff  of  foreign  services. 


For  further  and  detailed  information,  see  Navy 
in  the  article  on  the  United  States. 

URt;r,uAY.  The  navy  of  Uruguay  consists  of 
3  small  gunboats  of  270  to  400  tons  (launched 
1883-91 ) ,  1  dispatch  boat  of  400  tons  ( launched 
1882),  and  1  transport  of  260  tons.  The  senior 
officer  has  the  rank  of  rear-admiral. 

Venezuela.  The  navv  of  Venezuela  previous 
to  the  difficulty  of  1902-03  with  the  European 
Powers  consisted  of  2  armed  steamers  of  500  to 
832  tons,  a  torpedo  gunboat  of  571  tons  (launched 
1891;  purchased  from  Spain  1899).  and  several 
river  gunboats    (built  in  England   1891-93). 

See  Armor  Plate;  Ship.  Armored,  where 
will  be  found  a  complete  bibliography;  GuNS, 
Naval :  Galley;  Shipucilding;  Tactics,  Na- 
val; Torpedo  Boat. 

NAVIGABLE  RIVER.  See  RivEBS,  Navi- 
gable. 

NAVIGATION  (Lat.  navigatio.  a  sailing, 
from  narigarc,  to  sail,  from  navis,  ship  +  agere, 
to  lead ) .  In  a  broad  sense,  all  means  whereby 
the  ship  is  made  to  proceed  from  place  to  place, 
but  in  a  more  technical  sense,  only  those  means 
whereby  the  course  of  the  vessel  is  directed  or 
ascertained. 

history  of  navigation. 

The  early  history  of  navigation  is  wrapped  in 
obscurit.y.  The  Egyptians  had  vessels  large 
enough  to  be  called  ships  about  3000  years  B.C., 
and  perhaps  long  before  this.  The  Chinese  also 
built  ships  at  a  very  early  date.  The  appliances 
for  navigating  these  vessels  must  have  been  few 
and  rude,  and  a  voyage  of  a  few  hundred  miles 
was  regarded  as  a  great  undertaking.  Consider- 
ing the  difficulties  under  which  they  labored, 
the  voj'ages  of  the  Phoenicians  must  be  regarded 
as  daring  ventures.  They  spread  their  mer- 
chant fleets  throughout  the"  Mediterranean,  navi- 
gated Solomon's  squadrons  to  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  Indian  Ocean,  and  planted  colonies  every- 
where. 

Principal  among  these  colonies  was  Carthage. 
The  Carthaginian  fleets  passed  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules,  and,  with  no  better  guide  than  the 
stars,  are  believed  to  have  sailed  northward  to 
the  British  Isles,  and  southward  for  some  dis- 
tance along  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  In  B.C.  611 
a  Phoenician  expedition  fitted  out  by  Pharaoh 
Necho  started  to  circumnavigate  Africa,  a  feat 
which  is  said  to  have  been  actually  accomplished. 
From  the  eighth  to  the  fourth  century  B.C.  the 
Greek  States  gradually  developed  the  art  of 
navigation,  and  at  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War  the  Athenians  appear  to  have  been  skillful 
tacticians,  capable  of  concerted  maniBUvres.  In 
the  fourth  century  B.C.  Alexander  the  Great 
destroyed  the  power  of  Tyre,  transferring  its 
commerce  to  Alexandria,  which  l)ecame  the  centre 
of  trade  for  the  ancient  world.  Rome  wrested 
from  Carthage  its  naval  jjower,  and  took  its  vast 
trade  into  the  hands  of  the  Italian  sailors. 

During  all  this  period  the  average  size  of  the 
vessels  had  been  continually  increasing.  Sails 
were  known,  and  some  knowledge  was  evinced 
even  of  beating  up  against  a  foul  wind;  but  oars 
were  the  great  motive  power ;  speed  was  not 
thought  of,  a  voyage  from  the  Levant  to  Italy 
being  the  work  of  a  season.  During  the  time  of 
the  Roman  Empire  no  great  progress  seems  to 
have  been  made,  except  in  the  size  of  the  vessels ; 
but  regular  fleets  were  maintained,  both  in  the 


NAVIGATION. 


310 


NAVIGATION. 


Aleiiitcrrancan    and    on    tlie    Atlantic    coast    of 
Uaul.   for  the  protection  of  connnene. 

The  barbarian  nations  of  the  North  developed 
the  art  of  navi-xation  in  tlieir  o«ii  way.  Tlie 
Sa.Nons.  .fntes.  and  Norsemen  began  to  roam 
the  ocean  in  every  direction;  in  small  vessels 
they  trusted  more"  to  tlie  winds  than  to  oars, 
and,  sailiiifr  singly,  gradually  ac<iuircd  that  har- 
dihood and  daring  which  ultimately  rendered 
them  masters  of  the  sea.  The  Norsemen  extended 
their  voyages  to  Iceland,  t^reenland,  and  New- 
foundland, while  they  first  ravaged  and  then 
colonized  the  coasts  of  Britain,  France,  and 
Sicilv. 

In"  the  Middle  Ages  the  Venetians,  the  Gen- 
oese, and  the  Pisans  became  the  carriers  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Their  merchants  traded 
to  the  farthest  Indies,  and  their  markets  became 
the  exchanges  for  the  produce  of  the  world.  Their 
constant  rivalries  gave  occasion  for  the  growth 
of  naval  tactics.  So  rich  a  commerce  tempted 
piracy,  and  the  Mohammedan  corsairs  spread 
over  the  Mediterranean,  and,  passing  through  the 
Straits  of  (Jibraltar,  ravaged  the  .Atlantic  coast. 
The  mariner's  compass  (q.v.)  came  into  quite 
general  >ise  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
rendered  the  seaman  independent  of  the  sun  and 
stars,  so  far  as  simple  steering  was  concerned. 
The  variation  of  the  compass  from  true  north 
seems  to  have  been  observed  as  early  as  1269, 
but  it  was  not  until  the  voyages  of  Columbus 
that  much  attention  was  paid  to  it. 

It  was  not  until  the  thirteenth  century  that 
the  employment  of  (he  mariner's  compass  brought 
about  the  <levcln[imcnt  of  practicMl  nautical 
charts.  (  Kor  ancient  cartography,  see  (!EO(iKAP]iY 
and  Mai'. )  These  first  appeared  in  Italy:  they 
were  constr\icted  by  the  aid  of  the  compass  and 
took  the  name  of  compass  charts.  The  oldest  of 
them  is  the  .so-called  Pisan  chart,  which  belongs 
probably  to  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cintury. 
and  it  covers  th(^  whole  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  earliest  chart  of  which  the  exact  <Iate  is 
known  appears  to  be  that  of  P.  Visconte  (1311). 
These  charts  are  all  plane,  and  together  with 
other  early  ones  are  chielly  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean :  but  some  of  those  appearing  in  the 
fourteenth  century  show  the  Azores,  the  Canaries, 
and  the  coast  of  Africa  as  far  as  Cape  Hojador. 

The  translation  and  dissemination  of  Ptolemy's 
works  in  the  lifteenth  century  caused  a  great 
improvement  in  maps  i\nd  charts,  and  the  subse- 
quent labors  of  Copernicus  and  MtMcator  brought 
them  to  a  very  satisfactory  state,  considering 
the  lack  of  geographical  information.  Mcrcator 
(l.)12-!)4)  engraved  an  extensive  atlas.  Kdward 
Wright,  who  jnd>lished  in  l.''i!l'.>  a  work  entitled 
Certain  ICnors  In  .Yrriiffn/ioH  Detcrtril  and  Cor- 
rected, gives  a  complete  exposition  of  the  proper 
method  of  constructing  a  Mereator's  projection, 
together  with  other  information  of  value.  In 
what  is  known  as  Mereator's  projection, 
meridians  are  straight  lines  parallel  to  each 
other,  and  are  crossed  by  the  parallels  of 
latitude  at  right  angles.  In  order  to  preserve 
the  proportion  that  exists  in  (he  curved  surface 
of  the  eardi  and  render  the  (rack  of  tlie  ship 
(loxodromie  curve)  a  straight  line  on  the  chart, 
the  meridians  are  expanded  or  increased  in 
length.  The  augmented  latitu<les  are  computed 
and  published  in  a  taVile  of  'meridional  parts' 
by  means  of  which  the  parallels  of  latitude  are 
placed.     In  Mcrcator  charts  of  great  extent  the 


areas  of  portions  dilVcriiig  much  in  latitude  are 
greatly  out  of  pio]Mirtion,  but  contiguous  areas 
dill'ering  little  in  latitude  compare  fairly  well. 

The  rude  character  of  the  early  instruments 
used  in  navigation  prevented  close  determination 
of  a  ship's  position  at  sea.  Watches  were  un- 
known until  about  loSO,  when  Gemma  Frisius  im- 
mediately recognized  the  possibility  of  using 
them  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  dilTcr- 
ence  of  longitude  between  two  |)laces.  These 
early  timepieces  were  very  defective,  however, 
and  it  was  not  until  17IJ.5  that  Harrison  was 
awarded  110,000  by  the  Hritish  (lovermiient  for 
his  clironometer,  a  second  £10,000  whidi  he  re- 
ceived being  paid  in  1773  after  furtlier  trials  of 
his  invention. 

The  date  of  the  first  attempts  at  determining 
latitude  by  measuring  the  altitude  of  lieavenly 
bodies  (at  first,  the  fixed  stars)  is  unknown,  but 
Columlius  is  said  to  have  had  a  eross-stalT  (see 
Sexta.nt)  for  this  purpose.  Somewhat  later  the 
astrolabe  was  devised.  In  1.504  the  celebrated 
navigator  Uavies  published  in  his  pamphlet 
entitled  The  Scunian's  Secrets  a  mollifica- 
tion of  the  cross-statr.  In  using  this  instrument 
the  observer  stood  with  his  back  to  the  sun  look- 
ing at  the  horizon  through  a  sight  at  the  end  of 
the  statT.  while  the  shadow  of  a  movable  projec- 
tion fell  on  the  sight  box.  In  1720  Pierre  Bougeur 
devi.sed  an  improved  form  of  Davies's  instru- 
ment. This  was  followed  almost  immeiliately  by 
the  invention  of  the  quadrant  by  Iladley  in  Eng- 
land, who  described  his  iustnimcnt  in  a  |)aper  to 
the  Koyal  Society  in  .May  1731,  and  by  Thomas 
Godfrey  of  Philadelphia,  who  made  an  instru- 
ment as  earlv  as  1730  that  was  used  at  sea  in 
August,  1731! 

The  earliest  work  devoted  specially  to  navi- 
gation was  tliat  of  Pedro  de  Medina,  i)iib- 
lished  at  Valladolid  in  1545.  In  1530  Gemma 
Frisius  wrote  upon  astnmomy,  cosmogony,  and 
the  use  of  globes.  In  1537  Pedro  Nunez  (  Nonius  | , 
cosmographer  to  the  King  of  Portugal,  published 
a  work  on  astronomy,  charts,  and  some  parts 
of  navigation.  In  155U  Martin  Cortes  jiuhlished 
at  Seville  The  Art  of  yarigation.  Davies.  in 
The  Kcaman's  Secrets,  defines  three  kinds 
of  sailings — horizontal,  paradoxical,  and  great- 
circle,  '^rhe  paradoxical  embraced  latitude, 
longitude,  and  distance,  and  combined  what  are 
now  called  traverse  and  Mereator's  sailings.  He 
also  gave  a  clear  description  of  great-circle  .sail- 
ing and  the  proper  method  of  aeeomiilishing  it. 

.\moiig  the  developments  in  navigatiiui  in  the 
nineteenth  century  were  the  patent  log.  the 
Thomson  s<iiinding  machine,  the  Thcuusnn  com- 
pass, the  Kitchic  liquid  compass,  compensation 
of  the  deviations  of  tlie  compass,  and  the  great- 
circle  sailing  chart.  Almost  all  the  old  ap- 
pliances were  tniich  improved,  and  steam  pro|>ul- 
sion  has  greatly  simidificd  navigating  ])roblcms. 
Charts  (q.v.)  are  uinlcrgoing  constant  correction 
and  are.  considering  all  things,  wonderfully  ac- 
curate, but  much  can  yet  be  done  and  is  being 
done.  The  most  serious  enemies  of  the  naviga- 
tor of  the  present  day  are  fogs  and  irregular  cur- 
rents, 

MODKRN   AUT  OK   XAVIOATION, 

In   the   merchant   service   vessels   are   taken   in 

and  out  of  port  by  a   pilot.     When  tlie  vessel  is 

ready  (o  leave  port,  the  pilot   (or  captain  in  the 

Inited    States    Navy)    takes   charge.      Men   are 


NAVIGATION. 


311 


NAVIGATION. 


stationed  at  the  wheel  for  the  purpose  of  steer- 
ing ami  oUicrs  at  tlie  lead  to  talie  siiundings.  Tlien 
by  means  of  buoys,  beacons,  landmarks,  ranges, 
etc.,  the  sliip  is  kept  in  the  cluinnel.  W  hen  there 
is  any  danger  that  she  may  touch  l)oltom,  sound- 
ings are  taken  steadily  at  short  intervals.  Kor 
convenience  in  entering  or  leaving  |>ort  at  night, 
harbor  liglitliouses  and  liglited  buoys  are  placed 
in  proi)er  locations.  For  convenience  in  navigat- 
ing many  channels,  ranges  are  established.  That 
is,  two  objects  are  placed  in  such  a  manner  that 
by  steering  so  as  to  hold  them  in  line  the  sliip  is 
kept  in  tlie  deep  -water  of  the  cliannel.  ilany 
of  tlie-^c  ranges  are  formed  by  two  lighthouses 
and  can  therefore  be  used  at  night. 

\\hen  tlie  outer  buoys  and  dangers  are  passed 
and  the  vessel  is  in  deep  water  the  pilot  is  dis- 
charged. The  position  of  the  vessel  is  then 
carefully  ascertained  by  compass  bearings  or 
other  means.  This  is  called  taking  the  departure 
and  niay  be  done  at  any  time  before  losing  sight 
of  the  land. 

The  further  navigation  of  the  vessel  is  effected 
by  means  of:  (a)  dead  reckoning  (q.v.)  ;  (b) 
compass  bearings,  or  horizontal  angles,  if  pro- 
ceeding along  the  coast  with  the  land  in  plain 
sight;  (c)  the  lead  (q.v.),  so  long  as  the  depth 
is  not  much  over  one  hundred  fathoms;  (d)  ob- 
servations of  the  lieavenly  bodies. 

Xavigation  by  means  of  dead  reckoning  con- 
sists in  determining  the  position  of  the  ship  by 
means  of  the  record  of  courses  and  distances 
sailed  which  is  kept  in  the  log-book  (q.v.). 
(.See  Sailings.)  When  the  course  of  a  ves- 
sel is  along  a  coast  with  objects  in  sight 
which  may  be  identified  and  which  are  marked 
on  tlie  clnirt.  it  is  possible  to  obtain  the  ]X)sition 
of  the  ship  at  almost  any  time  during  the  day, 
and,  by  means  of  observations  of  lighthouses,  fre- 
quently during  the  night.  When  the  water  is 
not  deep  and  tlie  coast  not  clearly  visible,  an  ap- 
proximate position  can  be  obtained  by  soundings, 
but  these  are  not  always  to  be  relied  upon  except 
witliin  rather  wide  limits,  whereas  by  compass 
bearings  of  objects  on  shore  or  by  measuring 
the  horizontal  angles  between  three  objects  the 
exact  position  may  be  determined  if  the  chart 
is  reliable — and  cliarts  of  much  frequented  coasts 
are  generally  very  reliable. 

\Micn  far  from  land,  the  most  accurate  way  of 
determining  the  ship's  position  at  any  time  is  by 
observations  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  Of  these, 
the  most  useful  is  the  sun,  but  observations  of 
the  moon,  planets,  and  stars  are  also  taken.  The 
general  practice  is  to  determine  the  longitude 
by  means  of  tlie  sun  in  the  morning  and  after- 
noon, the  time  when  it  bears  about  east  or  west 
being  the  most  favorable,  and  to  determine  tlie 
latitude  about  noon,  when  the  sun  bears  north  or 
south.  The  altitude  of  the  sun  above  the  horizon 
is  measured  bv  means  of  a  sextant  (q.v.)  and 
the  exact  time  ascertained  bv  means  of  a  chro- 
nometer regulated  to  Greenwich  (in  -American 
and  British  vessels)  time.  The  clironometer  may 
not  show  the  exact  Greenwich  time,  but  its  error 
and  rate  of  gaining  or  losing  is  known,  having 
been  carefully  determined  in  port.  From  the 
altitude  of  the  sun  its  zenith  distance  is  ob- 
tained (zen.  dis.  =  00°  —  alt.)  :  the  declination 
of  the  sun  from  the  equator  can  be  obtained  from 
the  \aiilir<il  Altiinnnr:  and  the  latitude  is  known 
with  sufficient  accuracy  from  previous  observa- 
tions and  dead  reckoning.     By  solving  the  oblique 


k 


spherical  triangle  whose  vertices  are  at  the  pole, 
the  zenith,  and  the  sun-'  and  of  which  three 
sides  (as  given  above)  are  known,  the  hour  angle 
of  the  sun  east  or  west  of  the  meridian  is  ascer- 
tained. Correcting  this  by  adding  or  subtracting 
the  "equation  of  time'  (derived  from  the  nautical 
almanac)  the  mean  local  time  is  obtained.  The 
dill'erenite  between  this  and  the  Greenwich  time 
of  the  chronometer  gives  the  longitude  m  time, 
which  is  reduced  to  degrees  in  the  usual  manner. 

The  simplest  method  of  obtaining  latitude,  and 
the  one  most  commonly  used,  is  what  is  called 
"latitude  by  meridian  altituih'."  This  is  taken 
at  tlie  time  the  sun  bears  north  or  south  as  it 
crosses  the  meridian.  The  observer  knows  the 
approximate  longitude.  A  short  time  before  the 
body  reaches  the  meridian,  he  begins  to  take 
altitudes  of  it  (usiuUly  the  sun  is  taken).  As 
soon  as  the  altitude  stops  increasing  and  begins 
to  decrease  he  knows  that  the  sun  has  crossed 
the  meridian  and  that  the  maximum  altitude  ob- 
tained is  the  one  sought.  If  h  is  the  altitude 
thus  obtained  and  d  is  the  declination  of  the  body 
obtained  from  the  Xnutieal  Alnianiic,  then  the 
latitude  =  90°  —  (/i -(- rf) ,  the  sign  of  d  being 
plus  if  the  body  is  on  the  same  side  of  the 
equator  as  the  ship  and  niinu.'i  if  on  the  opposite 
side.  If  a  meridian  altitude  cannot  be  obtained, 
a  spherical  triangle  must  be  solved,  in  which  case 
the  time  must  be  as  near  noon  as  possible,  other- 
wise a  considerable  error  in  latitude  may  result 
from  a  small  one  in  observation  or  time. 

The  ship's  position  when  ascertained  is  plotted 
(i.e.  correctly  located)  on  the  proper  chart  and 
a  line  drawn  connecting  it  with  the  preceding  po- 
sition. The  continuous  line  joining  the  various 
positions  is  called  the  ship's  track  and  shows  her 
latitude  and  longitude  at  the  difl'erent  parts  of 
her  voyage.  As  soon  as  a  position  is  determined 
and  placed  upon  the  chart  the  navigator  deter- 
mines the  course  for  the  next  day,  or  next  few 
hours  as  the  ease  mav  be,  by  finding  the  course 
which  must  be  steered  to  arrive  at  the  point  de- 
sired. This  operation  is  facilitated  by  the  out- 
line drawing  of  a  compass  placed  on  the  chart, 
the  circumference  of  which  is  divided  into  de- 
grees. By  means  of  parallel  rulers  the  direction 
of  the  new  course  is  transferred  to  this  compass 
and  the  correct  course  ascertained.  The  course 
thus  obtained  is  either  the  true  course  or  mag- 
netic course,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
chart  compass,  some  of  which  are  laid  down 
v.ith  the  north  point  directed  toward  the  true 
north  and  some  with  it  directed  toward  magnetic 
north. 

If  the  log-book  of  the  ship  is  carefull.v  kept 
and  the  speeds  and  courses  aceuratelv  determined, 
the  navigator  may  each  day  determine  not  only 
his  position,  and  the  course  and  run  since  the 
previous  day,  but  also  the  ocean  currents,  because 
— neglecting  errors  in  obser\'ations,  etc. — the  dif- 
ference between  the  course  and  run  by  log  (or 
the  dead  reckoning)  and  the  actual  course  and 
run  as  determined  by  astronomical  observations 
is  due  to  current.  He  also  frequently  checks  the 
talile  of  compass  errors  bv  bearings  of  the  sun 
— the  correct  directions  of  the  sun  being  com- 
]iuted. 

Bibliography.  The  following  reference  works 
may  be  consulted  by  the  reader  in  search  of  fur- 
ther information:  Walker.  Nnvigntimi  (Balti- 
more. 18S8)  ;  CofTin,  Nnvigntion  nvii  Nautical  As- 
tronomii,  revised  by  Commander  C.  Belknap,  U. 


NAVIGATION. 


312 


NAVIGATION  LAWS. 


S.  N.  (New  York,  181J!»)  ;  iuul  liouditch's  Prac- 
tical Xaviyator,  published  by  tlie  Hydioyiapliic 
Oflice,  United  States  Navy,  Wasliington  (mw  edi- 
tions every  three  or  four  years,  but  all  recent 
editions  substantially  the  same). 

Jlueh  information  in  regard  to  navigation  is 
contained  in  the  following  articles:  Almanac; 
AstkojNomy;  Collisions  of  Vessels;  Compass; 
Dead  Reckoning;  FogSig.nals ;  Helm;  Lati- 
tude AM)  Lo.NulTlDE;  Lead,  8oixi)1.nu;  Log; 
Log-Book;  Rules  oe  the  Road;  Sailings; 
Seamanshu';  Sextant;  Sound,  Sounding; 
Steering;  Tacking  and  Wearing. 

NAVIGATION,  Freedom  of.  The  right 
wliioli  nil  iKitidiis  possess  of  unrestricted  passage 
over  the  high  seas.  While  the  right  is  now  uni- 
versally admitted,  it  is  only  within  the  jjast 
century  that  the  question  has  become  a  settled 
one.  Formerly  claims  of  territorial  jurisdiction 
were  made  over  large  portions  of  the  ocean,  and 
these  claims  have  led  to  much  controversy  and 
frequent  international  disputes.  ( See  Mare  Clau- 
.SU.M :  Bering  Sea  Controversy,  etc.)  But  the 
question  of  national  control  in  its  present  phase 
is  reduced  to  the  application  of  the  rule  to  broad 
arms  or  recesses  of  the  sea,  narrow  seas  inclosed 
within  the  territory  of  a  single  State,  straits 
leading  to  inland  seas,  such  inland  .seas  and 
navigable  rivers  rising  in  one  country  and  dis- 
charging  through   the   territory  of   another. 

Of  the  first  class,  bays  are  generally  conceded 
to  belong  to  the  States  to  which  the  end)racing 
promontories  belong,  unless  the  headlands  are  so 
far  separated  as  not  to  permit  of  elfective  de- 
fen.se.  Thus  Delaware  Bay  was  in  1792  declared 
to  belong  exclusively  to  the  United  States,  and 
a  like  claim  for  Chesapeake  Bay  would  hardly  be 
contested,  although  the  Bay  of  Fundy  is  held  to 
be  a  part  of  the  liigh  seas. 

The  straits  over  which  international  contro- 
versy has  chielly  arisen  are  tliose  leading  into  the 
Baltic  and  Black  seas.  Denmark  claimed  exclu- 
sive control  over  the  former  by  prescriptive  right. 
As  early  as  1.310  certain  ])rescril)ed  tolls  were 
levied  upon  the  Dutch,  an  attempt  to  increase 
which  a  century  afterwards  resulted  in  war. 
In  the  seventeenth  century  Kngland  and  France 
contracted  to  pay  the  same  Sound  Dues  that  the 
Dutch  paid.  Tliis  continued  until  about  18.5,5, 
when  an  arrangement  was  made  whereby,  on  the 
payment  of  .'{")  million  rix-doliars  (about  .$17.- 
.">00.000),  Denmark  relincpil^hed  her  claim  to 
tolls,  and  agreed  to  properly  jiolicc  and  protect 
the  passage.  The  United  States'  share  of  the 
capitalized  tariff  was  .$39.'i.011.  Previous  to 
Russia's  acquisition  of  the  northern  coast  of 
the  Black  Sea  it  was  Turkish  water,  but  by  the 
Treaty  of  Adrianople  (1829)  entrance  through 
the  straits  into  the  Black  Sea  and  navigation 
thereon  was  permitted  to  Russia  and  Powers 
friendly  to  her.  But  according  to  the  ancient 
custom  all  foreign  vessels  of  war  had  been  pro- 
hibited entrance  into  the  Bosporus  ami  the 
Dardanelles,  and  this  inhibition  was  continued 
untler  the  Treaty  of  London  (1841)  between 
Turkey  and  the  five  Powers.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Paris  of  I8.")(!  the  Black  Sea  was  "neutralized.' but 
in  1871  Russia  secured  the  abrogation  of  this 
provision  of  the  treaty  and  has  the  right  of  main- 
taining her  fleets  of  whatever  size  in  the  Black 
Sea.  Turkey  may  in  time  of  peace  lawfully  open 
the  straits  to  her  friends,  although  unfriendly  to 


Russia,  whenever  it  may  seem  necessary  to  pro- 
vide for  her  own  safely. 

When  a  navigable  river  runs  between  two 
States  both  are  guaranteed  its  unmolested  use 
and  the  line  is  held  to  run  along  the  middle  of 
the  stream.  But  when  a  river  rises  in  the  terri- 
tory of  one  State  and  discharges  through  the  ter- 
ritory of  another,  international  law  does  not 
admit  the  moral  claim  sometimes  asserted  by  the 
upper  State  to  right  of  navigation  to  the  mouth. 
Yet  nearly  all  such  streams  Mowing  tlunugh  tlie 
territory  of  Christian  nations  have  now  been 
opened  by  international  agreement.  By  the  act 
of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (181.5)  declaring  free 
the  use  of  certain  streams  separating  or  travers- 
ing the  territory  of  ilitleront  Powers,  the  Rhine  and 
Sclieldt  were  opened  to  navigation.  This  act  also 
opened  most  of  the  other  European  rivers,  except- 
ing the  Danube,  which  by  the  Treaty  of  Bucharest 
and  later  by  that  of  Adrianople  (1829)  was  made 
free  for  common  commercial  use  to  Turkey  and 
Russia.  Later  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  (1850)  this 
also  came  within  the  application  of  the  concert 
of  the  Congress  of  Vienna.  At  the  close  of  the 
Revolutionary  War  Spain  held  the  territory  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Jlississippi  and  refused  the 
United  States  outlet  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
Louisiana  Territory  was  subsequently  ceded  to 
France,  and  its  purchase  by  the  United  .States  in 
1803  removed  the  question.  The  Saint  Lawrence 
was  thniwn  open  to  the  United  States  by  the  reci- 
procity treaty  of  1854  with  (Ircat  Britain,  which 
also  included  the  reciprocal  use  of  the  Upper 
Lakes  and  the  freedom  of  Lake  Michigan  to  t'a- 
nadian  subjects.  In  South  America  the  freedom 
of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  to  commerce  was  guaran- 
teed by  a  series  of  treaties  from  1853  to  1859. 
while  the  Amazon  was  in  1807  declared  by  Brazil 
to  be  open  to  all  nations.  The  Stikine.  Y'ukon. 
and  Porcui)ine  rivers  of  Alaska,  rising  in  British 
territory,  were  opened  to  the  subjects  of  F.ngland 
and  the  United  States  by  the  Treaty  of  Washing- 
ton (1S71).  while  the  Congo  and  Niger  in  Africa 
were  opened  tinder  an  agreement  for  an  interna- 
tional commission  provided  for  by  the  Congo  Con- 
ference of  1884-85.  Consult  the  authorities  re- 
ferred to  under  International  Law.  See  also 
High  Seas. 

NAVIGATION  ACT.  The  name  applied  to 
each  of  a  scries  of  acts,  known  collectively  as 
'The  Navigation  Acts,'  passed  by  the  English 
Parliament,  beginning  with  1045.  for  the  jiurpose 
of  protecting  the  sliipping  of  (Ireat  Britain  and 
her  colonies,  of  injuring  the  shipping  of  the 
Dutch,  the  chief  rivals  of  the  English,  and  of 
exploiting,  for  the  benefit  of  England,  the  com- 
merce of  the  English  colonies.  See  Navigation 
Law.*. 

NAVIGATION  LAWS.  The  early  restric- 
tion jdaci'd  upon  commerce  was  but  one  phase 
of  the  applieatioM  of  the  economic  doctrines  nd- 
vo<'ated  prior  to  the  time  of  Adam  Smith,  |)ro- 
hiliiting  i>x|)orts.  regulating  intercourse,  and  gen- 
erallyobstructing  the  operation  of  economic  laws. 
The  first  recorded  British  navigation  law  belonpfs 
to  the  reign  of  Richard  IT.  (1381).  and  required 
the  shipment  of  merchandise  by  the  "King's  liege 
people"  in  "slii))s  of  the  King's  licganee."  Sub- 
se(|uently  a  more  liberal  policywas  [lursueil.  With 
the  discovery  of  the  New  World  and  the  conse- 
quent growth  of  colonial  dependencies,  both  the 
importance  of  navigation  laws  as  a  question  of 


NAVIGATION  LAWS. 


313 


NAVIGATION  LAWS. 


policy  and  tlioir  .-iilare  ui  iiiUueiici-  were  {greatly 
txleniicil.  Knglaiul,  France,  [Spain,  l'oitii{;al,  and 
Holland  by  tlieir  restrictions  proliiljitcd  all  com- 
mercial intercourse  between  their  colonies  and 
other  nations;  and  Spain  even  treated  the  crews 
of  foreign  ships  wrecked  upon  her  coasts  as 
pirates.  In  1045  the  English  Parliament  passed 
an  act  prohibiting  the  importation  into  England 
of  whale  oil  and  other  products  of  the  whale 
fisheries,  in  any  vessels  except  such  as  were  owned 
in  England  and  were  manned  by  English  seamen. 
This  act  was  the  first  of  a  long  series  of  acts 
which  are  known  collectively  in  history  as  "The 
Navigation  Acts."  The  acts  of  1051  and  1000 — 
the  latter  of  which  is  known  officially  as  "The 
Fii;st  Navigation  Act" — served  as  the  basis  of 
the  British  legislation  in  this  field  for  almost 
two  hundred  years.  In  general,  the  objects  of 
these  acts,  as  of  the  succeeding  ones,  were  to 
protect  the  shipping  of  England  and  her  colonies, 
and  to  exploit  the  trade  of  the  colonies  in 
the  interest  of  the  mother  country.  The  chief 
feature  of  the  acts  of  1051  and  1000  was  the 
prohibition  of  the  importation  into  England  of 
foreign  products  except  in  Englisli  ships  or  in 
tlie  ships  of  the  country  of  production.  In  100.3, 
by  what  is  usuallv  known  as  the  'Second  Navi- 
gation Act,'  it  was  ordered  that  "none  of 
the  products  of  the  English  plantations  or  fac- 
tories ...  in  Asia,  Africa,  or  America  shall 
be  carried  anywhere  (except  to  other  planta- 
tions) till  they  be  first  landed  in  England,  under 
the  forfeiture  of  ships  and  cargoes."  The  Eng- 
lish restrictive  measures  neither  destroyed  the 
Dutch  commerce  of  the  seventeenth  century  nor 
stamped  out  American  shipping  interests  of 
the  eighteenth.  The  Lloyd's  register  of  1775  re- 
turned for  the  three  years  next  preceding,  2311 
vessels  of  American  build  as  against  3908  of 
British  construction.  The  chief  features  of  the 
British  Navigation  Code,  which  was  essentially 
identical  with  that  of  all  maritime  nations,  as 
it  existed  down  to  the  time  of  its  repeal  in  1849, 
required:  That  no  foreigner  could  own.  wholly  or 
in  part,  an  English  ship;  the  captain  and  three- 
fourths  of  the  crew  must  be  British  sub- 
jects; foreign  products  must  be  imported  in 
British  ships  or  in  ships  of  the  country  of  pro- 
duction: products  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America 
could  not  be  imported  into  Great  Britain  from 
any  Etiropcati  port  in  any  ship  whatsoever,  and 
such  products  could  be  imported  from  any  other 
place  only  in  British  ships  or  those  of  the  coun- 
fn'  of  production.  No  coastwise  trade  was  per- 
mitted in  foreign  ships  to  the  United  Kingdom 
or  between  different  British  possessions,  and  trade 
of  any  kind  was  permitted  only  by  special  au- 
thorization. The  effort  to  evade  these  restric- 
tions involved  great  waste  of  capital,  while  the 
adoption  of  a  jnore  liberal  policy  has  resulted 
in  no  diminution  of  the  prosperity  of  the  British 
Merchant  Marine. 

The  American  navigation  policy  began  with  the 
treaty  of  commerce  entered  into  with  France  in 
1778,  which  included  a  provision  to  take  as  the 
"basis  of  their  agreement  the  mo.st  perfect  equal- 
ity and  reciprocity."  But  the  liberal  tone  of 
this  instrument  was  discontinued  when,  under  the 
influence  of  the  New  England  representatives  the 
framers  of  the  Constitution  in  178!)  gave  to  Con- 
gress an  unrestricted  power  to  enact  navigation 
laws  (U.  S.  Con.,  Art.  I..  §  viii..  clause  3).  In 
1789-92  the  foundation  of  the  American  svstem 


was  laid  by  the  levying  of  tonnage  dues  and  im- 
port ta.xes  after  the  English  custom  so  drastic  in 
nature  as  to  give  American  shipmenis  a  practical 
monopoly  of  American  commerce.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  registration  act  (1792)  and  the  clos- 
ing of  the  coasting  trade  to  foreign  shipping  in 
1793.  After  the  close  of  the  War  of  1812  the  two 
countries  somewhat  modified  their  altitude  to- 
ward each  other,  and  a  treaty  was  entered  into 
placing  their  ships  upon  a  reciprocal  footing  in 
the  ports  of  the  United  States  ami  Great  Britain 
and  suspending  .somewhat  the  discriminating 
duties  charged  upon  the  goods  carried.  This 
tendency  gradually  resulted  in  England  in  the 
Reciprocity  Acts  of  1824  and  the  final  repeal  of 
her  navigation  laws. 

The  American  system  continued  practically 
unchanged.  In  addition  to  those  already  stated, 
some  of  its  more  vexatious  provisions  which  pre- 
vailed for  three-quarters  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury forbade  or  restricted  the  registration  of 
foreign-built  or  foreign-owned  vessels,  the  repair 
of  vessels  abroad,  without  payment  of  duty  on 
materials  used  in  repairs,  or  foreign  vessels  in 
the  United  States,  without  duty  on  entry  of 
repairs,  and  compelled  all  vessels  to  first  report 
at  a  port  of  entry  and  conform  to  the  customs 
regulations  before  they  could  proceed  to  the  port 
of  delivery  to  discharge  their  cargoes;  and  for- 
eign vessels  could  discharge  only  at  the  port  of 
entry. 

Meanwhile,  American  shipping  had  undergone 
various  changes  consonant  with  the  economic 
forces  in  operation  during  this  period.  From 
1815  to  1842  with  an  al)undant  natural  supply 
of  building  material  coupled  with  American  in- 
genuity, it  increased  70  per  cent.,  but  with  the 
change  from  wooden  to  iron  vessels,  this  advan- 
tage was  shifted  in  England's  favor  and  during 
the  period  following  the  Civil  War  the  depression 
in  freight  rates  and  the  more  lucrative  oppor- 
tunity furnished  for  the  investment  of  American 
capital  in  other  directions  resulted  in  the  de- 
crease of  the  American  merchant  marine.  The 
decrease  was  also  accentuated  by  the  law  for- 
bidding any  but  American-built  vessels  to  carry 
the  American  flag.  The  changed  conditions  of 
the  past  decade,  however,  and  the  modification 
of  the  statutory  restrictions — by  an  act  of  1892 
foreign-built  vessels  of  8000  tons  burden,  and 
a  speed  of  twenty  knots  an  hour,  which  are  owned 
in  a  certain  part  by  Americans,  can  fly  the 
American  flag — have  invigorated  ship-building 
and  shipping  interests  generally  in  the  United 
States. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the  .act  of  1884  ow'ners 
can  now  fill  vacancies  in  the  positiims  of  officers 
below  captain  by  aliens  when  in  foreign  voyages; 
seamen  can  be  discharged  at  foreign  ports  on 
mutual  application  of  master  and  seaman  with- 
out payment  of  additional  wages;  seamen  are  al- 
lowed only  one  montli's  pay  in  case  of  injury  to 
the  vessel :  consular  fees  for  services  to  vessels 
and  seamen  are  paid  by  the  Ignited  States  Treas- 
ury. Ship-building  is  encouraged  by  permit- 
ting a  drawback  on  imported  materials  equal  in 
amount  to  the  dutj'  paid,  if  the  vessel  is  built 
for  export.  Vessels  must  now  have  the  port  of 
registry,  or  the  place  where  the  owner  resides,  if 
in  the  same  district,  painted  upon  their  sterns. 
Vessels  in  trade  with  contiguous  foreign  territory 
no  longer  are  re<piired  to  pay  a  capitation  tax 
on  passengers,  thus  putting  vessels  trading  with 


k 


NAVIGATION  LAWS. 


314 


NAXOS. 


Canada  and  Mexico  ou  equal  ti'iiiis  willi  tlif  rail- 
roads, and  more  liberal  mail  laws  liave  been 
passed.  By  the  aet  of  1880  the  tonnage  rates 
were  reduced  to  .'i  cents  per  ton.  not  to  exceed 
15  cents  per  ton  per  year  in  the  aj;;;re<»atc  on 
each  entry  of  all  vessels  from  any  foreign  port  in 
North  .:Vnierica,  Central  America. the  West  Indies, 
Bahamas  or  Bermudas,  and  a  rate  of  ti  cents  not 
to  exceed  30  cents  upon  all  vessels  entering  from 
foreign  ports,  the  President  being  authorized  to 
suspend  this  duty  so  far  as  it  was  in  excess  of 
tonnage  and  other  duties  imposed  by  the  country 
of  their  home  port.  The  furtlier  act  limiting 
the  liability  of  shipowners  for  the  sliip's  debts, 
excepting  wages,  to  the  amount  of  his  interest 
has  proved  a  great  benefit.  The  United  States 
Shipping  Conunissioners  were  established  by  the 
act  of  I872.  and  later,  by  the  act  of  1884,  were 
placed  under  tlie  control  of  the  Treasury  Depart- 
ment, as  was  the  Bureau  of  Navigation,  estab- 
lished in  that  year. 

NAVIGATOKS'    ISLANDS.      See    Samoan 

l.SLANDS. 

NAVILLE,  ni'vM',  Euoi  aho  IIenbi  (18-14—). 
A  Swiss  Egjptologist,  born  at  Geneva,  June 
14,  1844.  He  studied  at  the  university  of 
his  native  city.  King's  College,  London  (1862), 
Bonn  (18C(i),  and  at  the  Kaculte  dcs  Let- 
tres,  Paris,  receiving  his  degree  in  1807.  Dur- 
ing his  university  career  he  paid  much  at- 
tention to  Eg>ptology,  and  in  1808  he  followed 
the  courses  of  l^psius  at  Berlin.  The  following 
year  he  went  to  Kgj'pt,  and  in  1870  he  published 
as  the  result  of  his  investigations  there  his 
work,  Tcxtcs  rclatifs  au  myllic  d'Huriis  rccuciUis 
dans  le  trmplr  dIJdfou  ((.ieneva).  His  I.n  li- 
tanic  dii  solril  appeared  in  187.5,  and  his  Jiiscrip- 
lion  hisloriquc  dc  I'inodjim  III.  was  published 
at  Paris  in  188.").  In  1874  Naville  was  com- 
n)is.sioned  by  the  London  Congress  of  Orientalists 
to  edit  the  text  of  the  Egyptian  Hook  of  the  Dead 
(q.v. ).  Naville  spent  the  next  ten  years  collect- 
ing material  in  tlie  libraries  and  museums  of 
Europe.  The  results  of  his  labors  appeared  in 
Das  iignptisehr  Todtrnhiich  der  IS.  bis  ,iO.  Dij- 
■nustie  (l8Sti|.  one  of  the  most  important  works 
in  the  history  of  Egyptology,  lii'ginning  in  1882, 
Naville  usually  sjwnt  his  winters  in  l'"gypt  con- 
du<'ting  invesligations  for  the  Egjpt  Exploration 
Fund,  and  his  work  in  this  direction  produced 
most  valuable  results.  In  18H1  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  Egyptology  in  the  I'niversity  of  (ieneva. 
Among  the  most  important  of  Xaville's  works,  in 
addition  to  those  already  mentioned,  are:  The 
Store  ('ill/  of  I'ilhom  and  the  h'liiilv  of  the  Kxo- 
dus,  Egjpt  {".xploralion  Kunil  .Memoir  i.  (1SS.5)  ; 
(litsheii  find  the  Shrine  of  Siift  el  lleiineh,  Egypt 
Exploration  Fund  .Memoir  iv.  (1HH7I;  The  Fes- 
tiral  Hall  nf  Osorkou  //..Eg\|>t  Exploration  Fund 
Memoir  x.  (1802)  ;  .ihnas  el  Medineh.  Egjpt  Ex- 
ploration Fund  Memoir  xi.  (1804);  Deir  el 
tiahari.  Eg\pt  Exploration  Fund  Memoirs  xii.. 
xili..  xiv,.  x'vi.,  xix.   (18041001). 

NAVY,  Dki'Aktmknt  ok  rni:.  One  of  llic  nine 
executive  departments  of  the  Initcd  States  Oov- 
erninent,  created  by  act  of  Congress  of  April  30, 
1708,  and  chargi'd  with  the  general  control  and 
administration  of  the  navy.  From  1780  to  1708 
the  maniigelnent  of  naval  alTairs  was  under  the 
control  of  the  War  Department.  M  the  head  of 
the  department  Is  a  secretary,  who  is  a  member 
of  the  Cabinet,  appointed  by  the  President  with 


the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  and  receives 
an  annual  salary  of  .$8000.  As  the  President  is 
by  the  Constitution  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
navy,  the  Secretary  is  generally  subject  to  his  di- 
rection. It  is  his  duty  to  execute  such  orders 
as  the  President  may  give  relative  to  the  admin- 
istration of  luival  art'airs,  including  the  procure- 
ment of  naval  sujiplics  and  the  construction, 
armament,  equipment,  aud  employment  of  vessels 
of  war.  A  variety  of  specific  duties  are  imposed 
upon  him  by  law.  in  which  cases  he  is  not  subject 
to  the  direction  of  the  President.  He  makes  an- 
nual report  to  the  President  of  the  operations  of 
the  Navy  Department.  His  deputy  is  the  Assist- 
ant Secretary,  who  is  appointed  by  the  President, 
and  who  during  the  absence  or  incapacitation  of 
the  Secretary  acts  in  his  stead,  taking  the  title 
of  acting  Secretary.  An  act  of  .June  8.  1880,  au- 
thorized the  appointment  of  a  judge-advocate- 
general  of  the  navy  from  the  marine  corps  or  the 
luivy  with  the  rank  of  colonel  or  captain.  It  is 
his  duty  to  receive,  revise,  and  record  the  pro- 
ceedings of  courts-martial,  courts  of  inquiry, 
boards  for  the  examination  of  oflicers  for  retire- 
ment and  promotion  in  the  naval  service,  and  to 
give  opinions  on  such  legal  questions  as  ari.se  in 
the  course  of  the  ailministration  of  the  navy. 
-■\notlier.  oHicer  of  importance  attached  to  the 
Navy  Department  is  the  commandant  of  the 
marine  cor|)s. 

By  an  act  of  .July  5,  1802,  eight  bureaus  were 
established  in  the  Navy  Department,  at  th^  head 
of  each  being  a  cliief.  appointed  by  tlie  President 
from  among  the  officers  of  tlie  navy.  These  are, 
the  bureaus  of  (1)  Yards  and  Docks;  (2)  Equip- 
ment: (3)  Navigation;  (4)  Ordnance;  (5)  Con- 
struction and  Repair ;  (0)  Steam  Engineering; 
(7)  Medicine  and  Surgery ;  and  (S)  Supplies  anil 
Accounts.     .Sec  \iiiii.  under  CxiTKi)  St.\tes. 

NAVY  REGISTER.  An  animal  official  pub- 
lication of  the  United  States  Navy  Department. 
It  gives  a  list  of  the  officers  of  tlie  navy  and 
marine  corps  in  order  of  their  rank,  a  list  of  re- 
tired officers,  a  statement  of  resignations,  retire- 
ments, dismissals,  anil  deaths  since  the  publica- 
tion of  the  previous  register,  the  niinilier  of  sta- 
tions with  the  ships  on  each  and  the  names  of 
officers  attached  to  them,  and  an  enumeration  of 
the  ships  of  the  navy,  with  some  details  of  their 
character,  present  condition,  and  service. 

NAVY  YARD.  The  principal  navy  yard  of 
the  United  States  is  located  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
on  the  East  River.  There  are  thrw  dry  docka 
at  this  yard  and  one  under  construction.  Here 
also  is  located  the  naval  clothing  factory  which 
makes  the  uniforms  for  the  enlisted  men.  The 
other  importanl  navy  yards  of  the  United  States 
are  at  Norfolk  (Va.).  Ix'aguc  Island  (near 
Philadelphia).  Boston,  Mare  Island  (.San  Fran- 
cisco Bay),  and  Port  Orchard  (  Piiget  Sound); 
there  are  less  important  yards  at  Portsmouth 
( N,  H.)  and  Pensacola  (Fla.).  and  a  yard  of 
considerable  importance  is  being  developed  at 
Charleston.  S.  V.  In  England  the  term  dockyard 
(see  DoCKVAiuis.  RoVAi.)  is  cipiivalcnt  to  the 
.\merican  designation  navy  yard.  The  gnat  naval 
establishnients  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  are 
generally  liTiiieil  arsenals    (q.v. I. 

NAWANAGAR,  nu-wii'nu-gur'.    .\  seaport  of 

India        See  NoWAXAr.AR. 

NAX'OS  (T,at.,  from  Gk.  Nifot).  The  largest, 
most  beautiful,  and  most  fertile  of  the  Cvclades. 


NAXOS. 


315 


NAZARETH. 


It,  is  situated  in  the  .Eyean,  midway  between  the 
coasts  of  Greece  and  Asia  Jlinor.  Extreme 
length,  about  20  miles ;  breadth,  15  miles. 
I'opulation,  in  189C,  15,008.  The  principal 
)>roduets  and  articles  of  export  are  wine,  corn, 
oil,  cotton,  fruits,  and  emery.  The  wine  of 
Xaxos  (the  best  variety  of  which  is  still  called 
in  the  islands  of  the  -Egcan  Bacchus  trine)  was 
famous  in  ancient  as  it  is  in  modern  times,  and 
on  tliis  account  the  island  was  celebrated  in  the 
legends  of  Dionysus  aiid  Ariadne.  The  island 
also  contains  good  quarries  of  marble  of  a  rather 
coarser  grain  than  that  of  Paros.  They  were 
worked  in  the  sixth  century-  B.C.,  as  is  proved 
by  th>  unfinished  statues  found  in  them,  among 
which  is  a  famous  colossus^  some  3-t  feet  in 
length.  The  most  flourishing  period  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  island  seems  to  have  been  in  the 
sixth  century  B.C.  under  the  rule  of  the  tyrant 
I.ygdamis.  In  B.C.  490  it  was  ravaged  by  Per- 
sians, and  later  joined  the  Delian  League,  from 
which  (B.C.  40!))  it  was  the  first  to  revolt.  Tlie 
island  now  became  a  dependency  of  Athens. 
After  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Latins,  it  became  in  1207  the  seat  of  a  duke- 
dom, founded  by  the  Venetians,  and  in  1566  w-as 
seized  by  the  Turks.  It  now  forms  a  portion 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Greece  (q.v.).  Naxos,  the 
capital,  with  a  population  of  2000,  is  situated 
on  the  northwest  coast,  contains  Greek  and 
Catholic  churches,  and  a  castle  built  by  the 
A'cnetians.  and  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  and  a  Latin 
bishop.  Consult:  Koss,  Reiscn  atif  dm  Inscln. 
lies  Aegiiischcn  Meeres,  i.  (Halle,  1840)  ;  Tozer, 
Islands  of  the  JEfiean  (Oxford,  1890)  ;  Gurtius, 
Naxos  (Berlin,  1846)  ;  Duget,  De  Insula  Kaxo 
(Paris.   1S07). 

NAY'LER,  .James  (c.1617-GO).  An  English 
(^Kiaker.  He  was  born  at  Ardsley,  in  Yorkshire. 
In  1042  he  became  an  adherent  of  the  Parlia- 
ment, and  served  for  about  eight  years  under 
Fairfa.x  and  Lambert.  While  in  the  army  he 
began  to  preach  as  an  independent,  but  in  1651 
was  led  by  CJeorge  Fox  to  become  a  Quaker,  and 
for  three  years  was  Fox's  literary  coadjutor. 
But  popularity,  especially  with  women,  turned 
his  head.  His  followers  fancied  that  he  re- 
sembled the  pictures  of  Christ,  and  they  called 
him  'Jesus'  and  the  'Lamb  of  God.'  He  was 
arrested  on  charges  of  blasphemy,  tried  before 
Parliament,  and  sentenced  to  the  pillory,  whip- 
ping, branding,  and  imprisonment  for  two  years. 
The  whole  punishment  was  inflicted.  He  was 
released  in  1059.  recanted  his  errors,  and  was 
again  received  by  the  Society  of  Quakers.  A 
odllection  of  his  writings  was  published  in  Lon- 
don in  1710,  and  his  iletnoirs  in  1719  and  re- 
printed in  1800. 

NAZ'ARENE  (Gk.  TSa^apvvis,  'Xazarenos, 
more  frojucntly  'Sa^apa'iot.  Xazoraios.  from 
\asa/)d,  .Ao.coco,  Xaj-a/je«,  Ao,;«/x'(/i,  Xazaretli). 
A  term  applied  to  .Jesus  to  indicate  that  He  came 
from  the  somewhat  obscure  Galilean  town  Naza- 
reth (q.v.).  which  was  not  connected  with  any 
Jlessianic  prophecies  or  expectations  (cf.  John  i. 
4fi  and  vii.  41).  '.Jesus  the  Xazarene'  (i.e.  '.Jesus 
of  jS'azareth')  became  a  popular  term  used  by 
friend  and  enemy  alike  (quite  frequently  in  the 
Gospels  and  Acts) ,  Wlien  the  Gospel  of  JLitthew 
was  written  the  term  was  considered  a  fulfill- 
ment of  Isa.  xi.  1.  (Matt.  ii.  23).  It  was  thus 
an  easy  transition  for  the  Jews  to  speak  of  the 
Vol.  XIV.— 21. 


early  Christians  as  the  sect  of  Xazarenes  (Acts 
x.xiv.  5).  Throughout  the  obscure  and  checkered 
development  of  .Jewish  Christianity  the  name 
was  preserved,  until  in  the  fourth  century 
'Xazarenes'  meant  those  .Jewish  Christians  who, 
iinlike  tlie  Ebionites  (q.v.),  were  quite  loyal  to 
Jesus'  teachings  and  not  strongly  anti-Gentile 
in  their  sentiments.  Their  general  traditions 
and  usages  were,  however,  more  .lewish  than 
Christian.  They  had  a  Gospel  of  their  own, 
made  no  use  of  Paul's  Epistles,  and  were  looked 
upon  unfavorably  by  many  orthodox  Christians. 
While  the  Ebionites,  however,  grew  ever  more 
bitter  toward  Catholic  Christianity,  the.se  seem 
to  have  gradually  become  lo.st  in  the  greater 
Gentile  Cliurch.  Their  Gospel,  known  to  us 
mainly  through  .Jerome,  was  probably  the  same 
as  that  called  by  other  writers  the  Gospel  of 
the  Hebrews,  and  was  in  existence  as  early  as 
150.  All  the  evidence  indicates  that  it  was  a 
secondary  form  of  ilatthew.  with  certain  addi- 
tions and  variations.  The  work  was  by  no  means 
heretical  in  its  tendencies.  Later  writers,  from 
the  fourth  century  onward,  were  inclined  to 
class  it  as  apocryphal,  probably  on  account  of 
the  differences  between  it  and  the  canonical 
Matthew,  and  also  because  there  was  no  place 
for  a  fifth  Gospel.  The  Gospel  used  by  the  more 
bigoted  .Jewish-Christian  sect  of  Ebionites  was 
not  identical  with  the  Xazarene  Gospel,  but  a 
secondary  form  of  the  Greek  Matthew.  Consult: 
Zahn,  fleschwhtc  des  neutestamcntlichen  Kanons, 
ii.  2  (Leipzig,  1892)  ;  Nicholson,  Gospel  of  the 
Eehreirs  (London,  1879)  ;  Resell,  Agrapha  (Leip- 
zig, 1889)  ;  Kruger.  Historii  of  Early  Christian 
Literature  (New  York,  1897). 

NAZARENES,   or  NAZARITES.     A  group 
of  German  painters.     See  Pre-Rapii.\elites. 

N AZ'ARETH  ( Gk.  Nafap^S,  Nazareth,  Nofopd, 
Xazara,  from  an  Aramaic  word  of  uncertain  form 
and  meaning).  A  town  of  ancient  Galilee,  famed 
as  the  place  where  Jesus  passed  His  childhood. 
The  Xew  Testament  records  are  singularly  silent 
as  to  the  details  of  the  life  of  the  Holy  Family 
in  Xazareth.  The  only  passage  giving  any  light 
is  Matt.  xiii.  54-58  (=  Mark  vi.  1-5.  Lukeiv.  16- 
30 ) ,  the  record  of  a  visit  by  Jesus  after  He  had 
begun  His  public  ministry.  From  the  question 
of  Xathanael  (.John  i.  46)  it  may  be  inferred 
that  it  was  a  place  of  no  special  importance, 
but  not  necessarily  that  it  had  a  bad  reputation. 
Since  the  town  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament  or  .Tosephus,  we  are  entirely  ignorant 
of  its  early  history.  The  New  Testament  writ- 
ings and  the  Talmud  only  show  that  Jesus  was 
])opularly  called,  jjerhajis  at  first  in  contempt,  'the 
Xazarene,'  and  His  followers  'Xazarenes.'  (See 
Nazarexe.)  No  further  mention  is  found  until 
Eusebius,  who  says  in  his  Onomasticon  that  it 
was  fifteen  Roman  miles  eastward  from  Legeon 
(the  ancient  ilcgiddo).  and  not  far  from  Mount 
Tabor.  Epiiihanius.  a  century  later,  says  that  it 
had  become  in  his  day  a  mere  village.  "The  Chris- 
tialis  of  the  first  three  centuries  appear  to  have 
regarded  it  with  no  consideration.  In  later  cen- 
turies it  began  to  attract  pilgrims.  It  naturally 
was  reverenced  by  the  Crusaders,  who  greatly  em- 
bellished the  place.  After  its  final  capture  by  the 
Moslems  in  1291  it  declined,  though  retaining 
its  attraction  for  pilgrims.  Alxmt  1620  a  great 
Franciscan  church  and  convent  of  the  Annuncia- 
tion was  built.     This  has  become  one  of  the  most 


NAZARETH. 


316 


NEAX. 


popular  pilfrrini  sliiiinn  in  Palestine.  The  bouse 
in  wliirh  Mary  lived  is  said  to  have  been  niiiacu- 
louslv  trans(Kuted  to  Loroto  (q.v. ),  Italy.  Of  late 
years  Nazareth  has  materially  increased  in  popu- 
lation, at  present  containing  over  10.000  souls, 
of  whom  nearly  8000  are  Christians.  The  situa- 
tion is  most  beautiful.  In  the  upper  reaches 
of  a.  vallej'  leading  down  to  the  Plain  of  Esdrae- 
lon  to  the  south,  shut  in  by  hills,  with  a  very 
fertile  soil,  it  is  isolated  from  the  world.  It  is 
only  necessary  to  climb  the  hills,  however,  to 
gain  one  of  the  finest  views  in  Palestine.  The 
modern  town,  mainly  on  the  steep  slopes  of  the 
southwest  side  of  the  valley  or  basin,  is  prob- 
ably farther  from  the  summit  of  the  hill  than 
was  the  ancient  town  of  Jesus'  day.  Of  all  the 
•holy  places'  in  Palestine  few  can  rival  the  spring 
near  the  Greek  Church  of  Gabriel,  a  spot  prob- 
ably often  visited  by  Jlary  and  -Tesus.  Consult : 
Stanley,  Sinai  and  I'ale-stinc  (Xew  York.  1SS3)  ; 
George  -Vdam  Smith.  Historical  Ocoqraphji  of 
the  Holi)  Land  (Xew  York.  ISnO)  :  Baedcker- 
Socin,  Palestine  and  Syria  (Leipzig,  1898).  with 
a  plan  of  the  town  and  description  of  the  antiqui- 
ties: Rittcr,  Erdhande.  vol.  xvi.  (Berlin.  18.i2)  ; 
Guirin.  Galilee  (Paris.  1880)  ;  Buhl,  Geographic 
Paliislinnx    (Freiburg,   1S9G). 

NAZARITE.     See  Xazirite. 

NAZARITES  (from  Lat.  Xazarita,  from  Gk. 
NafopiTTjs.  XazarilCs,  from  Heb.  nuzar.  to  sep- 
arate oneself).  A  Christian  sect  found  in  Hun- 
gary, and  particularly  numerous  in  the  Jlagyar 
districts  of  Eastern  Hungary.  They  believe  in 
the  Trinity,  but  •reject  transubstantiation  and 
infant  baptism.  They  have  no  inicstbood.  refuse 
to  take  oaths,  to  perform  military  service,  or 
))artici])ate  in  politics,  and  have  given  the  Gov- 
erninciit  inuc-li  trouble. 

NAZIRITE  (Heb.  twzir,  from  nuzar,  to  con- 
secrate). Among  the  Hebrews,  one  who  had  de- 
voted himself  in  a  peculiar  sense  to  Yahweh. 
The  term  is  used  of  two  classes:  (a)  Xazirites 
for  life,  and  (b)  Xassirites  for  a  limited  period. 
The  law  in  the  post -exilic  Priestly  Code  ( Xum. 
vi.)  refers  to  the  latter  class  alone.  According 
to  this  law,  one  who  had  taken  the  vow  of 
Xaziriteship  was  to  abstain  from  wine  or  any 
intoxiialing  ilrink.  not  to  sutler  a  razor  to  touch 
his  head,  but  to  let  the  locks  of  his  hair  grow 
long,  and  to  avoid  all  ceremonial  defilement.  It 
is  evident  from  these  regulations — particularly 
the  first  two — that  the  Xazirite  was  to  lead  a 
life  marked  by  the  return  to  the  simpler  and 
rougher  fashions  of  primitive  times.  The  original 
purpose  of  such  vows  among  the  Hebrews,  as 
among  the  Arabs,  where  they  are  also  found 
lef.  Wellliausen,  Ilesle  rirahixchen  Heidenthiinis. 
p.  143,  Berlin,  1897:  W.  R.  Smith.  Helifjion 
of  the  Semites:,  pp.  482  sqq.,  Lonilon.  1894),  was 
for  war  or  revenge,  but  it  was  natural  also  to 
extend  the  cu.stonis  involved  to  sacred  seasons 
of  the  year  when  the  deity  was  to  be  approached. 
So  among  the  Arabs  to  this  day.  during  the 
days  s(icnt  by  the  pilgrims  in  Mecca  (see  H.\.ni), 
it  is  forbidden  to  cut  the  hair,  and  other  restric- 
tions are  imposed,  most  of  which  emphasize  the 
return  in  the  holy  season  to  more  primitive 
fashions.  .\s  for  the  Xazirite  for  life,  we  have 
only  two  instances  in  the  Old  Testament,  Samson 
anil  Samuel.  The  former,  in  so  far  as  he  em- 
l)odies  popular  elements,  represents  the  hero  of 
a  rude  age.     It   is  not   said  of  him   that   he  wa.s 


to  abstain  from  wine,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
he  frequently  was  involved  in  acts  (such  as  con- 
tact with  the  carcass  of  a  lion)  which  brought 
in  their  wake  ceremonial  defilement.  The  long 
hair  in  his  case  may  have  originally  been  the 
natural  condition,  just  as  the  hero  Eabani  among 
the  Bai)yIonians  is  described  as  "hairy.'  In  the 
case  of  Samuel,  the  Xaziriteship  involves,  like- 
wise, merely  the  obligation  to  let  the  hair  grow, 
and  this  may  have  been  customary  among  the 
guardians  of  the  sanctuaries,  wlio  were  in  a  per- 
petual state  of  "sanctity.'  The  application,  there- 
fore, of  the  term  Xazirite  to  Samson  and  Samuel 
in  the  post-exilie  sense  of  the  word  is  due  to 
the  projection  into  the  past  of  a  conilition'which 
reached  its  development  centuries  after  the  age 
of  these  two  personages.  Xaziriteship  in  time 
lost  its  old  significance  and  became  a  species  of 
private  asceticism.  In  this  sense.  .lohn  the  Bap- 
tist is  a  'permanent"  Xazirite  (Luke  i.  15)  and 
Saint  Paul  possibly  (though  not  certainly)  a 
temporary  one  (Acts  xxi.  17-2()).  Consult: 
Dillmann.  Die  Biicher  yiimeri,  Deuteronomium 
vnd  Josua  (Leipzig,  188C)  ;  Driver,  "Tlie  Books 
of  Joel  and  Amos,"  in  the  Canibridye  liibU  for 
Schools  and  Colleges  (Cambridge,  1897);  Xo- 
wack,  Ilehraische  ArcMologie  (Freiburg,  1894); 
Benzinger,  flebriiische  ArchJiologic  (ib.,  1894 1  ; 
Smcnd,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Reli- 
(liiinsfiesrhiehte    ( ib.,   1893). 

NEjE'RA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  N^oipo,  AVoiVa). 
The  name  of  several  nymphs  in  Grecian  mythol- 
ogj".  and  of  a  maiden  mentioned  in  the  poems 
of  Horace,  Vergil,  and  Tibullus.  It  is  used  also 
in  Milton's  Lycidas,  to  designate  an  imaginary 
charmer. 

NEAGH,  na,  Ir.  pron.  nii'iia,  Lough.  The 
largest  lake  of  the  British  Isles,  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Ireland,  13  miles  west  of  Belfast 
(Map:  Ireland.  E  2).  It  is  rectangular  in  shape, 
17  miles  long  by  10  miles  wide,  and  has  a  mean 
depth  of  40  feet.  It  is  drained  northward  into 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  through  the  Bann  River. 
Canals  connect  it  with  Belfast  on  the  east  and 
Lough  Erne  on  the  southwest. 

NEAGLE,  n:i'g'l.  John  (179618G5).  An 
American  portrait  painter.  He  was  born  in  Bos- 
ton. X'ovember  4,  1790.  but  his  parents  moved 
to  Philadelphia  soon  after  his  birth.  He  was 
practie:illy  self-taught.  About  1818  he  began 
painting  ])ort raits  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  and  later 
practiced  in  other  cities.  On  his  return  to  Phila- 
delphia, he  married  the  daughter  of  Thomas  Sully, 
the  painter,  from  whom  he  received  instruction 
and  encouragement.  He  made  rapid  progress  and 
rose  in  public  favor,  was  made  directnr  of  the 
I'l'nnsylvania  Academy  (  1S3()-3I ) ,  and  lirst  presi- 
dent (if  the  Artists'  Fund  Society  of  Philadelphia 
(183,5-44).  Ncagle  was  a  good  draughtsman  and 
colorist.  and  clever  in  delineation  of  character. 
Most  of  his  important  works  are  in  Pliiladelphia, 
and  include  a  full-length  portrait  of  Patrick  Lyon 
at  the  Forge  (182G),  Pennsylvania  Academy; 
portraits  of  Rev.  Dr.  .Toseph  Pilmore.  .'saint 
Geiuge's  Hall:  Henry  Clay.  Vnion  League  Club; 
Dr.  Thomas  Parke.  City  IJbrary;  and  George 
Washington,  ln<liqien<lenee  Hall.  Other  works 
are  a  portrait  of  (iillu'rt  Stuart,  Atlii'ua-um,  Bos- 
ton, and  several  ln<lian  ])ortraits,  Xew  York  His- 
torical  Society. 

NEAL,  Daniel  (10781743).  The  historian  of 
the   Puritans,   lioni   in   London.      He  entered   Ox- 


NEAL. 


317 


NEANDER. 


ford,  l)>it  left  before  coniplotintj  the  course,  to 
study  for  the  dissentinjj  ministry  in  EngUind 
:ind  Holland.  In  1  "•••'!  he  returned  to  England, 
in  ITDli  berame  pastor  of  an  independent  con- 
gregation in  Aldersgate  Street,  London,  and  rc- 
)nained  at  its  bead  to  the  end  of  his  life.  His 
first  work,  a  Ili-ilori/  of  Xen^  Enijland  (1720), 
won  for  him  the  honorary  degree  of  master  of 
arts  from  Harvard  in  1721.  Neal's  greatest 
work,  however,  was  the  History  of  the  ['uritans 
from  the  Reformation  to  1GS9,  originally  under- 
taken by  hiin  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  John 
Evans.  Dr.  Evans  died  in  1730,  and  Neal  com- 
pleted the  work  himself  (1732-38).  The  work 
was,  on  the  wliole,  very  favorably  received  by 
the  Puritans,  but  Neal's  studied  misrepresenta- 
tion and  suppression  of  facts  evoked  criticism. 
Xevertheless,  the  history  is  for  the  most  part 
a  sclinlarly  piece  of  work. 

NEAL,  David  D.\uioff  ( 1838—) .  An  Ameri- 
can painter.  He  was  born  at  Lowell,  ilass., 
October  20..  1838,  and  after  studying  in  Xew 
Orleans,  La.,  went  to  San  Francisco,  where  he 
was  emplo3'ed  in  making  drawings  on  wood.  In 
1802  he  went  to  Europe,  and  entered  the  schools 
of  the  Royal  Bavarian  Academy,  JIunieh.  In 
the  following  year  he  married  the  daughter  of 
Chevalier  Maximilian  Ainmiiller,  and  began  his 
first  regular  lessons  in  oil  painting  with  his 
father-in-law,  devoting  himself  to  architectural 
subjects.  From  1869  to  1870  he  studied  figure 
jiainting  under  Alexander  Wagner  and  under 
Piloty.  After  1879  he  principally  practiced  por- 
trait painting.  Among  the  works  in  his  early 
style  are  the  "Chapel  of  Nonberg,  Salzburg" 
(iS04);  "Chapel  of  the  Kings,  Westminster;" 
and  "Saint  ilark's."  His  first  figure  composi- 
tion. ".Limes  Watt,"  was  exhibited  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  London  (1873).  Tlie  "First  Meeting 
of  Marj'  Stuart  and  Rizzio"  (1875)  received  the 
great  medal  from  the  Royal  Bavarian  Academy. 
His  most  noted  work,  "Oliver  Cromwell  and  John 
Milton,"  is  now  in  the  Public  Library,  Cleveland, 
Ohio.  His  portraits  owe  their  success  to  their 
good  characterization.  A  fair  example  is  that 
of  Eev".  ilark  Hopkins  for  Williams  College. 

NEAL,  John  (1793-1876).  An  American 
poet  and  novelist  of  English-Quaker  descent, 
born  in  Portland,  Maine.  Xeal  was  self-educated, 
and  studied  law  at  Baltimore,  supporting  him- 
self by  literary  work  with  an  energy'  that  charac- 
terized him  throughout  his  long  and  varied  life. 
Between  1817  and  1810  he  published  Keep  Cool, 
a  novel  in  two  volumes,  two  volumes  of  verse, 
and  a  five-act  tragedy,  Otho.  Jleantime  he  was 
admitted  to  the  ilaryland  bar.  In  1823  he 
paid  a  visit  to  England.  Here  he  was  a  pioneer 
of  American  letters,  attracting  and  compelling 
attention,  the  first  American  to  contribute  to 
the  great  quarterlies  and  to  Blackwood,  and 
becoming  secretary  of  Jeremy  Bcntham.  Return- 
ing to  America  in  1827,  he  took  up  the  practice 
of  law  in  Portland,  and  in  1828  began  to  edit 
the  Yriiikee,  contributing  much  to  various  other 
magazines  and  newsp.ipcrs.  earnestly  opposing 
capital  punisbinent,  and  being  an  early  advocate 
of  woman's  suffrage.  He  established  a  gymnasi- 
um, said  to  have  been  the  first  in  the  United 
States,  and  he  was  himself  skilled  in  all  the  arts 
of  exercise,  and  a  sym]iathetic  teacher  and  adviser 
of  yoimg  men,  notable  among  whom  was  E.  A.  Poe. 
\\'hile    engaged    energeticallv    in    journalism,    he 


])oured  out  a  steady  stream  of  novels,  interspersed 
with  other  works.  The  more  noteworthy  of  his 
chaotic,  Byronie  novels  are  lliindoljih  (  1823)  and 
ho<i'in  (1823):  Ii,ichcl  Uytr  (1828)  and  The 
Diiinicasters  (1833)  are  soberer  but  not  memor- 
aldc  ))roductions.  The  interesting  autobiography, 
Wfindcrinij  h'ccollections  of  a  Soniiirhnt  ISusi/ 
Life  (1809),  was  practically  the  last  of  his 
voluminous  writings,  all  of  which  are  character- 
ized by  haste,  but  not  less  by  an  ebullient  genius 
and  distinctive  nationality. 

NEAL,  Joseph  Clay  (1807-47).  An  Ameri- 
can humorist,  born  at  Greenland,  N.  H.  He 
settled  in  Philadelphia,  where  in  1831  he  became 
editor  of  the  I'ciuini/hunian,  a  Democratic  jour- 
nal. In  1844  he  founded  the  Saturday  Gazette, 
which  had  a  large  circulation.  His  best-known 
book.  Charcoal  ,Sketchcs;  or,  ticencs  in  a  Metropo- 
lis (1837;  second  series  1849),  enjoyed  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  popularity,  and  was  repub- 
lished in  London.  He  wrote  also  Peter  Ploddy 
and  Other  Oddities  (1844). 

NEALE,  nOl.  Edwakd  Vansittart  (1810-02). 
An  English  Christian  Socialist,  born  at  Batli 
and  educated  at  Oriel  College,  O.xford.  He  be- 
came an  advocate  of  social  reform,  and  joined 
the  group  of  Christian  Socialists  under  F.  D, 
Maurice.  Xeale  founded  the  first  cooperative 
stores  in  London.  He  assisted  in  forming  sev- 
eral industrial  societies,  was  a  founder  of  the 
Cobden  Mills  in  1866,  and  of  the  Agricultural 
and  Horticultural  Association  in  1807,  and  gen- 
eral secretary  to  the  Central  Cooperative  Board 
from  1875  until  1891.  He  visited  America  in 
1875.  He  was  a  director  of  the  Cooperative  In- 
surance Company  and  of  the  Cooperative  News- 
paper Society,  and  a  Vansittart  Neale  scholar- 
ship at  Oriel  College  for  the  sons  of  cooperatives 
was  founded  in  his  honor  in  1890.  His  writings 
include:  The  Characteristic  Features  of  Some 
of  the  Principal  Systems  of  Socialism  (1851); 
The  Mythical  Element  in  Christianity  (1873); 
and  A  Manual  for  Cooperators  (1879). 

NEALE,  John  Mason  (1818-66).  An  Eng- 
lish author  and  hj-mnologist,  born  in  London.  He 
graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1840.  and  took  holy  orders  in  the  Church  of 
England.  While  chaplain  and  tutor  at  Downing 
College,  he  warmly  embraced  high-church  views 
and  adhered  to  his  principles  in  spite  of  severe 
criticism.  He  was  for  many  years  warden  of 
Sackville  College,  East  Grinstead,  and  was  the 
founder  of  an  Anglican  sisterhood  of  Saint  Mar- 
garet. His  extensive  writings  on  theological  and 
ecclesia.stical  subjects  include  A  History  of  the 
So-called  Jansenist  Church  in  Holland  (1858) 
and  MedicEval  Preachers  (1857).  He  translated 
the  several  parts  of  Bernard  of  Cluny's  Dc  Con- 
teniplu  Muiidi.  "Jerusalem  the  Ciolden."  and  in 
1863  published  Hymns  of  the  Eastern  Church. 
He  also  published,  in  addition  to  various  collec- 
tions of  hymns:  a  History  of  the  Jews  (1841)  ; 
An  Introduction  to  the  History  of  the  Holy  East- 
ern Church  (1850);  Stories  for  Children  from 
Church  History  (1850);  Theodore  Phranza,  or 
the  Fall  of  Constantinople  (1857):  History  of 
the  Council  of  Florence  (1801)  ;  and  Essays  on. 
Liturriiohfiy  and  Church  History   (1863). 

NEANDER,  nS-an'der,  Johann  August  Wii.- 
HEi.M  (1789-1850).  One  of  the  most  famous  of 
ecclesiastical  historians.     He  was  born  at  Got- 


NEANDER. 


318 


NEARCTIC    REGION. 


tingen,  January  17,  ITS'J,  of  Jewish  jjarentagc, 
ami  ri'ci-ivi-<l  his  early  eduealion  at  the  Johaii- 
iieuiii  in  Hamhuig.  On  Kebniaiy  15,  18U(i,  lie 
])nl)liily  lenouueed  Judaism,  and  was  baptized 
in  Saint  Catharine's  Church,  llaniburg,  changing 
his  name  from  David  Jleudel  to  Xeander  (from 
(ireek  «4s,  neos,  new  +  dir^p,  (i>u-i;  man,  in 
allusion  to  the  religious  change  which  he  liad 
experienced)  and  taking  his  Christian  names 
from  several  of  his  friends.  lie  now  proceeded 
to  Halle,  wliere  he  studied  theulog)-  under 
tjchleieruiacher,  and  concluded  his  academic 
course  at  his  native  town  of  (Jottingcn.  In  1811 
he  took  up  his  residence  at  Heidelberg  University 
as  a  privatdocent ;  in  1S12  he  was  appointed 
e-vtraordinary  professor  of  tlieologii';  and  in  llie 
following  year  was  called  to  the  newly  established 
University  of  Berlin  as  professor  of  Church  his- 
tory. Here  he  labored  till  his  death,  July  14, 
18r>0.  Xeander  enjoyed  great  celebrity  as  a  lec- 
turer. Students  lloekcd  to  him,  not  only  from  all 
parts  of  Germany,  but  from  the  most  distant 
I'rotcstant  countries.  His  works,  in  the  order  of 
time,  are:  L'cbcr  den  Kaiser  Jiilinniis  iind  Kciit 
Zcitaltcr  (1812)  ;  Der  heiligc  Bcrnhard,  und  scin 
Zcilalter  (1813);  Genelische  Enlirlvklung  der 
roinehiiistcn  ynostisvlie)i  .s'l/s/fwif  (1S18):  Der 
heiligc  Johannes  Chrysosloinus  und  die  Kirche, 
hesonders  des  Orients,  in  dtssen  Zeiliillcr  (1821- 
22)  ;  Denkiciirdigheiten  atts  der  (lesehichte  des 
Christenlhiims  und  des  chrisllichen  Lcbens 
(1822-24)  ;  Antignosticus,  Geist  des  TcrtuUianns 
und  Einleitung  in  dessen  Schriften  (1820)  ;  All- 
gemeinc  Oesehiehte  der  chrislliehrn  lleUgian  und 
Kirehe  (1825-52);  Kleine  Gelegenheilssehriften 
(1824);  Geschiehte  der  P/lanzung  und  Leitung 
der  chrisllichen  Kirehe  dureh  die  Aposlel  (18,32- 
33)  ;  Das  Leben  Jesu  Christi  in  seincm  gcschicht- 
liclun  Zusainmenhange.  written  as  a  reply  to 
Strauss "s  work  (1837);  Wissenschaftliehc  .16- 
hamllungen,  ])ul>lished  by  .Jacobi  (1851);  (!e- 
sehichte  der  christUchen  Dogmen,  also  published 
by  Jacobi  (  18301  ;  and  several  other  posthuntous 
works.  The  majority  of  these  works  have  been 
translated  into  English,  viz..  (lenrral  Ilislury  of 
the  Chrislinn  lleligion  and  Church  (trans,  by 
Torrey.  12Hi  ed.  1882)  ;  Eislorg  of  the  Planting 
and  Training  of  the  Christinn  Church  by  the 
Apostles  (trans,  by  Ryland,  1842)  ;  Memorials  of 
Christian  Life  in  the  Early  and  Middle  Ages 
(trans,  by  Ryland,  1832);  Life  and  Times  of 
Saint  fleniarrl  (trans,  by  Miss  Matildc  Wrench, 
1843)  ;  Life  of  Chrysostotn  (trans,  by  Stapleton, 
1845);  Life  of  ./esus  Christ  (trans,  by  McClin- 
tock  and  Blumenthal.  1848)  ;  Lrcturesou  the  Hi/!' 
lory  of  Christian  Dogmas  (trans,  by  Ryland, 
1H5S)  ;  The  Emperor  Julian  (trans,  by  Cox, 
1850)  ;  and  his  commentaries  on  Philippians, 
.T;uiies.  and  First  .John.  Consult  his  Life  by 
IMiilip  Schair  (Xew  York.  1880);  l.v  Wiegand, 
with  bibliography  (Erfurt.  1800);  and  by 
Schneider    (Schleswig,   1894). 

NEANDERTHAL  (nft-iinMer-tiil)  MAN. 
Tlir  iianic  applied  lo  a  dolichocephalic  early  (Qua- 
ternary type  in  Western  Kuro])e,  leased  on  the 
upper  portion  of  a  human  skull  fo\ind  00  feet 
beneath  the  surface  by  quarrymen  in  a  ravine 
called  Neanilertlial,  near  the  village  of  Hochdal. 
between  Oiis-<eldorf  and  KIlH'rfeld.  in  Rhenish 
I'russia.  Anthropologists  have  varied  greatly  in 
their  judgment  of  this  relic.  The  preponderance 
of  opinion  is  toward  the  view  that  the  Xeander- 


tbal  skull  represents  the  oldest  known  dolicho- 
ce|)halic  folk  of  Europe.  Crania  of  llie  Neander- 
thal type  were  subsequently  found  at  Brux  (Bo- 
hemia), Podbaba  (near  Prague,  Bohemia), 
Eguislieini  (near  Kolmar,  Alsaee),  Denise 
(near  Le  Puy.  Haute-Loire) ,  Marcilly  (Eure, 
France).  Breehamps  ( Eure-et-Loir) ,  Tilbury 
(England,  near  London),  Bury-Saint-Edmunds 
(Sullolk,  England),  and  Victoria  Cave  Galley 
Hill,  Hamilton  (England).  This  type,  in  addi- 
tion to  its  low  cranial  index  (70-75.3),  was  char- 
acterized by  a  low  forehead,  jirominent  brow 
ridges,  and  low  stature  (about  1.59  meters,  or 
02.5  inches) . 

NEAP'OLIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  NedTroXis,  '  new 
town').  An  ancient  town,  the  .seaport  of  I'liilippi 
in  Macedonia.  The  modern  town  of  Kavalia 
(.Map:  Balkan  Peninsula,  E  4).  with  about  5000 
inhabitants,  is  on  or  near  its  site.  Paul  landed 
here  when  he  sailed  from  Troas  to  begin  his 
missionary  labors  in  Europe  (Acts  xvi.  9-11). 
The  town  lay  on  a  bay.  which  afforded  excellent 
anchorage,  nearly  opposite  the  island  6f  Thasos, 
and  was  distant  about  nine  miles  from  Philippi. 

NEAP'OLIS.  The  ancient  name  of  Naples 
(.l.v.). 

NEAP-TIDES.     See  Tides. 

NEARCHUS,  near'kus  ( Lat.,  from  Gk.  yia/h 
X05.  Xi'irclios) .  The  commander  of  the  fleet  of 
Alexander  the  Great  in  bis  Indian  expedition  (  B.C. 
;!27-32(i ) .  lie  was  the  son  of  Anilrotiiiuis,  and  was 
born  in  Crete,  but  settled  in  Ampliipolis  in  Mace- 
donia, near  the  Thracian  boundary.  He  w;is  high 
in  favor  with  Philip,  but  was  banished  on  accoiuit 
of  his  adherence  to  Alexander.  When,  however, 
AU«ander  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Macedon, 
X'earchus  was  recalled,  and  when  the  conquest  of 
the  Persian  Empire  was  Ijegun.  he  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Lvcia  and  other  districts  in  the 
south  of  Asia  Jlinor.  In  n.v.  329  he  accompanied 
.Mexander  to  Bactria.  with  a  body  of  (ireek 
nienonaries.  When  his  jiatron  ordered  a  fleet  to 
be  built  on  the  Hydaspes,  Xearchus  received  the 
command  of  it.  He  sailed  down  the  Indus,  and 
then  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  arrived  at  Susa,  in 
Persia,  February  24,  324.  shortly  after  Alexander 
himself,  who  had  marched  overland,  .•\fter  the 
death  of  Alexander  Xearchus  accepted  the 
decision  of  the  other  generals  witli  regard 
to  the  position  of  the  kingdom,  and  retained  his 
own  jnovinces  under  Antigonus,  wliom  he  ac- 
companied against  Eumenes.  In  314  Antigonus 
appointed  him  a  councilor  of  his  son,  Demetrius. 
Fragments  of  his  narrative  of  his  voyage  have 
been  preserved  in  the  Indica  of  Arrian.  Consult 
^IcCrindle,  Invasion  of  India  by  Alexander  the 
llrcat    (Westminster,   ]^^90). 

NEARCTIC  REGION  (from  Gk.  vios.  neos, 
new  -f  apuTtKbs.  arhlihos.  arctic,  northern).  A 
region  in  zoilgeography  including  the  entire  con- 
tinent of  N'orth  America,  except  the  hot  const- 
lamls  of  Mexico.  It  is  a  part  of  Arctoga-n,  or 
the  Holarctic  Region,  in  the  view  of  those  who 
regard  the  Xortbern  Hemisphere  as  a  unit  in 
zoiigeography ;  but  in  the  scheme  of  Sclater  and 
Wallace  it  is  one  of  the  six  primary  regions,  co- 
iirdinate  with  the  I'alearclic  Province.  (See  DtS- 
TiiiniTioN  OF  .\mmai.s.  'Aoiigiographicnl  Map.) 
Of  further  interest  here  are  the  subdivisions  or 
local  faunal  areas  that  have  been  distinguished. 


NEARCTIC   REGION. 


319 


NEBRASKA. 


Tlie  earliest  attempt  at  this  set  apart  three  re- 
gions— an  'Kastern,'  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
plains;  a  'Central,'  inthuling  the  dry  interior 
plains;  anil  a  'Western,'  the  Paeilic  Slope.  As 
early  as  18.54  Louis  Agassiz  stated  that  the  east- 
ern half  of  the  continent  contained  three  faunas: 
a  northern,  which  he  called  'Canadian;'  a 
niid<lle  (Great  Lakes  to  the  latitude  of  Ken- 
tucky), whicli  he  called  'Allcghauian;'  and  a 
southern  or  'Louisianian.'  Later  writers,  es- 
pecially Allen,  dcalin;,'  mainly  with  birds,  made 
eight  zones  in  succession  from  north  to 
south — Arctic,  Hudsonian,  Canadian,  Alle- 
ghanian,  Carolinian,  Louisianian,  Floridian, 
and  Antillean.  Ornithologists  still  use  this 
classification  east  of  the  Mississippi  Kiver.  Sub- 
sequently ilerriam  annoiuiecd  the  opinion  that 
there  was  no  reason  for  recognizing  a  'Central 
Province,'  and  that  too  much  stress  had  been 
laid  upon  the  dissimilarities  between  East- 
ern and  Western  animals.  He  asserted  the 
view  that  only  two  ])riniary  subdivisions  of  the 
Xearctic  Region  should  be  made — a  'Boreal' 
province  and  a  'Sonoran'  province.  The  former 
stretches  from  Xew  England  and  the  Great  Lakes 
northwest  across  Canada  to  Alaska,  and  sends 
down  long  arms  along  the  heights  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  along  the 
Pacific  Coast,  whose  fauna  is  a  mingled  one. 
Everything  south  of  this  is  'Sonoran,'  embracing 
nearly  all  the  United  States,  a  great  area  of  the 
plains  of  Northwestern  Canada,  and  all  of  Mex- 
ico except  tlie  low  tropical  coast-lands.  These 
generalizations,  however,  have  not  been  universal- 
ly accepted,  most  critics  objecting  that  too  liigh 
rank  has  been  accorded  to  the  'Sonoran'  region, 
whose  boundaries  are  regarded  as  too  indefinite 
to  entitle  it  to  be  ditt'd'entiated  and  outlined  as 
!N[erriam  proposed  in  his  "Biological  Survey  of 
the  San  Francisco  Mountain  Region,"  in  Xortli 
Americint  Fdiina,  Xo.  .J  (Washington,  1890).  The 
question  of  the  subdivision  of  the  Xearctic  Re- 
gion therefore  remains  open. 

NEAR-SIGHTEDNESS.      See     Smut,     De- 

FECT.S  UF. 

NEATH,  ncth.  A  municipal  borough  and 
river  port  in  Glamorganshire,  South  Wales,  on 
the  Xcath.  seven  miles  northeast  of  Swansea 
(ilap:  England,  C  5).  It  has  extensive  copper 
and  iron  works.  Copper,  spelter,  iron,  tin- 
plates,  and  fine  bricks  are  extensively  exported; 
stone  is  quarried,  and  coal  and  culm  are  pro- 
duced. The  town,  built  on  the  site  of  the  Roman 
station  Xidum,  contains  the  remains  of  an  an- 
cient castle,  burned  in  1'2,')1.  The  town  received 
its  first  charter  from  Edward  IL  It  owns  its 
gas,  water,  slaughter-houses,  markets,  tramways, 
library,  cemetery,  the  Victoria  Gardens  pleasure 
ground,  a  fair-field,  and  real  estate  worth 
.fl.noo.dOn.  Population,  in  1891,  11.1.57;  in 
lOni.  13.700. 

NEBENITJS,  naba'nd-us,  Ivari,  Friedricii 
( 17S.5-1S57) .  A  German  statesnum  and  econo- 
mist, born  at  Rhodt.  near  Landau.  In  1810  he 
took  a  prominent  part  in  working  out  the  Baden 
Constitution,  and  for  manv  years  was  the  princi- 
pal statesman  of  the  Grand  Duchy.  In  183.3  he 
was  made  Pri\'y  Councilor  of  State,  and  soon 
afterwards  became  ilinister  of  the  Interior  and 
president  of  the  Cabinet  Council.  Owing,  how- 
ever, to  reactionary  influences,  he  did  not  keep 
this  position  very  long.     In  1845  he  again  joined 


the  Cabinet,  but  llu-  Revolution  of  1849  compelled 
him  to  resign,  and  tliereafter  he  devoted  liimself 
entirely  to  literary  pursuits.  lie  published, 
among  many  treatises  on  political  economy: 
licmcrkunycn  iibcr  dcii  Zuxtand  G rossbritannicns 
ill,  staatsicirlscluiftlichtr  Binsicht  (1818)  ;  Ueber 
tcchnische  Lchruimlallen  (1833);  and  wrote  a 
(Jeschichte  der  J'fah,  which  appeared  posthu- 
mously   (1874), 

NE'BO  (from  Bab.  nabi'i,  to  call,  name,  pro- 
claim). A  deity  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyri- 
ans, mentioned  in  Isaiah  xlvi.  1.  The  name  also 
occurs  in  the  Old  Testament  as  a  geographical 
term.  ( See  Xeuo,  MouxT. )  In  cuneiform  litera- 
ture the  form  is  Xabu  or  Xabiuni.  After  Baby- 
lon became  the  centre  of  the  Babylonian  Empire, 
Xcbo  took  rank  immediately  after  -Marduk  (see 
Mekouach),  the  head  of  the  pantheon.  He  ap- 
pears originally  to  have  been  the  local  patron 
deity  of  Borsippa,  opposite  the  ancient  city  of 
Babylon,  and  there  are  groimds  for  believing  that 
Borsippa  was  older  than  Babylon.  This  may  have 
been  one  reason  for  the  prominence  which  Nebo 
retained  beside  the  powerful  ilarduk.  In  time 
Borsippa  became  a  suburb  of  Babylon  and  the 
imion  between  the  two  was  symbolized  by  erecting 
a  shrine  to  Xcbo  in  ilarduk's  temple  at  Babylon 
to  which  X'^ebo  was  carried  in  solemn  procession 
on  the  Xew  Year's  Day,  while  the  statue  of 
ilardidc  was  on  the  return  trip  cariied  pait  way 
back  to  E-zida  ('the  true  house'),  X>bo's  temple 
in  Borsippa.  To  express  further  the  relationship 
to  ilarduk,  Xebo  was  regarded  as  the  son  of 
Marduk.  Originally  an  agricultural  deity,  Nebo 
became  in  time  the  god  of  wisdom,  and  it  is  in 
this  capacity  that  he  was  chiefly  worshiped  by 
the  Assyrians.  To  X'ebo  and  his  consort  Tash- 
mitum  Assyrian  rulers  ascribe  the  art  of  writ- 
ing (vn  stone  and  tablets,  and  all  learning  is 
eventually  traced  back  to  him.  In  this  respect 
he  supplanted  an  earlier  god  of  wisdom,  Ea, 
whose  cult  reaches  back  to  a  still  higher  an- 
tiquity than  that  of  Xebo  or  !Marduk.  Consult 
.Tastrow.  Religion  of  Bahi/lonia  and  Assi/ria  (Bos- 
ton, 1898). 

NEBO,.  ^MoiXT.  The  mountain  from  which, 
according  to  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy  (xxxii. 
49 ;  xxxiv.  1 ) ,  Moses  viewed  the  land  of  Canaan 
before  his  death.  It  has  been  identified  with  the 
mountain  X'eba — a  ridge  2643  feet  above  the 
Mediterranean,  situated  five  miles  southwest  of 
Heshbon.  The  name  Xebo  also  occurs  as  that 
of  a  town  in  Moab  (Xum.  xxxii.  3,  and  on  the 
^loabitc  Stone),  and  a  town  in  Jiidah  (Ezra  ii. 
29).  It  is  identical  in  form  with  the  name  of  a 
well-known  Babylonian  god  X'abu  (sec  Xebo), 
whose  worship  ajJiiears  to  have  s]iread  far  to  the 
west.  The  tradition  associating  the  death  of 
Moses  with  Mount  Xebo  may  have  had  as  a 
starting-point  the  existence  of  a  sanctuary  on  the 
top  of  the  mount,  or.  at  all  events,  the  sacred 
character  of  the  mountain. 

NEBRAS'KA  (Xorth  American  Indian,  shal- 
low water).  One  <if  the  north  central  States  of 
the  American  I'nion,  popularly  known  as  the 
"Blackwater  State."  It  lies  between  the  parallels 
of  latitude  40°  and  43°  X..  and  lietween  longi- 
tudes 9.5°  20'  and  104°  W..  the  latter  meridian 
and  the  two  parallels  forming  rectilinear  bound- 
aries. It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  South  Da- 
kota, on  the  east  by  Iowa  and  Alissouri,  on  the 


NEBRASKA. 


320 


NEBRASKA. 


south  by  Kansas  aud  Colorado,  and  on  the  west 
liv  Wvoiniiig  and  Colorado.  Its  shape  is  tliat 
of  a  reelanfjle  whoso  eastern  end  is  cut  oft"  diap;- 
onally  by  the  Missouri  River,  and  whose  south- 
western "eorner  is  overlapped  by  the  nortlieastern 
corner  of  Colorado,  its  extreme  len;urth  from  east 
to  we.st  is  420  miles,  and  its  breadth  from  north 
to  .south  208  miles.  Its  area  is  T7..t10  square 
miles,  of  which  (iTO  square  miles  are  water,  and 
7(i.S40  square  miles,  or  49.177.000  acres,  land. 
It  ranks  thirteenth  in  size  among  the  States. 


composed  of  this  material.  The  alluvial  lands 
of  the  river  valleys  also  afford  excellent  soil, 
though  scarcely  exceeding  the  loess  in  quality, 
and  as  the  State  was  anciently  a  lacustrine  bed, 
and  later  a  region  of  peat  bogs,  large  areas  are 
covered  with  a  very  black  vegetable  mold  which 
in  some  places  becomes  true  peat,  and  which  has 
given  the  dark  color  to  the  rivers,  whence  the 
])0])ular  name  of  the  State  is  derived.  Consid- 
eral)le  areas  in  the  west,  as  much  as  20,000  square 
miles,  are  covered  with  sand   dunes.     These  are 


Topography.     Nebraska  lies  in  the  region  of  found    partly    in    the    soutliwestorn    corner,   but 

the  great  plains  skirting  the  eastern  slope  of  the  chielly  in   the   large  and   arid   ana   north  of  the 

Rocky    Mountains,    toward     whose     foothills    it  Platte  and  west  of  the   lOOtli   meridian.      In  the 

rises  in  a  gentle,  undulating  incline.     The  whole  extreme  west  the  Tertiary  marls,  even  in  the  Bad 

western  half  of  the  State  lies  at  an  elevation  of  Lands,  can  be  made  productive  Ijy  irrigation. 


more  than  2500  feet  above  the  sea.  On  tla-  other 
hand,  there  are  but  few  eminences  rising  much 
above  the  general  level  of  the  i)lain,  except  in 
the  extreme  west,  where  the  foothills  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  begin  to  appear.     The  highest 


For  Flora  and  Fauna,  see  the  articles  Rocky 
^lorxTAi.Ns  and  United  States. 

Oeolouy  and  Minerals.  Except  in  the  Bad 
Lands  of  the  northwest  and  in  some  other  iso- 
lated localities,  formations  older  than  the  Pleisto- 


point  here  is  Wildcat  Mountain,  5038  feet  above     cene  are  nowhere  exposed.    They  are  composed  of 
the    .sea.       As    the    rivers    are    deeply    trenched     nearly   horizontal   strata   outcrop])ing  below   the 


in  the  soft  drift  material,  their  llood-plains  in 
the  east  along  the  -Missouri,  the  Platte,  and  their 
larger  tributaries  are  lined  w  ith  steep  or  rounded 
blulls  .sometimes  of  considerable  height.  Ne- 
braska is  a  |)rairie  State. 


drift  in  wide  bands  rimning  southwest  to  north- 
east. Fo\ir  jirincipal  formations  are  re))resented, 
wliicli  in  onler  from  southeast  to  northwest  are 
the  rpjKT  Carbonifennis.  Permian,  Cretaceous, 
and  tlie  Miocene  and  Pliocene  Tertiarv.    The  Mio- 


HYimoGR.vPH'r.     The  State  is  drained  entirely  cene  is  the  one  which  cro])s  out  in  the  Bad  Lands, 

by  the  ilissouri  River  and  its  tributaries.    Owing  Glacial    drift   covers    the   eastern    third    of    the 

to  the  gentle  and  regular  slope  of  the  land,  most  State,  the  remaining  Pleistocene  formation  con- 

of  these   rivers   How   in   nearly   straight   parallel  sisting    of    alluvial    deposits    laid    down    in    the 

lines  east  or   southeastward,   and  they   are   for  lakes    which    were    formed   at   the   close    of   the 

the  most  part  wide  and  also  shallow.     The  three  glacial   period.     Clay  and  a  little  building  stone 

principal    rivers,    besides    the    Missouri    (on    the  are  the  only   important   minerals.     The  clay  de- 

li(iundary).    are    the    Platte    in    the    centre,    the  posits  afVoril  material  for  the  production  of  brick 

Niobrara  in  the  north,  these  two  flowing  through  and    tile:    the    product    for    1000   was   valued   at 

the  wiiole  length  of  the  State,  and  the  Republican  .$tiS:!,!t5H,  three   times   the  value   of   the   product 

in  the  south,  the  latter  coming  from  Kansas,  and  in  1805. 


returning    to    that    State    to    form    the    Kansas 
River. 

Climate.    The  climate  is  continental,  dry,  and 
exhilarating.     The   mean   temperature   for   .lan- 


AGRlCfLTfRE.  In  agricultural  development 
the  State  advanced  rapidly  during  the  last 
three  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  at 
the    end    of    the    period    ranked    as    one    of    the 


uary  is  1!).7°  and  for  .July  74.8°.     The  extremes  most   important    agricultural    States.      In    1900. 

are  verv  great,  the  mercury  sometimes  falling  to  GO. 8    per   cent,    of   the    total    land    area    was    in- 

— 12°  and  at  times  rising  to  114°.   The  nights  are  eluded    in    farms,    and    of    this    01. (i    per    cent, 

cool.     The  climate   of   the   western   tliird   of   the  was    improved.       Efforts    at    irrigation     in    the 

State  is.  however.  c|uite  arid,  and  dift'crs  consid-  arid  areas  of  the  west   have  bwn  attended  with 

erably  from  that  of  the  eastern  third,  where  agri-  some  success,  the  irrigated  acreage   reported  in 


culture  is  wholly  successful.  The  annual  rainfall 
is  2M  inches,  but  this  is  very  unevenly  distril>utcd. 
In  the  east  it  is  sufficient  to  support  agriculture, 
ranging  from  30  inches  on  the  average  to  a  local 
maxinumi  as  high  as  50  inches.  In  the  western 
half  it  is  below  20,  and  in  the  extreme  west  as 
low  as  12  inches,  so  that  here  agriculture  caiuiot 
be  <arrie(l  on  successfully  without  irrigation.  The 
greatest  amount  of  rain  falls  in  May  and  .lune, 
and  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  annual  rain 
falls  during  the  six  months  of  the  growing  sea- 
son. April  to  Septenil)er.  The  prevailing  winds 
lire    from    the    northwest,    and    these    generally 


1899  being  148.538,  of  which  about  90  per 
cent,  was  watered  from  the  North  Platte 
River.  In  some  regions  there  are  supplies  of 
underground  water,  which  can  be  utilized  by 
means  of  windmins  and  small  reservoirs — a  sys- 
t<'iTi  which  pninii^cs  to  be  of  some  importance 
in  the  agric\iltural  develo|)ment  of  the  arid 
rcgiims.  Since  1S80  the  average  acreage  of 
farms  increased  from  150.9  acres  to  240.1  acres. 
This  is  due  to  the  establishment  of  extensive 
livestock  ranches  in  the  western  part  of  the 
State  and  the  cultivation  of  large  corn-producing 
areas,  and   is  in  spite  of  the  tendency  to  divide 


temper   the   summer    heat,   but   occasionally    the  farm  holdings  which  has  characterized  the  same 

heat   is   aggravated   bv   the  hot   wi.^s   from   the  jieriod  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State.   The  num- 

fiouthwest.  her  of  tenant -o|)crated   farms   is  increasing  very 

Soil.     More  than  half  of  the  State  is  covered  rapidly,  and  amounted  in  1900  to  36.9  per  cent. 


with  glai-ial  drift  and  loess,  the  drift  being  con 
fined  to  the  eastern  ciiunlies.  The  loess  forms  a 
soil  of  inexhaustible  fertility.  Its  deposits  range 
in  thickness  from  5  to  150  and  even  200  feet,  and 
though  soft  and  easily  excavated,  it  is  very  com 


of  the  total  number  i>f  farms. 

Corn  is  the  leading  crop,  nearly  one-half  of  the 
cultivated  acreage  of  the  State  being  devoted  to 
it.  In  1880  the  acreage  of  wheat  was  oifly  slight- 
Iv   less   than   that   of  corn,  but   in   tlw   following 


pact    and    able   to   withstand    moisture   and   ex-     decade  there  was  an  actual  decrease  of  more  than 
)io3ure.     The  bluffs  along  the  bottom-lands  are     two-fifths  in  the  area  ilevoted  to  it,  which,  how- 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  NEBRASKA  BY  COUNTIES. 


County. 


Atlams.. .. 
Autelopc. . 
Banner — 
Blaine 

Boone  

Boxbiittc. . 

Boyd 

Brown 

Buffalo.... 

Burt 

Butler 

C'a.ss 

Cedar 

Chase 

Cherry .  . . 
Cheyenne 

Clay 

Colfax  ..  , 
Cuming... 

Custer.... 

Dakot^i 

Dawes  , . . . 
Bawson . . . 
Deuel 

Dixon 

Dodge 

Douglas  .. 

Dundy 

Fillmore . . 

Franklin . . 
Frontier. . . 

Furnas 

Gage  .  ., 
Garteld  ., 

Gosper 

Grant  . . . 
Greeley  . . . 

Hall 

Hamilton 

Harlan 

Hayes 

Hitchcock 

Holt 

Hooker.  .. 

Howard . . . 


Map 
Index. 


F  3 
F  1 
A  2 
D3 

F  2 

A  1 

F  1 

E  1 

E  3 

H2 
G  a 
H3 
G  1 
C  3 

C  1 
A  2 
F  3 
G2 
H2 

D  2 

n  1 

A  1 

B  3 

B  2 

H  1 
H2 
H2 
C  3 
G  3 

E  3 
D  3 
D  3 
H  3 
E  2 

E  3 

C  2 

F  2 

F  3 

P  3 

E  3 
C  3 


County  Seat. 


Area  in 
square 
miles. 


Hastings . . . 

Neligh 

HarrisDurg . 
Brewster . . . 


Albion 

Alliance. . ., 

Butte 

Ainsworth  . 
Kearney 


Tekamah 

David  City.. 
Plattsmonth. 
Hartington.. 
Imperial 


Valentine 

Sidney 

Clay  Center. 

Schuyler 

Westpoint, .. 


Broken  Row. 
Dakota.  -  . 
Chadron  — 
Lexington. . . 
Chappell., .. 


Ponca 

Fremont . . . 

Omaha 

Benkelman . 
Geneva 


Bloomington. 
Stockville 
Beaver  City.. 

Beatrice 

Burwell 


Elwood  . . 

Hyannis 

Greeley 

Grand'island. 
.\urora 


Alma 

Hayes  Center. . 

Trenton 

O'Neill 

Mullen 


St.  Paul. 


5T4 

874 
744 
711 


1,078 

1.223 

985 

476 
.580 
540 
725 
901 

5,891 

2,(501 

586 

405 

580 

2,595 
264 

1,411 
1,002 
2,097 

450 
.529 
341 
921 
568 

568 
980 
715 
856 
568 

472 
760 
580 
562 
5.50 

562 
725 
723 
2,410 
725 

574 


Population. 


24,303 

10,399 

2,4.35 

1,140 

8,6a3 
5,494 
095 
4,359 
22,102 

11,069 

1.5.454 

24.080 

7,028 

4,807 

6,428 
5,693 
!B,.'il0 
10.4.53 
12,265 

21,6~ 
5.:!86 
9  722 

lo!l29 
2,893 

8,084 

19,260 

158,008 

4.012 
16,022 

7,693 
8,497 
9,840 
36,344 
1,659 

4,816 
458 

4,869 
16,513 
14,096 

8,158 
3,963 
5,799 
13,672 
426 

9,430 


18.840 

11.344 

1,114 

603 

11. (»9 
5.572 
7..3.32 
3.470 

20,254 

13,040 
15.703 
21.330 
12,467 
2,559 

0„541 
5,.570 
15,735 
11,211 

14„584 

19,758 
6,286 
6,215 

12,214 
2,KJ0 

10,535 
22,298 
110,590 
2,434 
15,087 

9,455 
8.781 
12..373 
80,051 
2,127 

5,.301 
763 

5,691 
17,206 
13,3:J0 

9,.370 
2.708 
4.409 
12,224 
432 

10,.313 


) 


o 


COPvniOHT,  IM1  AND  1W3,  BY  DODD,  MEAD  *  CQUffMU 


t^ 


£1\ 


3t    E      from 


COPYRIGHT,   1891  AND  1903,  BY  DODD,  MEAD  &.  COMPANY* 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  NEBRASKA  BY  COUNTIES. 

( Continued.) 


Coanly. 

Map 
Index. 

County  Seat. 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Population. 

1890. 

1900. 

Jefferson 

G3 
U  3 
E  3 

c  -z 

E  1 
A  2 
F  1 
H3 
C  8 

D2 
E2 
C  2 
G2 
F  2 

F  2 
J  3 
F  3 
113 
U3 

C  3 
E  3 
0  1 
G  2 
G  2 

D3 
J  3 
E  1 
V,  3 
118 

H2 
A  2 
C3 
B  1 
E  2 

A  1 
G  2 
G  3 
D2 
U  1 

E  2 
H  2 
G  1 
F  3 
F  8 
G  3 

FairTjury 

Tecnniseh 

Minden  

5G0 

.382 

503 

1,113 

772 

9fiO 

1.125 

2,.5ro 

.176 
574 
1,6S5 
.570 
460 

4.50 
407 
572 
610 
437 

895 
564 
5I» 
6*16 
4.38 

720 
548 
1,000 
576 
825 

704 
7« 
588 
2,17!) 
568 

2,077 
431 
572 
720 
396 

578 
392 
441 

578 
582 
588 

14,&50 
10,333 
9.061 
2,556 

3,920 
959 

8,5® 
76,395 
10,441 

1.378 

l.r.l!2 

401 

is.fv.g 

8,768 

5,773 
12,930 
11,417 
25,403 
10,340 

4..364 
9,809 
4,804 
13.437 

10,817 

8.a37 
17.574 

3.0a3 
20,097 

6,875 

21,.57r 
1,888 

1H.140 
8,6,'<7 
6,399 

2.4.52 
4.619 

12.738 

517 

3.176 

7.092 

11.869 

o.ii:9 

11.210 
1.68:j 
17,279 

15,196 

11,197 

9,866 

Ogallala 

Springview 

Kimball  

1,951 

3,076 

768 

14.313 

LillK-upter    

Lincoln 

North  Platte 

64,835 
11,416 

960 

Loup 

Taylor 

1,.305 

517 

](;,«76 

Merrick                     

9,255 

Fullerton        

8,282 

Kemaha 

Nuckolls 

Otoe 

Auburn    

Nelson 

Nebraska  <  'ity 

14.952 
12,414 
32,288 

Pawnee 

P«'rkin8 

PawnecCity 

Grant 

11,770 
1.702 

Phelps 

10,772 

Pierce 

8,445 

Plaits' 

Columbus 

17.747 

Polk 

10,542 

McCook 

9.6M 

Fallu  City 

19,614 

Kock 

Bassett 

Wilber 

2,809 

Saline 

18,262 

Papillion 

Wahoo 

9,080 

22,085 

SCDttS  Bluff 

Gering ^ 

Scnnnl 

2,568 

Siwanl 

15,6!I0 

0,033 

Loup 

0,550 

Sionx 

Harrison 

2,055 

Stanton 

Thaver 

Stanton 

Hebron 

6,969 
11,325 

ThedfortI 

628 

Thurston 

VallcT  . .            

Pender 

Ord 

Blair 

8,756 
7.3.39 

1.3.086 

W'avnc 

Weiisler 

Whoiler 

Wavne 

Re<foloiid 

Barllett 

n.sc.a 

11.019 
1.368 

York 

York 

18,805 

NEBRASKA. 


321 


NEBRASKA. 


ever,  revived  in  tlio  last  decade  of  the  century, 
amounting  in  lllOO  to  three  times  tliat  of  1800. 
Tliere  were  larfre  inereases  in  the  area  (U'voted 
1o  oats  and  rye  res|n'ctively  diirinf;  eacli  of 
the  last  two  decades  of  the  nineteenth  centurj'; 
rje,  however,  is  of  only  minor  importance. 
Cirasse.s  cut  for  hay  are  chielly  wild,  salt,  or 
prairie  grasses,  but  millet,  alfalfa,  and  other 
cnltivatcd  grasses  are  also  grown.  Potatoes  and 
other  vegetable  crops  are  extensively  grown.  In 
llie  last  decade  of  the  past  century  a  ra])id  in- 
crease was  made  in  the  cultivation  of  sugar 
beets,  the  census  of  1900  reporting  a  total  of  8662 
acres  devoted  to  them.  Tlie  growing  of  orchard 
fruits  is  mainly  confined  to  the  southeastern  part 
of  the  State.  iSetween  1890  and  1900  the  number 
of  fruit  trees  increased  from  1.840.704  to  6.240.- 
118.  considerably  over  half  of  this  number  being 
apple  trees. 

The   acreage   of   the    principal    farm   crops   for 
the  census  years  indicated  is  as  follows: 


CROP 

1900 

1890 

Corn                    ....          

7.335,187 

2.538.949 

1,924,827 

178,920 

92,098 
2,823,652 

79,901 

5,4.S(),279 

Wheat 

798,855 

f)at8          .           

1.503,515 

Rve 

81.372 

Itarlev     

82,. WO 

2,4i;2.245 

106,722 

Stock-Raising.  Every  decade  since  the  set- 
tlement of  the  State  has  witnessed  an  increase  in 
tlie  number  of  every  variety  of  domestic  animals. 
In  general,  the  increase  was  greatest  during  the 
ten  years  from  1880  to  1890,  The  most  note- 
worthy gain  in  the  last  decade  of  the  cen- 
tury was  that  made  in  the  numl)er  of  cattle 
other  than  dairy  cows,  amounting  to  62.7  per 
cent.  In  the  census  year  1900.  $4,137,000  ^vas 
realized  from  the  sale  of  dairy  products,  and 
the  value  of  the  product  consumed  on  farms  was 
nearly  as  great.  In  the  same  year  only  three 
States  exceeded  Nebraska  in  the  number  of  swine 
reported. 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  the 
principal  species  of  domestic  animals  for  the 
vcars  indicated: 


19U0 

1890 

I>airv  cows 

512,544 
2,663,699 

795,318 
•   55,856 

335,950 
4,128,000 

505,045 

1,637. 5.'i2 

11,)1KI>.S 

626,789 

40,512 

209  243 

3,815,047 

Manufactures.  In  manufacturing  Nebraska 
is  one  of  the  least  developed  States.  In  1900 
there  were  24.4til  wage-earners,  or  only  2.3  per 
cent,  of  the  total  population,  engaged  in  manu- 
fa<'tures.  The  State's  industries  have  developed 
almost  whcdly  since  1880.  In  the  two  decades 
beginning  with  that  year  the  nundier  of  wage- 
earners  more  than  quintupled,  and  the  value  of 
products  (.'HN.'i. 990.000  in  1900)  increased  over 
eleven  fold.  The  lack  of  chea])  fuel  has  been  a 
serious  handica]).  but  the  development  of  coal 
fields  in  adjoining  States  is  helping  to  over- 
come this  obstacle.  The  advantages  of  cheap 
transportation  are  afforded  by  tlie  Jlissouri 
River,  and  Omaha  in  particular  has  unusual 
railroad  facilities.  As  jet  the  industries  are 
limited  mainly  to  those  manufactures  that  are" 
based  upon  agricultural  and  stock-raising  prod- 
ucts. Thus  four  industries — viz.  slaughtering 
and  meat-packing,  and  the  manufacture  of  malt 
liquors.  Hour  and  grist-mill  products,  and  cheese, 
butter,  and  condensed  milli — jielded  89. (i  per  cent, 
of  the  total  value  for  the  nine  leading  industries 
given  in  the  table  below.  The  value  of  the 
products  of  the  slaughtering  industry  alone  was 
nearly  equal  to  that  of  all  other  industries 
combined.  The  rapid  growth  of  the  industry  be- 
gan in  1884,  and  South  Omaha,  as  a  slaughtering 
centre,  is  surpassed  only  by  Kansas  City  and  Chi- 
cago. The  factory  production  of  butter  has  devel- 
oped wholly  since  1881.  Other  leading  industries 
are  printing  and  publishing,  and  car  and  other 
railroad  shop  construction,  the  manufacture  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  brick  and  tile,  and  hunber 
and  planing  mill  products.  The  last  two  suffered 
a  decrease  during  the  last  decade  of  the  century. 
South  Omaha  and  Omaha  are  tlie  only  large  manu- 
facturing centres.  The  following  table  shows  the 
relative  importance  of  the  lending  industries,  and 
their  development  during  the  decade  1890-1900: 


INDUSTRIES 


Total  for  selected  industries  for  State j 

Increase.  1890  to  1900 

Per  ce^it.  of  increase 

Per  cent,  of  total  of  all  industries  in  the  State j 

Slaughtering  and  nient-packin^.  wholesale i 

Cheese,  butter,  and  condensed  milk,  factory  product | 

Flouring  and  grist-mill  products | 

Liquors,  malt | 

Brick  and  tile | 

Cars  and  general  shop-construction  and  repairs  by  steam  rail- j 
road  companies 1 

Lumber,  planing-mil!  products,  including  sash,  doors,  and  blinds  | 

Printing  and  publishing j 

Saddlery  and  harness j 


.\verai?e 

Value  of  prod- 

Tear 

establish- 
ments. 

number 
of  wage- 

ucts,   including 
custom  work 

earners 

and  repairing 

1900 

1,520 

13.386 

S92.372.460 

1890 

1,045 

10.467 

42.2W.093 

475 

2.919 

50,112,367 

45.5 

27.9 

118 

1900 

28.1 

64.7 

04 

1890 

34.7 

61.2 

45 

1900 

8 

6.083 

71,018,339 

1890 

6 

1.863 

24.02li.s7fi 

1900 

93 

3:t3 

2.2.'):t.S0:( 

1890 

68 

428 

l.lSli.OOO 

1900 

305 

698 

8.10l).T',l4 

1890 

185 

690 

«.:i65.492 

1900 

19 

200 

1.433..501 

1890 

14 

172 

1.079,805 

1900 

106 

8.55 

8.39.815 

1890 

1.55 

2.686 

2.173.032 

1900 

23 

2.468 

2.624.461 

1890 

9 

2.041 

2.067.908 

1900 

21 

293 

886.333 

1890 

24 

497 

1.112,412 

1900 

5.54 

1.883 

3,431. .582 

1890 

443 

1.771 

3.222.368 

190O 

391 

083 

1.783.742 

1890 

151 

419 

1.028.540 

NEBRASKA. 


322 


NEBRASKA. 


Traxsport.\tiox.  The  pastern  part  of  Ne- 
braska enjoys  a<lfi|uate  railroad  facilities,  and 
three  lines,  the  Burlington  and  Missouri  River, 
the  Lnion  I'acilie,  and  the  Fremont.  Eikhorn  and 
Missouri  Valley,  cross  the  State  from  east  to 
west.  The  western  i)art  of  the  State  has  uo  north, 
and  south  lines.  The  principal  era  of  construc- 
tion was  in  the  decade  1880-!10,  during  which  tlie 
mileage  increased  from  litiiS  miles  to  5407  miles. 
There  were  in  1!)00  5005  miles  in  opeiation. 
There  is  a  State  Board  of  Railroad  Commission- 
ers. The  Missouri  River  is  not  used  for  purposes 
of  navigation. 

Baxks.  The  first  session  of  the  Territorial 
Legislature  in  18.)5  jjionounced  currency  bank- 
ing a  crime,  and  no  banks  were  chartered.  Tlie 
necessity  for  currency,  however,  was  such  that 
insurance  companies  issued  a  disguised  form  of 
paper  money.  In  lS5(i,  under  special  charters, 
certain  institutions  did  a  banking  business,  in 
spite  of  the  laws  to  the  contrary.  The  general 
panic  of  IS.iT  swept  all  sucli  institutions  out  of 
existence.  For  almost  a  decade  all  the  banking 
business  was  performed  by  private  banks;  then 
national  banks  began  to  be  organized. 

A  considerable  increase  in  the  number  of  banks 
came  about  in  1S80,  when  the  era  of  railroad 
building  connnenccd.  Tlie  number  of  State  banks 
almost  doubled  in  one  year,  and  in  the  following 
decade  (1880-90)  increased  from  S^  to  51.3,  but 
diminished  somewhat  after  the  panic  of  ]89,'5. 
The  national  banks  during  the  same  period  in- 
creased from  10  to  120,  An  act  regulating 
banks  was  passed  in  188!),  establishing  a  State 
Banking  Board,  and  providing  for  reports  and 
e.xaminations.  In  189.3  there  were  eight  savings 
banks  in  Omaha,  but  only  one  existed  in  1900. 
The  following  table  is  compiled  from  the  ofllcial 
reports  of  1902: 


National     S*«*«  """^ 
banks          private 
oanKs           bnnks 

Number  of  banks 

124                   458 

Capital 

Surplus 

$1(1.088,000       $7„121,1100 

2,or*.000         1,271,000 

4,436,000         2,437,000 

44,198.000       28,527.000 

41.093.000       35.069,000 

Loans 

Deposits .- 

FlXANXES.  The  State  Constitution  forbids 
any  bonded  debts  of  over  $50,000  except  in  case  of 
war,  but  when  the  disbursements  have  exceeded 
the  receipts.  State  warrants  have  been  issued 
which  drew  interest.  In  1891  an  act  was  pas.sed 
by  the  Legislature  relating  to  registration  of 
unpaid  warrants,  which  practically  made  them 
n  bonded  debt.  Besides,  special  relief  bonds  were 
authorized  and  so  a  funded  State  debt  created 
which  in  1804  amounted  to  more  than  $500,000. 
This  funded  debt  was  paiil  out  by  1898.  On 
DiKciiilier  1.  1902.  the  tloating  indebtedness  of 
the  State  was  .$1.989..328.  but  the  educational 
trust  funds  held  .?I.457.;!5I.  so  tliat  the  net 
in<lebtedness  was  small.  The  income  for  the  pre- 
ceding twenty-four  months  was  .$(!.742.551.  and 
the  expenditures  !i!rt.925..315.  The  educational  ex- 
penditures constituted  almost  two-thirds  of  the 
■whole. 

•GovKBNME.NT.  The  present  Constitution  was 
adopted  in  1.875.  If  three-fifths  of  the  mem1>ers 
of  each  House  approve  a  proposed  amendment,  it 
is  .submitted  to  a  vote  of  the  people,  and  if  ap- 


proved by  a  majority  of  the  electors  voting,  it 
becomes  a  part  of  the  Constitution.  Every  male 
person  of  the  age  of  twenty-une  years  aiul  up- 
ward who  is  a  citizen  of  tiie  United  States,  or 
has  declared  his  intention  thirty  days  previous 
to  an  election  to  become  a  citizen,  and  who  is 
neither  insane,  an  idiot,  nor  an  unpardoned  felon, 
shall  be  entitled  to  vote,  provided  he  has  resided 
in  the  State  six  months  and  in  the  minor  dis- 
tricts a  term  prescribed  by  law.  Registration 
of  voters  is  required  by  lawin  cities  of  over  2.500 
inhabitants.  The  State  elections  are  held  bien- 
nially on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in 
November. 

Legi.si.ative.  The  Constitution  places  a  maxi- 
mum limit  on  the  Legislature  of  33  Senators  and 
100  Representatives.  It  meets  biennially  in  odd- 
numlM'red  years  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  .Linuary. 
Kach  member  is  elected  for  two  years  and  re- 
ceives .$5  a  day  and  mileage,  but  salary  is  al- 
lowed for  only  sixty  days  at  any  one  sitting. 
Vnless  at  the  ief|uest  of  the  Governor,  bills  can- 
not be  introduced  after  the  fortieth  day  of  the 
session.  The  power  of  impeadimcnt  rests  with 
the  Senate  an<l  House  in  joint  convention;  the 
trial  of  impeachment,  with  the  judges  of  the 
State  district  courts. 

Executive.  The  Governor.  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor. Secretary  of  State,  Auditor,  Treasurer, 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  Attorney- 
(iencral.  and  Commissioner  of  Public  Lands  and 
Buildings  each  hold  ollice  for  two  years.  The 
Governor's  veto  exteiuls  to  any  item  or  items  of 
appropriation  bills.  He  has  the  usual  pardoning 
power,   subject  to   legislative   regulation. 

Jt'DiciABY.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a 
Supreme  Court,  district  courts,  county  courts, 
justices  of  the  peace,  police  magistrates,  and 
inferior  courts  created  by  law  for  cities  and  in- 
corporated towns.  The  three  Supreme  Court 
judges  are  elected  by  the  State  at  large  for  six 
years.  The  State  is  divided  into  six  districts,  in 
each  of  which  a  district  judge  is  elected  for  four 
years.  The  county  judges  are  elected  for  two 
years. 

Local  Government.  Xo  county  can  be  created 
with  or  reduced  to  a  less  area  than  400  square 
miles,  nor  can  any  county  be  divided  without  the 
ajiproval  of  a  majority  vote  of  the  people.  The 
Legislature  provides  by  law  for  township  organi- 
zation. 

Statitory  Provlsions.  Property  acquired  by 
a  wife  after  marriage  remains  .separately  hers. 
Women  who  own  assessed  property,  or  who  have 
children  of  school  age,  may  vote  in  school  meet- 
ings. The  liquor  laws  provide  for  high  license. 
The  legal  rate  of  interest  is  seven  per  cent.,  ten 
being  allowed  by  contract,  and  the  penalty  for 
usury  is  forfeiture  of  interest  and  cost. 

The  State  has  six  Representatives  in  the  Na- 
tional Congress.     The  capital  is  Lincoln. 

Popii.ATlON.  The  population  of  Nebra.ska  by 
decailes  was:  1800.  28.841:  1870.  122.993:  1880. 
452.4112:  1S90,  1.058.910:  1900.  l.Olir...3O0.  In 
the  deca.le  1880-90  Texas  was  the  only  State  we.st 
of  the  Mississippi  whose  absolute  growth  was  as 
great  as  that  of  Nebniska.  but  in  the  following 
decade  the  population  remained  almost  station- 
ary, its  increase  bein;;  exceeded  by  that  in  every 
other  State  in  the  Lnion  but  one.  iVfany  of  the 
northeastern  counties  of  the  State  made  large 
gains  in  the  last  decade  of  the  century,  but  else- 
where decreases  were  common.   Owing  to  its  arid- 


NEBRASKA. 


323 


NEBRASKA. 


ity,  llie  western  lialf  of  the  Stale  contains  but 
few  people.  Tlie  foreign-born  population  in  1!)00 
numbered  177.347,  the  Germans  exceeding  any 
other  nationality.  In  the  same  year  there  were 
&H'i'.)  negroes  and  .'5322  taxed  Indians.  There 
are  13.11  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile.  Ne- 
braska is  one  of  the  two  States  which  sufTered 
an  actual  decrease  in  urban  population  during 
the  last  decade  of  the  jiast  century.  In  1900 
there  were  eleven  cities  \\hich  exceeded  4000  in- 
liabitants  each,  and  together  constituted  20.8 
]ier  cent,  of  the  total  population.  Tlie  largest 
three  cities  in  1000  were:  Omaha,  102,555;  Lin- 
coln. 40.100;   South  Omaha,  20.001. 

ClIAKITAliLE    AND    Pe.NAL    Ix.STITUTIO>-S.       The 

Governor,  Commissioner  of  Pviblic  Lands  and 
Buildings,  and  the  State  Superintendent  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction  constitute  a  Board  of  Charities 
and  Correction.  The  State  institutions  are  as 
follows:  Asylums  for  the  insane  at  Lincoln  and 
at  Norfolk,  Asylum  for  Incurable  Insane  at 
Hastings,  Soldiers  and  Sailors'  Home  at  Grand 
Island,  Soldiers  and  Sailors'  Home  at  Milford, 
Home  for  Friendless  at  Lincoln,  State  Industrial 
School  at  Kearney,  (iirls"  Industrial  School  at 
Geneva,  Industrial  Home  at  ililford.  State  Peni- 
tentiarv'  at  Lincoln,  Institution  for  Feeble-Minded 
at  Beatrice,  Institution  for  Deaf  and  Dumb  at 
Omaha,  Institution  for  Blind  at  Nebraska  City. 
About  one-half  of  the  counties  have  poor  farms 
(1002),  the  inmates  at  these  aggregating  about 
800,  while  half  as  many  other  pei-sons  receive 
continuous  aid  from  the  counties,  and  as  many 
more  receive  partial  aid. 

Education.  Nebraska  bears  the  distinction 
of  having  the  lowest  proportion  of  illiteracy  in 
the  United  States  1 2.3  in  1000).  In  1002  the 
State  had  6813  public  schools  (405  graded),  with 
9629  teachers,  of  whom  1862  were  males.  The 
school  population  (five  to  twenty-one  years  of 
age)  amounted,  in  1902,  to  375.340,  the  enroll- 
ment to  200,543.  and  the  average  daily  attendance 
to  185,755.  The  average  length  of  the  school 
term  in  the  same  year  was  138  days.  The 
average  monthlv  salarv  for  male  teachers  in- 
creased from  .$30.24  in' 1871  to  *49.I5  in  1902; 
of  female  teachers,  from  .$36.04  to  $38.51.  The 
expenditures  on  education  in  1002  amounted  to 
$4,435,338,  or  about  .$23.00  per  pupil  in  aver- 
age attendance.  It  is  reported  that  only  about 
5.5  per  cent,  of  the  teachers  of  the  State  are 
graduates  of  a  college  or  a  university,  about  40 
per  cent,  have  a  high-school  education  or  its 
equivalent.  20  per  cent,  are  without  high-school 
training,  and  less  tlian  16  per  cent,  have  any 
professional  training.  To  improve  the  pro- 
fessional standing  of  the  teachers,  a  number  of 
union  norma!  institutes  have  been  organized, 
giving  a  four  weeks'  summer  course  for  teachers. 
The  only  normal  school  of  the  State  (at  Peru) 
has  an  attemlance  of  about   400. 

In  1900  there  were  in  the  State  for  purposes  of 
secondary  education  250  public  high  schools, 
with  15.208  secondary  si-holars.  and  10  private 
high  schools  and  academies,  with  084  students. 
The  chief  institutions  for  higher  education  are 
the  University  of  Nebraska  (q.v.),  at  Lincoln; 
the  LTniversity  of  Omaha  (Presbyterian),  at 
Bellevue;  Coiner  University  (Christian),  at 
Bethany;  Doane  College  (Congregational),  at 
Crete;  Nebraska  Wesleyan  University  (Metho- 
dist Episcopal),  at  University  Place. 

Religion.     The  church  members  or  communi- 


cants in  the  State  form  only  about  20  per  cent, 
of  the  total  ])opulation.  The  princi[)al  denomi- 
nations, in  order  of  tlieir  importance,  are  the 
iletliodist,  comprising  over  one-fourth  of  the 
church  members,  the  Roman  Catholic,  the  Lu- 
theran, the  Presbyterian,  the  Baptist,  and  the 
Congregational. 

Militia.  In  1000  the  State  had  a  population 
of  militia  age  amounting  to  235,572.  The  aggre- 
gate strength  of  tlie  militia  in  1901  was  1595 
men. 

History.  The  territory  now  constituting  the 
State  was  originally  a  part  of  the  Louisiana 
Purchase,  and  afterwards  .a  part  of  ^lissouri 
Territory.  Coronado  (q.v.),  setting  out  from 
jSle.xico  in  search  of  the  seven  cities  of  Cibola  and 
of  tjuivira,  claimed  that  in  1541  he  journej'cd 
on  the  gieat  plain  as  far  as  latitude  40°  N., 
the  southern  boundary  of  the  State.  There  are 
stories  of  other  Spanish  explorations,  but  little 
is  known  of  them.  In  1673  Marquette  passed 
the  mouth  of  the  Jlissouri  and  marked  the  Platte 
from  Inilinn  stories.  Pierre  and  August 
Choteau,  brothers  engaged  in  the  fur  trade,  went 
beyond  the  forks  of  the  Platte  in  1702.  Lewis 
and  Clark,  in  1804-06,  skirted  the  boundary  of 
the  present  State.  The  first  known  settlement 
was  a  trading  post  founded  at  Bellevvie  bj'  Man- 
uel Lisa  in  1805.  The  American  Fur  Company 
placed  a  post  here  in  1810,  and  posts  were  estab- 
lished at  Omaha  in  1825  and  at  Nebraska  City 
in  1820.  Fort  Atkinson  was  established  in  1821, 
but  abandoned  in  1827.  With  the  admission  of 
Mis.souri  as  a  State  in  1821,  the  territory  was 
left  practically  without  government.  In  1834 
part  of  the  region  was  attached  to  Arkansas,  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  district  court  of  ilissouri  w'as 
extended  over  another  part,  and  a  third  portion 
was  joined  to  Michigan  Territory.  The  next 
year  Col.  Henry  Dodge,  with  a  force  of  dragoons, 
encamped  at  what  is  now  Fort  MePherson,  and 
commenced  negotiations  with  the  Indians  look- 
ing toward  their  removal  to  reservations.  Jl.any 
tribes  of  the  Eastern  Indians  were  then  Ijcing 
transferred  to  this  "Indian  country.'  The  Mor- 
mons in  1845-46  wintered  within  the  territory, 
and  the  next  year  troops  destined  for  service  in 
New  Jlexico  spent  the  winter  at  old  Fort  Kear- 
ney. New  Fort  Kearney  was  establislied  on  the 
Oregon  trail  in  1848.  Thousands  of  gold  seekers 
passed  through  the  territory  in  1840-50,  and 
some  stopped  on  the  way  in  defiance  of  the  law 
which  forbade  settlement  among  the  Indians.  In 
1844  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  then  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  inlrdduced  a  bill  to 
organize  a  Territory,  but  the  bill  was  never  re- 
ported from  the  committee.  Another  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  was  made  in  April.  1848,  and  still 
another  in  December.  The  Indians,  who  foresaw 
the  inevitable  extension  of  white  settlement, 
wished  for  a  Territorial  government  in  order  to 
sell  lands  to  belter  advantage.  The  Wyandots, 
led  by  their  half  and  quarter  bloods,  in  1851-.52 
petitioned  Congress  to  establish  a  Territory,  with 
no  success.  A  Territorial  Delegate,  Abelard 
Guthrie,  was  chosen  in  October,  1852.  A  bill 
to  organize  Nebraska  Territory  passed  the  House 
Feljniary  2,  1853,  but  did  not  reach  a  vote  in  the 
Senate.  In  order  to  force  action,  a  Provisional 
Government  was  organized  by  the  residents,  and 
William  Walker  was  elected  Governor  -Tuly  25, 
1853.  Senator  Douglas  reported  a  bill  in  Janu- 
ary.  1854,  providing  for  the  erection  of  a  Ter- 


NEBRASKA. 


324 


NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 


ritonr,  based  ou  his  priiR-iple  of  'squatter 
sovereignty.'  It  was  ameiided  to  provide  for 
two  Territories  (see  1Ca.nsasNebr,vska  Act), 
passed  both  Houses,  and  was  sifrned  by  tlie  Presi- 
dent May  30th.  IJy  this  aet  the  boundaries  of 
tlie  Territory  of  Xel)raska  were  defined  as  tlie 
40th  and  49th  parallels  of  latitude,  from  the  Mis- 
souri to  the  summit  of  the  Rixky  .Mountains.  In 
18GI  all  the  region  north  of  the  43d  parallel  was 
constituted  part  of  Dakota  Territory,  a  small  part 
from  the  southwest  corner  was  added  to  Colorado, 
and  tlie  western  boundary  was  extended  to  the 
UOth  meridian.  With  the  creation  of  Idaho  Ter- 
ritory in  1803.  the  State  was  reduced  to  its  pres- 
ent limits  except  for  a  slight  addition  in  the 
northwest  in   1882. 

The  question  of  Statehood  came  up  with  the 
organization  of  the  Territory.  In  1800  the  peo- 
ple voted  down  a  proposal  to  call  a  constitu- 
tional convention.  Congress  passed  an  enabling 
aet  in  1864.  but  not  until  1800  was  a  consti- 
tution adopted.  The  aet  of  admission  passed  by 
Congress  July  18th  was  not  signed  by  the  Presi- 
dent. In  February.  1807.  he  again  vetoed  a 
similar  bill,  but  it  was  passed  over  the  veto,  and 
on  March  1st  the  State  was  admitted.  The  his- 
tory of  the  Territory  and  State  has  been  one  of 
peaceful  develoj)ment,  though  during  the  Civil 
War  the  Indians  were  restless,  and  in  August, 
1804,  a  notable  rising  occurred. 

Politically  Nebraska  has  been  Republican  in 
national  elections,  with  the  exception  of  the  year 
1H06.  when  it  was  carried  l)y  the  Democratic 
candidate,  William  .lennings  Hryan.  a  resident  of 
the  State.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Govern- 
ors of  the  State,  with  their  party  affiliations: 

TERRITORIAL 

Francis  Burt 1854 

T.  B.  fuiniuK  (acting) 1854-55 

Mark  W.  Izard 1855-57 

T.  B.  rumliiK  (acting^ 18.57-58 

William  .\.  Itichanlwin 18.58 

J.  S.  Morton  (acthiK) 18.-8-59 

S.  W.  Black 1859-Gl 

A.  .S.  Paddock  (acting) 

Alvin  Saunders 1861-67 

STATE 

David  Butler Republican 18<i7-71 

W.  H.  .Tames  (acting) 1871-73 

Robert  W.  Furness Republican 1873-76 

.SllHH  (iarber '•  187l>-79 

Albinus  Nance "  1879-83 

James  W.  Pawps "  188.34*7 

John  .M.  Thaver '■  1887-91 

James  E.  Bovd Democrat 1891* 

John  M.  Thiivpr Kepubllcan 1891-92 

James  E.  Boyd Democrat 1892-93 

Lorenzo  Crttunse Republican 1893-95 

Silas  A.  Holcombe Dem. -Populist 1895-99 

William  A.  Povnter "  1899-1901 

diaries  H.  Dietrich Republican 1901 

F.zra  P.  Snvnire •'  1901-03 

John  H.  Mickey "  1903  — 


•  Ousted  by  decision  or  Supreme  Court  Nebrnekn.  May .% 
1891;  n»t<inKi  by  decision  oJ  Supreme  Court  United  States, 
Feb.  1,  189J. 

BiniJOGRAPiiv.  Hale,  Kansas  and  Nehraaka 
(Boston.  18.')4)  :  Butler,  yrhniftl.n.  Its  Chnraclcr- 
i.ilicK  and  I'rosprrl.i  (Burlington.  1873)  ;  Curley, 
yrbraskii :  Us  Ailviinliifiis,  Uixonrrrs  and  Dran- 
hacks  (New  York.  1870):  Pound  and  Clements, 
T/ir  I'lii/lofieoiiiaph!/  of  yrbrnskn,  vol.  i.( Lincoln, 
1808)  ;  .lohnson.  Ilislorii  of  Xrbraska  (Omaha, 
1880)  ;  Barrett.  Ilislnrxi  and  Oovprnmrnt  of  Se- 
hraska  (Lincoln,  ISni);  id.,  ^rhraska  and  thf 
IVation  (Chicago.  1808)  :  True,  THntory  and  Ciril 
florcmmcnt  of  \rhrafika  (Fremont.  1802)  ;  Con- 
nelly, Provisional  Qovcrnment,   Xehraska    Terri- 


tory (Lincoln.  18!);i|  ;  Nebraska  Historical  So- 
ciety, Transactions  and  Reports  (Lincoln.  1885- 
03)';  Proceedings  and  Collections  (Liucoln,  1894- 
1902). 

NEBRASKA.  A  river  of  Nebraska.  See 
Platte. 

NEBRASKA,  U.niversitv  of.  A  co-educa- 
ti(mal  State  university  at  Lincoln.  Neb.,  founded 
in  1S09.  It  comprises  the  (ira<luate  School;  tlie 
College  of  Literature,  Science,  and  Arts;  the 
Industrial  College;  the  College  of  Law;  the  Col- 
lege of  Medicine;  the  School  of  Fine  Arts:  and 
the  Affiliated  School  of  Music.  There  is  also  a 
summer  session.  The  regents  have  intrusted  to 
its  charge  the  United  States  agricultural  experi- 
ment station,  the  State  Museum,  the  Botanical 
and  Geological  Surveys,  and  (he  superintemlency 
of  farmers'  institutes.  Students  are  admitted 
on  examination  or  ou  certiKeates  from  accredited 
schools.  Militarj-  drill  is  compulsory  for  first 
and  second  year  male  students  in  the  college,  and 
physical  training  for  all  first  and  second  year 
woman  students.  The  students  in  1903  numbered 
2500,  and  the  faculty  consisted  of  ISO  professors 
and  instructors.  The  library  contains  51.000  vol- 
umes, supplemented  by  eleven  departmental  libra- 
ries, including  the  departments  of  pure  and  ap- 
I)lied  sciences,  law.  and  classical  philology.  Tlie 
campus  occupies  twelve  acres  in  the  heart  of  Lin- 
coln, and  with  the  buildings  is  valued  at  .$1,000,- 
000.  The  endowment  lanils  of  the  university  were 
in  all  130.080  acres,  of  Avliieh  about  11,000  acres 
remain  unsold.  The  principal  accruing  from 
former  sales  is  paid  into  the  permanent  endow- 
ment funds.  The  income  of  the  university  for 
all  purposes  amounted  in  1903  to  $402,000. 

NEBRASKA  CITY.  A  city  and  the  oounty- 
seat  of  Otoe  County.  Neb..  5(>  miles  south  of 
Omaha;  on  the  Missouri  River,  here  sjianned  by  a 
fine  steel  railroad  bridge,  ami  on  the  Burlington 
and  Missouri  River  I  Burlington  Route)  and  the 
Missouri  Pacific  railroads  (.Map:  Nebraska..!  3). 
It  has  a  United  States  Government  building,  the 
State  Institute  for  the  Blind,  and  a  public  li- 
brary. The  city  is  the  centre  of  a  noted  fruit 
belt,  also  of  a  rich  corn  region.  The  principal 
industrial  plants  incluile  large  stock  yards,  grain 
elevators,  cereal  and  lloiir  mills,  lumber  and  plan- 
ing mills,  foundries,  luess  ilrill  works,  a  st;ireh 
factory,  packing  and  judvision  house,  plow  works, 
breweries,  brick  wcnks,  a  dislillery.  a  cannery, 
and  a  cold  storage  plant.  Laid  out  and  setlled 
in  1855  on  the  site  of  old  Fort  Kearney.  Ne- 
braska City  was  incorporated  as  a  city  of  the 
second  class  in  1871.  Twenty  years  later  it  re- 
ceived a  charter  of  the  first  class,  under  the 
provisions  of  •.vhicli  it  is  governed  by  a  mayor, 
chosen  every  two  years,  and  a  unicameral  coun- 
cil, one-half  of  tiie  nu'mbers  being  elected  by 
wards  and  the  other  half  at  large.  Population, 
in  1S90.  11.941  :  in   1 9(1(1.  7380. 

NEBUCHADNEZZAR.  n.M)'ft.k:-id-nc-:;'zer,  or, 
more  ei.nectly.  NEBUCHADREZZAR  i  Heb., 
from  I?al)yliini:in  .V</'/ii/.»</»r;i".vi/r. Nairn  |  Nebo] 
protect  the  boundary).  The  gri'at  King  of  the 
Neo-Bab.vlonian  Empire,  who  ruled  c.004-501  n.r. 
He  was  the  second  of  the  name.  Neliuchadnezzar 
I.  having  been  a  di-tinguished  Babylonian  mon- 
arch of  the  second  half  of  Ihe  twelflh  century  n.O. 
He  was  the  son  of  Nabopolassar.  Viceroy  of  As- 
s.\  ria  in  Babylonia,  who  upon  the  death  of  As- 
surbanipal     i  n.c.    024)     gained    control    of    the 


NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 


325 


NEBULA. 


Babylonian  iioition  of  the  latter's  empire.  Tlie 
family  was  Chaldean,  that  is,  of  a  South  Baby- 
lonian race,  hence  the  use  of  this  name  for  the 
tlynasty  and  for  the  land  in  later  ages.  Nabopo- 
lassar  entered  into  alliance  with  the  other  great 
enemy  of  Assyria,  the  Wedes,  marrying  his  son 
to  a  daughter  of  tlie  Median  King,  Cyaxares.  At 
this  time  a  horde  of  barbarians,  connnonly  called 
Scythians  by  historians,  a])peared  u])on  the  scene 
as  assailants  of  the  Assyrian  Empire,  and  about 
B.C.  007  Nineveh  fell  before  the  combined  as- 
sault. The  Assyrian  Empire  was  forthwith 
partitioned;  the  Mcdes  took  possession  of  the 
Upper  Tigris  Valley  and  the  lands  to  the 
north  and  east  of  the  Euphrates ;  Nabopolas- 
sar  made  firm  his  control  of  the  Euphrates  Val- 
ley: and  from  the  west  Necho,  King  of  Egypt, 
advanced  to  the  great  river  to  reclaim  for  his 
land  its  ancient  dominion  in  Syria.  The  division 
of  spoils  between  Media  and  Babylon  seems  to 
have  been  prearranged,  but  Egypt's  intrusion 
could  not  be  sufTered,  and  Nabopolassar  sent 
Nebuchadnezzar  against  Necho.  The  latter  was 
utterly  defeated  at  Carchemish  (B.C.  005),  and 
Nebuchadnezzar  advanced  as  far  as  Eg^'pt  to 
recover  Syria.  But  he  was  recalled  by  the  news 
of  the  death  of  his  father,  and  accomplished  the 
remarkable  feat  of  leading  his  army  by  a  forced 
march  across  the  desert  to  Babylon  to  secure  the 
succession.  Unfortunately,  we  possess  but  scanty 
materials  for  the  study  of  the  continuation  of 
Nebuchadnezzar's  military  and  political  career. 
The  sources  are  the  partial  accounts  found  in 
the  Bible,  Josephus  (rpioting  Berosus ;  A)it., 
X.  6-11:  c.  Ap.  i.  21).  and  Herodotus  (contain- 
ing obscure  information  concerning  Egypt; 
ii.  151  seq.),  and  a  fragment  of  Menander.  The 
books  of  Kings.  .Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel  enable  us 
to  follow  clearly  .Judah's  relation  to  its  new 
lord.  At  first  King  Jehoiakim  submitted,  but 
about  B.C.  600  rebelled.  After  some  delay  Nebu- 
chadnezzar sent  his  army  against  .Jerusalem, 
which  fell  in  597,  Jehoiakim  dying  during  the 
siege.  His  son,  Jehoiachin.  sulTered  the  Imiierial 
chastisement  of  exile  along  with  the  upper 
classes,  an  uncle,  Zedekiah,  being  appointed  to 
the  throne  by  the  conqueror.  But  the  new  King 
succumbed  at  last  to  the  temptations  to  revolt 
offered  by  his  neighbors,  and  especially  by  Hophra, 
the  ambitious  King  of  Egypt,  and  drew  upon  him- 
self the  wrath  of  the  Great  King.  .Jerusalem  stood 
a  siege  of  sixteen  montlis,  and  upon  its  fall  (B.C. 
•"186)  was  razed  to  the  ground,  wliile  a  second  de- 
jiortation  was  made,  Zedekiah  undergoing  a  cruel 
])hysical  punishment.  Tliis  campaign  broke  for 
good  the  refractory  spirit  of  the  Syrian  States, 
Tyre  alone  liolding  out  and  suffering  a  famous  siege 
of  thirteen  years,  the  end  of  which  was  an  honor- 
able capitulation.  In  B.C.  567  occurred  a  campaign 
which  carried  Nebuchadnezzar  into  the  heart  of 
Egj'pt,  where,  however,  he  obtained  no  permanent 
results.  But  it  is  the  glor.y  of  this  King  tliat  ho 
prided  himself  not  on  the  arts  of  war,  in  which 
he  was  so  illustrious  (he  seems  to  have  prose- 
cuted them  only  at  necessity),  but  on  his  works 
of  peace.  With  two  fragmentary  exceptions,  his 
inscriptions  are  devoted  to  his  building  opera- 
tions, especially  in  Babylon,  which,  destroyed  as 
it  had  been  by  Sennacherib  and  since  then  racked 
by  civil  war,  he  i-ebuilt  and  restored  to  more 
than  its  pristine  glory.  The  excavations  of  the 
Germans  under  Pr.  Koldewey  are  now  uncovering 
the  extent  and  grandeur  of  the  fortifications,  the 


palace,  the  temple  of  Marduk,  and  the  great 
Procession  Street,  which  Nebuchadnezzar  reared 
out  of  patriotism  and  an  eminent  devotion  to 
the  gods.  The  sister  city  Borsip])a  shared  in 
his  benefactions.  Nebuchadnezzar's  outward 
successes  seem  to  have  been  based  upon  noble 
kingly  qualities,  to  which  the  contcmpcuancous 
Jewish  prophets  and  even  the  tradition  of  the 
late  Book  of  Daniel  bear  witness.  According  to 
the  latter  book,  his  life  was  for  a  time  clouded 
by  a  madness  (lycanthropy ) ,  for  wdiich  tradition 
there  exists  some  other  slight  testimony.  His 
dynasty  ended  with  his  son,  Evil-JIerodach,  whose 
reign  of  two  years  was  terminated  by  assassina- 
tion. The  collapse  of  the  ancieiit  Semitic  em- 
pire immediately  followed.  Eor  Nebuchadnez- 
zar's inscriptions,  consult:  Winckler,  Keilin- 
schriftliche  [iibliothrk,  vol.  iii.,  part  2  (Berlin, 
1892),  and  Ball  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society 
for  Biblical  Archwology.  vols,  x.-xi.  (1888-89). 
For  excavations  in  Babylon,  consult  the  current 
Mitthciltingen  der  deutschen-  Orient-Gesellschaft. 
Also  consult  Rogers,  History  of  Babylonia  and 
Assyria,  vol.  ii.   (New  York,  1900). 

NEBULA   (in  jMedicine).     See  Leccdma. 

NEBUL.ffl  ( Lat.  nom.  pi.,  clouds,  vapors, 
mists).  Patches  of  luminous  matter  occurring 
in  considerable  numbers  in  various  parts  of  the 
sky,  and  differing  from  the  stars  in  that  they  do 
not  present  simply  small  definite  points  of  light, 
but  rather  large  surfaces  of  widely  varying  bril- 
liancy. We  have  acquired  much  exact  knowl- 
edge about  the  nebuhe,  especially  in  recent  years, 
since  the  application  of  photographic  processes 
to  astronomical  observation;  and  they  have  also 
been  made  the  subject  of  extensive  philosophical 
theories  as  to  the  origin,  development,  and  con- 
struction of  the  universe,  of  which  some  are  based 
upon  too  many  hypothetical  considerations  to 
receive  the  unqualified  assent  of  astronomers. 

Only  two  nebulae  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye: 
that  in  Andromeda  and  the  great  nebula  in 
Orion.  The  former  consists  of  an  oval  mass 
of  light,  about  three  times  as  long  as  it  is  broad, 
and  surroimiled  with  several  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct disconnected  oval  rings.  There  is  also  a 
central  condensation  in  the  middle  of  the  whole 
mass.  The  Orion  nebula,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
of  quite  irregular  shape,  contains  a  number  of 
stars,  and  is  indented  ■  with  at  least  one  very 
large  non-luminous  break  known  as  the  'fish- 
mouth.'  Both  these  large  nebula?,  in  the  tele- 
scopic field  of  view,  cover  a  space  of  more  than 
one  square  degree  on  the  sky's  surface.  When 
tested  by  long-exposure  photographs,  they 
are  found  to  be  of  truly  gigantic  size.  It  is 
now  admitted  that  the  entire  constellation  of 
Orion  is  included  in  the  outlying  parts  of  the 
great  nebula.  Condensations  appear  to  fasten 
about  the  stars  of  the  constellation:  and  indeed 
the  conclusion  seems  irresistible  that  we  are 
looking  Upon  a  uni\'erse  in  course  of  formation 
out  of  plastic  and  gaseous  material.  Many  of 
the  less  consiiicuous  nebula>  arc  roinid  or  oval ; 
often  have  a  stellar  central  condensation,  and 
sometimes  one  of  a  disk-like  form  with  uniform 
surface  luminosity.  These  are  tlie  so-called 
'planetary  nebuhe'  Then  there  are  'annular'  or 
ring-shaped  neliulce,  and  spiral  nebulir.  These 
last  look  like  great  whirlpools  of  matter  ap- 
parently rotating  rapidly'  and  trailing  long 
streamers   of  light.     The  very   latest   researches 


NEBULAE. 


326 


NECK. 


in  photograpliinj;  iicbuliv  seem  to  imlicate  that 
the  spiral  form  is  in  fact  the  most  prevalent 
one.  The  application  of  the  spectroscope,  and 
especially  the  photograjjiiic  spectroscope,  to 
nebula-  study  lias  proved  that  many  nebnhe  are 
really  gaseous  in  constitntion,  and  not  simply 
aggregations  of  stars  too  small  and  close  together 
to  be  separated  even  by  our  most  powerful  tele- 
scopes. It  has  also  been  possible  to  meas\ire 
with  the  spectroscope  the  velocity  with  which 
some  of  the  nebulir  are  moving  tlirough  space 
in  the  direction  of  our  solar  system;  and  it 
is  found  that  ncluilar  velocities  are  of  al)out  the 
Same  order  of  magnitude  as  those  observed  in  the 
case  of  ordinary  stars.  As  to  the  changes  of 
the  shape  and  form  of  individual  nebuhe  we 
have  no  decisive  evidence.  Indeed,  the  outlines 
of  these  objects  are  so  hazy  that  no  reliance 
can  be  placed  upon  ordinary  drawings;  and 
even  photographs  can  mislead  us,  since  what  we 
see  upon  them  depends  in  great  measure  upon 
the  length  of  time  d>iring  which  the  sensitive 
plate  was  exposed  to  the  nebula's  light.  The 
number  of  the  ncl)ula'  at  present  known  is  not 
far  from  10,000;  and  the  best  catalogue  of  them 
is  by  Dreyer,  published  in  the  Monoirs  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society  of  London. 

As  to  their  distance  our  knowledge  is  still 
in  the  conjectural  stage.  No  one  has  yet  meas- 
ured a  nebular  parallax  (see  Parall.\x)  suc- 
cessfully; but  it  is  extremely  probal)le  that  their 
distances,  like  their  velocities  of  motion,  are  of 
the  same  order  of  magnitude  as  the  correspond- 
ing quantities  for  the  fixed  stars. 

The  theory  of  cosmic  evolution  known  as  the 
nebular  hypothesis  of  Laplace  intends  to  ac- 
count for  the  origin  and  development  of  our 
solar  system,  beginning  with  a  presupposed 
mass  of  formless  matter.  This  mass,  assuming 
a  rotation  imder  the  inlluencc  of  natural  forces, 
might  be  expected  to  take  upon  itself  the  form 
of  a  flattened  s|)here;  and  if  a  conti'action  of 
its  bulk  should  occur  after  the  lapse  of  ages  of 
time,  certain  rings  of  matter  might  be  left  be- 
hind, as  it  were,  by  the  contracting  mass.  Such 
rings  have  indeed  a  certain  analogy  in  the 
Androme<l.a  nebula;  and  their  possible  formation 
once  granted,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the 
gradual  breaking  up  of  a  ring  under  the  action 
of  gravitational  forces.  Its  matter  might  then 
be  gathered  into  a  single  ball,  and  thus  would 
be  formed  a  planet  circulating  in  an  orbit 
around  the  central  condensing  mass  destined  in 
later  ages  to  form  the  sun  itself.  It  will  be 
seen  that  this  hypothesis,  while  plausible,  rests 
upon  a  basis  of  inuigined  possibilities  rather 
than  ascertained  facts.  While,  therefore,  it  is 
most  interesting,  it  nuist  on  no  account  be  reck- 
oned among  those  astronomical  theories  (such  as 
gravitation)  whose  fouiulatiim  is  as  strong  as 
that  underlying  any  of  the  scientific  truths  com- 
ing within  the  range  of  human  knowledge.     See 

C'O.SMOIiON'V. 

NEBULAR    HYPOTHESIS.      See    CosMoo- 

ONV. 

NEB'ULY,  or  NEBULE  i  Kr.  iirhuld,  from 
OK,  rirhiili .  clouil,  from  l.al,  iiihiila,  (!k,  i>f<pi\r), 
ncpliilr,  Skt.  ixtlilitis,  OChureh  Slav,  iirhii,  clou<l). 
One  of  the  partition  lines  in  heraldry    (q.v.). 

NECESSARIES  (Lat.  ncrr.i.inrius,  requisite, 
indispensable,  from  neccssc,  OLat.  nccessum,  in- 
dispensable, from  ne,  not  +  ccsaus,  p.p.  of  ccderc, 


to  yield).  In  its  teciinical  legal  sense,  the  term 
denotes  such  artieles  as  are  reasonably  suitalilo 
or  necessary  to  maintain  a  j)erson  in  the  station 
or  condition  in  life  which  he  occupies  at  the 
time  they  are  furnished.  The  origin  of  the  above 
signification  of  the  term  was  in  the  doctrine  of 
the  common  law  that  married  women,  infants, 
lunatics,  or  any  incompetent  persons  cannot  be 
held  on  their  contracts;  and  in  order  to  obviate 
the  harsh  ert'ect  of  this  rule,  the  courts  ado]>led 
the  policy  of  holding  such  persons  for  ;iny 
articles  furnished  them  which  were  actually  nec- 
essary to  sustain  life.  The  courts  conlinucil  the 
use  of  the  word  necessary,  but  have  extended  its 
legal  meaning  until  to-day  it  is  a  very  elastic 
term.  It  is  not  limited  only  to  food  and  cloth- 
ing sufficient  to  sustain  lif(,  but  may  include 
articles  which  might  be  considered  luxuries  by 
persons  in  some  stations  in  life,  according  to 
the  circumstances  of  the  case.  In  order  to  deter- 
mine whether  an  article  is  a  necessary,  the 
character  of  the  article  itself,  the  use  for  which 
it  was  designed,  the  age,  social  position,  wealth, 
and  inevious  mode  of  living  of  the  person  to 
whom  it  was  furnished  must  be  considered.  These 
are  questions  of  fact,  and  must,  therefore,  he 
submitted  to  a  jury.  See  Bakkkvptcy;  Con- 
TR.\CT;    IXFAXT;    LUNATIC;   Hl'SBAND  AND  WiFE; 

and  consult   authorities  referred  to  under  CoN- 

TRA<'T.  etc. 

NECHES,  nech'ez.  A  river  of  eastern  Texas, 
rising  in  Van  Zandt  County,  and  flowing  south- 
east into  Sabine  Lake,  whence  its  waters,  with 
those  of  the  Sabine  River,  find  their  way  by 
Sabine  Pass  into  the  Gulf  of  ilcxico  (.Map: 
Texas,  G  4).  It  is  about  3.50  miles  long,  and 
waters  a  wide  and  fertile  portion  of  Texas. 

NECHO,  ne'ko  (Egyptian  .AV/.yih).  The  sec- 
ond King  of  the  twenty-sixth  Egyptian  dynasty, 
called  Pliaraohnechoh  in  the  Bible  (II.  Kings 
xxiii,  20  et  seq,).  and  Xechos,  Xcehaus,  etc..  by 
(ireek  writers.  He  succeeded  Psammetichus  I., 
and  reigned  from  n,c.  CIO  to  594.  On  the  down- 
fall of  the  Assyrian  Empire.  Xecho  attempted 
to  gain  i)Osscssion  of  Syria,  and,  at  the  outset 
of  his  campaign,  defeated  and  slew  .Josiah.  King 
of  Judah,  who  opposed  him  at  Megiddo. 
.Tehoahaz,  the  son  of  Josiah.  after  a  brief  reign 
of  three  months,  was  deposed  by  the  Egyptians. 
Eliakim,  who  changed  his  name  to  .Jehoiakim, 
was  made  King  by  Xecho  in  place  of  .Tehoahaz. 
and  .Judah  was  subjected  to  a  tril)ute  of  100 
talents  of  silver  and  one  of  gohl.  Xecho  con- 
quered Syria  as  far  as  the  Euphrates,  but  was 
conipletcly  defeated  at  C'archeniish  by  the  l!a1)V- 
lonian  Crown  Prince.  X^ebuchadnezzar  (n.c.  ('iOr>|, 
and  lost  all  his  conquests.  Although  unable  to 
cope  with  the  Babylonian  Empire,  Xecho  was  an 
active  and  energetic  ruler.  lie  constructed  the 
first  canal  from  the  Xile  to  the  Red  Sea,  a 
precursor  of  the  modern  Suez  Canal,  The  state- 
ment of  Herodotus  that  he  left  it  unfinished  is 
incorrect.  X^echo  also  built  a  fleet  and  sent  it, 
maimed  by  Phumician  sailors,  on  an  exploring 
expedition  around  Africa.  Consult:  Wiedemann. 
flmrhithtc  .4rf/i//*'ciis  roii  Psninmrlich  I.  hin  mif 
.\U\Tiimhr  drn  (Irosxcn  (Leipzig,  ISSO);  Budge, 
.1  llislorii  of  Egypt  (New  York.  1!I02). 

NECK  (AS.  hnecca.  OHG.  hnac,  nac.  Oer. 
yarkin.  neck:  probably  connected  with  Olr. 
ciiocc,  OBret.  cnocli,  hill,  elevation).     The  per- 


NECK. 


327 


NECKER. 


tioiT  of  the  anatomy  Ijctwi'cii  the  }iead  and  the 
shdulclers.  In  tlie  human  Ix'in^'  there  are  several 
niuseles  that  pa^s  from  the  skull  to  the  thorax. 
whii'li.  lo;^ellii'r  with  the  a'sii])ha<;us  an<l  tlie 
Iraehi'a.  lorni  the  principal  bulk  of  the  neek. 
Through  the  neck  run  very  important  blood-ves- 
sels between  the  brain  ami  the  thora.v,  anion;; 
these  being  the  carotid  arteries  and  the  ju;;ular 
veins,  an  incision  into  either  of  which  usnally 
causes  death  very  promptly.  Through  the  (esoph- 
agus tlie  food  passes  into  the  stomach,  and 
through  the  trachea  the  air  passes  into  the 
l>ionchi  and  thence  into  tlie  lungs.  The  principal 
muscles  of  the  neck  are  the  platysma  myoides, 
tlie  stcrno-cleido-mastoid,  the  infra-hyoid  ami 
supra-hyoid,  the  muscles  of  the  tongue,  the  mus- 
cles of  the  palate  and  of  the  pharynx,  and  the 
prevertebral  muscles,  as  well  as  certain  of  the 
muscles  of  the  back  which  are  inserted  into  the 
skull ;  as  the  trachelo-mastoid.  complcxus,  trans- 
versalis  cervicis,  the  rectus  group,  the  loiigus  col- 
li, the  three  scaleni,  ami  the  cervicalis  aseendens. 
Several  of  these  muscles  form  important  triangles, 
with  the  aid  of  the  ramus  of  the  jaw.  tlie  clavi- 
cle, the  liyoid  bone,  and  the  imaginary  centre  line 
of  tlie  bod}'.  These  triangles  are  of  use  to  the  sur- 
geon in  locating  and  describing  important  struc- 
tures. For  instance,  the  digastric  triangle  is 
bounded  by  the  jaw-,  above,  and  on  either  side 
liy  a  belly  of  the  diga.strie  muscle,  attached  (at 
tlie  apex  of  the  triangle)  to  the  hyoid  bone  be- 
low. Within  this  triangle  are  to  be  found  a  por- 
tion of  the  facial  artery  and  of  the  lingual 
artery;  and  it  is  the  site  chosen  for  ligating  the 
last-named  artery. 

In  man  there  is  present  at  the  back  of  the 
neck  a  rudiment  of  an  important  elastic  ligament, 
which  in  some  of  the  lower  animals  serves  to 
sustain  the  weight  of  the  head.  It  is  called  the 
lif/aiitoitum  nuchw,  and  is  a  yellow  elastic  liga- 
ment, which  represents  in  the  neck  the  supra- 
spinous and  inter-spinous  ligaments  of  the  verte- 
bra of  the  lower  part  of  the  spine.  It  extends 
from  the  external  occipital  protuberance  to  the 
spinous  process  of  the  seventh  cervical  vertebra. 

NECK'AM,  Alexander  (1157-1217).  An 
Englisli  Latinist.  born  at  Saint  Allians.  Hertford- 
shire, foster  brother  of  King  Richard  I.  Neckain 
studied  in  Paris,  returned  to  England,  and  en- 
tered an  Augustinian  monastery  at  Saint  Albans, 
where  he  did  most  of  his  writing.  He 
wrote,  on  natural  science,  a  prose  essay,  De 
yatinfs  Rcnim,  and  De  Laiidihus  Divinw  Sa- 
pient ia:,  a  treatment  of  the  same  subject  in 
elegiac  verse  (both  edited  by  Wright  in  the 
"Rolls  Series  of  Chnmicles  and  Memorials." 
1SG3)  ;  also  forty-two  fables.  The  fables  are 
edited  and  Neckam's  life  sketched  by  Hervieux, 
Les  fabidisfes  latins  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1883-93). 

NECKAB,,  nek'kar.  One  of  the  principal 
right  altluents  of  tlie  Rhine.  It  rises  in  the 
Swaliian  Jura  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
Wlirttemberg,  near  the  source  of  the  Danube, 
flows  nortliward  through  Wiirttemberg,  then  west 
through  Baden,  and  enters  the  Rhine  at  Mann- 
heim. 30  miles  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Main 
(Map:  Germany,  C  4).  It  is  247  miles  long,  and 
flows  for  the  greater  part  of  its  course  through 
a  series  of  lake  basins  surrounded  by  vine-clad 
hills.  It  is  navigable  for  steamers  to  Heilbronn, 
71  miles,  and  for  smaller  vessels  to  Cannstatt, 
116  miles.     Heidelberg  lies  on  its  banks  near  its 


mouth,  where  tlie  river  is  Hanked  by  picturesque 
hills  crowned  by  ruined  castles. 

NECKER,  nft'kAr',  .J.\cque.s  (1732-1804).  A 
I'reiich  statesman  and  financier.  He  was  born 
September  30,  1732,  at  Geneva,  where  his  father 
was  jjrofessor  of  public  law.  In  1747  Necker 
went  to  Paris  and  entered  a  banking  house, 
where  he  served  his  appieiiticcslii|)  in  finance. 
In  17ti2  he  establislied  a  banking  business  of  his 
own  in  Paris  and  acquired  a  large  fortune  dur- 
ing the  Seven  Years'  War.  After  retiring  from 
business  he  became  the  representative  of  Geneva 
at  the  French  Court  and  also  a  syndic  of  the 
French  East  India  Company.  He  likewise  began 
his  career  as  a  writer,  and  in  1773  gained  the 
prize  at  the  French  Academy  liy  his  eloge  on 
Colbert.  He  acquired  a  further  reputation  by  his 
publications  on  political  economy  and  finance, 
])articularly  his  Essai  siir  la  lii^islation  ct  le 
conniicrrr  dcs  firains  (Paris,  1775).  On  the  re- 
moval of  Turgot  from  otfice  in  .lune,  1770,  Necker 
was  called  to  assist  in  financial  affairs,  and  after 
the  brief  administration  of  Clugny  he  was  made 
Director-General  of  Finances  in  .June,  1777. 
Necker  succeeded  in  restoring  to  some  degree 
of  order  the  general  financial  affairs  of  the 
country,  though  mainly  by  the  perilous  expedi- 
ent of  borrowing,  which  he  was  enabled  to 
do  to  an  almost  unlimited  extent,  owing  to  the 
confidence  reposed  in  his  financi.al  dexterity. 
He  reformed  and  systematized  the  financial 
administration,  made  taxation  more  equita- 
ble, and  restored  public  confidence  in  the  Gov- 
ernment. This  was  the  most  brilliant  period 
of  his  life,  and  the  sa/o»  of  Madame  Necker 
was  the  rendezvous  for  all  the  brilliant  literary 
and  political  lights  of  the  day.  Xecker's  Prot- 
estantism, however,  his  extraordinary  v.anity, 
and  some  retrenchments  which  lie  liad  made  in 
the  royal  household,  together  with  his  publication 
on  the  financial  aft'airs  of  France,  Compte  rendu- 
au  roi  (1781),  made  him  an  object  of  great  dis- 
like to  both  CJueen  and  Court,  and  on  May  12, 
1781,  he  was  suddenly  dismissed.  He  retired  to 
Geneva,  and  while  living  in  retirement  on  his 
estate  of  Coppet  he  wrote  his  famous  Administra- 
tion dcs  finances,  published  in  1784.  He  returned 
to  Paris  in  1787.  but  was  soon  banished  on  ac- 
count of  an  attack  which  he  published  on  the 
financial  policy  and  management  of  Calonne.  In 
the  financial  crises  which  followed  upon  the  ad- 
ministration of  Lom^nie  do  Brienne.  Louis  XVI. 
found  himself  under  the  necessitj'  of  calling 
Necker  to  the  office  of  Director-General  of  Fi- 
nances and  Minister  of  State.  This  was  in  the 
summer  of  1788.  and  Necker  recommended  the 
calling  of  the  States-General,  and  thereby  ac- 
quired his  great  pojiularity.  ^^■hen  the  Court, 
on  June  23,  1780.  determined  upon  nullifying 
the  resolutions  of  the  Third  Estate.  Necker  seem- 
ingly objected  and  the  King  dismissed  him  on 
July  11th,  and  required  him  to  leave  the  French 
dominions.  He  obeyed,  but  tlic  disturbances  of 
.July  12th,  13th.  and  14th.  culminating  in  the 
storming  of  tlie  Bnstille.  were  tlie  result  of  his 
dismissal,  and  the  King  was  under  the  necessity 
of  recalling  him.  On  the  rejection  by  the  Constit- 
uent Assembly  of  his  scheme  of  a  loan,  and  the 
adoption  instead  of  it  of  Mirabeau's  scheme  of  as- 
sigiiats.  he  resigned  his  office  in  September,  1700, 
and  again  retired  to  Coppet.  where  he  died,  .\pril 
9.  18()4.    Necker  was  able  and  honest,  but  he  was 


NECKEB. 


328 


NECTANEBO. 


a  business  man  rather  llian  a  statesman.  His 
daughter  was  the  celelirateil  JIadame  de  Stael 
(q.v. ).  A  complete  edition  of  Nccker's  writiiij^s, 
edited  by  liis  grandson,  Aiifjust  de  Staelllcilstein, 
was  i)iiblished  in  15  volumes  (1820-21).  Consult 
also:  -Mme.  de  Stael,  La  vie  privie  de  il.  \echer 
(Paris,  181)4)  ;  Mourrisson,  Trois  ricolutioii- 
naires:  Turgol,  lecher  et  liailly  (2d  cd.,  ib., 
1886)  ;  Gomel,  Les  eause&  financieres  de  lu  revo- 
lution friDiiaisc:  Ics  miiiistires  de  Turgot  et  de 
Xecker  (ib.,  1892)  ;  Hermann,  Zur  (jescliichte 
(Icr  I'dmilic  Xeclccr  (Berlin,  188G). 

NECKER,  Suzanne  (Cubchod)  (1739(14). 
The  wile  of  .Jacques  Xecker  (((.v.),  born  at  Gras- 
sier in  the  Swiss  Canton  of  \'aud.  Her  father,  a 
Protestant  minister,  "jave  her  an  excellent  educa- 
tion. She  was  at  one  lime  engafjed  to  (iibhon,  tiie 
historian,  but  after  her  father's  death  she  went 
to  Paris,  and  there  met  Xecker,  then  a 
■wealthy  banker,  who  married  her  in  1704.  Under 
her  inlluence,  Xecker  entered  public  life,  and 
became  the  I-^inance  Minister  of  Louis  XVI.  She 
herself  founded  a  hospital  in  Paris,  which  still 
bears  her  name,  and  she  wrote  a  number  of 
books,  includinj?:  Itc/lexioiis  siir  le  divorce 
(1794);  Des  inhiimationn  prcvipitecs  (1790); 
and  five  volumes  of  miscellanies,  which  appeared 
after  her  deatii  (1798  and  1802).  Consult: 
D'Arvor,  Madame  \ccLcr,  n.{7-!)'i  (Paris,  1897)  ; 
and  D'Haussonville,  Le  salon  de  Madame  Necker 
(Paris,  18S2). 

NECKER  DE  SATJSSURE,  de  s.Vsur'.  .\n- 
RIE.NNK  .Vi.iiKHTiM-;  (17IH11S4I).  .\  French  au- 
thor, born  in  Geneva.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
the  naturalist  Saussure,  and  married  .lacques 
Necker  the  botanist,  and  nephew  of  the  French 
statesman  of  the  same  name.  Her  cousin.  Mme. 
de  Stael,  was  credited  with  the  translation 
(1814)  of  Sehlefiel's  VorUsiDiyen  iibrr  dianiii- 
tisclw  KiiiiKl  Kiid  IJtlrniliir  {lfi()'.)\l),  now 
known  to  have  been  written  by  Mme.  Xeck- 
er herself.  The  book  on  which  her  reputation 
rests  is  L'cducation  proiircssivc,  ou  cliidc  siir 
le  cours  de  la  rie  (1828-:i2),  for  which  the 
Academy  gave  her  the  Montyon  Prize  in  lS:i2. 
It  is  a  peda>;oj»ical  work,  treating  of  the  impor- 
tance of  child-training,  in  the  prejiaration  for 
after  life. 

NECK-MOLDING.  A  molding  at  the  junc- 
tion of  till-  capital  and  shaft  of  a  column.  It  is 
also  called  iiti-L-  or  ncckin;/,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
plain  space  between  the  astragal  of  the  shaft 
and  tlio  middings  of  the  cap  of  the  Doric  order. 

NECROMANCY  (Lat.  nccromanlia.  from 
Gk.  vtKponavTtla,  mUromantcia,  from  ueKpbt, 
nekrox,  corpse  +  inavrela,  wnilrin,  divination). 
A  method  of  divination  by  which  the  dead  were 
supposed  to  be  conjured  up  and  to  answer  ques- 
tions concerning  the  future.  Its  practice  was 
certainly  extremely  ancient.  It  was  condenmcd 
in  the  Old  Testament,  and  among  the  fJreeks  it 
was  familiar  in  Homer's  day.  In  historical  days 
necromancy  was  practiceit  by  priests  or  conse- 
crated persons  at  many  shrines  in  Greece.  It  was 
also  current  among  the  Romans,  although  banned 
by  the  Church  umlcr  Constantinc.  It  was  al-o 
employed  liy  the  northern  peo|des,  and  in  the 
media'val  and  later  period  passed  over  into 
sorcery.     See  SptntTCAl.IsM. 

NECROP'OLIS  (Xeo-Lat..  from  Ok.  wxpiiroXif. 
nckropolis,  cemetery,  from    itx/tii,    nrkro.i,  corpse 


-f  iriXis,  iirjlix.  city).  A  term  originally  applied 
to  the  cemeteries  in  the  vicinity  of  ancient  cities, 
and  in  particular  to  a  suburb  of  Alexandria 
largely  devoted  to  the  reception  and  embalming 
of  the  dead.  The  term  neero|)olis  is  now,  how- 
ever, used  in  a  much  more  extended  sense,  and 
applied  to  any  extensive  burial-region  of  ancient 
date.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  are  in 
Egypt,  where  they  extend  for  miles  along  the 
left  bank  of  the  Nile.  The  Pyramids  are  the 
most  conspicuous  features  of  the  Ghizeh  ne- 
cropolis; the  "Valley  of  the  Kings,'  near  Thebes, 
the  necropolis  of  Ll-Kab,  and  those  of  Beni  llas- 
.san  and  ,\bydos  are  other  examples.  In  .\frica 
the  extensive  necropolis  of  Cyrene;  in  Italy  the 
ancient  Etruscan  tomh-groups  of  Vulci,  Tar- 
quinii,  and  Capua,  distinguislicd  for  their  painted 
tombs:  the  remarkable  necropolises  of  Jlyra 
and  Antiphellus  in  Lycia,  and  that  of  Pctra 
in  Syria  are  among  the  important  examples 
belonging  to  classical  antiquity.  The  extraordi- 
nary collection  of  domed  and  minareted  tombs 
and  sepulchral  moscpu's  in  Cairo,  known  as  the 
Karafah  (tombs  of  the  Khalifs),  and  dating 
from  the  twelth  to  the  fifteenth  century,  is  often 
and  justly  called  a  necropolis;  but  the  term  is 
seldom  applied  to  either  medi;rval  or  modern 
cemeteries.  The  burial  places  of  antiquity  have 
been  especially  important  sources  of  arclia-ologi- 
cal  discovery,  owing  to  the  universal  custom  in 
early  ages  of  burying,  with  the  deceased,  utensils, 
arms,  money,  and  jewelry,  for  his  use  in  the 
nether  world. 

NECRO'SIS  (T.at..  from  Gk.  viKpuKrit,  nckro- 
sis,  a  killing,  deadiiess,  from  viKpovv,  nckrouit,  to 
kill,  from  peKp6s.  iiikros.  corpse).  A  term  em- 
j)loved  to  denote  the  absolute  death  of  a  cir- 
cumscribed portion  of  any  tissue.  Specifically,  in 
surgery,  it  is  a])plied  to  the  death  of  a  bone, 
wholly  or  in  part.  The  dead  portion  separates 
from  the  surrounding  healthy  tissue  by  an  in- 
llannnatory  process,  the  castolT  part  being  known 
as  the  scqucstnim,  and  the  boundary  between  the 
living  and  dead  tissue  as  the  line  of  demarcation. 
Bony  necrosis  is  due  usually  to  direct  injuries, 
inllanunations,  and  infections,  which  attack 
either  the  periosteum  (the  membrane  covering 
the  Ijone)  or  the  nuirrow,  the  iuunediate  cause 
being  interference  with  the  circulation  and  nutri- 
tion. Xecrosis  of  the  soft  parts  is  termed  gan- 
grene, and  the  dead  portion,  known  as  the  sloiifih 
or  siiliaccliis,  separates  in  the  same  way  as  in 
bone,  by  a   line  of  demarcation.     See  GaXgKENE. 

NECTAN'EBO,  .ir  NECTAN'EBUS.  The 
naineol  two  kings  nf  Egypt.  .Vkciankijo  l.(Eg>'i)- 
tian  ?,'aklit-llor-lirht),'  the  ytKraWpv'  (-VcA-di- 
iirhes)  of  Manetho,  was  the  first  King  of  the  Thir- 
tieth Dynasty,  and  reigned  from  n.c.  382  to  3(>4. 
The  native  monuments  give  little  historical  in- 
formation in  regard  to  his  reign,  but  the  ac- 
counts of  Greek  writers,  especially  Diodorus. 
show  that  he  was  a  capable  and  energetic  mon- 
arch. In  the  earlier  part  of  his  reign  he  sup- 
ported Evagoras,  King  of  Cyprus,  against  tlio 
Persians,  and  when  the  latter  invaded  Eg>pt,  suc- 
ceeded in  repelling  them,  aided  by  an  inunda- 
tion of  the  Xile.  Xcctauebo  endeavored  to  re- 
store the  old  sanctuaries  of  the  land,  and  he  built 
or  restored  temples  in  many  parts  of  Egypt. 
His  stone  sarcophagus,  inscribed  with  religious 
texts,  is  in  the  British  Museum.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Teiieb  or  Taciii.s,  after  whom  X^ectan- 


NECTANEBO. 


329 


NEEDFIRE. 


EBO  II.  (Egj'ptian  yal:ht-}uhof) ,  the  ytKrave- 
ji6!  (XcclaiuboK)  of  ihiiictlio.  leijoied  f'""i  "^^■ 
3()1  tu  343.  Ho  was  a  yicat  builder.  For  a  Ion',' 
time  lie  repulsed  the  attempts  of  the  Persians  to 
eoiupicr  Kgypt,  but  they  linally  made  themselves 
masters  of  the  Delta,  and  Neetanebo  lied  to 
Ethiopia.  He  was  the  last  native  King  of 
Kgypt.  After  his  flight,  Egypt  was  subject  to 
Persian  rule  until  B.C.  33-2,  when  it  came  into 
the  possession  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Consult: 
Wiedemann,  Oeschichtc  Acgyptens  con  Psaiii- 
nictich  I.  bis  aiif  Alexander  den,  Grossen  (Leip- 
zig, 1880)  ;  Budge,  A  Uistorij  of  Egypt  (New 
York,  10(12). 

NECTAR  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  viKrap,  nchlar) . 
In  Greek  mythology-,  the  drink  of  the  gods,  as 
and)rosia  is 'their  food.  In  the  Iliad  only  nectar 
is  mentioned  as  the  nourishment  of  the  gods,  and 
originally  botJi  words  seem  to  have  been  used 
without  "distinction.  Consult  Roscher,  ydctar 
find  Ambrosia  (Leipzig.  1883),  though  his  identi- 
fication of  them  with  honey  is  open  to  grave 
donl)ts. 

NECTAR.  The  sweet  secretion  formed  by 
glands  located  on  various  parts  of  a  plant,  but 
especially  in  the  flower.  Sometimes  it  is  called 
honey,  but  honey  is  nectar  after  partial  digestion 
in  the  crop  of  insects,  such  as  bees  or  wasps.  See 
Nectary;  Gland. 

NECTARINE.  A  smooth-skinned  stone  fruit. 
See  Peach  and  Colored  Plate  of  Drupes. 

NECTARY.  A  surface  gland  which  secretes 
nectar  (q.v.).  The  name  is  also  applied  to  abor- 
tive floral  organs  (see  below).  Nectaries  are 
most  common  in  the  flowers  of  seed  plants,  but 
are  found  also  in  regions  remote  from  the  flower 
(Fi".    1).      Extra-floral   nectaries   are   found  on 


Fig.  1.   EXTRA-r-LORAL  NECTAHY  OF  THE  BRACKEN  FERN. 

(J,  diagram  shinviiig  location  of  gland  in  tlie  axil  of  a 
leaflet;  b,  section  showing  tlie  secreting  cells  beneath  a 
stoma.    (After  Lloyd. ) 

the  leafstalks  and  at  the  base  of  the  leaf-blade, 
upon  stipules  and  other  portions  of  the  leaf-base, 
and  more  rarely  upon  the  blade  itself. 

The  forms  of  nectaries  are  very  various.  The 
secreting  surface  frequently  covers  a  more  or  less 
pronounced  swelling  or  cushion  of  tissue,  which 
may  develop  on  the  base  of  the  flower  leaves,  or 
on  the  axis  of  the  flower  between  them.  Some- 
times a  nectary  stands  in  the  place  where  in  other 
related  flowers  well-formed  and  functional  floral 
organs  stand.  This  fact  has  led  to  the  application 
of  the   term   nectary   to   abortive    floral    organs 


FlO.  2.     SEPTAL-  NECTART 

FItOM    FUUIT    OF 

DAY-LILY. 

The  columnar  cells  lin- 
inj^  the  tube  are  the  se- 
creting cells. 


even  when  they  do  not  sccri'te  nectar.  Sometimes 
the  nectar  ghind  forms  a  cimlinuous  ring  about 
the  base  of  the  pistil.  In  other  cases  the  nectar 
gland  lines  the  concave  surface  of  depressions 
in  the  floral  organs  or  the  floral  axis.  When 
these  pits  deepen  they  con- 
stitute efliicient  receptacles 
for  the  secreted  nectar. 
Thus,  spurred  petals  and 
sepals  are  often  furnished 
with  nectar  glands  on  the 
inner  side  or  at  the  ba.se 
of  the  spur,  and  the  whole 
cavity  may  become  filled 
with  their  secretion.  Nec- 
tar glands  sometimes  line 
deep  and  narrow  i>its  of 
small  capacity,  opening  at 
the  surface  by  a  pore  or 
cleft  from  which  the  nec- 
tar oozes.  These  passages 
may  be  branched,  so  that 
a  complex  gland  is  formed, 
such  as  is  found  in  the 
pistils  of  some  lilies  (Fig. 
2). 

Nectar  varies  greatly  in 
composition  in  difl'ei'ent 
plants.  The  greater  part 
of  it  is  water,  which 
withdrawn  from  the  gland 
cells  by  the  osmotic  action  of  the  sugar.  (See 
8ecretio>'.)  In  addition  to  sugars  (glucose  and 
saccharo.se)  small  amounts  of  proteids  and  various 
other  carbon  compounds  give  the  peculiar  odor  and 
flavor  to  the  nectar.  Nectar  is  eaten  by  bees, 
wasps,  butterflies,  and  other  insects,  which  in 
their  search  for  it  are  utilized  as  unconsciou.s 
carriers  of  pollen.     See  Pollination. 

NEDJED,  nej"d,  or  NEJD.  A  region  of 
Arabia,  lying  between  latitudes  24°  and  27°  N., 
and  bounded  by  El-Hasa  on  the  east  and  Hedjaz 
on  the  west  (Map:  Asia,  D  6).  It  has  a  hilly 
surface,  intersected  by  many  streams,  which  dry 
u])  during  the  summer.  The  climate  is  healthful. 
Politically  Nedjed  is  a  dependency  of  Jebel-Sham- 
mar.     The  inhabitants  are  Wahabis. 

NEEDFIRE.  In  folk-custom,  a  Are  kindled 
by  the  friction  of  two  sticks  of  wood  or  of  a 
rope  on  a  wooden  stake  to  ward  ofl'  demons  of  dis- 
ease. Among  the  many  customs  and  beliefs  con- 
nected with  fire  one  of  the  most  important  is 
that  of  ritual  purification.  This  idea  arose  at 
an  early  stage  of  man's  acquaintance  with  fire 
from  a  simple  observation  of  the  eft'ects  of  flame, 
the  most  mysterious  phenmnenon  which  he  knew. 
Later,  fire  was  difl'erentiated  into  a  number  of 
varieties  partly  good  and  partly  evil  with  regard 
to  position  and  use,  thus  implying  that  all  (lame 
was  not  equal  in  ellicacy.  Still  further  it  was 
thought  that  by  age  or  contamination  fire  be- 
came inellcctive"  and  must  be  renewed,  hence  the 
kindling  of  new  fire,  which  was  an  aceonipani- 
nient  of  w-idcly  ditl'used  cults,  as  that  of  Thor  in 
Scandinavia  and  of  nature  gods  in  ancient  Mex- 
ico. The  new  fire  is  snpjiosed  to  regenerate, 
as  fire  sacrifice  is  designed  to  sustain,  the  in- 
visible beings.  Needfire  is  a  practice  usually  of 
shepherd  peoples  to  ward  ofT  disease  attacking 
the  flocks.  In  historic  times  the  sparks  for 
kindling  the  needfire  were  sometimes  obtained 
by  twirling  a  wooden  peg  around  in  a  wooden 


NEEDFIRE. 


330 


NEEDLE. 


post.  As  in  ttic  vase  ul  now  tire,  the  needfire 
was  almost  always  aeeonipanieil  with  the  e.\- 
tiiiguishiug  of  the  lires  of  tlie  locality  and  the 
nei-^hbors  also  rekindled  their  fires  from  it  as 
in  the  new  fire  ceremony.  In  practice  the  people 
passed  or  the  herds  were  driven  throiij,'li  or  he- 
twecn  the  llanios  of  the  needtire  for  pnrilication. 
The  needllre  custom  survived  well  into  the  nine- 
teenth century,  anil  it  is  probable  that  traces  of 
it  still  exist  in  jiarts  of  Europe. 

NEED'HAM,  .Joiix  Turherville  (1713-81). 
An  English  naturalist,  born  in  London.  He 
studied  at  Douai.  and  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood  in  ITIi.S.  In  17t!!l  he  became  director 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Brussels.  Need- 
liam  was  a  friend  of  IJull'on,  and  in  his  time  well 
known  as  a  scientist.  His  great  'discovery'  was 
that  all  life  proceeds  from  vegetation;  it  is  con- 
tained in  his  Ubscrvations  upon  the  Clenerul 
Composition  and  Decomposition  of  Animal  and 
Vegetable  Hubslances  (174!)),  and  youvclles  ob- 
servations microscopitjiics  (17.50). 

NEEDHAM,  or  JSTEDHAM,  M.^rciiamont 
(ltlii(l7S).  An  lOn^rlish  journalist  and  pam- 
phleteer, born  at  Burford,  ()xfc)rdshire.  He  was 
educated  at  .\11  Souls'  College.  Oxford,  and  after 
studying  medicine  and  law  turned  to  journalism, 
and  founded  in  1(14:!  the  .\lrn-iiiii(S  liritmutifus 
(.sic),  to  which  he  was  frcciuently  the  sole  contrib- 
\itor.  The  boldness  of  his  scurrilous  attacks  upon 
Charles  I.  led  to  his  incarceration  in  the  Fleet 
Prison  in  1645  and  in  1G4G,  but  the  following 
year  he  became  a  Uoyalist  himself  and  began 
the  publication  of  Merciiriiis  I'ragmnlicus,  where- 
in he  defended  the  King  and  turned  his  venom- 
ous pen  against  the  .Scots  and  Oliver  Cromwell. 
Afterwards  he  rejoined  the  popular  party,  and 
signalized  his  conversion  by  the  publication  of 
The  Ca»e  of  the  Commonireallh  of  Enqland 
Htnted  (ir..iO).  After  the  Protector's  death  he 
went  to  Holland  and  continued  the  publication 
of  his  abusive  pami)hlets.  such  as  .1  Short  flis- 
torii  of  the  English  ftrbvllion.  Completed  in  Verse 
(1(>61).  and  Chrislianissimiis  Christianondns ; 
or.  Reasons  for  the  Reduction  of  France  to  a 
More  Christian  State  in  Europe  (lfi7S). 

NEEDLE  (AS.  nwdl.  Goth,  ncala,  OHG. 
niidihi.  iii'iilla,  Ger.  \adel,  from  OHG.  nii/mi, 
Ger.  niilirn,  to  sew;  ultimately  connected  with 
Olr.  sniithiid.  thread.  AS.  sncar,  Eng.  snare,  Lat. 
nere.  Gk.  vietv  tirein.  to  sew).  An  instrument  of 
metal,  or  other  material,  used  to  carry  the  thread 
in  sewing,  endiroidering.  knitting,  netting,  and 
other  similar  operations.  Needles  are  generally 
made  of  metal,  but  bone,  ivory,  and  wood  are  also 
used  :  for  ordinary  needlework,  called  sewing,  they 
are  made  of  fine  steel,  and  arc  too  well  known  to 
need  description;  for  other  kinds  of  work  (hey  are 
often  nuK'h  larger  and  dilTerently  formed.  '  The 
earliest  needles  were  not  pierced,  luit  were  like 
awls,  and  were  used  for  making  holes  in  skins, 
through  which  the  long  roots  of  ])lants  or  leather 
thongs  were  passed.  Later,  a  hole  was  bored  in 
one  end  of  the  stone  or  bronze  needle  through 
which  the  root  or  thong  w-as  passed  and  this 
was  dragged  through  the  leather  as  it  was 
punched.  Stone  needles,  with  a  hole  in  the  end 
opposite  (he  [iidnt.  are  found  in  the  remain.s  of 
the  Stone  .Age.  Tione  needles  with  eyes  are  found 
in  the  reinileer  caves  of  France  ami  lake  <lwell- 
ings  of  Central  Europe.  The  needles  that  have 
come  down  to  us  from  ancient  Egypt  are  very 


coar.se,  but  finer  needles  must  have  been  made 
to  execute  the  delicate  embroidery  tluit  was  pro- 
duced by  that  people.  The  ancient  Greeks  must 
have  been  skilled  in  needlework,  judging  from 
the  descriptions  of  embroidery  in  Homer.  Ordi- 
nary needles  and  surgeons'  needles  have  been 
found  in  the  ruins  of  Pompeii. 

The  Chinese  are  believed  to  have  been  the  first 
to  use  needles  of  steel,  and  these  implements 
gradually  found  their  way  westward  (uitil  they 
were  brought  into  Euro))e  by  the  Jloors.  By 
l.'J70  the  needle-making  industry  was  established 
in  Xurendjerg.  In  JOniiland  it  was  not  until  the 
reign  of  (^)ueeii  Klizaljcth  that  their  manufacture 
was  taken  up  on  any  considerable  scale  in  small 
shops,  an<i  after  ll).')0  it  gradually  developed  until 
the  greater  part  of  the  hand-sewing  nwdles  are 
now  made  in  England.  Subsequent  developments 
included  the  introduction  of  the  needle  with  the 
eye  and  the  gradual  development  of  machines  for 
tlieir  manufacture.  The  first  drill-eyed  needles 
were  made  in  182(3. 

Xeedle-making  is  an  important  industrial  art, 
and  it  has  attained  to  extraordinary  perfection. 
'J'he  first  ojx-ration.  after  the  wire  has  been  se- 
lected and  its  thickness  accurately  gauged,  is  to 
cut  it  into  eight-foot  lengths;  tliis  is  done  by 
wimling  it  in  a  coil  of  sixteen  feet  eireumferenee, 
and  then  cutting  this  coil  into  exact  halves  with 
powerful  cutting  shears.  The  coiling  of  the  wire 
is  so  managed  that  there  are  100  pieces  in  each 
half  when  cut;  the  bundles  of  100  wires  are 
again  cut  into  the  necessary  lengths  for  two 
needles.  The  pieces  cut  fr<im  a  coil,  although 
now  reduced  to  the  length  of  two  small  needles, 
are  nevertheless  somewhat  curved:  they  are 
therefore  collected  into  liun<lles  and  placed  in 
two  iron  rings,  which  hold  them  loosely  together; 
they  are  then  slightly  .softened  Ijy  firing,  and 
are  laid  on  an  iron  plate  or  bench,  and  are  pressed 
with  a  small  curved  bar  in  two  or  three  positions, 
by  which  the  operator  manages  to  nuikc  them 
all  perfectly  straight.  The  blanks  after  being  re- 
moved from  a  ho|)per  in  legular  succession  are 
next  pointed  at  both  ends  by  a  grindstone  to 
whose  face  they  are  held  by  a  rubber  hand. 

The  eyes  are  next  piimdied  by  means  of  dies. 
(See  Dies  .\xd  Hie-.Sixkino. )  The  blanks  or 
double  needles  are  now  ])laccd  on  two  wires  and 
the  two  sets  broken  apart  to  form  se|iarate 
needles.  The  roughly  formeil  needles  still  have 
(o  he  i)olishcd,  tempered,  and  have  the  heads 
gro\nid  into  shape,  operations  which  are  mechan- 
ically performed. 

Besides  the  ordinary  sewing  needle  already  de- 
scribed and  other  haml  needles — such  as  those 
used  in  sail-making,  leather  work,  upholstery, 
and  surgery- — many  forms  of  sewing-machine 
nee<lles  are  manufactured.  The  most  familiar  of 
these  is  the  needle  useil  in  the  domestic  sewing 
machine,  with  the  point  in  thi>  eye  and  grooves 
on  each  side  to  protect  the  thread  from  being 
worn  or  cut  in  passing  through  the  fabric.  The 
latched  needles  used  in  stocking  machinery  are 
very  ilelicate  pieces  of  mechanism,  as  the  latch 
is  held  by  a  rivet  about  ,i„  inch  in  diameter 
between  walls  which  are  no  thicker.  For  leather- 
sewing  machines  the  ni'cdlcs  m\ist  be  adapted  for 
use  with  waxed  thread,  and  often  are  made  with 
n  hook  at  the  end.  instead  of  a  hole:  while  the 
welting-maehine  needle,  for  sewing  welts  in  boots 
and  shoes,  is  the  shape  of  a  segment  of  a  circle. 


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331 


NEENAH. 


Hand  needles  are  laij,'ely  made  in  Germany 
;ui(l  Knglanil.  Aix-la-Cliapclle  is  tlie  (fenlre  of 
I  lie  industry  in  Uerniany,  and  il  is  said  that  the 
iirtnries  of  that  city  alone  produce  50,000,000 
weekly. 

Xeedles  for  use  in  various  maeliines  are  made 
in  tlie  I'nited  States,  especially  those  for  the 
ordinary  domestic  sewing  machine.  At  first  these 
needles  were  made  by  processes  similar  to  those 
omploved  for  making  ordinary  hand-sewingneedles. 
hut  gradually  special  machinery  has  been  invented 
I'lir  ihcir  manufacture.  The  process  is  essentially 
:!-.  follows:  The  wire  is  cut  into  a  blaids,  which  is 
then  r<'duced  and  pointed,  grooved,  has  its  eye 
]iunclied,  is  hardened  and  tempered,  hard  burr 
dressed,  brass  brushed,  has  its  eye  polished, 
undergoes  a  first  inspection,  is  hard  straightened, 
and  then  receives  the  final  pointing.  In  one 
method  of  making  sewing-machine  needles  by 
nuiehinery  the  crucible  steel  wire  from  which  the 
needle  is  formed  is  first  straightened  and  then 
fed  into  a  machine  which  makes  the  large  end  of 
the  needle  and  cuts  off  the  blanks  of  the  lengths 
reipiircd.  These  blanks  after  being  ground  and 
polished  with  emery  wheels  and  an  emery  belt 
])ass  from  a  hojiper  on  to  a  grooveil  endless  travel- 
ing carrier,  where  the  shank  of  the  needle  is 
formed  by  the  grinding  action  of  an  emery  wheel. 
By  successive  wheels  the  needles  are  ground  and 
pointed  and  then  grooves  are  cut  by  steel  saws 
and  the  eyes  punched.  They  are  then  heated  and 
hardened  ami  cleaned  first  by  emery  and  then 
by  wire  brushes  and  burnishing  powder  ap|)lied 
from  .a  bristle  brush.  The  final  pointing  is  done 
on  a  fine  emery  wheel  and  the  last  polishing  is 
accomplished  with  crocus  and  alcohol.  A  second 
method  differs  from  that  just  described  in  that 
the  steel  wire  is  cut  into  blanks  of  about  one- 
third  the  length  of  the  finished  needle.  After  a 
thorough  cleaning  these  blanks  are  fed  from  a 
hop])er  into  a  machine  Avhere  they  are  acted  upon 
by  steel  dies  which  compress  and  extend  the 
blank.  This  process  is  known  as  swaging  and 
produces  needles  which  vary  slightly  in  length. 
This  defect,  however,  is  remedied  by  the  action 
of  a  clipping  and  straightening  machine  which 
reduces  the  needles  to  a  luiiform  size. 

Statistics.  According  to  the  Vnited  States 
Statistical  Abstract  for  inOO  the  value  of  the 
needles  imported  into  the  T'nited  States  is  as 
follows:  ISni.  .$.314.03.3;  1802.  .$3.37 .'272;  1893, 
$3(i0.4(i.'') :  1804,  .$278,101;  180;),  .$21)1.020;  1806, 
$312,208;  1807.  $300.7.">4:  1898,  $3r)2.li0(i;  1809, 
.$407. 74(!;  1000,  $307,508.  According  to  the 
Twclflh  United  States  Census,  1„120,532  gross  of 
needles  were  manufactured  in  the  I'nited  States 
in  lOOO.  The  total  value  of  this  product  is 
given  as  $1,027,040.  which  is  distributed  as  fol- 
lows: Latch  knitting-machine  needles,  276,141 
gross,  valued  at  $414,504;  common  household 
^iwing-maehinc  needles.  324.476  gross,  valued  at 
.^300.252 ;  wax-thread  sewing-machine  needles, 
212.640  gross,  jit  $00,533;  knitting  spring  needles. 
307.266  gross,  at  $114,660.  In  addition,  about 
277.000  gross  of  needles,  valued  at  .$327,000,  are 
annually  produced  incidentally  in  factories  not 
specially  engaged  in  their  manufacture  in  connec- 
tion W'ith  other  industries.  It  will  he  noticed  that 
this  list  does  not  include  conunon  hand  sewing 
and  darning  needles,  crochet,  tape,  and  hand- 
knitting  needles,  and  it  ap])ears  that  none  of 
these  varieties  were  included  in  the  1000  census 
returns  of  manufactures  in   the   United   States. 

VuL.  XIV. -22. 


Consult  article  on  "Needles  and  Pins,"  in  Twelfth 
Census  of  U.  >S'.,  vol.  x.,  Manufactures,  part  iv, 
(Washington,  1902). 

NEEDLEFISH  (so  called  from  the  shape  of 
the  snout).  A  gar  like  fish  of  the  .synentogna- 
tlious  family  Ksocida-,  and  especially  of  the  genus 
Tylosurus.  They  are  slim,  long-jawed,  vora- 
cious, carnivorous  fishes  found  in  all  warm  seas, 
and  sometimes  entering  rivers.  Their  habits  are 
ordinarily  much  like  those  of  a  pike.  (See  Plate 
of  Xeeulefisii.  Pikes,  etc.)  Their  flesh  is  good. 
Some  si)ecies  are  ninnerous  on  the  So\ith  .Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coasts,  wher(!  thej'  are  confounded  with 
the  true  gars,  under  the  names  'garfish'  and  'bill- 
fish'  (especially  Tylnsurits  marintisi) ,  and  are 
also  called  'aguja'  (q.v.),  'long-jaws,'  'homid- 
fish,'  and  'guardfish.'  Consult  .Jordan  and  For- 
dice.  Proceedinr/s  of  the  United  States  National 
Museum  for  1886. 

NEEDLE  GUN.     See  Small  Arms. 

NEEF,  nfif.  or  NEEFS,  nafs,  Pieteb,  tlie 
Elder  (C.15S0-C.1601 ).  A  Dutch  architectural 
liainter.  He  was  born  at  Antwerp,  and  was 
there  a  pupil  of  Hendrick  van  Stcenwyck. 
His  numerous  architectural  jiaintings  usually 
represent  church  interiors  illuminated  with  the 
glow  of  torches  or  of  candles.  His  treatment 
was  delicate,  refined,  and  extraordinarily  clear; 
he  understood  the  harmonious  modulation  of  colors 
and  the  power  of  chiaroscuro,  but  he  generally 
intrusted  the  painting  of  the  figures  introduced 
into  his  pictures  to  Tenters,  Franks,  Breughel, 
and  Van  Thulden.  His  works  are  to  be  found  In 
the  galleries  of  Dresden,  Vienna,  Paris,  and 
Gotha. 

NEELE,  nel,  Henry  (1798-1828).  An  Eng- 
glish  writer,  born  in  London.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  and  practiced  as  a  solicitor.  From 
the  successful  appearance  of  his  Odes  and  Other 
Poems  (1817),  printed  during  his  clerkship,  he 
was  a  busy  contributor  to  various  journals  and 
the  annuals.  In  1827  he  gave  first  at  the  Russell 
Institution,  and  later  at  the  Western  Literary 
Institution,  his  Lectures  on  Encjlish  Poctri/.  ex- 
tending from  Chaucer  to  Cowper.  His  most  im- 
portant publication  was  the  Pomnnce  of  Euf/lish 
Ilistori/  (3  vols.,  1827),  a  collection  of  stories 
based  on  occurrences  in  each  reign  from  the 
Conquest  to  the  Picformation.  marred  by  a  stilted 
style  and  historical  inaccuracies.  In  the  same 
year  his  poems  were  gathered  in  a  two-volume 
edition.  His  ver.se  has  no  higher  (jualities  than 
spontaneity  and  ease.  His  stories,  at  their  best, 
are  marked  by  considerable  imaginative  skill. 
His  Literari/  Remains,  including  the  Lectures, 
appeared  posthumously  (1820),  with  a  memoir. 
The  Winter  "Sights  (London.  1820)  of  Nathan 
Drake  contains  (No.  xiii..  vol.  ii.)  "Critical  Ob- 
servations" on  the  Odes  and  Other  Poems,  asso- 
ciating Neele  with  Chatterton  and  Kirke  White. 

NEENAH,     ne'na.       A     city    in     Winnebago 

County.  Wis..  14  miles  north  of  Oshkosh.  the 
county-seat;  on  the  Fox  River,  at  the  outlet  of 
Lake  Winnebago,  and  on  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western, the  Chicago.  ^lilwaukce  and  Saint  Paul, 
and  the  Wisconsin  Central  railroads  (Map: 
Wisconsin.  E  4).  It  is  an  attractive  summer 
resort,  well  known  for  its  fishing,  and  has  a 
public  library,  a  handsome  opera  house,  and  sev- 
eral public  parks,  the  most  notable  being  River- 
side Park.     The  river,  which  alforils  fine  water 


NEENAH. 


332 


NEP. 


power,  divides,  as  it  loaves  tlic  lake,  into  two 
streams,  iiulosing  a  large  islaiul.  half  of  wliicli 
belongs  to  Ncenali  and  half  tn  Menasba,  the  two 
cities  forming  praetically  one  industrial  eoni- 
niunity.  .Manufacturing  enterprises  are  well  de- 
veloped and  include  pajx'r.  lumber,  and  Hour 
mills,  stove  works.  fo\nulrics  and  machine  shops, 
brick  works,  a  boot  and  shoe  factory,  etc.  Set- 
tled in  18-tC,  Neenah  was  incorporated  in  1850  as 
a  village,  and  in  1873  was  chartered  as  a  city. 
The  government,  luider  a  charter  of  188."?,  is  ad- 
ministered by  a  mayor,  chosen  every  two  years, 
and  a  unicameral  council.  The  municipality 
owns  and  operates  the  water-works.  Population, 
in  1890,  5083;  in  1900,  5954. 

NEER,  nar,  A.vrt  van  der  (lGO.3-77).  A 
Dutch  landscape  painter,  born  at  Amsterdam. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Albert  Cuyp,  who  occasionally 
supplied  the  ligurcs  and  animals  in  bis  iiiclures, 
which  were  fur  the  most  i>art  moonlight  scenes, 
depicted  with  a  prevailing  warm  tone.  At  times 
he  represented  the  same  scenes,  usually  towns  or 
groups  of  cottages  on  the  banks  of  a  canal  or 
river,  under  the  cll'ect  of  sunlight.  Fine  speci- 
mens of  this  kind  are  in  the  National  Gallery. 
London,  in  the  Louvre,  and  in  the  ilctropolitan 
Musemn,  Xew  York.  Three  renuirkable  examjiles 
of  his  conllagration  ell'ects.  which  he  de- 
picted with  great  truth,  are  in  the  Berlin 
^Museum,  whicli.  besides  four  other  examples 
of  his  work,  contains  one  of  his  most  ellectivo 
moonlight  pieces.  Among  the  best  of  the 
latter  varietv  are  two  in  the  Dresden  Gallery  and 
one  in  the  Vienna  Museum.  The  warmth  and 
glow  of  his  coloring  e.xtend  even  to  his  winter 
landscapes,  which  may  be  seen  to  best  advantage 
in  the  museums  of  Amsterdam  and  Brunswick. 
He  died  at  Amsterdam,  \oveml)er  9,  1077. 

His  son,  Eiii.ox  Hkndrik  van  der  Xeer  ( 1G43- 
1703),  a  genre  and  landscape  jiaiiiter,  was  born 
at  Amsterdam.  He  was  at  lirst  inr-tructed  by  bis 
father,  who.  on  his  showing  ]U'cfcrcnce  (or  figure 
painting,  placed  him  under  .lakob  van  Loo.  From 
1003  on  he  spent  about  three  years  in  France, 
then  lived  successively  in  Hotterdam.  Amsterdam, 
and  Brussels,  and  in  1(187  became  Court  painter 
to  the  Eleet(n-  Palatine  at  Diisseldorf,  where  he 
died  on  May  3,  1703.  His  favorite  subjects  were 
single  figures,  es|iecially  ladies  in  elegant  attire, 
engaged  in  domestic  occupations,  in  the  manner 
of  Terborch  and  N'etscher,  with  whom  the  line 
taste  shown  in  his  compositions,  and  ])ervading 
all  details,  entitles  him  to  be  ranked.  A 
harmonious  example  of  this  kind  is  a  "Ladv 
Tuning  Her  Lute"  (1(578),  in  the  Pinakotbck  at 
Miniich.  Similar  pictures  arc  in  the  Botterdam 
Museum  (dated  1(1119),  and  in  the  galleries  at 
Karlsruhe  (1(177)  and  Dresden.  (Occasionally 
he  i)ainted.  but  less  success f\illy.  biblical  sub- 
ject<<,  such  as  "Tobias  with  the  .\ngel"  (1(1!I0), 
in  the  Amsterdam  Museum,  and  later  also  land- 
scapes, taking  KIsheimcr  for  his  model.  Two 
examples  of  these  (dated  1(197)  are  in  the  I'llizi 
Gallery  at  Florence,  which  also  contains  the 
arti>fs  portrait    (1(190). 

NEERWINDEN,  nAr'vJn'd<n.  A  village  of 
Belgium,  in  the  Province  of  Lifge.  five  miles 
southeast  of  Tirlemont.  celebrated  in  history  for 
the  great  victory  gained  by  the  French  under  the 
Duke  of  Luxembo\irg  over  the  Kngli>h  and  Dutch 
under  William  III.  (.Tuly  29,  1(193).  It  was  also 
the   scene   of   the   defeat    of   the    French    under 


Dumouriez  by  the  Allies  under  the  Prince  of  Co- 
burg   (Mareli  18,   1793). 

NEESIMA,  ne'shi-ma,  Jo.sepii  Hardy  (1845- 
110 1.  A  .hipancse  educator,  burn  in  Vedo,  of  a 
good  aaiiiurui  family.  He  received  an  excellent 
education  and  went  to  Boston,  where  he  found 
a  patron  in  Alpheus  Hardy.  He  graduated  at 
Andierst  College  and  at  Andover  Tluological 
Seminary.  Keturning  home  in  1874,  willi  funds 
obtained  from  friends  of  the  American  Board  of 
Foreign  Jlissions,  he  succeeded  in  carrying  out 
bis  educational  ))lans.  His  college  in  Kioto,  the 
Dosbisha,  became  the  largest  and  best  equipped 
(.'liristian  institution  in  the  Kmpire. 

NEES  VON  ESENBECK,  nas  f6n  a'zni  bek, 
Christian  GoTriRiKi)  (1770-1858).  A  German 
botanist  and  lu.turalist.  He  was  born  at  Krbacli 
in  the  Odenwald;  studied  medicine  at  .Tena,  and 
in  1818  i)eeamc  ]n-ofessor  of  botany  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Krlangen.  He  subscciuently  was  pro- 
fessor of  botany  at  Bonn,  and  in  1830  accepted 
the  posts  of  professor  of  botany  and  director  of 
the  botanic  garden  at  Breslau.  In  1848  he  went 
to  Berlin  and  took  an  active  interest  in  the  agi- 
tiitions  of  that  and  the  following  year.  His 
deposition  from  the  chair  of  botany  in  18o2  was 
the  coMscMiucncC  of  his  political  activity.  In  his 
lliindhool;  of  liotnnij  (1821),  he  developed  the 
theory  advanced  by  Goethe  in  his  Mctamoijihose 
(Icr  I'flanzcn.  that  all  the  parts  of  the  llower  are 
only  variations  of  the  leaf.  This  work  had 
been  preceded  by  Die  Algeii  des  siisscn  Wrisscrs 
(1814)  ;  by  Dos  Si/stem  der  Pil::e  uiid  Srhiniiiiiinc 
(ISKl):  a'nd  by  Substan:;  der  PlUiitzcn  (1819), 
in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Rothe  and  Bischof. 
He  published,  in  1833,  (lencra  ct  i^pirics  Aslrr- 
ciiriiiii  :  in  183G,  Systema  Laiiriminim ;  and  in 
1841,  Flora:  Africa:  Austrulinris  Illuslralioiics 
Monographicw.  In  1852  appeared  the  first  vol- 
ume of  Die  aUyemcine  Formcnlchre  der  yaliir. 
lie  was  a  specialist  on  cryptogamous  plants, 
and  in  this  branch  of  botany  his  chief  w-ork  is 
Xtiliirtrwitielile  der  eiiropiiischen  Lehcrmoosc 
(IS33-'3S). 

NE  EXEAT  (Lat..  let  him  not  go  out).  A 
writ  or  order  issued  by  a  court  of  equity,  directed 
to  a  sherilV  and  commanding  him  to  arrest  the 
defendant  in  an  action  and  detain  him  until  he 
furnishes  a  certain  bail,  on  coiulitioii  lliat  be  will 
not  leave  the  jurisdiction  without  permission  of 
the  court.  About  the  tinu'  of  Queen  Klizabetb, 
this  writ  came  to  be  emi)loycd  by  the  Court  of 
Chaiu'crv  to  restrain  a  person  who  was  uinler 
some  eciuitable  obligation  to  another  from  leav- 
ing the  country.  This  practice  became  common 
in  Fngland,  and  was  adoi)ted  into  equity  or 
chancery  practice  in  the  United  States,  where  it 
still  obtains  in  many  States. 

This  e<|uitable  reiiicdy  of  nc  exeat  corresponds 
in  its  purposes  to  the  legal  jiroeess  of  arrest  and 
bail  in  civil  cases,  and  has  been  abolished  by 
some  modern  codes  of  ]irocedure.  as  in  New 
York.  an(l  the  legal  remedy  substituted  in  its 
stead.  See  Arrest:  Bail;  Eqiity.  Consult  the 
authorities  referred  to  tinder  Equity;  Pro- 
CEiii  HI-::  Writ. 

NEF,  John  Ulric  (18112—).  An  .Xmericnn 
chemist,  born  at  llerisati  (Appenzell).  Switzer- 
land. He  graduated  at  Harvard  University  in 
1884.  held  a  fellowship  there  in  1884-87,  studied 
also  at   Munich    (Ph.D.,    1880),  and   in   1887-89 


NEF. 


333 


NEGATIVE  QUANTITY. 


was  professor  of  chemistry  in  Purdue  University 
(].;ifayctte.  Ind.).  lu  1,SS!)-!I2  lie  was  assistant 
professor  of  chemistry  and  actiiij,'  director  of  tlie 
clicmical  lalioratory  in  Clark  L'niversity  (Worces- 
ter, ilass.),  in  18!l2-l»li  was  professor  of  elicm- 
islry  in  the  I'niversity  of  Cliicago.  and  in  ISHO 
hci-ame  head  of  tlic  department  of  cliemistry  in 
that  institution. 

NEGAPATAM,  npg'rt-po-liim'.  A  seaport 
city  on  the  Coromandel  coast.,  in  the  district  of 
Tanjore,  Madras.  British  India,  and  the  ter- 
minus of  a  branch  line  from  Tanjore,  48  miles 
tu  the  west  (Map:  India,  D  0).  It  has  regular 
steamer  communication  with  Ceylon,  Burma,  and 
the  Straits  Settlements,  and  carries  (m  an  active 
trade  exporting  rice  and  paddy,  and  imjiorting 
cotton  goods  and  betel  nuts.  The  extraction  of 
oil  from  cocoanuts  and  oil  seeds  is  an  important 
industry.  The  extensive  buihling  and  repairing 
plant  of  the  Great  Southern  Railway  of  India 
is  located  here.  Negapatam  was  one  of  the 
earliest  Portuguese  settlements  on  the  Coroman- 
del coast;  it  was  tal<en  by  the  Dutch  in  KiOO,  and 
was  the  capital  of  their  Indian  possessions  until 
captured  bv  the  English  in  1781.  Population,  in 
1891,  59,221 ;  in  1901,  57,190. 

NEGATIVE    (from  Lat.   ncgaliciis,  negative, 
from  IK  (Idle,  to  deny,  from  ncc,  not  +  aicrc,  Skt. 
ah,    to    say,    Gk.    r/fu,    imi,    I    say).      A    photo- 
grajihic  ])icture  in  which  the  lights  and  shades 
of  tile  object  are  reversed.    A  negative  is  usually 
produced  in  a  camera  by  the  action  of  light  upon 
the  sensitized  surface  of  a  glass  plate,   celluloid 
film,  or  paper.     (See  Photograph v,  I     When  the 
plate  is  developed,  the  portions  most  ali'ected  by 
the  light  receive  the  densest  deposits,   and   are 
rendered  nearly  if  not  quite  opaque,   while  the 
portions    corresponding   to   the    shadows   appear 
transparent.     A  good  negative  should  show  the 
gradations   of   light   and    shade,    and   should   be 
distinct    in    all    its    detail.     The    presence    of    as 
many  tones,  or  values  of  light  and  shade,  as  pos- 
sible, is  desired,  while  at  tlie  same  time  the  high 
lights   and  shadows  must  be   marked.     The   pro- 
duction of  a  good  negative,  outside  of  ipiestionsof 
the    preparation    of    the    i)late    or    film,    depends 
chiefly  upon  a  proper  length  of  ex])Osure  and  suc- 
cessful   development.      A    negative    is    used    for 
making  positives  by  contact  printing  or  with  an 
enlarging  or  copying  camera.     ¥m-  contact  print- 
ing the  negative  is  placed  film  side  upward  in  a 
printing  frame,  and  on  it  is  laid  a  sheet  of  sensi- 
tized  ])aper   with   its   coating  next   to   tlie    film. 
The  printing  frame  is  then  exposed  to  the  light 
I  and  the  rays  passing  through  the  clear  or  trans- 
Iparent  portions  of  the  negative  afl'ect  the  paper 
Ibeneath,  while  those  portions  beneath  the  dark 
[or  opaque  parts  of  the  negative  are  protected  and 
[remain  white.     In  this  way  a   large  niimbcr  of 
[positives    or    correct    reproductions    can    be    ob- 
Itained  from  one  negative. 

NEGATIVE  QUANTITY.  The  inverse  op- 
erations of  niafheniatir.-..  such  as  subtraction, 
division,  and  evolution,  often  lead  to  results 
which  cannot  be  expressed  in  terms  of  the  same 
unit  as  the  numbers  entering  the  operation.  The 
intcrjiretation  of  these  results  leads  to  the  so- 
called  artificial  numbers,  and  in  the  particular 
case  of  subtraction  to  the  notion  of  negative  num- 
ber. For  example.  .$2  —  .$3  is  impossible  if  the 
result  is  to  be  expressed  in  terms  of  the  positive 
unit  $1,  but,  since  the  result  of  subtraction  is 


the  number  which  added  to  the  subtrahend  will 
produce  the  minuend,  it  is  ea.sy  to  see  that  the 
number  which  added  to  $3  will  make  $2 
must  be  ecpiivalent  to  the  number  which 
subtracted  from  .$3  will  make  $2.  In  other 
words,  instead  of  subtracting  $1  from  $3 
to  reduce  it  to  $2,  a  number  mu>.t  be  'added 
which  will  produce  the  same  result.  Such  a 
number  is  called  a  negative  number  and  is  desig- 
nated by  the  sign  —  placed  before  it. '  Hence 
$2 — -$3  =  —  $1.  This  notion  of  negative  num- 
ber as  the  opposite  of  ])ositive  number,  and  ap- 
parently growing  out  of  an  arbitrary  interpre- 
tation of  a  mathematical  process,  has  its  counter- 
part in  concrete  magnitudes  opj)Osed  in  function 
or  extent.  For  example,  in  the  above  case,  if  a 
man's  assets  are  .$2  and  his  debts  .$3,  the  number 
expressing  his  financial  status  is  .$1  of  indebted- 
ness, which  may  be  expressed  by  —  $1.  Similarly, 
time  A.D.  is  often  expressed  by  positive  numbers, 
and  time  B.C.  by  negative  numbers.  In  astronomy 
north  latitude  is  expres.sed  by  positive  numbers 
and  south  latitude  by  negative  numbers;  west 
longitude  is  designated  as  positive  and  east  longi- 
tude as  negative.  Such  extensions  of  the  mean- 
ing of  signs  and  modes  of  operation  are  the  nat- 
ural outgrowths  of  a  constantly  iirogressive 
science.  The  introduction  of  the  negative  num- 
ber doubles  the  number  space  of  arithmetic  by 
adding  an  infinite  series  of  numbers  opposite  in 
meaning  and  having  a  1  to  1  correspondence  (see 
C0RKE.SPONDENCE)  with  the  series  of  positive 
numbers. 

The  negative  quantity  enters  geometry  through 
the  phases  of  motion  and  direction.  For  ex- 
ample, the  segments  AB.  BC,  and  CD,  of  a  hori- 
zontal straight  line  AD  thought  of  as  extending 
to  the  right  ai'e  considered  positive,  but  the  seg- 
ments DC,  CB,  and  BA  thought  of  as  extending 
to  the  left  are  considered  negative.  Similarly, 
many  writers  regard  all  angles  generated  by  a 
line  revolving  counter-clockwise  about  a  point  as 
positive  and  those  generated  by  a  clockwise  mo- 
tion as  negative.  The  introduction  of  negative 
quantities  into  geometry,  especially  in  connection 
with  the  theory  of  continuity  (see  Contixvity)  , 
has  greath'  increased  the  ])ower  and  scope  of  the 
subject. 

The  meaning  of  negative  quantities  as  em- 
ployed in  the  physical  sciences  may  be  illustrated 
from  elementary  mechanics.  A  material  point 
confined  to  a  horizontal  straight  line  may  move 
to  the  right,  remain  stationary,  or  move  to  the 
left.  The  first  condition  may  be  expressed  by  a 
positive  velocity  toward  the  right,  the  second  by 
a  zero  velocity,  and  the  tliird  by  a  negative 
velocity. 

By  analog}"  to  inathematical  usage,  the  positive 
and  negative  notation  is  sometimes  apidied  to 
quantities  measured  by  scales  like  those  of  the 
ordinary  thermometers,  on  which  an  arbitrary 
point  is  denoted  as  the  zero-point  and  all  degrees 
below  zero  are  denoted  by  negative  numbers. 
Such  conventional  notations  are  convenient,  but 
not  always  well  founded.  Thus,  the  temperature 
—  1°  C.  is  not  the  physical  opposite  of  +1°  C. ; 
the  two  temperatures  would  be  the  physical  oppo- 
sites  of  each  other  only  if  0°  C.  represented  a 
state  in  which  bodies  would  have  no  heat  at  all, 
and  if  it  were  possible  that  a  body  shoiild  have 
less  than  no  heat.  (In  the  other  band,  in  the 
case  of  physical  magnitudes  whose  character,  like 
that  of  electricity,  may  be  dual,  the  positive  and 


NEGATIVE  QUANTITY. 


a34 


NEGLIGENCE. 


negative  nutatiun  luis  agaiu  a  definite  natural 
iiK'uning. 

Negative  (juantities  have  been  thorouglily  un- 
derstood only  witliin  recent  times.  Although 
Hero  of  Alexandria  in  his  Stereotnetrica  con- 
sidered the  expression  *  81  —  144  as  possil)le, 
the  result  is  recorded  as  8  —  1/1(),  wliieh  sliows 
that  negative  quantities  were  not  understood 
by  the  Greeks.  Tlie  Hindus  were  more  suc- 
cessful, 'for  Aryabhatta,  e.530,  distinguislied 
between  dhana  (assets),  positive  quantities, 
and  kshaya  (liabilities),  negative  numbers, 
liliaskara,  c.11.50,  was  aware  that  a  square 
root  can  be  both  positive  and  negative,  and 
that  V — a  does  not  exist  for  tlie  ordinary  num- 
ber-system. -M-Khuwari/.mi,  c.8.30,  a  celebrated 
mathematician  under  the  Arab  supremacy,  ob- 
tained two  roots  for  the  (|uadratic  equation,  but 
the  negative  roots  were  rejecteil  as  not  valid. 
Among  the  early  Eurojiean  matlieinaticians,  Fi- 
bonacci (1202)  went  no  further  than  tlie  Arabs. 
Paccioli  (1494)  definitely  stated  the  rule,  minus 
times  minus  alicays  gives  plus;  but  this  fact 
was  known  to  the  Arabs  and  Hindus,  Bhaskara, 
for  example,  having  stated  that  the  square  of  a 
negative  numl)er  is  always  positive.  Cardan 
(  1.54.5)  recognized  negative  roots,  but  called  them 
astimat tones  falsa'  or  ficta:  Stifel  ( 1.544)  called 
negative  numbers  nunieri  ahsurdi.  and  Harriot 
(l();il)  was  the  first  to  consider  such  a  number 
capable  of  forming  a  member  of  an  equation. 
Vieta  (1.501)  distinguished  between  positive  and 
negative  numbers,  and  Descartes  (l(i37)  in  lu3 
geometry  used  the  same  letter  for  both  positive 
and  negative  quantities. 

NEGAUNEE,  m'-gn'm'-.  A  city  in  Marquette 
(ininty.  Mich.,  three  miles  east  of  Ishpeming;  on 
the  Chicago  and  Xorthwestcrn  and  the  Duluth, 
South  Shore  and  Atlantic  railroads  (Map:  Mich- 
igan, F  2).  It  is  in  the  great  iron  region  of  the 
Male,  on  a  ridge  called  (he  "iron  mountain,'  at  an 
elevation  of  about  1400  feet,  and  has  several 
proiluctive  irim  mines  within  the  iiuinicipal  lim- 
its. Settled  about  1870,  Negaunee  was  incor- 
porated in  187."!,  the  charter  of  that  year,  as 
revised,  now  operating  to  provide  for  a  mayor, 
annually  elected,  and  a  unicameral  council.  The 
water-works  and  electric  light  plant  are  owned 
and  ojirratcd  liv  the  citv.  Population,  in  1800, 
(in7S;  in  1000.  ('m."!.!. 

NEGLIGENCE  (Lat.  nenlifinttia,  from  neg- 
lifirns.  pres.  part,  of  nrgligere.  neglcgcre.  to 
neglect,  from  me,  not  -f  lefiere,  to  gather).  The 
omission  to  do  something  which  a  reasonable 
man  guided  by  those  considerations  which  ordi- 
narily regulate  the  conduit  of  human  allairs  would 
ilo.  or  iloing  something  which  such  a  prudent 
anil  reasonable  man  would  not  do.  Such  is  a  ju- 
dicial definition  of  the  term,  which  is  quoted 
by  legal  writers  and  judges  more  frequently 
than  any  other.  Tt  assumes,  what  is  often  ex- 
pressly stated  in  other  definitions,  that  the  thing 
OMiitted  or  done  was  in  violation  of  a  legal  duty, 
and  resulted  in  legal  damage  to  the  one  to  whom 
the  duty  was  owed.  Tlie  three  elements  to  be 
eonijilered,  then,  are:  (1)  proper  care;  (2)  legal 
duty;    (."?)   legal  harm. 

Proper  Cark.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
utandard  of  care  recognized  by  the  definition  is 
that  which  a  reasonable  man  would  exercise  in  a 
Riven  situation.  Whether  such  care  has  l)een 
taken  or  not   is  generally  a  question  of  fact  for 


the  jury.  It  is  true  that  if  the  evidence  is  not 
conllicting — if  the  story  of  the  plaintill'  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  defendant,  and  if,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  court,  reasonable  men  would  draw 
but  one  inference  from  the  evidence — the  question 
of  negligence  will  be  decided  by  the  court.  Hence 
a  court  often  nonsuits  a  plaintilf  on  tlie  ground 
that  his  own  evidence  .shows  that  the  harm  of 
which  he  complains  was  not  caused  l>y  any  negli- 
gent act  or  omission  of  the  defendant."  As  a 
rule,  however,  the  jurj-  are  to  determine  whether 
the  defendant's  conduct  was  reasonably  prudent 
or  not.  At  the  same  time,  the  court  is  bound  to 
explain  to  the  jury  the  legal  rules  bearing  upon 
the  subject,  of  wliich  the  most  important  are 
these : 

When  a  person  undertakes  the  performance  of 
a  task  which  reipiircs  special  skill,  the  failure 
to  do  Jill  that  any  skillful  person  could  reason- 
ably be  expected  to  do  in  such  a  case,  considering 
all  the  circumstances,  will  amount  to  actionable 
negligence.  If  an  ordinary  mechanic  undertakes 
to  clean  or  repair  a  vatcli,  he  is  bound  to  do  the 
work  with  the  skill  and  care  of  the  ordinary 
watch  cleaner  or  repairer. 

The  law  does  not  presume  negligence  on  the 
part  of  any  one,  and  throws  upon  him  who  alleges 
that  another  has  been  negligent  the  burden  of 
proving  it.  Accordingly,  a  person  wlio  has  been 
injured  by  a  runaway  horse,  or  whose  property 
has  been  destroyed  by  a  fire  which  started  on  his 
neighbor's  land,  must  show,  not  only  that  the 
horse  ran  away  or  the  fire  started,  but  that  it  was 
through  the  owner's  fault.  At  times,  however, 
the  situation  of  the  parties  when  the  injury  oc- 
curs is  such  as  to  overcome  the  ordinary  presump- 
tion of  care  on  the  part  of  the  defeiulant.  To 
such  a  situation  the  maxim  is  ai)plied,  res  ipsa 
loijuilur — "the  thing  speaks  for  itself."  A  rail- 
road train  jumps  the  tracks;  a  case  of  goods  falls 
out  of  a  warchcnisc  window;  or  a  jieck  of  live 
cinders  is  thiown  out  of  a  railroad  engine  of  an 
elevated  road  upon  a  traveler  in  the  street  be- 
low; in  each  case  we  have  a  situation  which 
would  not  exist,  ordinarily,  had  the  railroad 
company  or  the  warehouseman  exercised  ordinary 
care.  Hence  the  presumption  of  due  care  on  his 
part  is  overcome,  and  judgment  will  pass  against 
him  unless  he  can  show  that,  notwithstanding 
these  appearances,  he  was  reallj'  without  fault. 

Another  important  rule  is  that  the  amount  of 
care  required  varies  with  the  ap])arent  risk.  One 
sets  fire  to  brush  or  rubbish  upon  his  premises  and 
the  fire  s|)re:ids  to  his  neighbiu's  land,  doing  dam- 
age and  hurting  another.  Whether  he  aeteii  negli- 
gently will  depend  upon  various  circumstances, 
such  as  these:  Was  the  weather  drv  or  damp? 
From  what  direction  and  with  what  vclocitv  was 
the  wind  blowing?  What  vigilance  and  elTort  did 
he  exercise  in  trying  to  keep  the  fire  on  his  own 
land?  .Again,  without  warning,  one  throws  an 
article  from  a  scatTold  to  (he  ground,  hitting 
and  hurting  another.  Whcdier  he  acted  negli- 
gently will  depend  upon  (he  apparent  risk  inci- 
dent to  (he  act.  If  (he  scalTold  was  adjoining  a 
city  street  and  the  article  was  thrown  into  the 
(horoughfare,  the  act  would  be  clearly  negligent. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  scaffold  overhung  pri- 
vate premises,  and  there  was  no  reason  to  believe 
that  other  persons  were  present,  the  act  would  be 
careful. 

In  some  cases  the  courts  are  disposed  to  hold 


NEGLIGENCE. 


335 


NEGLIGENCE. 


persons  liable  for  harm  caused  by  their  aets  or 
uniissiuiis,  whether  tliese  are  negligent  or 
not.  Tile  doctrine  was  laid  down  by  an 
eminent  Knglisli  judge  as  follows:  "Tlu'  per- 
son who  lor  his  own  jiurpose  brings  on 
his  land,  and  collects  and  keejis  there,  any- 
thing liable  to  do  mischief  if  it  escapes, 
must  keep  it  at  his  peril,  and,  if  he  does 
not  do  so,  is  prima  facie  answerable  for  all  the 
damage  which  is  the  natural  consequence  of  its 
escape.  He  can  excuse  hiins(df  by  showing  that 
the  escape  was  owing  to  the  plaintilf's  default,  or 
was  tiie  consequence  of  the  act  of  God."  This 
view  has  not  been  adopted  to  any  extent  in  the 
I'niti'd  States,  the  courts  prcfi'rriug  tlu'  rule  that 
one  who  brings  dangerous  agencies  upon  his  land 
or  under  his  control  is  not  an  insurer  of  the 
safety  of  others,  but  that  he  is  bound  to  exercise 
a  care  over  them  commensurate  with  the  ap- 
parent risk  in  each  case.        » 

The  terms  gross  negligence,  ordinary  negli- 
gence, and  slight  negligence  are  often  used,  al- 
though the  modern  tendency  is  to  discard  them. 
\YIien  emplo^'ed,  the  first  represents  tlie  extreme 
of  negligence — a  want  of  care  amounting  almost 
to  recklessness;  the  second  is  the  absence  of 
Euch  care  as  an  ordinarily  prudent  man  exercises; 
and  the  third  stands  for  the  lack  of  care  re- 
quired of  one  who  is  doing  a  favor  to  the  injured 
party,  such  as  keeping  his  property  gratuitously. 

Legal  Dlty.  Passing  now  to  the  legal  duty 
of  exercising  care,  it  sjunild  be  borne  in  mind 
that  this  is  relative,  not  absolute;  and  conse- 
quently, when  it  has  no  existence  between  par- 
ticular parties,  there  can  be  no  such  thing  as 
negligence  in  the  legal  sense  of  the  term.  In 
otlier  words,  a  man  may  be  very  careless  without 
being  negligent.  To  illustrate:  the  owner  of  a 
sugar  orchard  left  a  bucket  of  hot  maple  syrup 
uncovered  in  his  woods.  A  neighbor's  imruly  cow 
jumped  the  fence,  wandered  into  the  woods,  and 
died  from  drinking  the  syrup.  Leaving  the  syrup 
thus  was  careless  so  far  as  protecting  it  from 
harm  was  concerned;  but  it  was  not  negligence, 
toward  the  owner  of  the  cow.  for  the  owner  of 
the  syrup  was  luuler  no  legal  duty  to  exercise 
ordinary  care  toward  trespassers,  and  the  act  of 
the  cow  was  a  trespass  (q.v.).  Toward  tres- 
passers the  duty  of  a  landowner,  a  conmion  car- 
rier, or  the  like,  is  simply  to  refrain  from  in- 
flicting willful  or  want<m  injury.  Toward  a 
licensee,  that  is,  one  whom  a  persim  barely  per- 
mits to  be  upon  his  premises  or  in  his  vehicle, 
the  licensor  owes  some  duty  of  care;  but  the 
amount  of  care  is  slight.  As  a  rule  the  licensee 
takes  the  risk  of  tlie  situation.  There  must  be 
soMietliing  like  fraud  on  the  part  of  the  licensor 
before  he  can  be  held  answerable  for  injuries 
sustained  by  the  licensee  in  falling  into  unguard- 
ed excavations,  or  breaking  through  defective 
floors,  staircases.  ]iavenients.  or  the  like,  or  get- 
ting caught  by  unfenced  machinery  or  being 
thrown  from  a  collapsing  carriage.  The  licensor 
is  bound,  however,  not  to  open  now  excavations 
in  or  near  a  path  wdiich  he  knows  licensees  are 
accustomed  to  traverse,  or  to  subject  them  to 
anything  like  )nan-tra|)s  or  new  and  serious 
dangers  withojit  giving  them  warning.  An  or- 
dinary guest  is  generally  looked  upon  by  the  law 
as  a  mere  licensee.  Toward  persons  expressly  or 
impliedly  invited  upon  one's  property  in  a  mat- 
ter of  common  interest,  the  inviter  is  under  a 


well-defined  duty — the  duty  of  making  the  prop- 
erty reasonably  safe,  lie  is  not  under  an  abso- 
lute duty  to  prevent  harnv,  but  only  a  duty  to 
make  the  place  as  little  dangerous  as  such  a 
I)lace  would  reasonably  be,  having  regard  to  the 
ordinary  exigencies  of  the  business  there  car- 
ried on. 

Legal  H.\R5I.  Even  when  it  is  shown  that  the 
defendant  has  been  guilty  of  negligence  toward 
the  plaintilf,  the  latter  may  fail  in  his  action 
because  he  cannot  show  that  he  has  sustained 
legal  harm  by  such  negligence.  A  striking  illus- 
tration of  this  rule  is  a  Horded  where  one  is  made 
sick  by  a  nervous  shock  due  to  another's  negli- 
gence. Througli  the  fault  of  a  railroad  company, 
for  example,  a  car  takes  fire,  and  several  pas- 
sengers are  so  badly  frightened  that  they  faint 
and  for  weeks  are  confined  to  their  beds  by  conse- 
quent sielcness.  According  to  the  prevailing  doc- 
trine in  England  and  in  the  United  States,  they 
have  no  cause  of  action  against  the  company. 
Various  reasons  are  assigned  in  its  support.  One 
is  that  such  sickness  is  not  the  natural  and 
probable  consequence  of  the  negligence;  that  it 
occurs  only  when  there  is  an  accidental  or  un- 
usual combination  of  circumstances  which  could 
not  have  been  reasonably  anticipated  by  the  de- 
fendant, and  over  whi<-h  he  Inul  no  control.  An- 
other reason  urged  is  that  to  hold  a  defendant 
liable  for  mental  anguish,  or  fright,  or  nervous 
shock,  would  cause  an  alarming  increase  in  the 
volume  of  sham  litigations.  Every  passenger  in 
case  of  a  railroad  collision  could  allege  fright  or 
nervous  shock  and  thus  maintain  anaction  against 
the  company.  In  a  few  jurisdictions. however,  men- 
tal anguish,  even  without  consequent  or  attendant 
physical  injury,  is  deemed  legal  damage.  It  is 
generally  held  that  if  the  defendant's  negligence 
causes  injury  to  one's  body,  recovery  may  be  had 
for  the  pain  and  suft'ering  which  are  incident 
thereto. 

Not  only  must  the  harm  sustained  by  the 
plaintiff  be  of  a  character  which  the  law  deems 
it  wise  to  recompense,  but  it  must  be.  in  con- 
templation of  law,  the  natural  and  probable  con- 
sequence of  defendant's  negligence.  When  negli- 
gence is  to  be  deemed  the  proximate  cause,  and 
when  the  remote  cause,  is  often  a  question  of  great 
difficulty.  Ordinarily  it  is  a  mixed  question  of 
law  and  fact,  to  be  submitted  to  the  jury  under 
proper  instructions  from  the  court,  although,  if 
the  evidence  is  not  conflicting,  and  the  court 
thinks  that  but  one  inference  can  be  drawn  from 
it  by  reasonable  men,  it  will  decide  the  question 
itself.  When  the  inquiry  is  sent  to  a  jury,  they- 
are  generally  instructed  that  the  pro])er  test  to 
be  applied  by  them  is:  Was  there  an  unbroken 
connection  between  the  negligence  and  the  injury? 
Did  the  facts  constitute  a  continuous  succession 
of  events  so  linked  together  as  to  make  a  natural 
whole,  or  was  there  some  new  and  independent 
cause  intervening  between  the  wrong  and  the  in- 
jury? Applying  this  test,  the  idaintill'  was  beaten 
in  the  following  case:  Defendant,  a  railroad 
company,  received  a  quantity  of  wool  for  trans- 
portation from  I'ulTalo  to  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  for 
delivery  there  to  another  company  for  transporta- 
tion to  Boston,  Mass.  It  was  negligent  in  start- 
ing the  wool  on  its  journey,  so  that  it  reached 
Albany  ten  days  later  than  it  would  but  for  such 
negligence.  VVhile  in  defendant's  warehouse 
awaiting  the  call  of  the  second  carrier  the  wool 


NEGLIGENCE. 


336 


NEGOTIABLE   INSTRUMENTS. 


was  injured  by  an  exlraoriliiiaiy  Hood.  It  was 
lield  tliat  the  iiiiiiicdiate  and  piuxiiiiate  cause  of 
Ijlainlills  loss  was  the  llood,  and  that  defendant's 
neglijjenee  was  too  remote  to  render  it  liable. 
The  latter  had  ceased  to  operate  as  an  active  or 
efficient  cause  before  the  flood  came. 

CoxTRiiit  TOKY  Xegliuexce.  It  is  really  on 
this  ground  (that  defendant's  negligence  is  not 
the  pru.\iniate  and  efficient  cause  of  one's  injury) 
that  the  injured  party  is  denied  a  recovery  when 
lie  is  shown  to  have  been  guilty  of  contributory 
negligence.  A  single  example  will  suHiee  here: 
A  workman  is  warned  by  his  employer  not  to 
work  U])on  a  scati'old  at  a  certain  point  because 
it  has  no  railing  there.  He  does  work  on  that 
part,  and.  forgetting  the  absence  of  a  rail,  steps 
backward,  falls,  and  is  injured.  Clearly,  it  is 
the  workman's  negligence,  not  the  employer's, 
that  is  the  decisive  cause  of  his  harm.  15ut  sup- 
pose. l)eing  there  with  knowledge  of  defendant's 
negligent  omission  of  a  railing,  he  had  been 
knocked  from  the  scaffold  by  the  fall  of  an  object 
from  the  roof,  which  fall  was  due  to  defend- 
ant's negligence.  The  servant's  presence  at  the 
point  in  question  would  have  furnished  an  oppor- 
tunity for  defendant's  negligence  to  operate,  but 
would  not  have  been  the  cause  of  his  injury,  and 
he  would  recover. 

It  should  be  noted  that  contributory  negligence 
on  the  part  of  a  plaintiff  is  not  an  absolute  bar 
to  recovery  in  admiralty  (q.v. )  as  it  is  at 
conunon  law.  It  only  dmiinishes  his  damages. 
Hence,  whenever  one  has  an  option  to  sue  at 
common  law  or  in  admiralty  for  the  defendant's 
negligence,  he  should  choose  the  latter  jurisdic- 
tion. 

C'HiMiXAL  NEfii.KiENCE.  Negligence  which  is 
the  proximate  and  ellicient  cause  of  the  death  of  a 
human  being  may  subject  one  to  a  criminal 
prosecution  for  manslaughter  (q.v.),  but  at 
common  law  it  does  not  render  one  liable  in 
tort.  The  latter  rule  has  been  changed  by 
statute  both  in  England  and  in  many  of  our 
States.  While  this  legislation  varies  in  different 
jurisdictions,  its  principal  object  is  to  grant  a 
cause  of  action  on  behalf  of  those  who  were  de- 
pendent upon  or  financially  interested  in  the 
life  of  the  deceased,  against  the  one  wrongfully 
causing  his  death.  Consult:  Hcven,  yrplificncc 
in  Law  (London,  18!>,5)  :  Shearman  and  Redfield, 
Treatise  on  the  Law  of  yerilifiriirc  (New  York, 
18!)8)  :  Pollock,  The  Law  of  forts  (London  and 
Xew  York.  l!)ni). 

NEGOTIABLE  INSTRITMENTS  (ML.  «c- 
flttliiihilis.  fidiii  Lat.  II'  (iitt ill!  i.  lu  negotiate,  from 
lufiotium,  business,  from  iirr,  not  +  otium. 
leisure).  Contracts  in  writing  which  are  trans- 
ferable by  indorsement  or  delivery,  and  which  are 
enforceable  by  the  transferee  in  his  own  name, 
without  previous  notice  to  the  promisor,  as  well 
a-  witlmut  the  risk  of  being  met  by  defenses 
that  would  have  been  gooil  against  the  trans- 
ferrer. Such  contracts  were  unknown  to  the  early 
common  law  of  Kngland.  By  that  law  a  contract, 
whether  written  or  oral,  could  not  be  trans- 
ferred so  as  to  enable  the  transferee  to  sue  tipon 
it  in  his  own  name.  He  was  obliged  to  sue  in 
the  name  of  the  transferrer.  Kquity  modified 
this  rule  to  the  extent  of  allowing  an  assignee  of 
a  contract  to  sue  in  his  own  name.  But,  even  in 
equity,  the  assignment  would  not  bind  the  prom- 
isor  until    he    received    notice   of   it,    and    after 


notice  he  could  set  up  all  defenses  against  the 
assignee  which  were  available  to  him  against  the 
assignor  at  the  time  of  notice.  In  other  words, 
the  assignee  could  get  no  better  title  than  the 
assignor  had.  Modern  statutes  have  made  nearly 
all  contracts  and  rights  of  action  assignable;  that 
is,  they  permit  the  assignee  to  sue  upon  them  in 
his  own  name,  but  he  takes  thcni  and  sues  upon 
them  subject  to  the  defenses  available  against 
his  assignor. 

The  negotiability  of  certain  contracts  is  a 
characteristic  impressed  upon  them  by  the  usages 
of  merchants.  This  quality  was  first  recog- 
nized and  made  effective  by  the  law  merchant 
(q.v.),  whose  rules  u])on  this  were  later  adopted 
and  enforced  by  the  common  law.  Thus  it  has 
come  about  that  for  more  than  three  centuries 
certain  contracts  in  writing  have  been  treated  by 
all  English  judicial  tribunals  as  negotiable,  and 
have  been  contrasted  with  others  which  are  only 
assignable.  The  earliest  form  of  negotiable  in- 
strument recognized  by  English  law  was  the 
foreign  bill  of  exchange  (q.v.).  Next  in  order 
came  tlie  domestic  or  inland  bill  of  exchange, 
differing  from  the  foreign  bill  only  in  the  fact 
that  it  was  drawn  and  payable  within  the  same 
State  or  political  jurisdiction.  Following  this 
came  the  promissory  note  ( q.v. ) ,  but  its  nego- 
tiable character  was  not  established  without  a 
strviggle.  It  is  true  that  the  negotiability  of 
this  novel  mercantile  instrument  passed  unchal- 
lenged for  a  time  in  England,  but  after  Lord 
Holt  became  Chief  Justice  he  set  his  face  against 
the  recognition  of  new  forms  of  negotiable  in- 
struments and  decided  that  promissory  notes 
were  not  negotiable.  Immediately  tlie  nu-rehants 
of  London  appealed  to  Parliament,  and  that 
august  body  enacted  a  statute  without  delay,  up- 
holding the  mercantile  view  and  declaring  promis- 
sory notes  negotiable  like  bills  of  exchange 
(^  and  4  Anne,  c,  9,  1704).  .-Vbout  this  time  an- 
other species  of  negotiable  instruments  was  de- 
vised and  came  into  general  use — the  goldsmiths' 
or  bankers'  notes.  These  were  the  i)romissor\' 
notes  of  bankers,  payable  to  bearer  on  demand, 
and  originally  given  for  money  actually  deposited 
with  the  maker  by  the  one  to  whom  they  were 
issued.  Lord  Mansfield  had  no  hesitation  in 
treating  them  as  negotiable  by  delivery.  A  little 
later  the  use  of  cheeks  (q.v.)  became  general. 
For  some  time  the  legal  .status  of  this  instrument 
was  doubtful,  but  it  has  long  been  recognized  ns 
a  species  of  bill  of  exchange,  and  is  now  authori- 
tatively defined  as  a  bill  drawn  on  a  bank  and 
payable  on  demand. 

The  foregoing  are  the  most  common  forms  of 
negotiable  paper,  but  several  other  forms  have 
Ix-en  found  useful  in  mercantile  transactions,  and 
have  received  judicial  approval,  such  as  the 
bonds  of  business  and  tiiunicipal  corporations, 
exchequer  bills,  and  scrip  for  Government  bonds. 
In  order  that  a  written  contract  may  possess 
negotiability,  it  must  be  payable  to  order  or  to 
bearer  and  must  be  treated  in  the  money  market 
as  a  security  for  and  representative  of  money.  Ac- 
cordingly,billsof  lading  (q.v. )  .warehouse  receipt-s 
(q.v.),  and  like  documents  of  title  are  not 
neg<itiable  instruments,  even  in  jurisdictions 
where  they  are  declareil  by  statute  to  l)e  nego- 
tiable. They  are  not  representatives  of  money 
and  cannot  perform  the  functions  of  currency. 
They  are  .symbols  of  goods,  and  their  transferee 


NEGOTIABLE   INSTRUMENTS. 


337 


NEGRITOS. 


I 


gets  no  betti'i-  tillf  to  llie  yooils  which  tliey 
i~jiiil)oii/e  than  he  woiiUl  secure  by  the  actual 
lU'liveiy  of  llie  goods  Ihenisclves.  Hence  the 
thief  or  tile  tiiuler  of  a  bill  of  lailiug  cannot  pass 
a  perfect  title  to  a  bona  tide  purchaser  thereof,  as 
he  can  do  in  case  of  a  bill  of  exchange  or  promis- 
sory note,  which  is  payable  to  bearer  or  indorsed 
in  blank. 

The  right  to  enforce  negotiable  paper  free 
from  defenses  available  against  the  transferrer 
or  prior  parties  is  confined  to  the  bona  fide 
liolder,  that  is,  to  one  who  has  become  the  owner 
of  the  paper  before  it  is  due,  for  value,  and  with- 
out notice  of  any  defect  in  the  transferrer's  title. 
Such  a  holder,  however,  can  pass  his  perfect 
title  even  after  the  paper  is  due,  and  to  one  who 
has  notice  of  defects  in  the  title  of  one  back  of 
such  holder. 

'the  law  of  negotiable  instruments  has  been 
codified  in  Great  Britain  (Bills  of  Exchange  Act, 
1882.  45  and  40  Vict.,  c.  61)  and  in  a  number  of 
our  jurisdictions  (Colorado,  Connecticut.  District 
of  Columbia,  Florida,  Maryland,  Massachusetts, 
North  Carolina,  North  Dakota,  Oregon,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Rhode  Island,  Tennessee,  Utah,  Washing- 
ton, Wisconsin).  Consult:  Chalmers,  Bills  of 
Kxchanyc  Act  (London,  1902)  :  Crawford,  The 
yeyotiubJc  Inslrnmcnts  Law,  Annotated  (New 
York,  1902)  ;  Daniels,  Treatise  on  the  Laic  of 
yefiotiahli'  Instruments  (New  York,  1903)  ;  Bige- 
low,  The  Lairs  of  Billsi,  Xotes,  and  Cheques 
(Boston,  1900). 

NEGOTIABLE  PAPER.  In  its  strict  legal 
sense,  this  term  is  used  interchangeably  with  the 
term  'negotiable  instruments."  to  denote  any  writ- 
ten securities  for  the  payment  of  money,  the  legal 
and  equitable  title  to  which  may  be  transferred 
by  indorsement  and  delivery,  or  if  payable  to 
bearer,  by  delivery  merely,  and  which  if  so  trans- 
ferred before  maturity  give  the  transferee  com- 
plete title,  and  an  absolute  right  to  demand  the 
amount  named  on  the  face  thereof,  free  from  any 
defenses  which  might  have  been  available  against 
the  transferrer.  However,  the  terra  is  jiopularly 
employed  to  designate  such  instruments  in  writ- 
ing, as  promissory  notes  and  bills  of  exchange, 
which  alone  had  the  above  qualities  by  the  'law 
merchant,'  or  common  law.  and  as  distinguished 
from  the  term  'negotialde  instruments,'  which,  in 
some  jurisdictions,  include  municipal  and  corpo- 
rate bonds,  certificates  of  deposit,  warehouse  re- 
ceipts, bills  of  lading,  and  other  instruments. 
Therefore,  the  popular  usage  would  exclude  any 
instrument  which  was  not  negotiable  by  the  com- 
mon law,  and  which  has  only  been  given  the  pccu- . 
liar  qualities  of  negotiability  by  statute.  Con- 
sult Story.  The  Laiv  of  Bills  of  Exchanrre :  Par- 
sons, TIic  Law  of  Promissory  Notes  and  Bills  of 
Exchange.     See  Negotiable  Instruments. 

NEGRI,  n.Vgre.  Ada  (1870—).  An  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Lodi  of  a  family  of  artisans.  As 
a  teacher  in  a  village  school,  she  w'rote  her  first 
verses,  which  passed  almost  unnoticed  in  the  col- 
umns of  a  periodical,  but  they  attraeteil  attention 
to  her  when  published  as  the  volume  of  lyrics  en- 
titled Fatalita  ( 1893 ) .  A  second  volume,  the  Tem- 
peste,  appeared  in  1890.  Soon  after  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Fatalita  she  received  a  good  post  in 
the  normal  school  at  Jlilan.  In  Ada  Negri's  verse 
the  note  of  protest  against  the  abuses  in  the 
social  order  rings  out  loudly.  She  has  noble 
ideals  as  to  universal  brotherhood,  and  depicts 


in  vivid  colors  the  abject  misery  of  those  engaged 
in  a  constant  struggle  to  gain  tiie  means  of  a 
livelihood.  Spontaneousness  and  sincerity  aro 
undeniable  qualities  of  her  verse,  but  she  may 
be  said  to  idealize  too  much  the  figure  of  the  peas- 
ant and  artisan.  Consult:  .lean  Dornis,  La 
poesie  ilalienne  contemporaine  (Paris,  1898)  ; 
Mazzoni,  in  the  Xnora  antoloyia  (Rome,  June 
17,   1893), 

NEGRI,  Cristoforo  (1809-90).  Aii  Italian 
politician,  historian,  and  geographer,  born  at 
Milan.  He  became  professor  at  Padua  in  1843, 
was  the  first  member  of  the  faculty  to  side  with 
the  Italian  cause  in  1848,  and  after  Custozza 
and  the  success  of  Austria  he  was  forced  to  resign 
his  chair.  He  was  almost  immediately  elected 
president  of  the  University  of  Turin,  and  held  a 
Iilacc  in  Gioberti's  Ministry  until  the  battle  of 
Novara.  He  then  became  chief  of  the  consular 
service  and  held  this  position  under  Azeglio.  Rat- 
tazzi,  and  Cavour.  Negri  foiuuled  in  1807  the 
Italian  Geographical  Society,  and  was  its  presi- 
dent for  five  years.  He  wrote:  La  yrandrx~a 
italiana  (1804)  ;  La  storia  politica  dell'  antichitd 
parayonata  alia  moderna  (1807)  ;  and  /  passati 
riayqi  antartici  c  I'ideata  spcdizione  italiana 
(IS'SO). 

NEGRI,  Paolo  (1853—).  An  Italian  gj^ne- 
cologist.  He  was  born  in  \'erona,  studied  medi- 
cine at  Padua,  and,  after  teaching  at  Milan  and 
at  Novara,  where  he  became  director  of  the 
Obstetrical  School,  in  1886,  was  appointed  di- 
rector of  the  School  of  Obstetrics  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Padua,  situated  at  Venice.  He  wrote: 
Siiidii  e  riccrche  di  ostetricia  ( 1885)  :  Sulla  idro- 
cefalia  ripetuta  del  feto  (1890)  ;  and  Cinquanta 
laparotomie  ( 1892 ) . 

NEGRITOS,  na-gre'toz  (Sp.,  little  negro). 
The  term  applied  by  most  modern  ethnologists  to 
one  of  the  great  ethnic  groups  into  which  the  pop- 
ulation of  the  East  Indies  is  divided.  Some  an- 
thropologists recognize  a  "Negritic  stock'  consist- 
ing of  three  groups.  Negrito,  Papuan,  and  Melane- 
sian,  while  others  regard  the  'Indo-Oceanic  Negri- 
tos' as  a  separate  branch  of  the  Homo  .Etliiopicus, 
distinct  from  the'Indo-Oceanic  Negros'  from  whom 
they  believe  that  the  Papuans  and  Melanesians 
have  sprinig.  It  seems  best,  however,  to  count  the 
Malays,  Indonesians,  Negritos,  and  Papuans  as 
the  four  etiinic  stocks  of  Jlalaysia.  The  term 
should  be  used  in  the  restricted  sense  implied  in 
the  principal  recent  classifications  of  mankind 
in  this  area.  The  physical  characteristics  of  the 
Negritos  are:  Small  .stature  (great  majority 
under  five  feet),  a  brachycephalic  or  subbrachy- 
cephalic  head-form,  a  dark  browni  or  black  skin 
sometimes  somewhat  yellowish,  the  hair  woolly 
(scanty  on  face  and  body),  a  flat  nose,  thickish 
lips,  and  other  features  of  pliysiognomy  and  body 
of  a  negroid  character,  ilany  ethnologists  as- 
sume that  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  extreme 
Southeastern  Asia,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and 
neighboring  regions  were  of  this  stock,  but  evi- 
dence for  such  a  view  is  lacking.  No  real  proof 
of  their  presence  in  Sumatra,  .Java,  Borneo, 
Celebes,  or  Formosa  has  been  produced.  It  is 
held  by  some,  however,  that  the  Negritos  once 
inhabited  Timor,  Florcs,  and  the  islands  near, 
while  it  has  been  reported  tliat  the  Karons  of  the 
Arfak  Hills  in  Northwestern  New  Guinea  were 
Negritos,  although  this  is  not  certain.    The  only 


NEGKITOS. 


338 


NEGRO. 


centres  of  undoiit>tp(i  Negrito  ])ii|iiiljiti()ii  existing 
at  present  are  in  the  Andaiuun  Islands,  tlie 
^lalay  Peninsula,  and  certain  ot'  the  I'hilipiiine 
Islands,  tlu'  |iiirr  Nefrritos  beinj;  eertainlv  rei)rr- 
sented  only  bj'  the  Xlineopies.  .Sakai.  and  Aetaa. 
The  .\liiieii|iirs  of  the  Andaman  Islands,  who  aver- 
age four  feet  ten  inelics  in  height,  are  taller  than 
the  other  Negritos,  except  some  of  the  Malaccaiis, 
who  are  probably  crossed  with  Malays.  The 
Seniangs  and  Mantras,  in  the  peninsula  of  Malac- 
ca, may  be  regarded  as  Negritos,  while  the 
Mintra  and  the  .Jakhuns  of  .loliorc  are  Sakai- 
Jlalay  half-breeds,  with  lighter  skin  and  taller 
stature.  Some  authorities,  however,  regard  them 
as  Negritos.  The  Scmangs  (whose  own  name 
is  Mendi  or  Menik)  of  Northern  Perak,  Kedah. 
Rahman.  Kanga.  and  Kelantan  are  described  by 
Martin,  who  visited  the  Malay  Peninsula  in  18!)", 
as  representing  a  dark-brown  ulotrichous  variety 
of  man,  while  the  Sakai  (whose  own  name  is 
Senoi)  of  Southeastern  Perak  ami  Northwestern 
Pahang  are  a  brown  eymotriehnus  variety.  Both 
are  distinct  alike  from  the  Malayan  and  the 
Mongoloid  |)eoples.  'J'lie  Ulandas.  .Ma-meri  (or 
Bcsesi )  of  Southern  Selangor,  the  Mantra  of  the 
territory  of  Malacca  and  Pembau.  and  the 
Jakhinis  of  .Tohore  he  styles  mixed  peoples.  As 
to  head-form  tJie  Scmangs  are  mesoccphalic 
(tending  to  dolichocephalic),  the  purest  Sakai 
are  dolichocephalic,  and  the  Hesesi  brachyec- 
phalic.  The  hair  of  the  Semangs  is  frizzy  or 
thick  woolly,  while  that  of  the  Sakai  and  of  the 
mixed  tribes  is  for  the  most  ])art  wavy.  The 
Sakai  may  perhaps  be  the  desc<'iid;uits  of  the 
Neolithic  ))opulation  of  this  portiini  of  Farther 
India.  The  Aetas  of  the  Philippines,  who  number 
altogether  some  10,000,  are  f(mnd  in  certain  parts 
of  the  interior  of  Luzon,  Mindoro,  Panay,  and 
Negros,  and  Northeastern  Mindanao.  The  euUiire- 
status  of  the  Negritos  is  very  primitive,  though 
the  arts  and  industries  of  the  Andaman  Island- 
ers, the  best  studied  members  of  the  stock,  give 
more  evidence  of  talent  and  ingenious  adaptation 
to  environment  than  is  commonly  attvil)iit<>(l  to 
them.  The  strict  monogamy  of  the  Sakai  and 
their  ratlicr  high  morality  ought  also  to  be  noted. 
The  bow  and  arrow  (often  poisoned)  is  a  char- 
acteristic Negrito  weapon. 

Consult:  Quatrefages.  Lrs  pi/fjmi'r.i  (Paris, 
1887)  ;  Man,  The  Aboriflines  of  the  Anilaman  Isl- 
ands (I^ndon,  188.5)  :  Clifford.  In  Court  and 
Knmpontj  (London.  18H7):  Steven.s,  Malcriiilien 
znr  l\  run  I II  ins  tier  iriliirn  Sl-iimme  anf  der  lialh- 
innel  Mittnklit  (Rerlin.  lSi)2):  fiiglioli,  Xiiore 
not  hie  sui  popoli  nrriroidi  ilrlV  .{sin  c  special- 
menle  sui  Xefirili  (Florence.  1S7!M  ;  Meyer.  .1?- 
Initn  van  PhilippinenTi/pen  (Dresden.  ISS.'i)  : 
IJlumentritt,  Ethnotjraphie  der  Philippinrn 
(fiotha,   1892)  ;   Meyer,  Die  yrf/rHos    (Dresden, 

isno). 

NEGRO  (Sp..  Port..  Tt.  iic^ro.  black,  from 
Lat.  niiier.  black).  The  name  properly  apjdied 
to  a  subspecies  of  mankind  of  whom  the  cliief 
characteristics  are  a  dark  skin,  woolly  or  fri/zly 
hair,  and  a  dolichocephalic  skull.  The  negroid 
type  presents  many  mo<lilieations  and  has  ob- 
tained a  fairly  wide  disjK>r<<ion.  but  is  found  in 
its  purest  state  and  in  greatest  numbers  in 
Africa,  and  that  continent  must  be  considered  its 
centre  of  distribution. 

It  is  commonly  hehl  that  the  type  is  host  repre- 
sented by  the  Sudanese  tribes  of  .•\frica,  who  are 


regarded  as  true  negroes.  They  are  distinguished 
by  a  very  dark  brown  or  chocolate-coloied  skin, 
black  crisp  hair  which  is  tlat  on  section,  a  rela- 
tively long  head,  with  Hat.  broad  nose  and  pro- 
jecting jaws  with  thick,  everted  lips.  In  stature 
they  are  tall,  with  long  arms  and  slender  legs. 

The  most  important  moditication  of  this  type 
is  found  in  the  Bantu  group  of  tribes,  which 
stretches  southward  in  Africa  from  the  Sudan  to 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  This  division  is  one 
based  largely  on  linguistic  grounds,  and,  present- 
ing as  it  docs  many  variations  of  slight  extent,  it 
is  impossible  to  name  any  single  phy-ical  charac- 
ter which  distinguishes  the  Bantu  negro  from  the 
Sudanese.  In  general,  however,  the  Bantu  face 
is  less  coarse  than  the  Sudanese,  the  jaws  less 
projecting,  and  the  lips  not  so  thick.  In  color  of 
skin  the  Bantu  shows  all  shades  of  dark  brown, 
and  in  stature  corresponds  to  the  Sudanese. 

A  marked  variation,  and  one  diflicult  to  ac- 
count for,  is  seen  in  the  dwarf  races  who  are 
found  in  scattered  groups  across  Central  Africa 
surrounded  by  Bantu  neighbors  and  extending 
far  to  the  south,  where  they  are  represented  by 
the  well-knowii  tribe  of  Bushmen.  The  Bushmen, 
with  their  somewhat  taller  neighbors,  the  Hotten- 
tots, are  usually  regarded  as  forming  an  inde- 
pendent stock  not  to  be  classed  with  the  pygmies 
of  the  ecpiatorial  region.  This  problem  is  at 
present  impossible  to  settle. 

The  dwarfs  oft'er  striking  physical  traits  which 
difl'erentiate  them  from  the!  other  negroid  peoples 
of  Africa.  In  stature  the  northern  pygmies  do 
not  average  much  over  four  feet,  the  Bushmen 
.seldom  range  over  five  feet,  while  the  Hottentots 
are  somewhat  taller.  In  color  the  skin  is  a 
light  yellowish  brown,  and,  in  the  true  dwarf 
groups,  said  to  be  covered  with  a  sort  of  down. 
The  hair  is  crisp  and  in  the  central  dwarfs  of  a 
ru-sty  brown  color,  while  in  the  Bushmen-Hotten- 
tot group  it  is  black  and  tufted. 

Of  the  true  negroes  of  the  Sudan  tlie  most 
important  tribes  are,  in  the  west,  the  Wolof, 
.Manclingan,  Feliip.  Timni.  Kru.  Sierra  T.conesc, 
Liberian,  Tshi,  Ewe.  Yoruba.  Ibo,  ICIik.  Borgu, 
and  Mossi.  In  the  Central  Sudan,  the  Sonrhay, 
llausa,  Mosgu.  Kancmbu,  Kanuri,  Bagliirmi,  and 
Yedina;  and  in  the  east,  the  JIaba,  Fur.  Nuba, 
Shilluk,  Dinka,  Bari,  .-Vbaka,  Bongo.  JIangbattu, 
Zandeh,  Momfu,  and  Bari. 

Of  the  Bantu  tribes  traced  southward  along 
the  east  coast  and  northward  along  the  west,  fol- 
lowing their  ]M(ibable  course  of  migration,  the 
most  important  divisions  are  the  lionjo.  Baya, 
Waganda,  Wanyoro.  \\a])oki)mo.  Wagiryama, 
Waswhahili,  Zulu,  ilashona,  Bechuana,  Ova-Hcr- 
rero,  Kshi-Kongo.  Bashilange.  Balolo.  .Manyuema, 
Bakalai.  Fan,  Mpongwe.  Dwala.  and  Batanga. 

The  dwarf  races  of  Central  .\frica  are  little 
known,  but  the  most  familiar  are  the  .\kka, 
Wochua,  Obongo,  and  Batwa.  In  the  south  are 
the  Bushnu'U  and  the  Hottentots,  (he  chief 
tribes  of  the  latter  being  the  Namaqua.  Criqua, 
and  Damara. 

These  peoples  include  the  bulk  of  the  African 
negroids.  Tlie  dark-skinned  natives  of  the  north. 
viz.  in  .Vbyssiiiia  and  in  neighboring  regions,  and 
along  the  Mediterranean,  exhibit  such  difTerences 
and  are  so  allied  in  other  respects  with  Semitic 
anil  liamitic  peoples  that  they  are  usually  classed 
with   them. 

The  extra-.Vfrican  distribution  of  negroid 
stocks  immediately  presents  difliculties.     We  can 


NEGRO. 


33S 


NEGRO  EDUCATION. 


disrej;ar<l  the  ncfirocs  of  tlu-  two  Aniprieas,  who 
arc  almost  invariably  of  West  African  descent 
anil  ditl'er  from  their  parent  stocks  only  in  the 
modifications  due  to  mi.Kture  with  Europeans  and 
Indians. 

The  Australians,  who  are  regarded  as  negroes 
by  some  authorities,  must  be  considered  an  in- 
deiieiidcnt  race  presenting  physical  characteris- 
tics which  dill'erentiate  tliem  from  the  true  negro, 
notwithstanding  their  dark  skins. 

There  are,  however,  in  the  East  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, in  New  Guinea  and  Melanesia,  and  in 
Jladagascar  negroid  tribes  whose  classification 
and  relationships  present  difliculties  at  present 
insurmountable.  Of  these  stocks  the  Papuans  of 
New  Guinea  and  the  Melanesians  are  the  most 
numerous  and  important.  They  are  a  dark- 
skinned,  tall,  dolichocephalic  race,  and  differ 
physically  from  the  African  negro  chiefly  in  the 
hair,  which  is  longer  and  mop-like,  and  in  facial 
features,  which  latter,  however,  are  variable. 
There  are  no  safe  grounds  for  considering  tliem 
as  a  branch  of  the  true  negro  stock  other  than  the 
striking  resemblance  in  skin  color. 

At  different  points  in  the  northern  jjortion  of 
this  regioti  are  found  scattered  groups  of  an 
undersized  negroid  stock  commonly  called 
Negritos.  They  are  usually  compared  with  the 
dwarf  races  of  Africa  and  nndonljtedly  do  offer 
striking  similarities  in  physical  characters,  but 
in  other  respects  seem  to  correspond  rather  to 
the  Australian  and  Papuan. 

The  parentage  of  the  negroids  of  Madagascar 
is  also  in  dispute.  The  proximity  of  Africa 
would  indicate  an  origin  from  that  continent,  and 
there  are  botli  physical  and  cultural  facts  to 
support  the  view,  but  there  are  also  imniistakable 
signs  of  Melanesian  traits  which  suggest  immi- 
gration from  both  regions. 

JIuch  has  been  written  as  to  the  mental  capa- 
city of  the  negro,  but  trustworthy  information  is 
scanty.  Such  few  careful  observations  as  have 
been  made  upon  negro  brains  indicate  a  slightly 
lower  type  than  that  of  Europeans ;  but  the 
variability  is  so  high  as  to  forbid  drawing  any 
conclusions  regarding  the  accompanying  intel- 
lectual powers — a  statement  which  holds  true  of 
the  natives  of  Melanesia  as  well  as  of  Africa. 

In  culture  the  negro  presents  almost  as  many 
degrees  and  varieties  as  there  are  stocks.  A 
relatively  low  grade  represented  by  certain  of 
the  Sudanese,  Bantu,  and  dwarf  tribes  is  found 
side  by  side  witli  a  relatively  high  civilization. 
as,  for  example,  that  of  the  Ilausa :  but  it  nuist 
be  admitted  tliat  the  sporadic  examjiles  of 
marked  cultural  progress  in  .\frica  can  almost 
invariably  be  traced  to  Arabic  or  other  foreign 
influence.  Environment  has.  of  course,  produced 
specific  types  of  culture  in  different  parts  of  the 
continent,  such  as  the  cattle-breeding,  pa.storal 
life  of  the  south  and  west,  and  the  strictly 
hunting  life  of  the  dwarfs  of  the  equatorial  for- 
ests, and  this  diversity  makes  general  statements 
dangerous  or  imjiossiblc. 

With  regard  to  religion,  we  find  an  extensive 
animism  which  has  developed  remarkably  at  dif- 
ferent points.  For  cxnTiijile.  the  ancestor  wor- 
ship of  the  Zulus  has  been  carried  to  a  logical 
extreme,  which  is  unique  among  savages,  and 
the  complex  fetishism  of  West  Africa  is  every- 
where regarded  as  the  type  of  that  phase  of 
belief. 

Political  organization  is  equally  diverse,  rang- 


ing from  hereditary  kingship  to  such  loose  tribal 
systems  that  no  chieftainship  is  ascertainable. 

in  comparison  with  otlu^-  great  groups  of  man- 
kin<l,  the  negro  seems  to  possess  certain  tempera- 
mental qualities  which  are  uuire  or  less  cliarac- 
terislic,  being  lively,  excitable,  and  f(md  of  social 
life  and  discussion;  and  this  trait  has  undoubt- 
edly played  an  important  role  in  the  development 
of  certain  ))hases  of  -African  culture.  Our  knowl- 
edge of  the  nuijority  of  the  negro  tribes  of 
Africa  is  still  lamentably  slight,  but,  with  the 
extension  of  European  interests  in  that  continent, 
much  valualile  inforuuxtion  is  coming  to  light. 
See  NiiURO  Eulc.\tion. 

HiHLiOGH.\Piiv.  Keane,  "Africa,"  in  Stanford's 
ComprndUim  of  Oeography  and  Travel  (London, 
1S05)  ;  id.,  Man,  Past  and  Present  (Cambridge, 
l.Sit!))  ;  Bleek,  The  Lanr/naqes  of  Western  and 
lioiitJirrn  Africa  (London.  18.56)  ;  id.,  A  Compara- 
tive Orammar  of  South  African  Lanyuanes  (ib., 
1802)  ;  Cust,  A  f^lcetch  of  the  Modern  Lanr/uages 
of  Africa  (ib.,  188.3);  Schweinfurth,  The' Heart 
of  Africa  (New  York,  1874)  ;  Nachtigal.  Sahara 
iind  Sudan.  (Berlin,  1877);  Johnston.  The  Rirer 
Coni/o  (London.  1884)  ;  id..  The  Ui/anda  I'rotec- 
lorate  (ib.,  1<)02)  ;  Ellis,  The  Tshi-S peaking  Peo- 
ples (ib.,  1887)  ;  id.,  Tlie  Ewe-Speaking  I'coples 
(ib.,  1890)  :  id..  The  Yoruba-Speaking  Peoples 
(ib.,  1894)  ;  .Junker,  Travels  in  Africa  (ib.,  1890- 
92). 

NEGRO,  na'gro,  Rio.  A  tributary  of  the 
Amazon.     See  Eio  Negro. 

NEGRO  BUG.  A  plant-bug  of  the  family 
Corimel;cnid:p.  These  bugs  are  usually  of  very 
small  size  and  are  intensely  black  in  color,  some- 
times having  a  bluish  or  greenish  tinge.  They 
are  convex  in  form,  the  scutellum  covering  nearly 
the  whole  upper  side  of  the  body,  and  are  often 
mistaken  for  small  beetles.  They  are  fond  of 
laying  their  eggs  on  small  fruits,  like  blackberry 
and  raspberry,  giving  them  a  very  disagreeable 
taste.  A  common  species  in  the  United  States, 
the  (lea-like  negro  bug  {Coriniclwna  puticaria) ,  is 
frequently  mistaken  for  the  chinch  bug. 

NEGRO  EDUCATION.  Much  of  the  negro 
advancement  in  the  Llnited  States  since  the 
Civil  War  is  to  be  credited  to  the  regular 
habits  of  industry,  and  to  the  knowledge  of 
the  white  man's  religion,  language,  and  ways 
of  life  gained  in  slavery  days.  To  one 
connected  with  negro  schools  nothing  is  clearer 
than  the  value  of  the  inlluence  of  good  .'^outhern 
white  families  upon  their  slaves.  Some  of  the 
plantations  were  really  large  trade  schools  where 
habits  of  industry  w'ere  formed.  Carpenters, 
coopers,  sawyers,  blacksmiths,  tanners,  curriers, 
shoemakers,  spinners,  weavers,  knitters,  and  dis- 
tillers were  all  to  be  found  among  ))lantatinn 
slaves;  and  the  negro  nu'chanic  was  an  important 
man  in  the  community.  Thus  the  race  was  being 
gradually  trained  in  the  ways  of  civilization,  was 
contracting  the  habit  of  labor,  acquiring  a  su- 
perior language  and  religion,  and  developing  a 
character  capable  of  further  advancement. 

Credit  shoiild  also  be  given  to  the  training 
which  the  colored  man  received  during  the  Civil 
War.  In  the  Xorthern  armies  there  were  thou- 
sands of  colored  troops  who  received  discipline 
of  the  most  valuable  sort.  In  the  South,  the 
homes  and  farms  of  the  white  Confederate  sol- 
diers were  largely  in  the  hands  of  negro  men 
and  women.    Most  valuable  to  the  slaves  was  the 


NEGRO  EDUCATION. 


3i0 


NEGRO  EDUCATION. 


gain  in  power  and  cxt-xulive  aliilily  that  came 
out  of  lliat  f.^iJeiieiKL'.  While  tlieir  masters 
were  lighting  to  keep  tliem  in  slavery,  they  were 
receiving  in  the  absence  of  those  masters  the  edu- 
cation which  was  to  tit  them  to  be  freemen. 

Tlie  sudden  emancipation  of  tlie  blades  brought 
about  a  condition  bordering  upon  chaos.  The 
Southern  white  man  knew  little  of  the  treatment 
due  a  negro  freeman,  and  the  negro  knew  as  little 
what  his  relation  to  liis  former  master  should  be. 
The  white  man  was  uiuible  to  look  upon  the  black 
in  any  other  light  than  as  his  servant,  and  the 
black  man  looked  upon  all  service  as  degrading, 
considering  that  freedom  and  education  ought  to 
e.\empt  him  from  labor,  especially  from  the  labor 
of  the  hands. 

Upon  the  heels  of  the  Northern  armies  came 
an  army  of  devoted  women,  eager  to  teach  the 
freednien.  In  September,  18(il,  the  American 
ilissionary  Association  opened  its  first  school 
for  contrabands  at  Hampton,  Va.,  the  outcome  of 
which  is  the  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural 
Institute  (q.v.).  In  the  following  January 
schools  were  started  at  Hilton  Head  and  Beau- 
fort, S.  C,  and  in  18U2  and  18G3  teachers  were 
sent  to  Tennessee.  The  Rev.  .John  Eaton,  an 
army  chaplain  from  Ohio,  afterwards  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education,  was  placed  by 
General  Grant  in  charge  of  the  instruction  of  the 
colored  people,  of  whom  it  is  estimated  that  more 
than  a  Tnillion  learned  to  read  and  write;  of  the 
80,000  colored  troops  in  the  Northern  army,  20,- 
000  learned  to  reail  and  write.  The  churclies  of 
the  North  vied  with  one  another  in  their  en- 
deavors to  bring  education  to  the  black  man.  In 
1805  the  I'Vcedmen's  Bureau  (q.v.)  was  estab- 
lished, and,  in  addition  to  other  work,  it  super- 
intended the  education  given  to  the  freedmen  by 
the  Government  and  the  churches  of  the  North. 
Between  180.5  and  1870  more  than  five  million 
dollars  was  expended  by  this  organization 
for  educational  jnirposes.  In  some  cases  Gov- 
ernment buildings  and  land  were  granted. 

The  proved  capacity  of  the  negroes  for  educa- 
tion suggested  the  wisdom  and  economy  of  pro- 
viding their  schools  with  teachers  of  their  own 
race,  and  during  the  years  from  1808  to  1878 
there  were  founded  twenty-five  normal  and  col- 
legiate institutions  under  the  control  of  dilTer- 
ent  religious  denominations,  the  Congregation- 
alists  ,Tnd  Baptists  leading  in  the  number  and 
f-ize  of  their  schools.  They  extended  from  Hamp- 
ton in  Virginia  to  Tillotson  in  Texas.  At  At- 
lanta, Nashville,  f'hattanooga,  and  other  centres 
institutions  were  built  costing  from  $200,000  to 
$.")nO.OOO,  and  having  a  yearly  attendance  of  from 
300  to  .500  students.  They  have  trained  many  of 
the  teachers  of  the  negro  race. 

The  work  of  these  schools  has  often  Ix'en  criti- 
cised, and  sometimes,  perhaps,  justly.  But  it  is 
nevertheless  true  that  they  have  had  much  to 
do  with  the  uplifting  of  tlie  negro  race.  From 
them  have  gone  forth  many  of  the  best  teachers 
of  the  negro  public  schools.  Most  of  these  in- 
stitutions had  as  their  model  the  New  England 
high  school  or  college.  Latin  and  Greek  had 
often  a  prominent  place.  The  practical  side  of 
rduration.  which  was  largely  provided  for  in  the 
New  England  home,  was  not  supplieil  in  the  one- 
room  cabin  of  the  South.  Too  great  emphasis 
was  sometimes  placed  upon  the  literary  and 
academic  side  of  education,  and  too  little  upon 
the  gaining  of  a  knowledge  of  the  common  things 


of  life  and  of  the  forming  of  habits  of  intelligent 
industry.  It  was  natural  that  the  colored  man, 
after  years  of  forced  labor,  should  revolt  against 
any  education  that  gave  prominence  to  the  work 
of  the  hand.  It  was  natural  that  his  teacher, 
who  heard  it  continually  said  that  negroes  were 
lit  only  to  be  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of 
water,  should  wish  to  prove  that  they  could  be- 
come successful  lawyers,  ])hysicians,  and  clergy- 
men. The  wisdom  of  raising  up  leaders  of  "a 
])eople  is  umjuestioned,  liut  where  ninety  per  cent, 
of  a  race  live  on  the  land,  as  is  the  case  with 
the  blacks  of  the  South,  and  where  a  large 
majority  live,  as  the  masses  of  the  negro  race 
still  do,  in  one-room  cabins  un<ler  the  lien  system 
of  crops,  it  would  seem  that  there  ought  to  be  a 
clo.se  relation  between  education  and  vocation, 
and  that  their  teachers  and  clergymen  should 
be  taught  how  to  build  tlieir  own  houses,  and 
how  to  cultivate  their  land  properly.  Each  year 
is  giving  to  these  higher  institutions  for  negroes 
in  the  South,  as  to  the  colleges  of  the  North, 
curricvila  which  have  a  more  vital  connection 
with   life. 

What  is  called  race  prejudice  has  caused  a, 
separation  between  the  white  and  black  races 
which,  though  attended  with  evil,  has  been  pro- 
ductive of  much  good.  The  unwillingness  of  the 
Southern  whites  to  allow  white  and  black  chil- 
dren to  be  taught  in  the  same  schools  has  re- 
sulted in  the  founding  of  the  sehools  just  de- 
.scribed,  which  are  in  some  rojiects  superior  to 
most  of  those  that  are  ojien  to  the  white  children 
of  the  South.  It  has  al.so  resulted  in  a  sj'stem 
of  public  schools  taught  by  colored  teachers 
which,  while  it  has  its  disadvantages,  has  re- 
sulted in  good  to  the  race. 

Before  the  year  1870  there  were  practically  no 
negro  public  schools,  with  the  exception  of  those 
in  Memphis,  New  Orleans,  and  Nashville.  There 
were,  however,  in  the  District  of  Columbia  10,- 
404  colored  children  in  ])ul)lic  and  private 
schools.  In  1870.  while  for  the  nuwt  part  there 
was  op])osition,  certain  far-seeing  Southerners  de- 
clared in  favor  of  the  education  of  the  blacks. 
In  1871  a  little  improvement  was  made.  In  1872 
Delaware  and  Kentucky  were  the  only  States 
that  had  not  made  provision  fiu'  negro  education. 
In  187.3  and  1874  State  normal  schools  began  to 
be  established  for  the  training  of  negro  teachers. 
In  1S77  the  total  numlier  of  negro  children  re- 
ported of  school  age  was  1..5l:!.Oii,5.  ami  the  num- 
ber enrolled  in  the  schools  .571..50t!.  There  were 
twenty-seven  normal  schools  with  .378.5  pupils, 
and  twenty-three  institutions  for  secondarv  in- 
struction, with  2087  pupils.  In  1882-83  the  col- 
ored school  population  in  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia and  the  former  slave  States  was  1.044..572, 
and  the  enrollment  802.!t82.  Tlius,  less  than 
twenty  years  after  the  war  there  was  built  up  in 
the  .South  a  public  school  system  for  both  whites 
and  blacks,  with  normal  schools  for  the  training 
of  teachers,  which,  con-idering  the  extreme  pov- 
erty of  the  Southi'rn  States,  was  admirable.  In 
1807-08  the  United  States  Conunissinner  of  Edu- 
cation stated  that  there  was  an  enrollment  in  the 
schools  of  1.. 500.742  colored  children,  or  .52.07 
per  cent,  of  the  colored  school  ])opuIation.  while 
his  report  for  1000-01  shows  an  enrollment  of 
.57.22  per  cent,  of  the  negro  children.  The  aver- 
age daily  attendance  in  the  colored  schools  is 
02.40  per  cent,  of  their  enrollment. 

No    account    of    negro   education    in    .\merica 


NEGKO  EDUCATION. 


341 


NEGRO  IN  AMERICA. 


vouUl  be  coiuijlfU'  uhicli  ilid  nut,  include'  an  ac- 
cuuiit  of  till'  wurk  uf  (ionciMl  S.  C  Annstroiij,'  at 
llaiiiploii  InstiLulc.  Uelicvint;  in  tliu  moral  value 
of  selt'-lielp,  General  Armstrong  built  up  a  school 
in  which  y:icater  prominence  was  j^iven  to  doing 
than  to  mere  learning,  where  there  was  not  only 
the  schoolroom,  but  also  the  workshop;  not  only 
the  church,  but  also  the  farm ;  not  only  the  train- 
ing of  the  mind,  but  also  that  of  the  heart  and 
hand.  An  elTort  was  made  in  this  school  to  tit 
men  and  women  for  detinite  ccjiulitions,  to  develop 
a  love  for  intelligent  work,  and  to  inspire  in  its 
pupils  ii  strong  desire  to  go  out  and  help  tu  uplift 
their  people.  The  school  at  Tu.skcgee,  founded  by 
Booker  T.  ^Yashington,  Hampton's  most  dis- 
tinguished graduate,  was  established  with  similar 
\iews.  While  receiving  hel])  from  the  North, 
both  of  these  schools  have  put  themselves  in  the 
closest  touch  w'ith  the  South  and  its  ])ublic  school 
system.  Their  influence  on  this  system  has  been 
marked.  As  a  result  of  the  kind  of  training 
given  at  Hampton  and  Tuskcgce,  hundreds  of 
young  people  have  been  sent  out  who,  bj-  the 
establishment  of  homes,  the  cultivation  of  land, 
and  the  carrying  on  of  business  enterprises,  have 
reconstructed  whole  communities.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  this  type  of  school  is  meet- 
ing the  pressing  need,  on  the  part  of  the  negro 
])cople,  of  knowledge  of  the  common  duties  of  life, 
while,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  providing  a  kind  of 
training  which  results  in  the  stability  of  charac- 
ter so  lacking  in  the  masses  of  this  people. 

In  the  estaljlishment  and  conduct  of  negro 
schools,  two  wisely  administered  funds  have  had 
a  large  share.  ( See  Peabody  Educational  Fund  ; 
Slater  Fund.)-  Mention  should  also  be  made  of 
the  Southern  and  General  Education  Boards, 
which  are  composed  of  prominent  Northern  and 
Southern  men.  Both  these  agencies  represent  a 
union  of  wealth,  business  sagacity,  and  education- 
al statesmanship  that  augurs  well  for  the  cause 
of  universal  education.  The  Southern  Education 
Board  conducts  a  campaign  of  education  for  the 
purpose  of  stimulating  public  sentiment  in  favor 
of  more  liberal  provision  for  the  common  schools 
for  both  races.  Its  work  is  supplemented  by  that 
of  the  General  Education  Board,  which,  in  addi- 
tion to  collecting  information  in  regard  to  exist- 
ing educational  conditions  among  both  races,  is 
empowered  to  disburse  certain  funds  where  they 
are  most  needed  for  the  strengthening  of  the 
agencies  tending  to  promote  the  education  of  all 
tlie  people. 

BiBLioc.RAPiiY.  Mavo,  Tliinl  Estate  of  the 
Kutith  (Boston,  18!)0')  ;  Botume,  First  Days 
Aiiionff  the  Contraha7ids  (Boston,  1893)  ;  Curry, 
A  Brief  Sketch  of  George  Peabody  and  a  History 
of  the  Peabody  Edueation  Fund  through 
Thirty  Years  (Cambridge,  1898)  ;  Washington, 
The  Future  of  the  American  yegro  (Bos- 
ton, 1899)  ;  id.,  ''Education  of  the  Negro."  in 
Monographs  on  Education  in  the  United  Htates 
(.Mbany,  1900)  ;  Thomas,  The  American  Xegro 
(New  York,  1901);  ''The  Negro  Common 
School,"  in  Atlanta  Vnircrsiti/  Publications.  No. 
6  (Atlanta,  1901);  Sadler,  "The  Education  of 
the  Colored  Race."  in  Special  Reports  of  Great 
Fritain  Education  Board,  vol.  xi.  (Ixmdon. 
]90'2)  :  John  F.  Slater  Fund  for  the  Education  of 
Frecdmen  Occasional  Papers  (Baltimore.  1S94 
et  seq.)  ;  Reports  of  the  Conimissioucr  of  Educa- 
tion for  lS!li;-fn  (Washington,  1898);  Dubois. 
"A  Select  Eil)l-iography  of  the  American  Negro 


for  General  Headers,  "  in  Atlanta  I  nirersily  Pub- 
lications (.\tlanta,  1901)  ;  iiL,  -The  Negro  Arti- 
san," Atlanta  L  nii'crsity  Puhlicalions,  No,  7 
(Atlanta.   1902). 

NEGRO  EXODUS,  The  name  applied  to  a 
movement  of  frecdmen  from  the  Southern  to  the 
Western  and  Northern  States  in  1S79  and  1880. 
The  movement  began  in  the  early  spring  of  1879, 
and  before  the  close  of  1880  fuliy  40,000  negroes 
had  removed  to  Kansas  alone,  while  a  large 
number  had  .settled  in  Missouri  and  Indiana 
also.  Many  arrived  at  their  destination  poorly 
clad,  generally  destitute,  and  without  ))roniise  of 
employment,  and  for  a  time  there  was  much 
want  and  sutVering  among  them.  Large  sums 
of  money,  however,  were  contributed  for  their  re- 
lief throughout  the  North,  especially  in  Kan- 
sas, where,  soon  after  the  arrival  of  the  first 
band  of  immigrants,  an  ellicient  Freedmen's  Re- 
lief Association  was  organi2i>d.  The  only  South- 
ern States  from  wliich  the  blacks  emigrated  in 
any  considerable  niunbcrs  seem  to  have  been 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Texas,  The  chief 
reasons  given  by  the  negroes  for  the  abandonment 
of  their  homes  were  that  they  were  forced  to  pay 
excessive  rents,  that  the  system  of  land  tenure 
in  the  South  was  unjust,  that  exorbitant  prices 
were  charged  by  'credit'  merchants,  and  that  the 
freedmen  were  wholly  denied  political  recognition 
and  were  kept  down  in  every  way  by  'bulldozing' 
methods.  Opponents  of  the  movement  asserted 
that  the  negroes  had  been  misled  by  the  repre- 
sentations of  land  speculators,  by  misguided 
philanthropists,  and  by  politicians  who,  in  view 
of  the  approaching  Presidential  election,  wished 
to  import  numbers  of  Republican  voters  into 
various  parts  of  the  North,  where  the  Repub- 
lican majority  was  doubtful.  The  movement 
seems  to  have  been  considerably  furthered  by 
the  'Nashville  Colored  Convention,'  which  met  in 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  May  7,  1879,  adopted  a  report 
setting  forth  the  grievances  of  the  blacks  and  the 
many  disadvantages,  social,  economic,  and  politi- 
cal, under  which  they  labored  in  the  South,  and 
recommending  that  the  negroes  should  emigrate 
to  those  States  where  tlieir  rights  were  not 
denied  them.  For  an  account  of  the  causes  of  the 
movement,  consult  an  article  by  Runnion.  "The 
Negro  Exodus."  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  vol. 
xliv.  (Boston.  1879)  ;  and  for  arguments  justify- 
ing and  condemning  the  movement,  consult  arti- 
cles by  R.  T.  Greener  and  Frederick  Douglass, 
respectively,  in  the  -Journal  of  Social  Science, 
vol.   xi.    (Boston,   lS88i. 

NEGRO  IN  AMERICA,  The  first  appear- 
ance of  the  negro  in  the  English  colonies  in 
America  was  in  1019.  when  a  cargo  of  negro 
slaves  was  landed  at  .Jamestown.  The  scarcity 
of  labor,  especially  in  the  Southern  colonies, 
created  an  increasing  demand  for  negro  slaves; 
and  by  1714  the  number  had  increased  to  58,- 
8.50  (estimated).  The  greater  i)art  of  these 
were  brought  direct  from  .Africa.  altho\igh  con- 
siderable importations  from  the  West  Indies 
took  place,  and  natural  increase  contributeil  an 
a|)preciable  number.  Importation  was  carried  on 
more  extensively  in  the  following  half  century, 
the  aggregate  of  negroes  in  the  colonies  reaching 
about  300.000  in  17.54.  In  1790  the  first  census 
found  7o7.'20S  in  the  United  States.  In  the  next 
hundred  years  this  ntimber  was  multiplied  ten- 
fold. This  extraordinary  growth  in  numbers  has 
been  due   chiefly  to  natural   increase;    although 


ITEGBO  IN  AMERICA. 


342 


NEGRO  IN  AMERICA. 


importation-s  were  consiilerable  up  to  1808,  wlien 
tlii-y  were  prohibited  by  the  Constitution.  The 
smuggling  iu  of  Africans  continued,  however,  uji 
to  the  Civil  War.  Since  that  time  there  has 
been  some  immigration  of  negroes  from  tlie 
West  Indies,  not  sullieicnt,  however,  to  alleet 
the  truth  of  the  proposition  that  recent  growth 
in  negro  population  practically  represents  a 
natural  increase. 

It  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  whether  or 
not  the  negro  population  is  increasing  more  rap- 
idly than  the  white.  Table  1.  from  the  Twelfth 
Census  shows  the  number  of  negroes  in  the  United 
States  for  eacli  decade,  from  1790  to  1900,  to- 
gether with  the  percentage  of  the  total  popula- 
tion which  the  negroes  represent: 

Table  I. 


Negroes 

Perceiitiig*?  of 
total  popula- 

tiou  of 
United  States 

1790 

757.208 
1.002.037 
l.:)77.K08 
1.771.650 
2.328.642 
2.873.648 
3.038.808 

4.441. r:io 

4.8B0.009 
6,580. 7'J3 
7.48,s.788 
8.840,7S9 

19  3 

1800 

1810 

19  0 

1820 

1830 

18  1 

1840 

1850 

15  7 

1860  .  .               .... 

14  1 

1870 

12  7 

1880 

1890 

11  9 

1900  ... 

11  6 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  proportion  of  negroes 
to  the  general  population  has  declined  for  every 
decade  since  1810  except  1870-80 ;  and  it  is  now 
generally  understood  that  the  apparent  increase 
for  that  decade  was  the  result  of  faulty  c'luimera- 
tion.  It  is  true  that  much  of  the  relative  in- 
crease in  white  population  is  to  be  ascribed  to 
immigration  (q.v.).  Xevertlieless,  it  appears 
that  the  native  white  population  is  increasing 
faster  tlian  the  negro  population.  Thus,  for  the 
decade  1890-1900,  the  native  whites  of  native 
parentage  increased  IS. 9  per  cent.,  while  the 
negroes  increased  18.1  per  cent. 

Di.sTKinrTiox  of  Xegro  Popvlation.  In  the 
colonial  period  negroes  were  found  in  every  col- 
onj',  but  were  most  numerous  in  the  South,  where 
their  services  were  in  greater  demand.  The 
abolition  of  slavery  in  the  North  led  to  greater 
concentration  in  the  South;  and  bv  l.SfiO,  out  of 
4,441,830  in  the  I'nited  States,  only  22G,Jin  lived 
in  the  Northern  States.  Since  the  war  a  consid- 
erable diffusion  has  taken  place.  At  times  it  has 
been  feared  that  ,a  large  proportion  nf  the  negroes 
would  flock  to  the  North:  l)Ut  adverse  climatic 
conditions  and  the  ditlieulty  of  competing  with 
white  labor  have  forced  most  of  the  negroes  to 
remain  in  the  South.  See  Table  II.  for  the 
distribution  of  negroes. 

Table  II. 

DISTRIBCTION   OF   HBOROBS. 


North  Atlantic  division 
South  Atlnntii-  illvldinn 
North  Tentrnl  (llvlt«lr>n.. 
8nuth  reritnil  dlvlHinn... 
WptitPrn  (livlHlon 


1880 


229.417 
2.941.202 

3W>.e21 

3.012.701 

n.862 


1890 


209.906 
3.262.690 

431.112 

3,497.887 

37,081 


1900 


385.020 
3.729.017 

495. 7M 

4.193.9.'.2 

30,2M 


lation,  tlieir  numbers  have  increased  in  the  last 
decade  in  the  North  Atlantic  division  only.  See 
Table  III. 

Taule  III. 

PEBCENTAGG  OF   NEGROES  IN   GENERAL   POPULATION. 


1890 

1900 

1.6 
36. H 

1.9 
31.3 

0.9 

1,8 

1  9 

Western  divit^iou 

0  7 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  nbRolute  numbers  the 
negroes  have  increased  in  each  of  the  greater 
census  divisions.     Relatively  to  the  general  popu-. 


Georgia  had  a  negro  population  in  1900  of 
1,0,S4.813,  Mississippi  907,030,  Alabama  827,307, 
South  Carolina  782.321.  Virginia.  North  Caro- 
lina, Louisiana,  and  Texas  exceeded  UOO.OOO.  In 
Alabama  the  negroes  are  45.1  per  cent,  of  the 
total  popul.ation;  South  Carolina,  58.4;  Louisi- 
ana, 47.2;  Georgia,  40.7;  Florida,  43.7.  A  more 
detailed  statistical  study  would  show  a  tendency 
of  the  negroes  to  concentrate  in  limited  areas  in 
some  of  the  Southern  States.  Thus,  in  five  coun- 
ties of  the  Yazoo-Mississippi  delta,  in  Jlississippi, 
the  negroes  form  87.6  per  cent,  of  the  total  popu- 
lation. 

IC(.'o.No.Mic  Condition  of  the  Negro.  As  a  la- 
borer, the  negro  is  capable  of  the  hardest  physical 
toil,  and  works  without  dilficulty  where  tlie  hu- 
midity and  heat  render  labor  intolerable  for 
the  white.  He  is  lacking  in  stability,  and  13 
inclined  to  roam  from  one  district  to  another 
without  any  satisfactory  reason;  he  is  wasteful 
and  careless,  requiring  constant  supervision. 
These  characteristics  have  largely  <letermined 
his  economic  position.  As  an  agricultural  labor- 
er the  negro  is  indispensable  in  the  South,  more 
esiM>cially  in  the  low,  swampy  districts,  where 
the  white  laborer  readily  succumbs  to  disease. 
As  a  ilomestic  servant  the  negro  lias  proved  his 
usefulness.  In  manufactures,  on  the  other  hand, 
negro  labor  is  unsatisfactory,  since  the  negro  will 
not  renuiin  in  a  position  long  enough  to  develop 
a  high  degree  of  skill.  The  same  deficiency  is 
driving  him  out  of  the  handicrafts.  Vnder  slav- 
ery a  large  number  of  negroes  were  trained  in 
handicrafts,  and  proved  to  be  valuable  workmen 
after  emancipation;  but  the  generation  which  has 
risen  since  slavery  has  manifested  an  unwilling- 
ness to  enter  \ipon  the  long  period  of  training 
necessary  for  the  exercise  of  the  trades.  The  ten- 
dency toward  agricultural  labor  and  personal 
service  is  illustrated  by  the  statistics  of  occu- 
pations of  the  EUnnth  Crtiaus.  In  1890,  of  all 
negroes  in  gainful  occujiations.  57.2  per  cent,  were 
engaged  in  agriculture,  31.4  per  cent,  in  personal 
service,  5.0  per  cent,  in  manufactures.  4.7  per 
cent,  in  trade  and  transportation,  and  1.1  per 
cent,  in  the  professions.  In  the  Southern  States 
the  |iroportion  engaged  in  agriculture  was  great- 
er— 04  and  71  per  cent,  for  the  South  Atlantic 
and  South  Central  divisions  respectively. 

The  wages  of  the  negro  agricultural  laborer 
in  the  South  usually  range  from  six  to  ten  dol- 
lars a  month,  with  substantial  additions  in  the 
shape  of  food,  house  room.  etc.  In  the  busy  sea- 
son of  the  year  tlie  day  laborer  usually  receives 
a  far  higher  wage.  A  good  cotton-picker  in 
the  Yazoo-Mississippi  delta  often  earns  ,a  dollar 
and  a  half  a  day.  Whether  wages  are  high  or 
low,  the  negro  laborer  is  likely  at  any  time  to 
leave  his  employment,  with  restilting  embarrass- 
ment to  the  employer.     Hence,  it  is  a  common 


NEGRO  IN  AMERICA. 


343 


NEGRO  IN  AMERICA. 


practice  to  let  small  holdings  to  negroes,  in  order 
that  interest  iu  the  trop  may  diminish  their  mi- 
gratory tendeneies.  According  to  the  census  of 
18!)0,  540,ti42  "farms'  were  occupied  by  negroes, 
of  whicli  only  22  per  cent,  were  owned  by  their 
occupants.  Tlie  tenant  farmers  sometimes  pay  a 
cash  rental,  but  more  frequently  farm  "on  shares.' 
The  landowner  furnishes  machinery  and  draught 
animals,  receiving  one-half  the  crop.  Frequently 
he  advances  food  and  other  supplies  to  the  tenant, 
recouping  himself  out  of  the  tenant's  share  in 
the  crop. 

Whether  as  tenant  or  as  independent  land- 
owner, the  negro  farmer  has  not  as  j'et  attained 
a  higli  degree  of  prosperity.  Negligence  in  the 
care  of  his  stock  and  machinery  and  lack  of 
foresight  in  the  expenditure  of  his  income  pre- 
vent him  from  attaining  economic  independence. 
Recent  educational  movements  (see  Xegeo  Edu- 
C.A.TION)  aim  to  encourage  the  negro  tenant  to  be- 
come a  landowner,  and  to  teach  him  how  to  util- 
ize his  land  to  the  best  advantage.  The  great 
mass  of  the  negro  farmers  have  not  yet  been 
affected  by  such  influences. 

In  the  North  the  negro  manifests  a  tendency 
to  concentrate  in  the  cities,  where  his  economic 
activities  are  chiefly  confined  to  personal  service 
and  unskilled  labor. 

Soci.\i,  AXD  ]MoBAL  CONDITIONS.  ^Yhen  account 
i<  taken  of  the  fact  that  the  ancestors  of  the 
American  negro  were  taken  from  a  state  of  bar- 
barism in  which  moral  standards  were  quite  want- 
ing, and  were  subjected  only  to  comparatively 
weak  moral  restraint  under  slavery,  it  does  not 
appear  surprising  that  the  social  and  moral  con- 
dition of  the  negro  is  unsatisfactory.  The  great 
mass  of  the  negro  children  receive  an  inadequate 
home  training,  and  are  therefore  left  to  pursue 
their  own  inclinations,  with  the  result  that  they 
readily  lapse  into  their  ancestral  vices.  The  rules 
of  monogamic  marriage  are  but  loosely  obeyed — 
the  exchanging  of  wives,  for  example,  being  not 
imconimon  on  Southern  plantations.  Illegitimacy 
is  common.  The  percentage  of  illegitimate  births 
among  negroes  in  the  city  of  Washington  in- 
creased from  17.6  per  cent,  in  1879  to  20. ,5  per 
cent,  in  1894.  Sexual  promiscuity  is  common 
«lierever  large  negro  colonies  exist.  Whether 
conditions  are  improving  or  deteriorating  in 
this  respect  it  is  impossible  to  prove.  It  is.  how- 
over,  the  testimony  of  a  large  number  of  observ- 
ers that  wherever  the  negro  withdraws  from 
the  presence  of  the  white  population,  moral  con- 
ditions deteriorate:  hence  the  tendency  toward 
segregation  noted  above  is  generally  viewed  with 
anxiety  by  thcise  who  are  most  deeply  interested 
in  tlie  imjuovpiiient  of  the  negro  race.  Wherever 
the  eccinomic  conditions  of  the  negro  are  improv- 
ing, on  the  other  hand,  family  life  and  morals 
:ilso  show  a  tendency  toward  improvement.  The 
jioverty  of  the  masses  of  the  negroes  at  present 
results  in  the  overcrowding  of  cabins  and  tene- 
ments, which  is  destructive  of  family  life  and 
morality.  For  this  reason  stiulents  of  the  race 
problem  look  to  the  technical  education  of  the 
negro  as  the  best  method  of  elevating  him  mor- 
ally. 

Statistics  of  crime  present  another  serious 
problem  eonneeted  with  the  presence  of  the  negro 
in  the  I'nited  States.  In  ISOO  there  were  in  the 
Southern  States  six  white  prisoners  io  everv-  ten 
thousand  whites,  and  twenty-nine  negro  prisoners 
to  everv  ten  thousand  negroes.     In  the  Northern 


States  there  were  twelve  while  jjrisoners  to  every 
ten  thousand  whites,  sixty-nine  negro  prisoners  to 
every  ten  thousand  negroes.  In  the  South  negro 
])risoners  increased  29  per  cent,  per  ten  thousand 
lictvveen  1880  and  1890,  while  white  prisoners  in- 
creased 8  per  cent,  per  ten  thousand.  While  it  is 
no  doubt  true  that  a  larger  percentage  of  crimes 
against  property  committed  \>y  negroes  is  detected 
and  punished,  and  hence  the  relative  amount  of 
negro  criminality  may  be  exaggerated,  it  is  also 
true  that  a  large  number  of  negro  crimes  com- 
mitted against  members  of  their  own  race  are  not 
punislied  at  all,  and  so  do  not  appear  in  the  sta- 
tistics of  criminality.  Crimes  of  violence  appear 
to  be  increasingly  frequent  where  the  negroes  are 
least  in  contact  with  tlie  whites. 

The  greatest  improvement  in  the  position  of 
the  negro  appears  iu  the  statistics  of  education. 
At  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  it  is  doubtful 
whether  more  than  5  per  cent,  could  read  and 
write.  In  1900  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  had 
been  reduced  to  44..')  per  cent.  But  it  does  not 
appear  that  such  education  as  the  mass  of  the 
negroes  have  received  has  perceptibly  afl'ected 
their  material  or  moral  conditions. 

Political  Conuition.  After  tlie  close  of  the 
Civil  War,  the  negroes,  under  the  leadership  of 
a  certain  class  of  whites,  practically  controlled 
the  government  of  many  of  the  Southern  States. 
(See  Reconstructio.N'.)  Their  ignorance  and 
lack  of  political  training  rendered  them  incapa- 
ble of  exercising  political  power  wisely,  and  they 
were  gradually  excluded  from  power  by  the 
whites,  at  first  by  wholly  illegal  means,  later  by 
State  laws  and  constitutional  amendments.  Iu 
1890  the  Constitutioii  of  JMississippi  was  amend- 
ed so  as  to  exclude  from  the  suft'rage  any  person 
unable  to  read  any  section  of  the  Constitution,  or 
understand  it  when  read  to  him  and  give  a  rea- 
sonable interpretation  of  it.  Payment  of  a  poll 
tax  was  also  required.  The  effect  of  this  amend- 
ment was  the  exclusion  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
negro  vote.  In  1895  South  Carolina  amended  its 
Constitution  .so  as  to  exclude  the  votes  of  those 
unable  to  read  or  write  any  section  of  the  Con- 
stitution, or  to  show  that  he  owned  and  paid 
taxes  on  property  assessed  at  $300  or  more.  In 
1898  Louisiana  passed  a  similar  amendment,  with 
the  addition  of  the  so-called  'grandfather  clause,' 
excusing  from  the  limitations  of  the  amendment 
all  descendants  of  men  who  voted  previous  to  the 
war,  thus  admitting  to  the  suffrage  illiterate, 
propertyless  whites.  North  Carolina  took  simi- 
lar action  in  1900,  though  no  property  qualifica- 
tion was  requii'ed.  In  1901  constitutional 
amendments  were  adopted  in  Virginia  and  Ala- 
bama practically  disfranchising  the  negro. 

For  the  solution  of  the  various  'negro  prob- 
lems,' social,  economic,  and  political,  several 
plans  have  been  brought  to  public  attention. 
Repatriation  of  the  negro  in  Africa  was  widely 
advocated,  especially  in  the  first  two  decades 
after  the  Civil  War;  but  the  plan  has  been  gener- 
ally abandoned  as  impracticable,  since  the  negro 
manifests  no  desire  to  rettirn  to  .-\frica.  and 
eould  not  be  forced  to  emigrate  against  his  will. 
From  a  moral  ))oint  of  view,  the  plan  has  been 
condennied  on  the  ground  that  it  would  mean  a 
reversion  to  barbarism  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  race.  Eeonomieally  its  effects  would  be 
grave,  since  the  Southern  States  must  for  a  long 
time  rely  upon  the  negro  for  unskilled  labor. 

The  plan  which  finds  greatest  favor  at  present 


JJEGKO  IN  AMERICA. 


344 


NEGROS. 


is  the  industrial  I'lliicatidii  of  (lie  negro,  the  en- 
coiiragciiient  of  land-ownership  by  those  who 
are  now  tenants,  and  the  general  extension  of  ed- 
ucation. (See  Xegro  Kdicatiox. )  The  plan 
has  already  produced  valuable  results.  Gradu- 
ates of  institutions  like  Tuskegce  (q.v. )  and 
Hampton  Institute  have  proved  that  under  the 
leadership  of  members  of  their  own  race  negro 
communities  are  capable  of  rapid  improvement, 
economically  and  morally.  See  Negro;  Negro 
Kdication ;    Slavery. 

Bibliography.  Bruce,  The  Plantation  Negro 
as  a  Freeman  (New  York,  1889);  Ingle,  i'hc 
Negro  in  the  District  of  Columbia  (Baltimore, 
181)3)  ;  Gannett.  Slatislies  of  the  Negroes  in  the 
United  States  (Baltimore,  1804);  Du  Bois,  The 
Philadelphia  Negro  (Philadelphia,  1899);  id.. 
The  Negroes  of  the  lilavU  Brit  (Washington, 
1899)  ;  Washington.  The  Future  of  the  American 
Negro  (Boston.  1S99)  ;  id..  Up  From  Slavery 
(New  York.  1901)  ;  Montgomery  Conference  Pro- 
ceedings (^Montgomery,  1900)  ;  Tillinghast,  The 
Negro  in  Africa  and  America  (Xew  Y'ork,  1902). 
See  also  references  under  Negro;  Negro  Educa- 
Tiox. 

NEGRO  MELODIES.  The  music  of  the 
.American  nLgnics  is  essentially  vocal.  Their  few 
musical  instruments  are  of  importance  only  for 
furnishing  accompaniments  to  songs  or  for  ac- 
centing the  rhythm  of  tlic  dance.  During  the 
last  twenty  years  negro  music  has  been  steadily 
losing  its  distinctive  features,  owing  to  the  ten- 
dency among  the  younger  generation  to  discard 
everj-thing  which  harks  liack  to  the  days  of  slav- 
ery. The  old  plaintive  melodies  have  been  re- 
placed largely  by  more  modern  comic  and  erotic 
songs  which  are  cast  in  a  nondescript  Afric- 
European  mode. 

Negro  songs  may  be  divided  into  two  general 
groups:  those  which  show  evidences  of  foreign 
origin,  but  which  have  l)ecn  added  to  and  changed 
until  they  are  undeniably  negro  in  character; 
and  those  which  are  the  spontaneous  expression 
of  the  negro's  own  feelings.  The  first  group  may 
be  subdivided  into  la)  those  derived  from  Euro- 
pean songs  and  dances,  and  (b)  those  adapted 
from  Baptist  and  Metliodi>t  hymns.  The  original 
negro  songs,  wTiose  most  typical  element  is  a 
weird  recitative,  have  undoubtedly  an  affinity 
with  the  musical  forms  used  in  Africa,  but  they 
have  been  greatly  expan<lcd  both  rhythmically 
and  mclodically.  Though  it  is  jiossible  to  make 
some  such  analysis  of  negro  melodies,  the  most 
important  feature,  their  interpretation,  cannot 
be  ade<|uately  described.  Impromptu  chords, 
noles.  and  accents  are  introduced,  the  whole 
blending  into  unusual  forms  with  strikingly  orig- 
inal melodies  and  motives.  Strange  to  say.  the 
time  structure  is  excellent,  and  the  tempo  is  uni- 
versally exact.  The  tunes  have  as  a  rule  a  range 
of  few  notes,  and.  as  in  Africa,  the  nuijor  key 
preriominates.  In  some  songs  both  the  major  and 
minor  keys  are  used.  The  weird  cfTect  produced 
by  many  of  their  cadences  is  not  as  a  rule  due 
to  the  use  of  the  minor  key  so  much  as  to  the 
employment  of  the  pentatonic  scale,  and  the 
major  scale  with  the  Hat  seventh.  A  distinctive 
character  of  negro  melodies  is  the  'rhythmical 
snap'  which  became  such  an  overworked  feature 
J  m  •ragtime.'  Hee  KoLK-Mi'Sir v  Raoti.mb.  Con- 
sult: Ritfcr.  Music  in  America  (New  ed..  New 
York,  1900)  ;  Edwards.  Hahnma  Songs  and  Sto- 
ries (New  York.  189.'>)  ;  Marsli.  The  Story  of  «/i« 


Juhilee  Singers  and  Their  .Songs  (Boston,  1880)  : 
and   Trotter.    Music,   and   Some  Highly   Mui/ual 

Peoyle   ( ib..  1S78). 

NEGRO  MONKEY.  ( 1 )  A  sooty  black  lan- 
gur  [.Seiiiiiopiltircus  maurus),  about  24  inelies 
long,  plus  a  still  longer  tail.  The  animal  is 
well  known  in  Sumatra  ahd  the  Malay  IVnins\ila. 
Its  young  are  reddish  in  color  and  grow  blaik 
with  advancing  iige.  (2)  A  marmoset  {Midas 
nrsulus)  of  Brazil,  also  called  "negro  tamarin,' 
and  often  tamed.  It  is  black  with  a  reddish  dor- 
sal stri|)c'. 

NEGROS,  na'gros.  One  of  the  Philippine 
Islands,  belonging  to  the  Visayas  group.  It 
lies  between  the  islands  of  Panay  and  (ebu.  It 
is  separated  from  Panay  and  the  small  island  of 
Guimaras  on  the  northwest  by  the  Strait  of 
Guinuiriis,  eight  miles  wide  at  the  narrowest, 
and  from  Ccbu  on  the  east  by  the  Strait  of  Ta- 
non,  from  6  to  22  miles  wide  (Map:  Philippine 
Islands,  G  10).  On  the  north  the  island  borders 
on  the  Visayan  Sea.  and  on  the  southwest  and 
south  it  is  washed  by  the  Sulu  Sea.  which  to  the 
southeast  separates  Xegros  by  a  distance  of  ;i0 
miles  from  Mindanao.  The  island  is  roughly 
rectangular,  but  very  elongated  in  shape.  Its 
length  is  134  miles,  and  its  average  breadth  26 
miles,  increased  near  the  southern  end  to  34 
miles  by  a  broad,  rounded  peninsula,  extending 
from  the  western  coast.  Its  area  is  given  as  4839 
.square  miles.  Including  a  number  of  small  de- 
pendent islets,  the  area  is  48.">4  square  miles.  It 
ranks  fourth  in  size  among  the  Philippine 
Islands. 

The  coasts  are  clear  and  steep,  but  very  little 
indented,  and  alTord  no  harbors  except  a  few 
anchorages  sheltered  by  the  small  adjacent  is- 
lands. The  whole  interior  consists  of  a  moun- 
tainous plateau  with  a  central  ridge  running 
the  entire  length  of  the  island  and  divid- 
ing it  into  two  distinct  halves,  forming  its 
two  political  divisions.  The  active  volcano  of 
Canlaoii  or  -\Ialaspina,  situated  in  the  north 
central  part  of  the  island,  is  8192  feet  high.  The 
range  terminates  at  the  north  in  the  remark- 
able isolated  peak  Solitario.  The  two  slopes  are 
eroded  into  numerous  lateral  valleys  watered  by 
short  and  generally  simple  streams,  the  largest 
being  on  the  western  slope.  In  the  southern 
part  are  two  remarkable  mountain  lakes,  the 
larger  six  miles  long.  The  mountains  of  the 
interior  are  covered  with  vast  forests  of  valuable 
timber,  among  which  tlie  teak  is  prominent.  The 
soil  is  everywhere  fertile  :uid  well  watered,  and 
agriculture  is  the  principal  occupation.  The 
chief  protlucts  are  cacao  of  an  excellent  quality, 
hemp,  sugar-cane,  eofl'ee,  rice,  tobacco,  cotton, 
and  cereals.  The  fisheries  are  next  in  importance 
to  agriculture,  and  cattle-raising  also  receives 
considerable  attention,  large  numbers  of  horses, 
carabaos.   and   hogs   being  raised. 

The  chief  manufactures  are  abaca,  cabo  negro, 
sugar  sacks,  and  sugar,  the  last-named  manu- 
facture enijiloying  hydraulic  and  steam  ma- 
chinery. Means  of  eomnuinication  are  very  p<X)r. 
Coasting  vessels  are  almost  the  only  means  of 
communication  between  the  towns.  These  are 
nearly  all  situated  on  the  roast,  the  interior 
being  a  wilderness.  The  population  of  the  isl- 
and in  1901  was  estimated  at  372,000.  The  pre- 
vailing race  is  the  Visayan,  and  the  Visayan  is 
the  language  most  spoken.     The  forests  of  the 


NEGROS. 


345 


NEHEMIAH. 


interior  arc  inlialiitcil  liy  niaiiiing  savages.  Po- 
litically tlie  i-laiid  is  diviiled  iiUo  the  two  prov- 
inces of  Negros  Occidental  anil  Xegros  Oriental, 
wliose  areas,  respectively,  are  3112  and  1742 
square  niiles,  and  whose  populations  are  231,000 
and  141.000.  The  capital  of  the  former  is  Baco- 
lod,  and  of  the  latter  Duniaguete.  The  two  old 
provinces  were  continued  under  civil  government 
by  the  rhili|)pine  t'onnuission  Act  of  Fehruary 
0,  1!H)1.  Some  resistance  was  offered  to  the 
authority  of  the  United  States  by  bands  of 
natives,  who  kept  American  troops  actively  en- 
gaged on  tlie  inland  during  the  campaigns  of 
KS!Mi  and  1000.  Consult  Ainiiiles  (le  la  Isla  de 
.ACi/ro.s'   (.Ma  111  hi.  1S94). 

NEGRUZZI,  na-grt3ot'se,  KoNSTANTiN  (1808- 
68 ) .  A  Rumanian  poet,  born  at  Jassy,  the  dis- 
ciple and  translator  of  the  poet  Pushkin.  He 
also  translated  some  of  H\igo's  works,  and  wrote 
an  epic  poem,  Aprodiil  I'liricc,  and  a  volume 
of  verse  and  prose.  The  tS'i'iis  of  Youth.  His  com- 
plete works  were  published  in  1873.  His  son, 
J.\coB  (1843 — ),  was  born  at  Jassy,  and  became 
professor  of  commercial  law  at  the  university 
there,  and  afterwards  at  Bucharest  (1885).  In 
1807  he  founded  and  became  the  editor  of  the 
literary  journal,  Convorbiri  Literare.  His  writ- 
ings include:  Poesil  (1872)  ;  Mirdnasi  Florica, 
an  idyl:  illhUni  Vcreanu,  a  novel;  and  the  short 
stories  in  i'ujiii  dujM  natura. 

NEGUN'DO  ( Xeo-Lat.,  from  the  Xorth  Ameri- 
can Indian  name).  A  group  of  trees  sometimes 
separated  from  Acer  as  a  genus  of  the  natural 
order  Acerace*  ( see  jSIaple  ) ,  differing  from  the 
maples  chiefly  in  the  apetalous  dioecious  llowers, 
and  in  the  pinnated  ash-like  leaves.  The  common 
negundo,  ash-lcaved  maple,  or  box-elder  (rj.v.), 
is  a  native  of  North  America  often  planted  for 
ornament  and  extensively  cultivated  in  the  West- 
ern  I'nited    States. 

NEHAN'TIC.     See  Niantic. 

NE'HEMI'AH  (Heb.  Xehemyah.  Yahweh  is 
consolalion) .  A  Hebrew  leader  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury n.c.  whose  memoirs  are  embodied  in  the 
Book  of  Xeiiemiah  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  is 
tliere  stated  that  he  was  a  son  of  Hachaliah,  and 
cupbearer  to  Arta.xerxes  (i.e.  Arta.xerxes  I., 
Longimanus,  B.C.  405-425)  in  the  palace  of  Shn- 
shan.  Having  learned  the  sad  condition  of  the 
returned  colonists  in  Jerusalem,  he  prevailed 
ripon  the  King  to  send  him  to  his  brethren  there 
witli  fiill  powers  'to  seek  their  welfare.'  He  re- 
ceived an  appointment  as  'governor.'  and  worked 
for  the  safety  of  tlie  city  and  its  inhabitants.  He 
rebuilt  the  city  walls,  notwithstanding  many 
hindrances  and  dangers ;  he  induced  people  from 
the  country — priests  and  laymen — to  take  up 
their  abode  in  the  city,  thus  promoting  its  pros- 
perity; above  all  he  rekindled  the  tlame  of  an- 
cient piety  and  enthusiasm  for  the  obsen'ance 
of  the  law  in  the  hearts  of  the  rough  immigrants. 
He  then  returned  to  Persia,  trusting  to  the  new 
vitality  which  his  reforms  had,  as  he  thought, 
infused  into  the  Jewish  commonwealth.  But  not 
long  afterwards  he  had  again  to  obtain  leave 
from  the  King  to  return  for  the  purpose  of 
abolishing  many  abuses  that  had  crept  in  during 
his  brief  absence.  He  enforced  the  rigorous  ob- 
servance of  feast  and  Sabbath,  and  reaminged 
the  temple  service,  procuring  at  the  same  time 
the  means  for  its  proper  support  by  inducing  the 
people  to  offer  the  tithes  as  of  old. 


Owing  to  the  clianges  in  the  memoirs  of  Xehe- 
niiali  which  have  been  made  in  the  course  of  the 
dilleront  editings  to  which  they  have  been  sub- 
jected (see  Xeiiemiah,  Book  oe),  it  is  dilTicult 
to  separate  the  actual  course  of  events  from 
the  traditional  view  concerning  X'ehemiah's  ac- 
tivity. This  mucli,  however,  seems  certain:  that 
Xeiiemiah  paid  two  visits  to  Jerusalem,  the 
one  in  B.C.  445,  the  other  proh.ably  in  433.  He 
came  the  first  time  on  a  special  mission  to  pro- 
tect Jerusalem  from  attack  by  rebuilding  the 
walls,  and  for  this  work  he  was  intrusted  with 
full  jiowers  by  the  Persian  King.  He  completed 
the  restoration  of  the  walls  in  the  short  space  of 
fifty-two  days,  and  provided  for  the  proper 
guarding  of  the  gates;  afterwards  he  returned 
to  the  Persians.  In  this  visit  he  appears  as  the 
'governor.'  In  the  second,  however,  he  holds  no 
such  office;  his  purpose  is  to  insure  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  provisions  of  the  'Priestly  Code.'  par- 
ticularly those  forbidding  marriages  between 
Jews  and  non-JcA\s.  By  his  infiuence  he  suc- 
ceeded in  aiding  the  pious  Ezra  in  his  efforts. 
See  Ezra. 

NEHEMIAH,  Book  of.  One  of  the  histor- 
ical books  of  the  Old  Testament.  In  some  (Jreek 
and  Latin  versions  it  is  called  the  Second  Book 
of  Ezra,  and  in  the  Jewish  canon  the  books 
of  Ezra  and  Xeiiemiah  originally  constituted  one 
book.  It  is  the  opinion  of  modern  scholars  that 
both  books  were  put  into  their  present  form  by 
one  and  the  same  editor.  ( See  EzR.\,  Book  of.  ) 
The  period  covered  by  the  Book  of  Nehcmiah 
is  the  3'ears  B.C.  445-432.  It  is  based  upon  the 
genuine  memoirs  of  Xehemiali.  but  also,  accord- 
ing to  the  critical  view,  contains  much  extraneous 
material,  the  memoirs  having  been  freely  used  by 
compilers  whose  aim  it  was  to  prove  that  the 
work  of  restoration  of  the  temple,  the  cult,  and 
the  general  reorganization  was  performed  by 
Babylonian  Jews  who  returned  from  the  Exile ; 
whereas,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  much  of  the  work 
was  due  to  the  section  of  the  .Jewish  conununity 
of  Jerusalem  which  had  remained  in  the  coun- 
try. The  contents  of  the  book  may  he  sum- 
marized as  follows:  X'ehemiah's  sorrow  over 
the  desolation  of  Jerusalem  is  depicted,  and  he 
prays  to  God  for  opportunity  to  rebuild  the  city 
(eh.  i.).  Permission  is  granted  him  bj-  the 
King  to  undertake  the  work;  he  arrives  at  Jeru- 
salem, surveys  the  ruins,  and  begins  to  rebuild 
the  walls  (chs.  ii.-iii.).  The  opposition  of 
enemies  is  related  and  the  plans  by  which  their 
schemes  were  defeated  (ch.  iv.).  The  people  com- 
plain against  the  oppression  of  the  nobles  and  the 
evil  is  redressed  (ch.  v.).  Enemies  form  a  plot 
to  interrupt  the  work,  which  is  frustrated  by 
Xehemiah's  boldness  (ch.  vi.).  A  record  of  the 
families  that  returned  first  from  Babylon  is 
given,  followed  by  an  account  of  tlie  offerings 
made  by  rich  and  poor  for  the  work  (ch.  vii.). 
The  law  is  read  by  Ezra  the  Scribe,  acconqjanied 
with  a  joyful  celebration  of  the  feast  of  taber- 
nacles (ch.  viii.).  The  |)eople  mourn,  fast,  and 
re))ent,  a  full  confession  of  sin  is  made  and  .a 
solemn  covenant  sealed  by  princes,  priests,  and 
Levites,  and  confirmed  with  an  oath  by  the 
whole  multitude  to  observe  the  law,  sanctify  the 
Sabliath,  sustain  the  services  of  the  temple,  and 
bring  in  all  the  tithes  (chs.  ix.-x.).  A  tenth  of 
the  people  are  selected  by  lot  to  dwell  in  Jeru- 
salem and  the  rest  are  distributed  through  tlie 
other  cities   of  the  land    (ch.   xi.).     A   list  of 


NEHEMIAH. 


346 


NEIDHART  VON  REXJENTHAL. 


priests  and  Levilc*  is  fjivoii.  and  the  joyous 
dedieatioii  of  the  wall,  accompanied  with  .sacri- 
fices, is  described  (ch.  xii.).  JJuring  Xeheuiiah's 
absence  in  Persia  heathen  strangers  were  ad- 
mitted into  the  temple;  they  are  expelled  after 
his  return,  and  the  broken  covenant  to  pay  the 
tithes,  to  sanctify  the  Sabbath,  and  to  refrain 
from  mi.xed  marriages  is  enforced  (ch.  xiii.). 

The  chronological  questions  involved  in  the 
]iook  of  Xehemiah  will  be  found  discussed  in  the 
articles  Ezra,  BooK  of;  and  Xehemi.\h.  As  to 
how  much  of  the  book  represents  Xeheuiiah's 
memoirs,  scholars  are  not  agreed.  The  genuine 
historical  basis  of  the  work  is  probably  the  ac- 
count of  Xeheuiiah's  first  visit,  his  activity  in  the 
rebuilding  of  the  walls,  his  return  to  Persia,  and 
his  subsequent  second  visit  to  Jerusalem  to  en- 
force the  regulations  of  the  "Priestly  Code,'  which 
had  been  adopted  by  the  people  in  B.C.  444  on  the 
occasion  of  llie  first  visit.  For  literature,  con- 
sult the  works  mentioned  under  Ezra,  Book  of. 

NEHEB,  na'er,  Bebxiiard  VON  (1806-86).  A 
German  historical  painter,  born  at  Biberach, 
W'iirttemberg.  He  studied  in  Stuttgart  under 
lletscji  and  Dannecker.  and  in  1823  proceeded  to 
Alunich,  where  he  studied  at  the  Academy  under 
Cornelius.  During  his  sojourn  in  Rome,  from 
1828  to  1832,  he  produced  "The  Raising  of  the 
Youth  at  Nain"  (1831,  Stuttgart  Gallery),  and 
"Abraham  Visited  by  the  Angels"  (1832,  Basel 
Jliiseum ) ,  and  on  liis  return  to  Munich  was  com- 
missioned to  execute  the  fresco  painting  "Entry 
of  Emperor  Louis  the  Bavarian"  (1832-35), 
on  the  recently  restored  Isar  gate.  Appointed 
director  of  the  Leipzig  Academy  in  1841.  he 
thence  went  to  Stuttgart  in  1846,  as  professor 
at  the  School  of  Art,  and  became  its  director 
in  18.54.  His  most  important  works  there  were 
a  dozen  great  cartoons  for  stained-glass  windows 
to  be  placed  in  churches  in  Stuttgart.  Among 
several  larger  and  smaller  canvases,  dating  from 
that  period,  should  l)e  mentioned:  "Descent  from 
flic  Cross"  (18.>i').  Stuttgart  Gallerv),  and 
"Spring"   (1858,  Royal  Palace,  Stuttgart). 

NEHEB,  .Michael  (17981876).  A  German 
nrcliitcilural  painter,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Munich.  On  his  way  to  Italy,  in  1819, 
he  spent  some  time  at  Trent  painting  portraits, 
but  in  Rome  he  took  up  genre  subjects,  and 
gradually  gave  more  and  more  prominence  to 
architectural  surroundings.  His  "Roman  Poul- 
try Vender"  (1825,  X'ew  Pinakothek.  Munich) 
is  an  exquisite  specimen  of  that  ])hase  of  his 
work.  He  returned  to  Munich  in  1825,  and 
painted  many  landscapes  and  architectural  and 
custiime  pieces.  After  1837  he  confined  his  brush 
to  those  subjects  with  which  his  name  was  thence- 
forth associated,  namely,  views  of  city  squares, 
enlivened  with  scene*  from  German  life  of  the 
past.  The  Xew  Pinakothek  at  Munich  has  "In- 
terior of  Chapel  at  Castle  Transsnitz"  (IS.'IS); 
"Views  in  Old  Munich"  (1842-43):  "Magdeburg 
ratliedral"  (1835);  "Saint  Vitus's  Chnrch  in 
Prague." 

NEHLIG,  r\-y\f-p'.  Victor  (1830—).  A 
Frenih  hi-lnrical  painter,  born  in  Paris.  He  was 
a  juipil  of  Cngniet  and  -VUd  de  Pujol,  and  came  to 
the  liiited  States  in  IS5i'>.  lie  opened  a  studio 
in  Xew  York,  and  in  1870  was  made  a  member 
of  the  Xational  Acailemy  of  Di'sign.  In  1872  he 
returned  to  Paris,  where  he  still  resides.  Among 
his  best  works  are:   the  "Bravo"    (1870);   "Ar- 


morer of  the  Olilcii  Tinic."  'Gertrude  of  Wyo- 
ming." the  "Artist's  Dream,"  the  "Cavalry  Charge 
of  Lieutenant  Hidden,"  Xew  York  Historical  So- 
ciety; "Battle  at  Autietam,"  in  possession  of 
William  Astor,  X'ew  York :  the  "Captive  Hugue- 
not," "Pocahontas,"  "Hiawatha."'  the  ""Serenade," 
and  ""Waiting  for  My  Enemy."  Xehlig  is  suc- 
cessful in  depicting  historical  scenes. 

NEHRING,  na'ring,  Wladislaw  (1830—). 
A  German  Slavic  scholar,  born  at  Kletzko,  near 
Gnesen.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Breslau,  where  he  was  aijpointed  professor  of 
Slavic  languages  and  literature  in  1868.  Among 
his  publications  are:  Kiirs  lilciatury  polslci^j 
(1866);  ,S'(»rfi/  a  literachi  (1884);  and  Allpol- 
nische  Sprachdcnknuilcr  (1887). 

NEIDE,  ni'de,  Emil  (1843—).  A  German 
painter.  l»orn  at  Kiiuigsberg.  First  a  pupil  of 
the  Academy  there,  he  continued  his  studies  at 
Diisseldorf  and  Munich,  especially  under  Dietz, 
and  subsequently  traveled  in  Belgium.  Holland, 
France,  and  Italy.  Previous  to  this  journey 
he  had  e.xecuted  the  fresco  painting  ""Ptolemy 
Observing  the  Constellations,''  in  the  Aula  of 
the  Gymnasium  at  Kiinigsberg.  where,  after  his 
return,  he  painted  numerous  portraits  and  sev- 
eral mythological  subjects,  of  which  "Psyche 
Conveyed  Across  the  Styx  by  Charon"  (  1873, 
Kiinigsberg  Museum),  ""Orpheus  and  Eurydice" 
(1876,  Halsey  Collection.  Xew  York  City),  and 
the  ""Scenes  from  the  Odyssey."  in  fresco  for  the 
(lymnasium  at  Insterburg,  are  the  most  promi- 
nent. In  1880  he  was  appointed  instructor,  and 
in  1884  professor  at  the  Kiinigsberg  Academy. 
Two  years  afterwards  he  created  a  startling  im- 
pression by  his  revolutionary  change  in  the 
choice  of  subjects  and  their  eoloristie  treatment, 
as  exemplified  by  such  sensational  genre  scenes 
as  "On  the  Scene  of  the  Deed"  I  the  discovery  of 
a  murdered  man's  body),  "Tired  of  Life,"  and 
similar   incidents. 

NEIDHART  VON  REXJENTHAL,  nit'hart 
fou  roiVntal  (c.l  18i)-c.l25il  i .  .V  German  poet, 
born  in  Havaria.  He  |)articipaled  in  the  crusade 
against  Damietta,  Egypt  (1218-19).  and  later 
resided  at  the  Court  of  Frederick  the  t^uarrel- 
some  in  Vienna.  From  Frederick  lie  re- 
ceived a  fief  near  Melk  and  other  valua- 
ble gifts.  He  was  the  originator  of  a  new 
form  of  the  mediieval  lyric — the  ]x>asant  lyric 
written  under  the  infiuence  of  the  Court. 
In  this  he  satirizes  the  wealthy  but  vulgar 
peasantry  of  Bavaria  and  .\ustria.  with  its 
display  of  finery,  its  brawls,  and  its  insolence  to 
belters.  For  this  ridicule  he  was  bitterly  disliked 
by  the  rustic  versifiers,  and,  by  the  name  Neid- 
hart  Fuchs.  'was  known  as  the  enemy  of  the 
jieasants  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  century.  X'eid- 
hart's  work  was  an  important  one  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Volkslied.  upon  which  it  continued 
for  two  centuries  to  leave  a  distinct  impression. 
A  manuscript  collection  of  his  poems,  dating 
from  the  thirteenth  century,  was  edited  by 
Benecke,  in  vol.  ii.  of  the  lieitriifle  cur  Ki'tiritnis 
(III-  iillilriilschrii  Spriichc  (Giittingen.  18321. 
'The  critical  edition  by  Haupt  (Leipzig.  1S58)  is 
excellent.  Xeidhart  is  co-liero  with  the  PfafT 
.Vinis  of  .\nastasius  Griin's  (Count  .Vuersperg's) 
I'fiiff  row  Knhh'iiUcrfi  (Leipzig.  1S50:  3d  ed. 
1877).  Consult  also.  Bielschowsky,  Lchcti  und 
Oichten  yeidharts  von  Keiieiilhal  (Berlin,  1891). 


NEILGHERKY  HILLS. 


347 


NEISSE. 


NEILGHERRY    (iielgC'ii)   HILLS.     Moun- 
tain-, in  iiulia.     See  NlLuiiu  Hili.j.. 

NEILGHERRY    (or   NILGIRI)    NETTLE 

{(UniKliiiiii  ixdmatd).  A  plant  nf  tlic  naliiiul 
ipiik'i-  Urlieacea.',  nearly  allied  to  the  true  nettles, 
and  possessing  the  stinging  ])o\vpr  common  in 
them.  It  is  frequent  on  all  the  higher  ranges  of 
the  Nilgiri  hills.  The  natives  obtain  the 
lil)re  by  first  boiling  the  |)lant,  to  destroy 
ils  stinging  properties,  and  then  ])eeling  the 
stalks.  There  are  said  to  be  two  or  three  distinct 
forms  or  varieties  of  Neilgherry  nettle  fibre,  and 
different  specilie  names  have  been  given  the 
])lants  producing  them.  Its  bark  yields  a  long, 
soft,  and  silky  fibre,  which  is  said  to  be  one  of  the 
best  fibres  produced  in  India. 

NEILL,  nel,  Edwaud  Duffield  (1823-93), 
An  .\merican  author  and  educator,  born  at  Phila- 
delphia, He  attended  the  L'nivereity  of  Penn- 
sylvania for  a  time,  but  was  graduated  at  Am- 
herst in  1842,  and  afterwards  studied  theologj' 
at  Andover,  After  ordination  as  a  Presbyterian 
minister  he  removed  to  Saint  Paul,  llinn.,  in 
IS48.  and  became  pastor  of  the  first  Protestant 
church.  In  1851-53  he  was  superintendent  of 
]iublic  instruction  for  the  Territory,  and  from 
1S.)8  to  1861  chancellor  of  the  State  University. 
1h  18(;l-fi4  he  was  an  army  and  hospital  chaplain. 
From  that  time  until  ISCiit  he  was  one  of  the 
secretaries  of  Presidents  Lincoln  and  .Johnson. 
President  Grant  appointed  him  consul  to  Dublin 
in  1809,  but  he  returned  the  next  year.  In 
1873-84  he  was  president  of  Manchester  College 
in  Saint  Paul,  and  from  that  time  until  his  death 
professor  of  history  and  literature.  He  published 
many  historical  works,  ehielly  concerning  the 
colonial  jieriod.  They  are  drawn  entirely  from 
iiriginal  documents,  and  contain  much  valuable 
material,  arranged,  however,  with  little  sense  of 
]>ro|iortion.  The  most  important  are:  History 
of  Minnesota  (1858,  5th  ed.  1883);  Minnesota 
ICx/ilorers  and  Pioneers  (1881)  ;  Terra  Mariie,  a 
history  of  early  Mai-yland  ( 1807)  ;  Uistorn  of  the 
Virr/inia  Company  of  London  (1809);  English 
Colonization  of  America  Dnriny  the  Sercntcenth 
Century  (1871);  Tirfiinia  Vetusta  (1885);  Vir- 
giniri  VaroJoriim    (1880). 

NEILLS'VILLE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Clark  County,  Wis.,  66  miles  northeast  of  La 
Crosse,  at  the  junction  of  the  O'Neil  and  Black 
rivers,  and  on  the  Chicago.  Saint  Paul,  Jlinne- 
ai)olis  and  Omaha  Railroail  (Jlaj):  Wisconsin, 
V  A).  The  city  has  a  public  library  of  2000  vol- 
umes. It  is  the  centre  of  a  pros]ierous  farming 
and  cattle-raising  community;  there  are  manu- 
factures of  flour,  furniture,  and  lumber  in  vari- 
ous products.  Population,  in  1890,  1930;  in 
1900.  2104. 

NEILSON,  nel'son,  .Tames  Beavjioxt  (1792- 
1S05).  A  Scotch  inventor,  born  at  Shettleston, 
near  (Glasgow.  He  had  little  education  in 
scho(d.  and  at  fourteen  was  set  to  work.  Ho  was 
employed  by  his  brother,  then  as  engineer  of  a 
colliery  near  Irvine,  and  in  1817  as  foreman  of 
the  (tlasgow  gas  works,  wlu're  he  niatle  many 
improvements  in  the  method  of  gas  manufacture, 
and  founded  an  institute  for  the  education  of 
employees.  His  great  invention,  that  of  the  hot 
blast  in  manufacturing  iron,  was  directly  op- 
posed to  the  belief  of  contemporary  foundrvmen 
that  the  colder  the  blast  the  better  the  quality 
and  the  greater  the  quantity;    and   his   expcri- 

VOL.  XIV.— 23. 


ments  were  long  blocked  by  the  impossibility  of 
a  fair  test,  XeiLson's  jiatent,  taken  out  in  1828, 
was  very  successful,  \\  ilh  eijual  fuel  his  method 
produced  three  times  the  iron  of  the  cold  blast. 
But  the  validity  of  the  patent  was  attacked  with 
some  success,  and  nu>ny  firms  refused  to  i)ay  the 
license  for  the  blast.  Neilsou  won  the  great 
suit  against  the  Bairds  of  (jartsherrie  in  1843, 
and  four  years  afterwards  retired  to  the  Isle 
of  Bute,  llis  last  years  were  spent  at  t^ueensliill, 
Kirkcudbright,  where  he  established  a  working- 
man's  institute. 

NEILSON,  Lilian  Adelaide  (1848-80).  The 
assumed  mime  of  an  English  actress  named  Eliza- 
beth Ann  Brown.  She  was  born  March  3,  1848, 
in  Leeds,  and  her  childhood  at  liuiseley  was  of 
the  humblest.  When  fourteen  years  old  she  ran 
away  from  home,  and  going  to  London,  was  edu- 
cated for  the  stage  through  the  kindness  of  a 
chance  acquaintance,  making  her  debut  in  1865 
in  the  part  of  Juliet.  She  played  for  a  few  years 
in  various  theatres  of  London  and  the  jirovinces, 
till  1870-71,  when  she  met  great  .success  as 
Amy  Robsart  in  an  adaptation  of  Kenilworth, 
and  as  Rebecca  in  Ivunkoe.  Ai  once  she  became 
one  of  the  favorites  of  the  Knglish  stage,  and  was 
equally  popular  in  .\merica,  where  she  appeared 
ncary  every  year  from  1872  to  her  death.  Her 
great  characters,  besides  those  mentioned,  were 
the  Shakespearean  Rosalind,  Beatrice,  and  Imo- 
gen, and  also  Julia  in  The  fJunchhaclc.  Early  in 
her  career  she  was  married  to  Philip  Ix>e,  from 
whom  she  was  divorced  in  1877.  She  died  sud- 
denly in  the  prime  of  lier  beauty,  in  Paris,  Au- 
gust 15,  1880.  Consult:  Scott,  The  Drama  of 
Yesterday  and  To-Day  (London,  1899)  ;  Mars- 
ton,  Our  Recent  Actors   (ib,,  1890). 

NEILSON,  Samuel  (1761-1803),  An  Irish 
politician,  founder  of  the  L'nited  Irish  Society, 
He  was  born  at  Ballyroney,  County  Down,  the 
son  of  a  Presbyterian  clergyman,  and  established 
himself  in  Belfast  as  a  woolen  merchant,  but  his 
interest  in  politics  soon  forced  him  out  of  busi- 
ness. In  1792  he  founded  the  yorthcrn  Star,  an 
organ  of  the  United  Irishmen,  The  formation  of 
this  society  had  been  suggested  by  Neilson  in 
the  previous  year  and  was  carried  out  by  Wolf 
Tone.  The  Star  was  suppressed  in  1797  after 
the  editor,  who  aimed  at  complete  separation 
from  England,  had  several  times  suffered  arrest 
and  imprisonment.  Rearrested  in  1798,  Xeilson 
either  bargained  with  the  Government  in  behalf 
of  all  political  prisoners  that  they  were  to  be 
exiled  to  some  country  frieiuUy  to  Great  Britain, 
and  in  return  would  disclose  the  secrets  of  the 
United  Irish  Society,  or  in  some  other  way  man- 
aged to  escape  trial.  In  1802  he  was  set  free 
at  Cuxhaven,  soon  afterwards  can>e  to  the  United 
States,  and  died  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. 

NEIRA  (na't-ra)  BANDA.  One  of  the 
Ban<la   Islands    (q.v.). 

NEISSE,  nl'se.  The  capital  of  a  circle,  and 
a  fortified  town  in  the  Province  of  Silesia,  Prus- 
sia, on  the  Glatzer  Xeisse,  46  miles  .south-south- 
east of  Breslau  (Map:  Prussia.  G  3).  The  town 
proper  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  is  well  built, 
and  has  a  number  of  interesting  features,  of 
which  the  most  prominent  are  the  Gothic  Church 
of  Saint  .Jacob,  dating  from  the  twelfth  century, 
the  .Jesuit  Church,  completed  in  1088.  the  Kalhaus 
with  its  high  tower,  the  bishop's  residence,  now 
used  as  municipal  offices,  and  the  Catholic  Gym- 


NEISSE. 


348 


NELLORE. 


nnfiiuni,  formerly  a  Jesuit  college.  The  town  has 
niaiiufaetiires  of  furniture,  machinery,  blankets, 
lace,  and  wire  screens,  and  carries  on  a  trade  in 
sugar,  wood,  marble,  and  vegetables.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890,  2-J.444:  in  URIO.  24,271.  Neisse 
was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Principality  of 
Neisse,  which  belonged  to  tlie  Bishopric  of  Pres- 
lau. 

NEITH,  ne'ith.  An  Kgyjilian  goddess  wor- 
Bhi|)cd  especially  at  Sais  in  tlie  Delta.  She  is 
mentioned  in  some  of  the  most  ancient  inscrip- 
tions. I)ut  did  not  attain  any  special  prominence 
until  the  time  of  Dynasty  26,  which  originated 
in  8ais.  Neith  is  re])resentcd  as  a  woman  wear- 
ing the  crown  of  Lower  Kgypt,  and  hohling  in  licr 
hand  a  bow  and  arrows  together  with  the  sceptre 
of  a  gotldess.  It  is  probalile  that  she  was  origi- 
nally a  Libyan  divinity.  Consult:  Wiedemann, 
Itfligioti  of  the  Ancient  Egypiianst  (New  York, 
1,S!)7)  ;  Mallet,  Lc  ciillc  de  Xeit  a  Sais  (Paris, 
1889);  Petrie,  Xagada  and  Ballan  (London, 
1896). 

NEIVA,  na't'-Vii.  A  town  of  the  Department 
of  Tolima,  Colombia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
River  Magdalena,  at  the  head  of  navigation  for 
light  craft,  and  112  miles  southwest  of  Bogota 
(Map:  Colombia,  C  ,3).  It  is  the  chief  centre 
for  commerce  for  Southern  Colombia,  is  cele- 
brated for  its  cacao,  and  has  an  ex|)ort  trade  in 
cattle.  There  are  minor  industries  in  silk-weav- 
ing and  in  the  manufacture  of  hats.  Its  former 
trade  in  cinchona  lias  largely  disap])eared  through 
the  (h'struction  of  tlie  trees.  Xeiva  was  founded 
in  \iiM.  and  nineteen  years  later  destroyed  by 
the  Indians.  It  was  rebuilt  in  1(!12  on  its  pres- 
ent site.  It  remained  the  cajiital  of  the  depart- 
ment until  1888.  Its  j)o])nlation,  in  1892.  was 
about  .5000;  of  the  nuinicipal  district,  10,000. 

NEJD,    nej''d.      A    region    of    Arabia.      See 

XED.IKI). 

NEKHBET,  nek'bet.  An  Kgyptian  deity,  the 
local   ilivinily  of  llie  city  of  Eileithyia    (q.v.). 

NEKRASOFF,  nyi'^krii'suf.  Nikol.vi  .\lex- 
EYKvnni  (1821-78).  A  Knssian  poet.  b<irn  in 
the  (iiivernnicnt  of  Podolia.  At  sixteen  he  left 
the  Yaroslav  Gymnasium,  and  was  sent  to  Saint 
Petersburg  to  enter  the  Regiment  of  Nobles. 
He  matriculated  at  the  university  in  18:i9,  where- 
upon liis  father  east  him  olT.  For  three  years  he 
sull'ereil  fearful  privations,  and  amid  his  bitter 
surnuindings  liis  jjoctic  genius  turned  into  a  'nuise 
of  vengeance  and  dolcir.'  .\  tutorship  in  a  prepara- 
tory school  a!id  Slime  hack-work  fur  pcriudiraN 
improved  his  material  circumstances.  Wliile  writ- 
ing for  the  Annuls  of  the  Fatherland  he  ch;inced 
to  show  Byelinski  a  poem,  "On  the  Road." 
The  warm  praise  of  that  great  critic  turned  Ne- 
krasolT  to  hi.s  true  vocation.  He  bought  the 
Contemporary  (1847),  which  soon  became  the 
most  popular  monthly  in  Russia.  The  years 
between  ISof!  and  18(!(>  were  the  most  brilliant 
period  in  his  literary  activity.  I'ntil  then  de- 
spondent and  doubting,  he  now  shared  the  ro-^eate 
ho|)es  amused  bv  the  great  reform  movement. 
Though  mainly  the  singer  of  the  people's  sntTer- 
inps.  he  did  not  confine  himself  within  that 
narrow  circle.  His  works  depict  the  'down- 
trodden and  oppressed'  nf  all  classes  of  Russian 
society.  His  I'nlherliind.  I'easiintf,'  Children,  and 
jMst  ftongs  are  among  the  luost  touching  of 
his    poems.      The    peasant    groaning    under    the 


heavy  hands  of  the  master,  the  workman  haul- 
ing the  barges  on  the  Volga,  the  heroic  devotioa 
of  the  wives  of  the  Decembrists  as  lliey  follow 
their  husliands  to  tlie  Silicrian  dungeons  straiglit 
from  the  glamor  of  the  Cmirt  (liunsian  UohkhI, 
bear  witness  to  tile  range  of  his  sympathies.  The 
meeting  of  husbands  and  wives  in  tlie  dark  mines 
of  Siberia  {I'ussian  H'ohich)  is  probably  the  most 
moving  and  powerful  episode  in  all  Russian 
literature,  and  his  Hero  for  an  Hour  would  alone 
give  liini  an  international  reputation.  The  long 
poem  (.5000  verses)  ll'Ao  IJres  Happily  in  h'tis- 
siaf  written  in  an  imusual  metre,  is  sometimes 
dilVuse  in  tlie  treatment  of  the  whole  life  of  tlie 
ulinle  nation,  but  the  greater  part  of  it  is  ad- 
iiiiralde.  Mc  died  .January  8.  1878.  The  Last 
,S'oH(/s,  written  with  a  dying  hand,  are  overpower- 
ing in  their  intensity  of  feeling. 

NELATON,  rui'la-tOjj',  Auguste  (1807-73). 
A  I'lciiih  surgeon,  born  in  Paris.  He  received 
liis  ddclur's  degree  in  18.3(>,  from  1839  until  1851 
was  adjunct  professor  in  the  Faculty  of  Paris,  and 
from  the  latter  year  until  18(i7  was  professor  of 
clinical  surgery.  He  became  a  Senator  in  18(i8, 
and  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  18ti9.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  skillful  operators  of  his  time, 
and  made  several  important  imiirovemcnts  in 
surgery,  one  of  which,  a  probe,  having  an  un- 
polished |)orcehun  knob  at  its  end,  much  used  in 
military  surgery  in  searching  for  bullets,  is  called 
Xi'laton's  probe.  His  principal  work  is  EU'mcnIs 
de  ptilhohxiic  ehirurgieale  {2d  ed.  1808-85). 

NEOjEUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  XrjXeiis).  A  son  of 
Poseidon  and  brother  of  Pelias.  Having  been 
exposed  by  their  mother,  the  brothers  were  fcuind 
and  brought  up  by  a  herdsman,  and  when  grown 
up  were  recognized  by  their  mother.  Tyro,  wlio 
had  married  Crethcus  of  lolcus.  After  Cretlieus's 
death  tlicy  cpiarieled  over  tlie  possession  of  lolcus. 
and  Nelcus  withdrew  to  Pvlos  in  Mcssenia.  lie- 
cause  Neleus  refused  to  purify  Heracles  after  the 
murder  of  Iphitus,  Heracles  killed  all  Neleus's 
sons  excejit  Nestor,  .\ccording  to  one  account 
Xelens  perished  with  his  sons.  He  is  also  said 
to  have  reestablished  the  Olympic  (James  and  to 
have  died  at  Corinth. 

NELIGH,  ne'lig.  A  city  and  the  county-scat 
of  Aiitcliipc  County,  Neb.,  152  miles  northwest 
of  Omaha;  on  the  Klkhorn  Iliver.  and  on  the 
Frcmiint.  Elkhorn  and  Missouri  Valley  Railroad 
(ilap:  Nebraska,  (i  I).  Gates  .\cadeniy  (Con- 
gregational), with  a  library  of  5000  vnluiiics.  is 
located  here.  The  city  is  the  eonimcrcial  centre 
iif  a  large  ;igricultural  and  stock-raising  region. 
.\lfalfa  is  extensively  cultivated  in  this  vicinity. 
I'lipulatiiin.  in  1890,"  1209;  in  1900,   11;!5. 

NELLORE,  nel  lor',  or  NELLTJR,  iiel  Innr'. 
The  capital  of  a  district,  Madras.  British  India, 
situated  on  an  elevation  on  the  right  liank  of  tlie 
Pennair  River,  eight  miles  from  its  mouth,  and 
90  miles  northwest  of  Madras  hy  rail  (Map- 
India.  D  0).  It  is  irregularly  built  and  lias 
densely  populated  sections;  but  there  arc  also 
some  good  streets.  It  is  the  scat  of  several 
Fiiriipcan  missions.  One  of  the  features  of  the 
vicinity  is  the  anient,  077  yards  long,  the  chief 
irrigation  work  on  the  Pennair.  The  town  has  a 
good  water  supply.  The  ancient  Sinlia|)ur.  "lion 
city."  was  formerly  an  important  fortress.  The 
discovery  in  the  ruins  of  a  Hindu  temple,  at  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  of  a  pot  filled  with 
second    century    Roman    gold    coins    and    medals. 


NELLORE. 


349 


NELSON. 


chiefly  of  Trajan,  Adrian,  and  Faustina,  would 
point  to  a  renioti'  origin.  Population,  in  1891, 
29,;i;f():  in  11)01,  32,040. 

NEL'SON.  A  municipal  borough  and  manu- 
facturing town  in  Lancashire.  England,  .'SV.  miles 
nortlieast  of  Hnrnlcv  (Maji:  England,  1)  .'!).  He- 
sides  coal-mining,  it  has  considerable  manufac- 
tures of  cotton,  worsted,  and  silli.  It  contains 
a  handsome  marUet-hall,  and  a  technical  school. 
In  18.50  it  was  a  small  village  named  after  a 
roadside  inn;  its  manufactures  inaugurated  its 
prosperity,  and  it  was  incorporated  in  1800.  It 
owns  its  water,  gas,  and  electric  lighting  plants, 
marlcet,  free  lilirary,  cemetery,  and  provides  tecli- 
nical  instruction.  Population,  in  1871,  .5000;  in 
isni,  22,754;  in  1901,  32,810. 

NELSON.  The  capital  of  a  province  of  the 
same  name,  in  New  Zealand,  situated  at  the 
north  end  of  South  Island  (Map:  New  Zealand, 
D  4).  The  harbor  has  a  depth  on  bar  of  from 
15  to  19  feet.  The  railwaj'  wharf  can  be  reached 
only  by  vessels  drawing  18  feet  and  under. 
Steamers  periodically  ply  to  Sydney  and  Mel- 
bourne. The  manufactures  of  the  town  comprise 
cloth  and  leather  goods.  The  centre  of  the  town 
is  a  hill  rising  40  feet  above  the  surrounding 
streets,  and  laid  out  as  a  square  with  an  Episco- 
pal cathedral  in  its  centre.  The  citv  was  founded 
in  1S41.  Population,  in  1901,  7000;  of  electoral 
district,    11,100. 

NEL'SON.  A  town  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  lirilish  Columbia,  situated  on  the  Kootenay 
River,  20  miles  west  of  Kootenay  Lake  (Map: 
British  Columbia,  F  5).  It  is  the  chief  mining 
centre  of  the  Kootenay  silver-mining  region,  and 
has  a  large  smelting  plant,  saw  mill,  foundry,  and 
machine  shops.     Population,  in  1901,  5273. 

NELSON,  Horatio,  Viscount  (1758-1805). 
The  most  famous  of  English  admirals.  He  was 
born  at  Burnham-Thorpe,  Norfolk,  England,  on 
September  29,  1758.  His  father  was  the  rector 
of  his  native  place,  while  his  mother  was  a 
granil-niece  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole.  Nelson  re- 
ceived only  a  slender  education,  and  at  the  age 
of  twelve  he  entered  the  navy  under  the  care  of 
his  maternal  uncle.  Captain  ilaurice  Suckling. 
To  this  uncle  he  owed  his  early  rapid  promotion, 
and  tlie  advice  which  led  to  his  careful  training  in 
seamansliip.  During  his  first  period  of  service  he 
made  voyages  to  the  Arctic  regions  and  the  East 
Indies,  and  suffered  considerably  from  ill  health, 
for  throughout  life  Nelson  was  very  weak  phys- 
ically, and  often  was  maintained  only  by  sheer 
force  of  will.  In  1777  Nelson  was  made  second 
lieutenant,  and  again  went  to  the  West,  Indies. 
In  1779  he  became  captain,  and  henceforth  promo- 
tion came  to  him  only  in  due  order,  since  the 
regulations  did  not  allow  any  promotion  other 
than  according  to  seniority  after  the  rank  of  cap- 
tain. 

In  1783.  after  the  war  with  France  and  the 
American  colonies  had  closed.  Nelson  was  for  .1 
short  time  put  on  half  pay,  but  after  a  few 
months,  part  of  whicli  time  was  spent  in  France, 
he  was  ;i]ipointcd  to  the  Hiirrns,  on  which  he 
served  in  the  West  Indies  until  1787.  Here  he 
perfonned  his  first  notable  service,  which,  how- 
ever, brought  him  into  conflict  with  his  com- 
mander. Sir  Richaril  Hughes,  a  well-iueaning,  but 
timid  man.  Contrary  to  tlie  latter's  orders  and 
in  opposition  to  powerful  interests  in  the  West 
Indies,  Nelson  insisted  upon  enforcing  the  Navi- 


gation Acts  against  the  United  States  and  other 
foreign  nations.  Me  was  ultimately  upheld  by 
the  liritish  tiovernment,  but  for  tlie  time  it  in- 
volved him  in  vexatious  hiw-snits  and  caused  him 
much  an.\icty.  While  on  this  station  Nelson  first 
met  at  Nevis  the  widow  of  Dr.  .losiah  Nisbet,  by 
birth  a  Miss  Frances  Woolward.  whom  he  ulti- 
mately married  on  March  11, 1787.  Prince  William, 
afterwards  William   IV.,  giving  the  bride  away. 

Soon  after  his  marriage  Nelson  .started  for 
home,  and  on  November  30,  1787,  he  was  relieved 
from  active  service.  For  some  obscure  reasons  a 
coolness  had  sprung  up  between  Nelson  and  the 
Admiralty,  with  the  result  that  lie  remained  in 
retirement  until  the  threalened  outbreak  of  the 
war  with  France  in  1792  caused  all  ollicers  to  be 
recalled  into  active  .service.  On  >Ianuary  30,  1793, 
Nelson  received  command  of  the  si.Kty-four-gun 
ship  Agamemnon,  which,  together  with  his  last 
ship,  the  Victory,  is  most  clo.sely  associated 
with  his  career.  He  served  on  it  for  over  three 
years.  He  was  assigned  to  the  Mediterranean 
fleet,  serving  first  under  Admiral  Hood,  then 
under  Hotham,  and  finally  under  Sir  .Tohn  .lervis 
(later  the  Earl  of  Saint  Vincent).  Several  times 
he  was  sent  on  diplomatic  missions,  and  on  the 
occasion  of  one  to  Naples  in  September.  1793, 
Nelson  for  the  first  time  met  Sir  William  Hamil- 
ton and  his  wife  Emma,  the  Lady  Hamilton  who 
was  to  have  later  so  great  an  influence  over  him. 
Nelson  took  an  active  part  in  Hood's  conquest  of 
Corsica,  commanding  the  marines  at  Bastia  and 
Calvi,  wliere  he  lost  the  sight  of  his  right  eye. 
This  period  of  his  life  Nelson  always  considered 
the  happiest  part  of  his  career,  and  it  prepared 
him  for  the  great  events  to  come.  In  1790  he 
was  made  a  commodore,  and  received  a  new  ship. 

At  this  time  Napoleon  was  winning  his  great 
victories  over  the  Austrians  in  Italy.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  British  fleet  in  the  Jlediterranean  was 
becoming  precarious,  as  Spain  was  about  to  join 
France,  in  which  case  the  English  fleet  would  be 
greatl.y  outnumbered.  The  hold  of  the  British  on 
Corsica  was  loosening,  since,  under  the  influence 
of  the  gieat  French  victories,  the Rc])ublicans  were 
becoming  very  active  on  the  island.  Taking  all 
these  things  into  consideration,  the  British  Ciov- 
ernment  ordered  Sir  .John  Jervis  to  abandon  t'or- 
sica,  to  withdraw  from  the  Mediterranean,  and 
return  to  England.  These  orders  were  received 
on  September  25,  1790.  and  Nelson  had  to  super- 
intend the  work,  though  he  considered  it  best  for 
Great  Britain  to  retain  everything,  since  he  be- 
lieved the  British  fleet  sufficiently  powerful  to 
cope  with  the  enemy. 

In  December.  1790,  Jervis  sent  Nelson  back  to 
the  Mediterranean  to  aid  in  the  removal  of  the 
naval  stores  from  the  island  of  Elba,  which  the 
British  had  retained  at  the  time  they  had  aban- 
doned the  other  posts  in  that  sea.  As  he  was 
returning  he  had  to  pass  throiigh  the  whole  Span- 
ish fleet,  and  on  February  13.  1797,  he  had  re- 
joined .Tcrvis.  The  following  day  took  place  the 
great  battle  off  Ca]ie  Saint  Vincent  (q.v.) .  Here  by 
his  rapid  and  independent  nianieuvres  Nelson  did 
much  to  carry  the  d;>y.  and  .Tervis  was  magnani- 
mous enough  to  give  him  due  credit.  The  Span- 
ish fleet  of  twenty-seven  ships  was  totally  de- 
feated by  fifteen  vessels,  and  one  of  the  chief 
naval  resources  of  France  had  disappeared.  As 
a  reward  for  his  share  in  this  great  event  Nelson 
received  a  knighthood  of  the  Bath,  and  before 
this  he  had  become  in  due  order  of  promotion  a 


NELSON. 


350 


NELSON. 


rear-admiral  of  the  blue.  11  is  next  duty  was  to 
briiig  the  troops  away  from  Elba,  a  task  wliich  lie 
promi»tly  accomplished.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  thouyh  at  this  time  the  serious 
mutinies  in  the  lleet  at  Spithead  and  the  Xore 
took  place,  Xelson  had  no  dilliculty  with  his  men, 
who  assured  liini  of  their  loyalty.  For  a  lew 
weeks  Kelson  served  oil"  Cadiz,  aud  then,  at  his 
own  suggestion,  he  was  detached  to  make  an 
attack  on  the  town  of  Santa  Cruz,  on  tlie  island 
of  Teneriffe,  believing  that  large  Mexican  treas- 
ure ships  had  taken  refuge  there,  whose  capture 
would  deal  a  severe  blow  to  Spain.  The  expedi- 
tion arrived  at  its  destination  on  July  20,  1797, 
and  the  folhjwing  day  an  attack  was  made.  This 
assault  and  stinie  hiter  ones  were  all  repulsed. 
Tlic  plan  had  never  anything  to  recommend  it 
but  its  boldness  and  a  ijelief  that  the  place  was 
not  strongly  defended.  Xclson  himself  fought 
■with  great  heroism  and  lost  his  right  arm,  and, 
as  the  wound  did  not  heal  well,  he  was  compelled 
to  return  to  Kngland,  where  he  arrived  on  Sep- 
tember 3,  1797.  On  September  27  he  was  invested 
with  the  Order  of  the  Bath  by  George  III.  in 
person,  and  at  the  same  time  a  pension  of  £1000 
a  year  was  awarded  him.  At  this  time,  on  ac- 
count of  his  ill  health  and  a  fear  that  he  would 
never  again  be  able  to  enter  active  service,  his 
spirits  were  gieatly  depressed,  but  he  revived  at 
once  when  on  March  29,  1798.  his  flag  was  again 
hoisted  over  a  ship.  On  April  .SOth  he  rejoined 
the  Earl  of  Saint  Vincent  off  Cadiz. 

From  this  time  a  new  period  in  Nelson's  life 
begins.  He  soon  becomes  the  great  man  of  his 
service,  instead  of  merelj'  one  of  many  distin- 
guished naval  oflicers.  It  is  the  period  which  opens 
with  Abukir  Bay  and  closes  with  Trafalgar.  It 
is  necessary  to  consider  now  the  state  of  Europe 
at  the  time  when  Xelson  rejoined  the  fleet.  Aus- 
tria had  been  compelled  by  Napoleon's  victories 
in  Italy  to  sign  the  Preliminaries  of  Leoben  on 
-Vpril  18,  1707,  which  were  ratified  soon  after  by 
the  Treaty  of  Campo-Formio  (q.v.).  This  left 
England  with  only  one  weak  ally.  Portugal,  while 
it  set  Xapolcon  free  to  attack  England  itself.  He 
thought  the  best  place  to  injure  England  would 
be  in  the  East,  and  for  this  purpose  prepared 
his  great  Egyptian  expedition.  (See  N.\poleo.v 
I.)  The  news  of  Napoleon's  intentions  soon 
reached  Saint  Vincent,  and  in  spite  of  the  jeal- 
ousy of  some  older  olTieers,  he  detached  Nelson 
to  watch  the  French  fleet  and  to  check  it.  Nel- 
son was  unable  to  prevent  it  from  getting  to 
Egv'pt.  and  for  months  there  was  a  weary  hunt  to 
find  the  French  ships  and  compel  them  to  fight. 
Finally,  on  August  I,  179S,  Nelson  discovered 
them  in  the  Bay  of  Abukir,  and  in  the  battle 
that  ensued  the  French  lleet  was  completely 
defeated,  and  only  two  ve.ssels  esca|K!d.  Nel- 
son received  a  wound  on  the  head  from  which 
he  sutlVred  f<uever  after.  The  brilliant  victory 
at  .\bukir  practically  insured  the  failure  of  Na- 
poleon's expedition,  since  it  cut  him  off  from  his 
liasc  of  supplies.  Nelson  was  created  I?ar<m 
Kelson  of  the  Nile,  and  received  a  pension  ol 
£2(11)1)  a  year,  besides  other  numerous  gifts  and 
compliments  both  from  England  and  abroad. 
On  .\ugiist  19th  he  sailed  from  .Alexandria  and  on 
September  22d  he  finally  arrived  at  Naples. 

The  Neapolitan  period  of  Nelson's  life,  which 
covered  the  cnsninL'  two  venrs.  was  the  one  blem- 
ish on -his  otherwisp  glorious  career.  Here  began 
his  criminal  relations  with  the  wife  of  the  Eng- 


lish Minister  at  Naples,  Sir  William  Hamil- 
ton, which  led  to  a  complete  separation  of 
Nelson  and  his  wife  early  in  ISOl.  Moreover, 
Lady  Hamilton  inlluenced  Nelson's  public  acts, 
so  that  for  a  time  he  behaved  rather  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Neapolitan  navy  than  as 
an  Kaglish  admiral.  He  induced  Naples,  how- 
ever, to  make  war  upon  France,  but  the  Nea- 
politan army  was  soon  decisively  defeated,  and 
the    royal    family    was    compelled   in   December, 

1708,  to  leave  Naples,  where  the  French  pro- 
claimed the  Parthenopean  Republic.  After  re- 
siding for  a  while  with  the  Hamiltons  at 
I'alermo,  and  vexed  for  a  time  on  account 
of  the  ap])ointment  of  a  junior  ollicer, 
Sir  Sidney  Smith,  to  an  important  com- 
mand in  the  Levant,  Nelson  was  linally  roused 
again  to  action  on  May  12,  1790,  by  the  news 
that  Admiral  Bruix  with  the  French  Brest  lleet 
had  escaped  from  that  harbor  aud  was  about  to 
enter  the  Mediterranean.  The  danger  was  iuuni- 
uent  that  the  French  would  recover  the  naval 
supremacy  in  the  ^Mediterranean,  which  had  been 
destroyed  by  the  victory  at  Abukir  Bay.  Nelson 
prepared  for  the  emergency  with  his  usual  ability, 
when,  to  his  disgust,  Jcrvis  resigned  his  command 
and  was  succeeded  by  Keith,  an  honest  bvit  by 
no  means  brilliant  oflicer.  Friction  between  him 
and  Nelson  existed  from  the  start.     On  June  24, 

1709,  Nelson  appeared  before  Naples  intent  upon 
securing  that  city  before  the  French  fleet  should 
appear.  He  found  that  the  Republicans  had  com- 
plete control  and  were  aided  by  a  Neapcditan 
squadron  under  Commodore  Caraccioli.  The  Nea- 
])olitan  admiral  was  captured  on  June  20th.  and 
Nelson,  as  eonunander-in-chief  of  the  Neapolitan 
navy,  immediately  ordered  a  court-martial,  which 
sentenced  the  Commodore  to  death,  and  he  was 
executed  at  once.  Nelson  has  often  been  blamed 
unjustly  for  this  action,  the  only  fault  which 
can  possibly  be  imputed  to  him  being  that  pos- 
sibly he  might  have  ])roceeded  with  more  delibera- 
tion. The  forts  of  the  city  had  surrendered  on 
.Tune  26th.  At  this  time  Nelson  was  created 
Duke  of  Bronte  by  the  despicable  Ferdinand  TV. 
of  Naples.  To  the  inlluence  of  Lady  Hamilton, 
who  was  the  intimate  of  the  Queen  of  Naples, 
must  be  charged  the  serious  disol)edience  of  or- 
ders by  Nelson  shortly  after.  He  had  been  or- 
dered to  join  Lord  Keith  and  to  assist  him  to 
meet  a  laige  French  fleet,  but  he  preferred  to 
retnain  at  Naples.  The  danger,  it  is  true,  was 
averted;  for  on  August  13,  1790,  the  French  fleet 
reentered  Brest,  but  had  Nelson  come  up  in  time 
it  is  just  possible  that  another  great  victory 
might  have  been  won.  For  a  short  time  Nelson 
was  eonnnander  in  the  Mediterranean,  but  he 
displayed  no  enthusiasm  for  his  work.  On  .Janu- 
ary 20.  1800.  he  united  his  command  with  that 
of  Keith,  and  after  several  quarrels  Nelson  was 
finally  recalled  by  orders  which  reached  him  in 
June.  He  traveled  overland  with  the  Hamiltons, 
and,  though  he  was  received  everywhere  with 
great  enthusiasm,  his  conduct  gave  great  cause 
of  scandal  to  all  his  friends.  On  November  (J, 
1800.  the  party  arrived  in  England,  and  soon  after 
Nelson's  final  breach  with  his  wife  took  place. 

On  .Tanuary  1.  1801,  Nelson  was  promoted  to  be 
vice-admiral,  and  he  was  assigned  to  the  com- 
mand of  Sir  Hyde  Parker,  who  was  to  coerce  the 
Northern  Confederation.  This  league,  composed 
of  the  States  on  the  Baltic,  had  been  maintaining 
nn'  armed   neutrality,  which   in   truth   was  only 


NELSON. 


351 


NELSON. 


a  veiled  attempt  to  aid  N'apDleon.  Xelson  ad- 
vised an  attack  on  tlie  strongest  member  of  the 
eoul'ederacy,  Hussia ;  but  lii.s  daring  plan  was 
.  not  I'ollowed,  and  instead  the  uliole  llucl  sailed  lor 
Denmark,  in  a  bold  assault  on  the  Uanisli  lleet 
at  Copenhagen,  Kelson  was  victorious  (April  2, 
1801),  and  the  Danes  were  compelled  on  April 
yth  to  sign  an  ai-mistiee,  which  tied  their  hands, 
but  left  the  English  free.  It  was  during  the  en- 
gagement of  April  2d  that  Nelson,  having  re- 
ceived an  order  early  in  the  day  to  cease  action, 
placed  his  telescope  to  his  blind  eye  and  said,  "I 
rcall}'  do  not  see  the  signal."  On  ^lay  ,5,  ISOl, 
Nelson  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in 
place  of  Parker.  He  immediately  proceeded  to 
carry  out  his  plan  of  attacking  Russia,  but 
found,  when  he  arrived  at  Revel,  that  the  Czar 
Paul  had  been  murdered  on  JIarcli  24th,  and 
his  son  and  successor,  Alexander  I.,  was  pre- 
paring to  follow  another  policy.  For  his  ser- 
vices in  this  campaign  Nelson  was  created  a 
viscount.  lie  rcturnecl  to  England  and  lived  with 
the  Hamiltons.  After  some  slight  service  in  the 
Channel,  the  Peace  of  Amiens  closed  the  war.  and 
on  October  22,  1801,  Nelson  left  his  ship. 

Peace,  however,  proved  of  short  duration,  and 
on  May  18,  1803,  Nelson  raised  his  flag  on  the 
Viciori;  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  ilediter- 
ranean  fleet.  For  two  years  he  blockaded  Toulon 
and  kept  a  w-atchful  eye  on  affairs,  but  Vil- 
leneuve  escaped  from  Toulon  witli  the  French 
fleet  on  March  30,  1805.  Napoleon  was  preparing 
at  Boulogne  to  invade  England,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose the  different  French  fleets  were  to  unite  and 
cover  the  expedition.  A  most  e.xciting  chase  fol- 
lowed, in  which  Nelson  pursued  Villeneuve  to  the 
West  Indies  and  back  to  the  coast  of  Spain,  but 
the  French  admiral  was  unable  to  elude  Nelson 
and  the  other  English  admirals  long  enough  to 
give  Napoleon  any  opportunity  of  crossing  the 
Channel.  Villeneuve  finally  put  in  at  Cadiz  and 
Napoleon  marched  against  Austria,  which  had 
declared  war  against  liim.  Thus  England  was 
saved. 

Nelson  now  blockaded  Villeneuve  'it  Cadiz,  but 
Napoleon  was  threatening  to  disgrace  his  ad- 
miral for  not  fighting,  and  consequently,  when 
Nelson  had  to  send  six  vessels  to  Gibraltar  for 
water,  Villeneuve  seized  the  opportunity  and 
started  to  leave  his  shelter  on  October  19.  1805, 
and  on  October  21st  took  place  the  faniotis  battle 
off  Cape  Trafalgar  (q.v.).  Before  beginning 
battle  Nelson  gave  his  now  famous  signal,  "Eng- 
land expects  that  every  man  will  do  his  dtity." 
The  victory  was  complete,  but  Nelson  was  mor- 
tallv  wounded,  and  died  on  the  afternoon  of 
October  21,  1805,  with  the  words  "Thank  God.  I 
have  done  my  duty."  By  his  final  great  victory 
he  had  destroyed  the  combined  French  and  .Span- 
ish fleets,  and  Napoleon's  hope  of  creating  a 
naval  power  vanished  forever.  Nelson  thus  con- 
tributed innnensely  to  the  final  destruction  of  the 
Napoleonic  ambitions,  for  without  the  control 
of  the  sea  England  would  have  been  unable  to 
wage  her  long  contest.  Nelson  was  buried  at 
Saint  Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  on  .lannary  9, 
1800,  amid  extraordinary  public  demonstrations. 

BlBLlOGR.VPllY.  JIahan.  Life  of  Xelson  (2d  ed.. 
Boston,  1899).  is  the  latest  and  best  account. 
Tlie  best  recent  brief  accounts  are:  LauLditon, 
yel/ion  (New  York,  1S95),  and  Russell.  Horatio 
'Setson  (2d  ed.,  ih..  18991.  The  best  and  most 
complete  of  the  old  books  is  Clarke  and  JIcArthur, 


Life  of  Nelson  (2d  ed.,  London,  1848),  though  the 
best  known  is  the  popular  and  untrustworthy 
Southey,  Life  of  Xelson  (ib.,  1813).  Sclson's 
Disijiiielies  iiitd  Letters,  edited  by  Nicolas  (Lon- 
don, 1814-40)-,  and  Tlie  Xelson  and  Uamiltun  Pa- 
pers, lloti-lalo,  published  by  .Morrison  (ib.,  1893- 
94),  are  the  most  imi)ortanl  primary  authorities. 
Jeallreson,  Liuly  Uainilloti  and  Lord  Xvlson  (2d 
ed.,  New  York,  1897)  and  The  Queen  of  Xaples 
and  Lord  Xelson  (Loudon,  1889),  and  Giglioli, 
Xuples  in  17'JV  (New  York,  1902),  are  the  most 
recent  books  on  the  most  perplexing  problem  in 
Nelson's  life. 

NELSON,  ,Sami-el  (1792-1873).  An  Ameri- 
can jurist,  born  at  Hebron,  Washington  County, 
N.  Y.  He  graduated  at  Middlebury  College,  Ver- 
mont, in  1813.  He  then  read  law,  removed  to 
New  York  State,  where  in  1817  he  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  and  began  practice  at  Cortland.  In 
1820  he_was  a  Presidential  elector  on  the  Demo- 
cratic ticket.  His  long  judicial  career  of  half 
a  century  began  in  1823,  when  he  was  appointed 
by  Governor  Yates  a  judge  of  the  State  circuit 
court.  In  1831  he  was  promoted  to  be  an  asso- 
ciate justice  of  the  New  York  State  Supreme 
Court,  and  in  1837,  by  appointment  of  Ciovernor 
Jlarcy,  he  became  Chief  Justice  of  the  court  in 
succession  to  Judge  Savage.  In  1845  he  was 
nominated  by  President  Tyler  as  an  associate 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States.  Although  he  concurred  with  Chief  .Justice 
Taney  in  the  "Dred  Scott"  decision  in  1857,  and 
disapproved  of  the  President's  exercise  of  "war 
powers"  during  the  Civil  War,  his  loyalty  was 
never  questioned,  and  he  was  frequently  consulted 
by  Lincoln  in  judicial  matters.  He  ranks  as  one 
of  the  greatest  American  authorities  on  admi- 
ralty and  maritime  law',  and  his  prize-court  deci- 
sions during  the  Civil  War  are  of  the  utmost 
importance.  In  1871  he  was  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Grant  as  one  of  the  Joint  High  Commission 
for  the  settlement  of  the  Alabama  claims   (q.v.). 

NELSON,  Thomas  (1738-89).  An  American 
patriot,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  He  was  born  at  Yorktown,  Va., 
and  was  the  son  of  William  Nelson.  Governor 
of  Virginia  in  1770-71.  He  went  to  England  in 
1753,  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  returned  to  his  home  at 
Yorktown  in  17G1.  He  was  a  delegate  for  several 
terms  to  the  House  of  Burgesses,  and  served  in 
the  Provincial  Conventions  of  1774.  1775,  and 
1770,  introducing  in  the  last  the  resolution  by 
which  Virginia's  delegates  to  Congress  were  in- 
structed (May  15th)  to  propose  a  declaration 
of  independence.  From  August,  1775,  until  May, 
1777,  when  he  was  forced  by  ill  health  to  resign, 
ho  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress, 
and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  In 
1775  he  was  for  a  time  colonel  of  the  Second  Vir- 
ginia Regiment,  and  from  August.  1777.  luitil  late 
in  17S2,  he  commanded  the  Virginia  State  forces, 
rendering  valuable  service  at  the  siege  of  York- 
town  (1781),  where  he  showed  his  patriotism  by 
ordering  the  gunners  to  fire  upon  his  own  man- 
sion, supposed  to  be  the  headquarters  of  Corn- 
wallis.  In  1779  he  again  sat  for  a  time  in  Con- 
gress, and  was  again  forced  by  ill  health  to  re- 
sign: in  1780  he  raised  a  large  sum  of  money,  on 
his  own  security,  for  the  State,  and  paid  out  of 
his  own  pocket  the  arrearages  of  two  Virginia 
regiments  ordered  South ;   and  in  the  spring  of 


NELSON. 


353. 


NEMATHELMINTHES. 


1781  he  succeeded  Ji'lleison  as  Governoi'  of  Vir- 
ginia, though  he  resigned  in  November.  Impov- 
erislied  by  liis  liberal  advances  to  the  State 
(luring  the  war,  he  passed  his  last  years  in  very 
straitened  circumstances,  and  much  of  his 
property  was  sold  to  pay  public  debts,  for  which 
he  was  security. 

NELSON,  William  (1825-G2).  An  American 
naval  oUkcr  and  .-oldier,  born  in  Maysville,  Ky. 
He  entered  the  United  States  Navy  in  1840,  and 
in  1847  commanded  a  battery  at  the  siege  of 
Vera  Cruz.  He  subsequentlv  served  in  tlie  Med- 
iterranean and  South  Pacific,  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  master  in  18.)4  and  to  that  of  lieu- 
tenant in  1855,  and  in  1858,  as  commander  of 
the  \iagara,  transported  to  Africa  the  negroes 
who  had  been  rescued  from  the  slave-ship  Echo. 
In  18G1  he  was  on  ordnance  <luty  at  Washington, 
and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  gunboats  on  the  Ohio, 
with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-commander.  He  left 
the  navv  soon  afterwards,  entered  the  military 
service,  was  ordered  to  Kcntuckv,  and  there  es- 
tablished recruiting  stations,  and  organized  camp 
'Dick  Robinson.'  iwar  Danville,  and  a  similar 
rendezvous  at  Washington,  in  ^lason  Coimty.  In 
September,  18()1.  he  beiame  a  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers,  and  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh  (April  0- 
7,  18(i2)  he  commanded  the  second  division  under 
General  Buell.  (See  SiiiLOii,  Battle  of.)  He 
was  wounded  in  the  engagement  at  Richmond, 
Ky. ;  was  in  command  at  Louisville.  Kv.,  in  1862. 
when  the  Confederate  general  Bragg  threatened 
that  citv.  and  in  .luly  of  this  year  was  eommis- 
sione<l  major-general  of  volunteers.  On  S<>ptem- 
ber  29th  he  was  fatally  shot  at  the  Gait  House, 
Louisville,  b.v  the  Kederal  general  Jefferson  C. 
Davis,  in  a  |)ersonal  quarrel. 

NELSON,  WoLKKKo  (1702-18G3).  A  Canadian 
physician  and  revolutionist.  The  son  of  an  Kng- 
lish  otticer,  he  was  born  at  .Montreal.  In  1811  he 
began  the  practice  of  medicine  in  Saint  Denis.  In 
the  war  with  the  United  States.  1812.  he  served 
as  surgeon.  He  was  chosen  representative  of 
Sorel  in  the  Canadian  Parliament  of  1827.  lie 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  revolution  of  1837, 
and  was  in  command  at  the  victory  obtained  b.v 
the  insurgents  at  Saint  Denis,  on  the  Richelieu 
River,  but  was  captured  and  sent  to  Bermuda  as 
an  exile.  The  following  .vear  he  settled  at  Platts- 
burg.  N.  Y..  and  in  1842".  after  the  declaration  of 
a  general  amnesty,  returned  to  Montreal.  He 
was  again  elected  to  Parliament  from  his  former 
district  in  1844  and  1845,  and  in  1851  was  m.ade 
inspector  of  prisons,  a  position  which  he  held  for 
several  years.  He  served  as  Mayor  of  Montreal 
two  terms  and  was  at  the  head  of  the  Lower 
Canaila  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons.  He 
dieil  in  Montreal. 

NELSON  MONUMENT.  A  granite  column 
in  the  centre  of  Trafalgar  Sciuare.  London.  I'opied 
from  a  Corinthian  eolnnm  of  the  Temple  of  .Mars 
Ultor.  in  Rome,  an<l  crowned  with  a  statue  of 
Nelson,  17  feet  in  height.  The  shaft.  145  feet 
high,  was  erected  in  1843  by  voluntarv-  subscrip- 
tions. The  pedestal  bears  bronze  reliefs,  east 
from  French  cannon,  depicting  scenes  from  Nel- 
son's life.  .\t  the  foot  of  (he  column  are  four 
eoIo-^.;al  bronze  lion-,  by  Sir  Edwin  Landseer. 

NELSON  RIVER.  The  principal  river  in  the 
Canadian  Territory  of  Keewatin.  forming  the 
lower  course  of  the  Sn.skatchewan   (q.v.)    (Map: 


Northwest  Territories,  K  3).  It  llows  from  the 
north  end  of  Lake  Winnipeg,  first  nortliward, 
through  a  series  of  lakes,  then  nortlica5.tward, 
into  Hudson  Bay  at  York  Factor}-,  after  a  course  ■ 
enii)tying  through  the  estuary  of  Port  Nelson 
of  about  400  miles.  It  is  deep,  wide,  and  swift, 
discharging  an  enormous  volume  of  water;  rapids 
and  falls  in  its  upper  reaches  limit  its  navigation 
by  steamers  to  from  80  to  !)0  miles,  though 
boats  can  ascend  127  miles  from  its  mouth. 

NELSON'S  FARM,  Battle  of.  See  Fba- 
zier'.s  F.iKM,  Battle  of. 

NEL'SONVILLE.  A  city  in  Athens  County, 
Ohio,  02  miles  southeast  of  the  State  capital,  Co- 
hnnbus ;  on  the  Hocking  River,  and  on  the  Hocking 
Valle.v  Railroad  (Maj):  Ohio,  F  7).  There  is  an 
im])ortant  trade  in  coal,  which  is  mined  extensive- 
l.y  in  the  vicinity,  this  being  one  of  the  most  pro- 
ductive coal  fields  of  the  State.  Nelsonville  has 
a  large  establishment  which  manufactures  mining 
implements,  car  wheels,  etc.,  and  conducts  a  large 
repair  business.  The  water-works  are  owned  by 
the  municipalit}'.  Population,  in  1890,  4558;  in 
1900,  5421. 

NELTJM'BO  (Ceylonese  name),  XilKmbiiim. 
A  glim-  (if  aquatic  plants  similar  to  water-lilies, 
and  often  included  under  that  name  in  the  nat- 
ural <nder  N.ymplnrace.T.  The  few  species  which 
are  found  in  tlie  warm  parts  of  Asia,  North 
America,  and  the  north  of  Africa,  are  all  distin- 
guished by  the  beauty  of  their  flowers.  Xclumhiiim 
upeciosum,  with  rose-colored  flowers,  is  the  Egv'p- 
tian  bean  of  Pythagoras,  the  lotus  (q.v.)  held 
sacred  by  the  Hindus  and  b.y  the  people  of  Tibet, 
has  been  used  as  a  food  by  the  Egyptians  from 
remote  antiquity,  and  is  much  esteemed  where  it 
is  cultivated,  espeeiall.y  in  China,  for  its  edible 
seeds,  roots,  leaf-stalks,  and  flower-.stalks.  The 
seeds  resemble  acorns  in  size  and  shape,  and  have 
a  more  delicate  flavor  than  almonds.  The  root 
contains  much  starch,  and  Chinese  arrowroot  is 
said  to  be  obtained  from  it.  Great  quantities  are 
pickled  with  salt  and  vinegar,  and  eaten  with 
rice.  When  powdered  it  makes  excellent  soup 
with  water  or  milk.  The  ancient  Egy-ptian  mode 
of  sowing  this  plant,  bv  inclosing  each  seed  in  a 
ball  of  clay,  and  throwing  it  into  the  water,  is 
practiced  at  the  present  day  in  India.  A'r/iun- 
6i»»!  hitciim  is  a  North  .\merican  species,  with 
yellow  flowers,  which  extends  almo-it  as  far  north 
as  Ontario.  The  edible  seeds,  called  water  chin 
quapins,  are  sought  for  by  children  and  others, 
and  the  farinaceous  roots  are  agreeable  when 
boiled. 

NEMATHELMINTHES  ( Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.. 
from  Gk.  inj)ui,  n*mn,  thread  -f  Am'",  hetmiti.f, 
worm).  A  large  and  important  phylum  of  the 
unsegmented  worms,  of  a  more  or  less  ebm- 
gated  cylindrical  form  and  known  as  'round- 
worms.'' Their  skin  is  thick  and  strong, 
and  is  usually  wrinkled,  giving  the  body 
a  slightly  annulated  appearance,  which,  how- 
ever, disappears  if  the  animal  is  placed  in  water. 
The  nervous  .system  in  the  higher  forms  consists 
of  two  lateral  ganglia  at  the  anterior  extremity, 
which  are  united  by  a  nervous  ring,  and  from 
which  two  nervous  trunks,  one  dorsal  and  one 
ventral,  proceed  to  the  posterior  part  of  the 
body.  In  the  lower  forms  the  dorsal  cord  is 
wanting,  or  else  the  ventral  cord  is  wanting  and 
there  are  two  lateral  cords.  Special  organs  of 
Bcnsc  arc  rarely  met  with ;  but  a  general  sense 


NEMATHELMINTHES. 


353 


NEMERTINEA. 


of  touch  exists,  ami  a  IVw  ul  the  fit'c-liviiig  spe- 
cies have  two  simple  eye-spots.  The  digestive 
organs  are  extremely  simple.  No  blood  .system 
nor  distinct  respiratory  or  excretory  organs  can 
be  detected.  These  worms  are  unisexual ;  but  the 
males  are  comparatively  rarely  found,  and  are 
always  smaller  than  the  females.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  two  families — the  Enoplida\  which 
are  mostly  marine  forms,  and  the  AnguillulidiE, 
or  paste  and  vinegar  eels — all  the  animals  of  this 
class  are  parasitic. 

This  phylum  is  divisible  into  three  very  distinct 
classes,  namel}-,  Acantlwvcphala,  which  have  a 
protrusihle  proboscis  armed  with  continuous 
hooks,  and  are  destitute  of  an  intestinal  canal; 
the  (Jordiacea,  which  possess  an  intestinal  canal, 
but  no  anus;  and  the  \ematoda,  which  usually 
possess  a  perfect  intestinal  canal,  provided  with 
two  orifices.  See  Ascaris;  Entozoa;  Filauia; 
Guinea-worm;  Pinwoem;  Roundworm;  Thread- 
■\voR.MS:  Truhixa. 

NEMATOCYST  ( from  Gk.  >^^o,  netna, 
thread  -|-  kvitti^^  Ici/stis,  bladder).  One  of  the 
]assocells.  tliread-cells,  or  nettling  organs 
(cni'fte)  of  jcllylishes  and  other  Coelenterata,  act- 
ing as  organs  of  oHense  and  defense.  These 
bodies  are  imbedded  in  the  outer  cellular  layer  or 
ectoderm  of  cwlenterates.  A  nematocyst  is  an 
oval,  tough  capsule,  tilled  with  a  clear  fluid,  and 
invaginated  at  one  end  in  the  form  of  a  hollow 
process  which  is  prolonged  into  a  long  coiled  hol- 
low thread.  The  entire  structure  is  developed  in 
an  interstitial  cell  called  a  cnidoblast,  which,  as  it 
approaches  maturity,  migrates  toward  the  sur- 
face and  becomes  imbedded  in  one  of  the  large 
ectoderm  cells.  At  one  point  on  its  surface  the 
cnidoblast  is  produced  into  a  delicate  proto- 
plasmic process,  the  cnidocil  or  'trigger-hair.' 
Any  small  animal  on  coming  in  contact  with  the 
lasso-cells  of  a  jellyfish  is  stung,  benumbed,  or 
poisoned  by  tliem.  Upon  contact  with  one  or 
many  of  these  lasso-cells  in  the  tentacles  of  a 
jellyfish  or  hydra,  or  a  physalia,  the  cnidoblast 
suddenly  contracts,  and  the  pressure  upon  the 
stinging  capsule  causes  an  instantaneous  eversion 
of  the  thread,  at  the  base  of  which  are  minute 
sharp  barbs.  The  threads  also  convey  a  poison- 
ous fluid,  which  benumbs  the  victim.  In  this 
way  sea-anemones  and  coral  polyps  obtain  their 
fooil,  paralyzing  and  thus  capturing  quite  large 
animals,  even  young  fishes.  These  poison  lasso- 
cells  also  occur  in  certain  Protozoa,  molluslcs,  and 
in  sponges,  and  in  a  modified  form  exist  in 
the  skin  of  certain  worms,  both  terrestrial  and 
aquatic.  They  are  in  these  worms  minute 
stift'  rods,  either  coiled  up  in  an  irregularly  spiral 
manner,  or  short  and  straight,  contained  in  oval 
cells.  They  are  shot  out  in  great  numbers  when 
the  animal  is  irritated,  but  are  not  retractile, 
being  in'ojected  clear  from  the  skin.  That  they 
are  true  nettling  organs  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  nn  toiiehing  the  worms  with  the  tongue  they 
cause  a  tinglirtg  sensation.    See  illustration  under 

Ca  I,EXTERAT.\. 

NEMATODA.  A  class  of  the  phylum  Nema- 
tlielminthcs  (q.v. ).  mostly  parasites,  but  many 
others  are  extremely  abundant  in  both  fresh  anil 
salt  water.  They  are  the  roundworms  (q.v.)  and 
a  familiar  examjile  is  found  in  Ascaris  (q.v.). 
They  are  ranked  in  two  orders:  Nrnintnidra.  in 
which  the  coelom  is  not  lined  by  epithelium,  and 


Oordioidca,  in  wliieh  it  is  so  lined.  See  Haib- 
woK.M  ;  \i:.MAriit:i..\iiNTiiEs. 

NEMATOGr'NATHI  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi., 
from  Gk.  frji^a,  nfma,  thread  +  yvdOoi,  t/nathos, 
jaw).  An  order  of  lishes.  See  Catfisu;  com- 
jjare  PLiitxusi'o.Nuvi.i. 

NEMATOPHYTON  (Xeo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
yrjfia,  iiciiia,  thread  +  <j>vT6y,  jiliylon,  plant).  A 
gigantic  fossil  alga  found  in  rocks  of  Devonian 
age  in  the  Eastern  United  States  and  Canada. 
The  stem  is  of  great  size,  often  40  feet  long  by 
2  to  3  feet  in  diameter,  and  resembles  the  trunk 
of  a  tree  to  such  extent  that  it  w^as  originally 
supposed  to  be  the  trunk  of  a  conifer.  This  re- 
semblance led  Dawson  to  name  it  Prototaxites  or 
ancestral  yewtree.  The  cellular  structure  is 
that  of  an  alga.  Several  large  trunks  were  un- 
covered near  Slonroe,  Orange  County,  N.  Y.,  dur- 
ing 1S97  to  1899.  The  type  species  is  Nematopk- 
ylon  Logani. 

NEMATJ'SUS.  An  ancient  town  of  Gallia 
Xarbonensis,  now  NImes    (q.v.). 

NEMCOVA,  nyem'tso-va,  Bozena  (1820-62). 
A  Czech  novelist,  born  in  Vienna.  She  lived  in 
Bohemia  for  several  years,  making  a  study  of 
the  life  in  its  villages.  One  of  her  novels  on  this 
subject,  Babicka  ("Little  Grandmother,"  1855), 
is  especially  well  known.  It  has  frequently  been 
translated  into  foreign  languages,  and  into  Eng- 
lish by  Gregor  in  1891.  Her  other  works  include 
ICarla  ("Charlotte,"  1856)  and  Pohor.slcd  vrsnice 
('•The  Village  in  the  Jlountains."  1856).  Her 
contributions  to  the  study  of  Bohemian  and  Hun- 
garian folk-lore  in  the  volumes  ydroditi  bdchorhy 
a  povi-sti  (1845-46)  and  Sloven-ikt'  pohadky  a 
poi-csti  ("Slovak  Folk  Tales,"  1858)  are  valu- 
able. Her  complete  works,  Sebranc  spisy,  were 
published  in   1862-63. 

NE'MEA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  XcM^a).  The  an- 
cient name  of  a  well-wooded  valley  of  Argolis, 
in  the  Peloponnesus,  between  Cleonie  and  Phlius. 
It  lies  north  and  south,  and  is  from  two  to  three 
miles  long,  and  more  than  half  a  mile  broad.  In 
it  there  was  no  town  but  a  sacred  inclosure  and 
temple  of  Zeus,  of  wliich  three  columns  are  still 
standing,  while  the  others  lie  where  they  have 
been  thrown  by  earthquakes.  The  valley  was  the 
seat  of  one  of  the  four  great  national  festivals  of 
the  Greeks — the  Ncmean  (lames,  which  were  cele- 
brated in  mid-summer  every  two  years,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  second  and  fourth  year  of  each 
OlTOipiad.  The  first  of  the  historical  period  seems 
to  have  been  held  in  B.C.  573,  though  legend  as- 
cribed the  foundation  of  the  games  to  the  seven 
heroes  on  their  march  against  Thebes,  or  to 
Hercules.  The  games  consisted  of  the  usiial 
athletic  contests,  horse-racing,  and  a  competition 
for  players  on  the  cithara.  The  prize  was  a  palm 
branch  and  crown  of  parsley. 

KTEM'ERTIN'EA  (Xeo-Lat..  from  Gk.  Nw<'/>- 
Trjs,  ncmcrlr.s.  name  of  a  Xereid,  from  vrineprrit, 
nemerfes, unerring, from  v^-,  me-,  not  +  anapTdveiv, 
hamartanein.  to  miss).  A  class  of  flatworms 
easily  distinguished  from  the  Platodes  by 
the  proboscis  and  the  presence  of  an  an\is. 
They  are  also  remarkable  for  the  prodi- 
gious length  attained  by  some  of  the  species, 
which,  in  the  most  extended  state,  is  10  or  12 
feet,  and  one  (I.iiiuf:  lonriinaimun)  reaches  90 
feet.  But  the  animal  which  so  stretches  itself  out 
is   capable   of   suddenly  contracting   itself   to   a 


NEMERTINEA. 


354 


NEMI. 


quarter  of  that  Icuylli.  Tlie  nemertineans  are 
iiiisej^inented  worms,  with  a  ciliated  body  epithe- 
lium, and  are  more  or  less  dorso- vent  rally  lUit- 
teucd.  There  is  no  distinct  body-cavity;  the  in- 
testine is  straight,  with  lateral  diverticula;  the 
anus  is  at  the  ])osterior  end  of  the  body.  The 
blood,  nervous,  and  excretory  systems  are  all 
present,  and  are  usually  very  well  developed. 
Tlic  only  sense-organs  are  little  ciliated  pits  pos- 
sibly olfactory,  and  pigment  eyes.  The  sexes  are 
separate  and  the  larva  goes  through  a  compli- 
cated metamorphosis  in  most  cases.  One  of  the 
characteristic  features  of  the  nemertineans  is 
the  proboscis,  lying  above  the  oesophagus  and 
opening  from  it's  cavity,  just  over  the  mouth. 
This  proboscis  may  be  used  in  the  capture  of 
food,  which  consists,  to  a  large  extent,  of  other 
sorts  of  worms.  These  worms  twine  thonisolves 
into  knots  and  rolls,  apparently  inextricable,  but 
without  any  real  entanglement.  A  large  number 
of  species  are  known  frcjm  all  parts  of  the  world. 
The  great  majority  are  niarine,  but  a  few  are 
fresh-water,  and  land  forms  are  known.  The  lat- 
ter are  all  small  and  dull-colored,  but  the  marine 
forms,  besides  being  oftentimes  very  large,  are 
frequently  very  gaudy,  red  and  green  being  com- 
mon colors.  These  worms  usually  pass  fbrougli  a 
metamorphosis;    the   pre-larva   is  called  a   'pili- 


PILIDin.U  OF   NEMERTEB. 

Tlie  worm  is  shown  growing  within  the  larva ;  r,  velum ; 
0,  eyes ;  i,  Intestine  of  tlie  neniertlnean  worm. 

dium,'  which  is  helmet-shaped  with  side  lobes 
or  lap])ets.  A  reduced  form  of  the  pili<lium  is 
called  Dcsor's  larva.  The  body  of  the  pilidium 
is  not  entirely  al>s()rbeil  by  tlie  growing  worm, 
but  the  worm  develops  within  the  larva,  and 
finally  frees  itself,  when  the  remnant  of  the 
pilidium  dies.  Certain  forms  have  a  direct  de- 
velopment. Jhiltiplicatidn  by  transverse  fission 
is  frequent.  Consult  Shedson,  Cambridge  Xat- 
ural  llisliirii,  vol.  ii.  (London,  1800). 

NEMESIA'NUS,  :M.\Rfrs  At'nF.i.us  Oi.vjr- 
PIl's.  A  Carthaginian  l.alinist  of  the  latter  half 
of  the  third  Christian  century.  He  wrote  Ci/nc- 
gclica.  'On  Ihinting,'  of  which  the  .325  lines  pre- 
served constitute  what  is  ajiparently  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  main  work  (edited  by  Baehreiis  in  his 
Porliv  f.iiliiii  Minores,  ISTi*.  and  by  Ptern.  to- 
gether with  Ornttius,  1S;?2I  ;  .nid  four  Erlofitr. 
reminiscent  of  Vergil,  of  Maniliiis,  and  most  of 
all  of  C'alpnrnlus  Sicnlus.  with  whose  poems  they 
are  so  constantly  found  in  manusiript  that  they 
long  passed  as  his  work  (edited  by  Uaehnns,  as 
above,   and  by   Schcnkl,    1885;    translated    into 


English  verse  by  Scott,  1S!)1).  The  fondness  of 
the  author  for  the  refrain  and  other  points  of 
similarity  in  style  have  suggested  the  attribution 
to  Xemesianus  of  the  I'crvigilium  Veneris;  but 
this  is  entirely  problematiial. 

NEM'ESIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  N^/ueo-is,  from 
v^lieiv,  nv}iifin,  to  distribute).  A  goddess  of 
fate,  who  apportions  to  men  their  deserts.  In 
Jlomer  Xemosis  docs  not  appear  as  a  person, 
though  the  word  is  used  as  a  common  noun  in 
the  .sense  of  'righteous  anger.'  In  another  early 
epic,  the  Cypria,  Nemesis  was  a  goddess  beloved 
by  Zeus,  whom  she  sought  to  escape  by  transform- 
ing herself  into  various  animals.  Finally,  the 
god  approached  her  as  a  swan,  and  she  brought 
forth  an  egg,  which  was  found  and  kejjt  by  Leila, 
till  in  fullness  of  time  Helen,  the  cause  of  the 
Troj.m  War,  was  born.  Nemesis  was  worshiped 
at  Smyrna,  in  Ionia,  where  there  .seem  to  have 
been  two  goddesses  of  tlie  same  name,  ami  espe- 
cially at  Kliamnus  in  Attica,  where  were  two 
temples,  an  old  one,  and  a  large  new  one  erected 
in  the  period  following  the  Persian  wars.  It 
contained  a  famous  statue  of  the  goddess  by 
Agoracritos,  the  pupil  of  Phidias,  of  which  the 
head  is  in  the  Britisli  iluseum.  According  to 
Hesiod,  Nemesis  was  the  daughter  of  destructive 
night.  She  is  the  avenger  of  wrong,  punishing 
especially  vaunting  pride,  and  in  general  any 
overstepping  of  the  bounds  of  duo  moderation. 
Those  who  forget  to  humble  themselves  before  the 
"(kIs  or  who  ort'end  against  the  eternal  laws  are 
likely  to  fall  under  her  power.  In  Alexandrian 
poetry  Nemesis  is  frequently  invoked  to  punish 
a  cold  or  fickle  loved  one.  in  art  Nemesis  appears 
as  a  dignified  youthful  figure,  bearing  frequently 
a  measuring-rod  or  an  a]q)lebraneh  in  one  hand, 
and  commonly  drawing  forward  the  upper  seam 
of  her  tunic.  In  later  art  she  is  frequently 
winged,  with  a  wheel  at  her  feet,  or  a  gnllin  at 
her  side,  or  holding  a  bridle. 

NEME'SIUS(Lat.,  from  Gk.  XeM^trios,  Neme- 
sios).  A  (iieek  philosopher,  of  aboiit  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fourth  century  a.d.  He  was  Bishop  of 
Emesa.  and  wrote  in  (Ircek  a  treatise  on  77ic 
Xatiirc  of  ][an.  in  which  he  expressed  his  belief 
in  the  preeminence  of  the  soul,  the  freedom  of 
the  will,  and  the  indestructibility  of  matter. 
There  is  a  passage  in  the  book  which  has  been  in- 
terpreted as  showing  some  iniderstaiiding  of  the 
liri  iilali(m  of  the  blood.  In  Latin  translation  the 
work  was  much  read  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  since  then  it  has  been  translated  into  several 
of  the  lani.'uai.'es  of  modern  Europe.  There  is  an 
edition   by   ilatthaei    (Halle.    1S02). 

NEMI,  na'm6.  A  lake  in  Italy  about  17  mil"3 
southeast  of  Kome,  having  on  its  margin  a  fa- 
mous grove  of  Diana.  It  was  anciently  called 
l.iirii.s  S'ciiwrrnsis  and  also  .S'/xch/hih  Dianw, 
mirror  of  Diana.  The  grove  of  Diana  was  cele- 
brated on  account  of  its  priest,  who  won  his 
place  by  slaying  his  predecessor,  and  held  it 
only  tili  he  was  himself  slain.  The  grove  seems 
to  have  been  situated  on  the  northeast 
shore,  near  the  modern  village  of  Ncmi.  The 
lake  fills  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  is 
about  1100  feet  above  the  sea.  four  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, and  has  no  outlet  exc(qit  a  passage 
of  unknown  antiquity  which  still  serves  its  origi- 
nal purpose.  It  bad  long  been  known  that  there 
were  remains  of  vessels  sunk  near  the  shore,  but 
it  was  not  till  1895  that  these  were  satisfactorily 


NEMI. 


355 


NEOLAMARCKISM. 


examined.  One  soonis  to  have  been  about  200 
leel  in  lungtli,  and  (iO  feet  beam :  the  other  was 
lierhajis  2o0  feet  long.  Tlie  decks  were  paved 
witli  thin  slabs  of  porjilij-iy  and  serpentine,  and 
tlie  railings  were  of  gilded  bronze.  Lead  water- 
pipes  with  the  name  of  Caligula  furnished  a 
elew  to  the  date,  and  seemed  to  imply  fountains 
on  board.  Tho\igh  eommonly  called  ships,  it  is 
far  moue  probable  that  they  were  great  rafts  used 
in  some  spectacle  connected  with  the  worship  of 
Diana.  On  the  ritual  of  the  grove,  consult 
i'"razcr,  The  dolden  Bough  (ii..  ed.,  London  and 
New  Vnik,  lOOOJ. 

NEMOURS,  nc-moor'.  Dike  of.  A  Frencli 
general  who  gained  fame  in  the  Italian  wars  of 
Louis  XIL  See  Gaston  de  Foix,  Duke  of  Ne- 
monr-.  under  Foix. 

NEMOURS,  Loots  Charles  Philippe  Ea- 
piiAEL  d'Orleax.s.  Duke  de  (1814-9G).  Second 
son  of  Louis  Philippe.  He  was  born  in  Paris 
and  educated  at  the  College  of  Henry  IV.  In  1831 
he  was  elected  King  of  tlie  Belgians,  but  declined 
the  oli"er.  He  served  in  the  two  Belgian  cam- 
paigns, and  in  Algeria,  and  was  in  18.37  made 
lieutenant-general.  After  the  death  of  his  elder 
brother,  the  Duke  of  Orleans  (.July  13.  1842),  it 
was  proposed  to  confer  the  regency  upon  the  Duke 
de  Nemours:  but  this  was  not  sanctioned  by  pub- 
lie  opinion,  and  he  left  France  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  Revolution  in  1S48.  and  did  not  return  till 
1871.  After  the  adoption  of  the  anti-royalist  bill 
of  lSS(i  his  na7ne  was  struck  off  the  army  list. 

NENA  SAHIB,  nfi'na  siilieb.  Leader  in  the 
Sepoy  Mutiny  in  India.    See  Xax.\  Sahid. 

NENCIONI,  nan-eho'ne,  ExRico  (1840-9G). 
An  Italian  ])Oet  and  critic,  born  at  Florence. 
He  was  one  of  that  literary  company  called  the 
'Amici  pedanti,'  of  which  Carducci  was  the  lead- 
er. He  wrote  for  the  Italia  Suoca,  and  trans- 
lated nuich  French  and  English  poetry  into 
his  language.  Especially  remarkable  are  his 
papers  on  English  literature.  Toward  the  end 
of  liis  life  he  held  a  professorship  at  the  Woman's 
Xormal  School  in  Florence.  His  works  include: 
Vcrsi  (1880)  ;  Medaglioni  (1883  and  1897)  ;  and 
Studi  di  lettcrature  straniere  (1897-98). 

NEN'NIUS.  An  historian  who  lived  in  Wales 
at  the  end  of  the  eighth  and  beginning  of  the 
ninth  century,  and  who  is  believed  by  some  to  be 
the  author  of  the  Hintoria  Britoniim.  Little  is 
definitely  known  about  him.  The  Historia  Bri- 
toinnii  contains  a  description  of  Britain,  and 
deals  briefly  with  the  period  of  the  Roman  oc- 
cupation, and  the  subsequent  events,  as  the  in- 
cursions of  the  Picts  and  Scots  and  the  Saxon 
conquest.  As  an  historical  source  it  has  little 
value,  but  it  is  of  some  importance  for  the  study 
of  early  British  mytholog;i'.  especially  for  the 
study  of  the  legend  of  Arthur,  and  because  it 
contains  the  genealoiries  of  Engli-sh  kings  to  790. 
The  best  edition  is  by  Mommsen,  in  Monumcnta 
Ocrmaiiiw  nistoricn:  Aurtores  Antiquissimi, 
vol.  xiii.  (Berlin,  1898).  For  secondary  works, 
consult:  Zimmer,  yennius  Yitidirntiis  (Berlin, 
1893);  Tliurncysen,  "Nennius  Vindicatus,"  in 
Zcil.irhriff  fiir  dciitsche  Philolofjie.  vol.  xxviii. 
(Halle,  1895)  ;  id.,  in  Zeifsrhrift  fiir  cettische 
Philnloqie.  vol.  i.  (Halle.  1897)  ;  Gross,  Sources 
and  Literature  of  Encilish  lUstorii  (New  York, 
1900). 

NE'OCENE  (from  Gk.  v4o$,  neos.  new  + 
rai»6s,    kainos,    recent).      A    geologic    term    em- 


ployed by  the  United  States  theological  Survey  to 
designate  the  middle  portion  of  American  Ceno- 
zoic  time,  and  corresponding  to  the  combined 
Miocene  and  Pliocene  periods  of  the  Lyellian 
classilication. 

NEC-DARWINISM.  Although  Darwin,  in 
his  Aiiiinulf!  iiiiil  I'lanis  Under  Uonicsliidlion, 
gave  nK)re  weight  to  changes  in  the  conditions  of 
life,  eimeeding  that  natural  selection  was  not  an 
exclusive  factor  in  organic  evolution.  Wallace 
and  others,  notably  Weismann,  have  insisted  on 
the  'all-sullieieney'  of  natural  selection,  pushing, 
as  many  think,  Darwinism  far  beyond  its  legiti- 
mate bounds.      See   Wr.lSMAN.NlSM. 

NE'OGiE'A  (Neo-Lat..  from  Gk.  Wos,  neos, 
new  +  yata,  yaia,  earth).  An  alternative  name 
in  zoogeography  for  the  continent  of  South 
America,  or  Neotropical  Region,  in  conformity 
with   ".^retogna,'   'Xotoga'a,'   and   so  on. 

NEO-HEGELIANISM,  ne'6-h«-ga'li-an-iz'ra. 
A  term  often  applied  by  opponents  to  the  doc- 
trine of  those  English,  Scotch,  and  American 
thinkers  who,  more  or  less  under  the  influence 
of  Hegel,  hold  that  consciousness  and  object  are 
mutually  implicated,  and  who.  believing  in  the 
historical  priority  of  the  physical  universe  to  the 
finite  consciousnesses  which  are  in  some  way 
correlated  with  physiological  organisms,  feel 
themselves  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is 
an  eternal  consciousness,  of  which  the  imiverse 
is  the  object.  T.  H.  Green,  .J.  and  E.  Caird,  J. 
Watson,  H.  Jones,  D.  G.  Ritchie,  and  Josiah 
Eoyce  may  be  mentioned  as  prominent  among 
those  to  whom  the  epithet  is  often  applied.  See 
especially  Greex,  Tiiom.v.s  Hill. 

NEO-KANTIANISM,  n«'6-krin'ti-on-iz'm.     A 

term  applied  to  the  doctrine  of  those  followers 
of  Kant  who  accept  tlie  general  result  of  Kant's 
philosophy  so  far  as  the  theory  of  knowledge 
goes,  but  do  not  follow  Kant  in  his  endeavor 
by  jiractieal  reason  to  work  out  a  metaphysics. 
F.  A.  Lange.  II.  Colien.  P.  Natorp.  J.  Vo'lkelt, 
and  0.  Liebmann  may  be  mentioned  as  repre- 
sentatives of  tills  tendency. 

NE'0-LAMARCK'ISM.  The  modified  doc- 
trine held  by  those  naturalists  who  accept  in 
the  main  the  teachings  of  Lamarck  (q.v.).  La- 
marck was  the  first  truly  scientific  thinker  to 
state  in  a  detailed  way  the  causes  not  only  of 
the  origin  of  species,  but  of  certain  types  of 
■animal  life,  such  as  some  orders  of  birds,  of  the 
groups  represented  by  the  ai,  lemur,  the  kanga- 
roo, and  so  on.  The  chief  Lamarckian  factors  of 
organic  evolution  (see  Lamarckism)  are  changes 
in  the  environment,  direct  in  plants  and  the  low- 
est animals,  indirect  in  the  higher  animals:  also, 
the  use  and  disuse  of  organs,  and  the  trans- 
mi.ssion  of  characters  acquired  during  the  life- 
time of  the  individual,  or  what  is  called  'use- 
inheritance.'  The  first  wriler  after  Lamarck,  on 
the  lines  laid  out  by  the  great  French  zoiUogist, 
was  Herbert  Spencer.  In  18ri(;-71,  in  his  Prin- 
ciples of  Uiolofi!/.  Haeckel  claimed  (1808)  that 
we  should  have  to  adopt  Lamarck's  theory  of 
descent  for  the  explanation  of  biological  phe- 
nomena, "even  if  we  did  not  possess  Darwin's 
theory  of  selection."  adding:  "The  one  is  so  com- 
pletely and  direclhl  proved  by  the  other,  and 
established  by  meclianical  causes,  that  there  re- 
mains nothing  to  he  desired." 

In  .America.  Cope  (1800-71)  and  Hyatt  (1866- 
74)   independently  advocated  Lamarckian  views. 


NEOLAMARCKISM. 


."ise 


NEO-PLATONISM. 


Cope  first  (1871)  fiirnisliid  wlial  he  considered 
as  "an  actual  denmnstration  of  the  ruality  of 
llic  Lamarckian  factor  of  use,  or  motion,  as  fric- 
tion, impact,  and  sti'ain.  as  an  efficient  cause  of 
evolution."  A.  S.  Packard  ( 1871) ,  by  his  studies 
of  the  enibryoloj;y  of  Linnilus,  and  of  cave  ani- 
mals, was  led  to  ado|)l  Lamarckian  views  in 
preference  to  the  theory  of  natural  selection, 
which  never  seemed  to  him  adequate  or  suffi- 
ciently comprehensive  to  explain  the  origin  of 
variations  and  the  rise  of  new  types;  and  it  was 
lie  who  orifrinated  the  term  Xco-lamorckixni. 
'Neo-lamarckism,"  he  explained,  "gathers  nii  and 
makes  use  of  the  factors  both  of  the  Saint -Hilaire 
and  Lamarckian  schools,  as  containing  the  more 
fundamental  cau.ses  of  variation,  and  adds  those 
of  geographical  isolation  or  segregation  (Wagner 
and  Gulick),  the  ell'ects  of  gravity,  the  efTects  of 
currents  of  air  and  of  water,  of  fi.xed  or  seden- 
tary as  opposed  to  active  modes  of  life,  the 
results  of  strains  and  impacts  (Ryder,  Cope,  and 
Oshorn),  the  princijde  of  change  of  function  as 
inducing  the  formation  of  new  structures 
(Dohrn),  the  efTects  of  parasitism,  commensal- 
ism,  and  of  symbiosis — in  short,  the  biological 
environment;  togetlier  with  geological  extinction, 
natural   and   sexual   selection,   and   hybridity." 

Among  American  zoijlogisls  wfto  have  advo- 
cated Lamarckian  views  are  \V.  IL  Dall,  J.  A. 
Allen,  R.  T.  .Tackson,  C.  II.  Eigcnmann.  and 
others;  in  England.  Spencer.  Heiislow.  Cunning- 
ham, Gadow,  and  others;  in  France.  Ciard, 
PerrieT;  and  in  Germany  and  Holland,  llaeckel, 
Wagner.  Einier.  St.indfuss.  Fischer.  Plate, 
PfctVer.  O.   llcrtwig.  Kmery,  Roux,  and  others. 

NEOLITH'IC  MAN  (from  Gk.  viot,  neos, 
new  +  WSos,  lillios,  stone).  The  term  applied 
by  European  arclueologisls  to  the  races  in  a 
supposed  geological  period  when  the  polishing  of 
stone,  agriculture,  pottery,  weaving,  domestica- 
tion of  animals,  and  the  consl  ruction  of  pile 
dwellings  on  lakesides  in  Switzerland.  France, 
Italy,  and  Ireland,  the  burying  of  the  dead  in 
dolmens,  and  the  rearing  of  megalithic  monu- 
ments, were  practiced. 

mS'ON  (Gk.  vdv,  neu.  sg.  of  f^os,  twos, 
new ) .  A  gaseous  element  obtained  from  the 
atmosphere  by  William  Ramsay  and  Morris  W. 
Travers  in  ISilg.  It  resembles  helium,  and.  like 
other  members  of  its  group,  has  among  its 
characteristic  features  a  disinclination  to  unite 
with  other  elements.  Neon  is  separated  from 
the  atmo.spliere  in  the  same  way  as  krypton. 
Its  atomic  weight  is  given  bv  Ramsay  and 
Travers  as   19.!)4. 

NE'OPHYTE  ( I'r.  mopln/tr.  from  Lat.  iiru- 
pliillii^.  iruiii  (;k.  feixpi'To^.  from  i-^os.  iicos.  new 
-f  0i'7-o!,  jilnilos.  grown,  from  tpvftf.  /j/ii/ci'ii.  to 
grow).  The  name  given  in  I'arly  ecclesiastical 
language  to  persons  recently  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity. The  word  is  used  in  this  sense  by  Saint 
Paul,  an<l  is  explained  by  Saint  Gregory  the 
Great  as  an  allusion  to 'their  being  newly  planted 
in  the  faith.'  It  dill'ered  from  catechumen  (q.v.). 
inasnuich  as  it  su|)posed  the  person  to  have  not 
only  embraced  the  doctrines  of  the  Church,  but 
also  (o  have  received  baptism.  Saint  Paul,  in  the 
passage  referred  to.  directs  Timothy  not  to  pro- 
mote a  neophyte  to  the  episcopate;  and  this  pro- 
hibition was  generally  maintained,  although 
occasionally  disregarded  in  extraordinary  cir- 
cumstances,   such    as    those    of    Saint    Ambro.se 


(q.v.).  The  duratiuu  of  this  exclusion  was  left 
for  a  time  to  the  discretion  of  bishops;  but  sev- 
eral of  the  ancient  synods  legislated  regarding  it. 
In  the  modern  Roman  Catholic  Church  the  same 
discipline  is  observed,  and  extends  to  per-sons 
converted  not  alone  from  heathenism,  but  from 
any  sect  of  Christians  se))arated  from  the  com- 
nuniiun  of  Rome.  The  time,  however,  is  left  to  be 
determined   by  circumstances. 

NEO-PLA'TONISM.  The  name  applied  to 
the  teachings,  ]iriiiiarily  of  the  Greece- Alex- 
andrian school  of  philosophy,  and  later  of  a 
number  of  Italian  humanists,  as  well  as  some 
Knglishmen.  The  extension  of  the  Roman  Em- 
]iire  and  the  growing  intercourse  between  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  world  gave  rise  to  an  eclectic 
tendency  whicli  combined  features  of  various 
systems.  The  process  of  anuilgamation  .showed 
itself  most  prominently  at  .Mexandria,  whose 
central  position  made  it  a  meeting-place  for  the 
chief  religions  and  philosophies  of  the  ancient 
world.  Such  a  phiUisopliy.  tliercfore.  as  that 
])ronmlgated  by  the  \eo-lMalunists,  combining 
the  peculiar  mental  cliaractcristics  of  the  East 
and  tlie  West,  naturally  originated  there,  though 
it  soon  ceased  to  have  any  local  connection. 
Tile  term  Neo-Platonism  is  sometimes  loosely 
used  to  signify  the  whole  new  intellectu;il  move- 
ment proceeding  from  Alexandria,  and  attempts 
have  been  made  to  include  among  its  exponents 
some  of  the  Clnistian  Fathers,  such  as  Clement 
of  Alexandria  and  ( )rigen ;  but  the  name  is  more 
properly  applied  to  the  school  of  Ammonius 
Saccas  "(q.v.)  an<l  his  followers.  Plotinus  (q.v.), 
a  pupil  of  Ammonius,  was  its  most  important 
champion.  Porphyrins.  lanibliclius.  and  Proclus 
(qq.v. )  represent  a  continuous  decline  in  philo- 
sophic interest,  and  a  greater  and  greater  ten 
dency  to  wild  and  fantastic  religious  syncretism. 
In  connnon  witli  Xco  I'ytliagoreanism  and  the 
.Jud;co- Alexandrian  philoso]>hy  represented  by 
Philo.  the  teaching  of  tliis  school  is  characterized 
liy  a  dualistic  oppositicm  of  the  divine  and  tlie 
earthly,  an  abstract  conception  of  God  which  ex- 
cludes all  knowledge  of  the  divine  essence,  a  con- 
tem))t  for  the  world  of  sense  «hich  rests  on  the 
Platonic  doctrines  of  matter  and  of  the  descent 
of  souls  into  bodies,  the  supposition  of  mediating 
forms  which  carry  over  the  divine  operations 
into  the  world  of  jihenomeiia.  the  demand  for  an 
;iscetic  liberation  from  a  life  of  sense,  and  a 
faith  in  a  higher  revelation  obtained  in  ecstasy. 
Xotwithstanding  the  assumjition  that  these  doc- 
trines were  deductions  from  the  teachings  of 
Plato,  the  school  brought  the  whole  of  philo- 
sophical .science  under  a  new  systematic  form. 
In  their  view,  the  basis  of  the  divine  nature  is 
unity,  the  One;  from  this  as  the  primordial 
source  of  all  things  emanates  'pure  intelligence'; 
and  from  this,  in  turn,  emanates  the  'soul  of  the 
world.'  whose  creative  activity  produces  other 
lesser  .souls,  of  men  and  animals.  The  doctrine 
of  the  divine  immanence  in  this  aximn  niiinrii 
was  one  of  the  most  marked  (loints  in  later  Neo- 
Platonism,  and  led  very  close  to  pantheism.  One 
of  the  last  Neo-Platonists  of  antiquity  was  Boe- 
thius  (q.v.),  who  by  his  continued  popularity 
became  tlie  most  inlluential  medium  for  the  trans- 
mission, during  the  oarlv  Middle  .Ages,  of  Greek 
philosophy  to  Western  E\irope. 

The  fifteenth  century  witnessed  a  strong  re- 
vival of  interest  in  these  speculations.  Nicholas 
of  Cusa    (q.v.)    and  other  mystics  seek  to  over- 


NEO-PLATONISM. 


357 


NEOTROPICAL  REGION. 


come  the  doiilit  arising  from  the  inadequacy  of 
human  conceptions  by  the  theory  of  man's  im- 
mediate Unouledf^e  or  intuition  of  (iod — a  tlieory 
distinctly  akin  to  tlie  Neo-l'lalonie  doctrine  tliat 
tlic  ><oul  in  a  state  of  ecstasy  has  the  power  to 
transcend  all  finite  limitations.  Tlie  Italian 
liumanists.  in  their  reaction  against  the  previous- 
ly dominant  Aristotclianism,  paid  great  devotion 
to  anything  that  seemed  to  derive  from  Plato. 
Marsilii)  l''icino,  especially.  l>y  his  translations  of 
I'lotihus,  Porjihyrius.  and  lamblichus,  eontrib- 
uteil  tu  the  spread  of  these  doctrines.  The  Cani- 
liridge  Platonists  (<i.v.)  were  not  without  tlieir  af- 
linities  to  the  Alexandrian  teaching;  and  Words- 
worth's prevalent  idea  of  the  existence  of  a  soul 
in  nature  which  h(dds  converse  with  the  soul  of 
man  miylit  be  traced  to  the  same  source.  Con- 
sult: Whittaker.  T)ie  Xeo-Platonists  ((Cambridge, 
11101);  Bigg,  The  Christian  I'lalonists  of  Alcx- 
<in(hia  (Oxford,  ISSO)  ;  id.,  yco-I'latonism  (ib., 
18115)  ;  Hipler,  ?^eui)lutonische  Sliidicn  (Vienna, 
IStlS)  ;  .Jules  Simon.  L'ccolc  d'Alcrundric  (Paris, 
1843-45);  Kellner.  Hellcnismus  vnd  Christen- 
Ihum    (Cologne,    1865)  ;    and  see   Neo-Pythago- 

EEANISM. 

NE'OPTOL'EMTJS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  NeoTrrAXe- 
fios.  \coi)tolciiios) .  The  son  of  Achilles  and  Dei- 
damia,  also  called  Pj-rrhus.  After  the  death  of 
his  father  he  was  taken  by  Odysseus  to  Troy, 
where  he  was  distinguished  by  his  courage,  and 
was  one  of  the  band  who  entered  Troy  inclosed  in 
the  wooden  horse.  He  was  the  slayer  of  the  aged 
Priam.  He  returned  with  rich  spoils  to  Phthia 
and  married  Hermione,  the  daughter  of  Menelaus. 
Accordinf;  to  later  legend  he  brought  back  with 
him  as  part  of  his  booty  Andromache,  the  wife 
of  Hector,  and  settled  in  Epirus,  and  later  mar- 
ried Hermione  when  he  had  gone  to  Phthia  to 
restore  Peleus  to  his  throne.  He  was  killed  at 
the  altar  at  Delphi  by  Orestes,  the  former  lover 
of  Hermione,  or  by  the  Delphians.  He  was 
buried  within  the  preeincts  of  the  temple,  where 
he  was  afterwards  worshiped  as  a  hero. 

NE'O-PYTH'AGO'REANISM.  The  name  of 
one  of  the  two  Or;eco-Alexandrian  schools  of  phi- 
losophy, the  other  school  being  the  Neo-Platonic. 
(.See  Xeo-Pl.vtonism.)  Pythagoreanism  was 
revived  in  the  first  century  B.C..  by  P.  Xigidius 
Figulus,  a  Roman  praetor,  but  Apollonius  of 
Tyana  (q,v,)  was  the  most  prominent  represen- 
tative of  this  attempt  to  blend  Pythagorean 
philosophy  with  Oriental  theosophy.  The  Neo- 
Pvthagoreans  regarded  it  as  the  greatest  task 
of  the  philosopher  to  purify  himself  from  con- 
nection with  matter  by  the  suppression  of  desire 
anil  by  the  observance  of  certain  ceremonial 
rules  which  were  adopted  from  the  earlier  Py- 
thagorean brotherhood.  In  their  theoretical  sys- 
tem, numbers  had  syndjolic  significance.  Con- 
sult: Zcller.  Die  Pliilosophie  drr  Grieehen,  part 
iii.:  Die  naehnristofelixchc  Philosophie  (3d  ed., 
Leipzig,  1880-81)  :  Vachcrot,  Hinloire  critiqve  de 
I'l'rolr  d'Me.Tiindrir  (Paris,  1840-51);  also  the 
histories  of  philosophy  bv  T'ebcrweg-Heinze.  Win- 
delbnncl,  Enlmann.  and  P.ergmann. 

NEORNITHES,  ne-nr'nT-thez  (Neo-Lat.  nom. 
pi.,  from  Gk.  vlos,  iico.i.  new  +  dpws,  ornis,  bird). 
]\[odern  birds,  as  distinguished  from  those  of 
•Tiirassic  times,  which  are  called  Archnrnifhes. 
They  are  charneterized  by  fused  metacarpals,  the 
second  finger  longest,  and  the  caudal  vertehra>  not 
more  than  thirteen  in  number.     The  group  com- 


prises  not  only   existing  groups,   but   all    fossil 
birds  e.vcept  .\rcha'opteryx. 

NEOSHO,  ne-o'sh6.  A  city  and  the  countj'- 
seat  of  Newton  County,  Mo.,  21  miles  .southeast 
of  Joi)lin,  on  the  Saint  Louis  and  San  Francisco 
and  the  Kansas  City.  Pittsburg  and  Gulf  rail- 
roads (ilap:  SHssouri,  B  5).  It  has  a  public 
school,  library,  and  the  Scarritt  Collegiate  In- 
stitute (Methodist  Episcopal  South),  opened  in 
l.SSS.  The  United  States  (iovcrnment  fish 
hatchery  here  includes  thirteen  ponds,  well 
stocked  with  various  species  of  fish.  The  city 
is  on  the  edge  of  the  zinc  and  lead  mining  dis- 
trict of  southwestern  ilissouri,  and  manufac- 
tures foundry  and  machine-shop  products,  agri- 
cultural implements.  Hour,  etc.  Settled  in  1839, 
Neosho  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  18118,  and 
in  1878  was  chartered  as  a  citv.  Population,  in 
1890,  2198;  in  1900,  272.5. 

NEOSHO.  A  river  rising  in  Morris  County, 
east  central  Kansas  (Map:  Kansas,  G  3).  It 
Hows  southeast  through  eastern  Kansas,  then 
southwest  and  south  through  Indian  Territory, 
joining  the  Arkansas  River  near  Fort  Gibson, 
after  a  course  of  about  350  miles.  The  chief 
towns  on  its  banks  are  Oswego,  Burlington,  and 
Emporia.  Its  principal  tributary  is  the  Cotton- 
wood. 

NEOTROPICAL  REGION.  In  zoogeog- 
raphy, a  prinuirv  division  embracing  South, 
America  and  its  islands.  Central  America,  and 
the  hot  lowlands  of  Mexico  and  the  West  In- 
dies. Other  names  proposed  for  it  have  been 
Austro-Columbian.  Dendrogoea,  and  Xotoga-a. 
Its  characteristics  are  more  distinctly  marked 
than  in  some  of  the  other  regions,  and  indicate 
a  remote  antiquity  for  the  mainland  areas,  and 
also  a  long  period  of  isolation  from  North  Amer- 
ica, It  also  has  some  curious  resemblances  to 
the  Australian  Region,  especially  in  the  presence 
of  marsupials  and  ratite  birds.  It  is  naturally 
divided  into  four  subregions  by  physiographic 
features.  The  first,  or  Brazilian  Subregion,  com- 
prises the  great  forested  equatorial  area  from 
the  Caribbean  coast  to  the  pampas  of  Southern 
Brazil.  The  -second,  or  Chilean  Subregion, 
stretches  along  the  Andean  plateaus  and  tlie  dry 
coast  strip  between  the  Andes  and  the  Pacific, 
from  Peru  to  about  latitude  4°  N.  The  third, 
or  Mexican  SubrcL'ion  (q.v.).  consists  of  Cen- 
tral .America  and  tropical  Jfexico.  The  fourth, 
or  Antillean  Subregion.  embraces  all  the  W'est 
Indies  except  Trinidad  and  Tobago,  which  are 
continental  in  their  characteristics.  The  region 
as  a  whole  is  characterized  by  great  richness  of 
life,  as  well  as  by  marks  of  isolation,  Wallace 
found  that  it  had  eight  families  of  mammals  ab- 
solutely confined  to  it,  including  the  distinct 
group  (Cebid.-e  and  Hapalid:r)  of  'New  World' 
monkeys;  the  bloodsucking  bats  (Phyllosto- 
mid.T)  ;  the  chinchillas,  cavies.  and  three  other 
families  of  rodents.  Nearly  all  the  edentates  of 
the  world  are  collected  here — sloths,  armadillos, 
ant-eaters,  and  the  like.  It  has  also  many  im- 
portant lesser  groups,  as  the  llamas,  the  opos- 
sums (save  one  species),  the  hutias,  the  soleno- 
dons,  and  many  peoiliar  carnivores.  The  absence 
of  certain  groups  is  notable;  it  has  no  civets,  no 
insect ivores  (save  a  shrew  or  two  from  the 
North),  no  wild  cattle  or  sheep,  no  niniinants, 
except  the  llamas  and  a  few  deer,  and  no  other 
hoofed    mammals    except    the    tapir     (elsewhere 


NEOTKOPICAL  REGION. 


358 


NEPAL. 


known  only  in  .Uulaja)  and  the  peccary.  In 
birds  the  case  is  even  more  extraordinary. 
About  twenty-five  of  its  families  are  not  known 
elsewhere,  including  such  large  or  peculiar 
groups  as  the  plant-cutters,  manakins,  cotiuga, 
ant-thrushes,  tree-creepers  (Dendrocolaptidu;), 
toucans,  todies,  mot-mots,  curassows,  tinamous, 
sun-bitterns,  and  many  others;  while  it  possesses 
the  great  majority  of  several  groups,  such  as  the 
humming-birds,  only  scantily  present  in  North 
America,  and  not  known  at  all  in  the  Old  World. 
A  similar  account  might  be  given  of  regional 
peculiarities  in  the  departments  of  reptiles,  am- 
pliibians,  fishes,  and  the  many  branches  of  in- 
vertebrate life.  The  West  Indies,  as  a  part  of 
this  region,  present  some  extraordinary  peculiar- 
ities. Though  so  near  to  the  shores"  of  Xorth 
Anierica,  their  zoological  afllnities  are  distinctly 
Xeotropical,  and  they  present  curious  rcseni- 
blanccs  to  the  island  fauna  of  iladagascar.  See 
America,  paragraph  Fauna;  Zoiigeographical 
Jfap  under  Distributiox  of  Animals;  and  con- 
sult the  authorities  there  cited. 

NEOZO'IC  (from  Gk.  1.^05,  iieos,  new  +  fa,^, 
zOv.  life).  A  term  introduced  by  Edward  Forbes 
to  include  all  the  strata  from  the  Trias  to  the 
most  recent  deposits.  It  has  been  occasionally 
used  as  a  substitute  for  Cenozoic  (q.v.),  and  for 
the  Tertiary  system    (q.v.). 

NEPAL,  ne-pnl',  or  NIPAL.  An  independent 
State  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Himalayas, 
bordering  on  Xorthern  India  (Jlap:  India,  D  3). 
It  is  bounded  by  Tibet  on  the  north,  by  the  native 
State  of  Sikhim  and  Bengal  on  the  east,  and  by 
Bengal  and  the  United  Provinces  of  Agra  and 
Oudh  on  the  south  and  west.  Its  area  is  esti- 
mated at  .54,000  square  miles. 

The  southern  portion,  known  as  the  tcrai,  is  a 
level  strip  of  laud,  partly  covered  with  forests 
and  well  cultivated.  The  "rest  of  the  country  be- 
longs to  the  region  of  the  Himalayas  (q.v.),'  and 
contains  some  of  the  highest  mountains  in  the 
world,  such  as  Jlount  Everest  (29.000  feet)  and 
Dhawalagiri,  which  are  covered  with  perpetual 
sno\y.  There  are  a  number  of  minor  ranges  inter- 
secting each  other  and  inclosing  numerous  val- 
leys. The  country  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the 
(Janges,  its  chief  rivers  being  the  Karnali  and  the 
Sarju  in  the  west,  the  fJandak  in  the  centre,  and 
the  Kusi  in  the  east.  The  climate  varies  consid- 
erably in  accordance  with  the  configuration  of  the' 
surface.  In  the  mountainous  part  it  is  naturally 
cold,  while  in  the  flat  region  along  the  southern 
boundary  and  in  some  of  the  valleys  of  the  in- 
terior it  is  hot  and  humid.  The  average  tem- 
perature at  Khatnuindu  (over  4300  feet)  is 
about  02°.  Deposits  of  iron,  lignite,  copper,  lead, 
anil  zinc  are  found  and  exploited  to  some  extent 
by  the  natives.  There  arc  also  manv  mineral 
springs  and  some  deposits  of  gold  and  silver. 
The  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants  is  agri- 
culture: although  carried  on  in  a  primitive  wa.v. 
it  is  highly  intensive,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of 
ngriculliiral  land.  Tlie  slopes  of  the  hills  "and 
ledyes  even.  dilTicult  of  access,  are  utilized  for 
ngririiltural  purposes,  and  the  methods  employed 
for  diverting  mountain  torrents  for  irrigational 
needs  exhibit  noticeable  anil  varying  degrees  of 
ingenuity. 

The  chief  crops  in  the  central  valleys  are  sev- 
eral varieties  of  rice,  wheat,  pulse,  corn,  sugnr- 
cnne,  potatoes,  and  various  vegetables.     In  the 


terai  region  are  cultivated  tea,  cotton,  tobacco, 
etc.  Many  European  fruits  are  successfully  cul- 
tivated. The  chief  manufactures  are  coarse  cloth, 
paper,  brass  bells,  utensils,  and  ornaments.  Ex- 
cellent pottery  is  produced  in  some  parts  of  the 
country  and  the  wonderful  wood-carving  found 
in  the  temples  testifies  to  the  skill  of  the  natives. 
The  commerce  of  Nepal  is  chiefly  with  British 
India  and  Tibet.  From  British  India  are  im- 
ported cotton  goods,  silver, spices,  salt,  brass,  cop- 
per, sugar,  iron,  leather  goods,  etc.  These  are 
j)artly  reexported  to  Tibet,  which  sends  in  return 
drugs,  tea.  woolen  cloth,  salt,  paper  plant,  do- 
mestic animals,  honey,  wax,  silver,  gold,  etc. 
The  chief  exports  to  British  India  are  rice,  oil 
seeds,  cattle,  tobacco,  hides,  timber,  and  glue. 
The  exports  to  and  imports  from  British  India 
amounted  in  1900-01  to  $5,987,040  and  .$5,257,372 
respectively.  Goods  are  usually  transported  by 
human  carriers  or  pack  animals. 

Theoretically  Nepal  is  an  absolute  monarchy, 
but  the  actual  rulers  of  the  State  are  the  Prime 
Minister  and  his  party.  There  are  a  State  Coun- 
cil and  a  number  of  courts.  The  savage  native 
code  has  been  humanized  by  British  influence. 
The  revenue  of  the  Govemment  is  derived  chiefly 
from  land  tax.  customs,  mines,  forests,  and 
monopolies.  There  is  an  ellicient  army  of  about 
50.000.  which  can  be  greatly  enlarged  in  case  of 
necessity  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  Gurkhas 
(q.v.)   are  all  eflicient  fighters. 

No  reliable  figures  as  to  the  population  of 
Nepal  are  available.  Native  statistics  place  it  at 
5.000,000,  hut  these  figures  are  probably  exag- 
gerated. The  great  mass  of  the  popiil.-ition  of 
Nepal  are  hy  some  considered  to  be  Mongolic, 
with  large  infusions  of  Dravidian  and  Aryan 
blood,  while  others  regard  them  as  a  mixed  race 
of  Indo-Afghan  and  Mongolic  descent.  The  chief 
divisions  are  the  Kulu-lahuli  and  Paharias  in  the 
west,  and  the  Mangars  and  Gurkhas  in  the  east. 
Some  of  the  hill-tribes  have,  perhaps,  more  of 
Mongolian  than  other  blood,  hut  the  effects  of  the 
Hindu  invasions  from  the  twelfth  century  down 
are  seen  everywhere.  The  typical  representatives 
of  the  Ncpalese  are  the  Gurkhas  (q.v.),  whose 
Aryan  ancestors  from  Rajputana  mixed  with  the 
aborigines.  In  religion  the  majority  of  the 
Ncpalese  are  Hindus,  but  there  are  also  several 
hundred  thousand  Buddhists.  The  Kululahulis 
are  dolichocephalic  and  below  the  average  in 
stature.  Education  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  [iriests  and  the  bulk  of  the  population  are 
illiterate.  The  children  of  the  wealthy  classes 
are  .sent  to  the  educational  establishments  of 
British  India.     Capital.  Khatmandu   (q.v.). 

History.  Various  ruling  d.^Tiasties  from  a  re- 
mote period  are  given  in  the  native  literature, 
but  the  first  authentic  mention  of  a  ruler — An- 
Quvarma  of  the  Thakuri  dynasty — is  made  by 
lliuen  Tsang.  the  Chinese  Buddhist  pilgrim,  who 
visited  Nepal  in  the  seventh  century.  In  1324 
the  country  was  invaded  ami  occupied  by  Hari- 
sinha-deva.  Raja  of  Simraungarh.  Modern  his- 
tory begins  in  17<>8  with  its  conq\iest  by  the 
Gurkhas,  who  originally  were  driven  from  Rajpu- 
tana by  the  Mohammedan  invasion.  Gurkha  ag- 
gressions on  Tibetan  territory  in  1790  led  to 
their  defeat  by  Cliina.  and  the  limitation  of  their 
northern  boundary.  In  I. SI 4.  by  way  of  reprisals, 
the  British  invaded  the  country',  but  were  de- 
feated ;  the  following  year,  however,  advancing  on 


NEPAI,. 


359 


NEPHOSCOPE. 


Khatmandu,  they  obtained  favorable  conditions  of 
peace  and  the  establislinient  of  a  British  Kesi- 
dency  at  the  capital.  ]5y  the  assassination  of  his 
uncle  in  1845,  and  by  the  Kot  massacre  of  his 
opponents  in  the  foUowinj^  year,  Jiinj;  IJahadur, 
a  colonel  in  the  army,  became  J'rinie  Minister  and 
nominal  ruler.  Having  (irmly  established  him- 
self in  power,  he  visited  England  in  1850,  and 
after  his  return  the  fruits  of  his  journey  were 
exhibited  in  the  wise  reforms  that  he  introduced. 
During  the  Indian  ilutiny  of  ISo"  lie  rendered 
valuable  assistance  to  the  British  and  was  hand- 
somely rewarded.  He  died  in  187"  and  was 
.succeeded  by  his  brother,  who  also  resorted  to 
wliolesale  executions  to  maintain  his  ascendency, 
and  ruled  until  1885,  when  he  was  murdered  at 
the  instigation  of  Bir  Shamsher  Jang,  now  Prime 
ilinister  and  father-in-law,  by  two  daughters,  of 
the  reigning  Jlaharaja,  Pirthivi  Bir  Bikram,  who 
was  born  in  1875  and  ascended  the  throne  in  1881. 
BiBLioGR^vr-HY'.  Hodgson,  Colonization  of  Xepaul 
(Calcutta,  1857);  id..  Essays  on  the  Language, 
Literature,  and  Rcliqion  of  Xepaul  and  Tihet 
(London,  1874);  Wright  (ed.),  Jlistori/  of  .Yc- 
paul  (Cambridge,  1877)  ;  Oldfield,  Sketches  from 
TCepauI,  Historical  and  Descriptive  (ib.,  1880); 
Hunter,  Imperial  (lazetteer  of  India,  vol.  x,  (ib., 
1886)  ;  Bendall,  Journal  of  Literary  and  Archte- 
ologieal  Research  in  Sepal  (ib.,  188G)  ;  Vansit- 
tart,  yotcs  on  Sepal  (Calcutta,  1895)  ;  Ballan- 
tine,  On  India's  Frontier,  or  Xepal  (Xew  York, 
1896)  ;  Waddell,  Among  the  Himalayas  (London, 
1898)  :  Boeck,  Dureh  Indien  ins  verschlussene 
Land  Sepal  (Leipzig,  1903). 

NEPENTHE,  ne-pen'the  (Gk.  v-qireveii^.  ne- 
penthes, from  v-q-,  ne-,  negative  prefi.x  +  irivBos, 
penthos,  grief).  In  the  Odyssey,  an  epithet  of  a 
drug  given  to  Helen  in  Egypt,  possessing  the 
power  to  bring  forgetfulness  of  every  pain  or 
grief.  Later  writers  identified  the  drug  with 
opium,  or  some  preparation  of  hemp. 

NEPENTHES,  ne-pen'thez.  A  genus  of  herbs 
or  half-shrubby  plants  of  the  natural  order  Ne- 
penthacoa?.  The  species  are  natives  of  swampy 
ground  in  India,  China,  llalaysia,  Madagascar, 
etc.,  and  are  chiefly  remarkalile  for  the  leaves  of 
some  species  which  consist 
of  a  dilated  foliaceous 
petiole,  prolonged  beyond 
its  foliaceous  part,  as  if 
it  were  the  prolongation  of 
the  midrib  of  a  leaf,  and 
terminating  in  a  pitcher 
( ascidium ) ,  from  which  the 
name  pitcher-plant  hasbeen 
derived.  The  pitcher  is  ter- 
minated by  a  lid.  which  is 
regarded  as  the  true  blade 
of  the  leaf.  The  fluid  found 
in  these  pitchers  is  a  se- 
cretion of  the  plant  itself. 
Insects  often  enter  the 
pitcher,  and  according  to 
investigations  of  Vines,  are 
dissolved  by  a  fennent  se- 
creted by  the  leaves  and  absorbed ;  so  that  the 
nepenthes  rank  among  insectivorous  plants.  Many 
of  the  species  are  epiphytes,  being  attached  to 
trees  and  other  plants,  and  are  rather  commonly 
grown  in  hothouses  for  their  strange  leaves.  The 
name    pitcher-plant    is    applied    to    many    other 


CULTIVATKl)     V.VHIETY 
OF    NEPENTHES. 


plants,  as  Sarraceuia  spp.,  Arisa-ma  triphyllum, 
etc. 

NEPHELENE  SYENITE  (nephelene,  from 
Gk.  v«pi\rj,  nrpliiU',  cloud  -+-  syenite),  Laurvig- 
ite.  An  igneous  ruck  of  granitic  texture,  of 
which  the  essential  mineral  constituents  are 
nephelene  and  alkali  feldspar.  Nephelene  syen- 
ites usually  contain  also  an  alkaline  variety  of 
pyroxene  (acmite  or  icgerine),  and  frequently 
also  nosean  or  haiiyne,  sodalite,  sphene,  and 
peculiar  varieties  of  mica  (lepidomelane)  and 
garnet  (melanite).  These  minerals  are  so  gen- 
erally found  together,  and  so  rarely  occur  except 
when  in  association  with  nephelene  or  the  allied 
mineral  leucite.  that  the  nephelene  syenites  and 
a  few  rare  families  of  rocks  (leucite  syenites, 
Iheralitcs)  are  quite  marked  in  their  peculiari- 
ties. Xephelcne  .syenites  are  very  rich  in  the 
alkalies  and  alumina.  They  are  quite  subject 
to  alteration  by  weathering  processes. 

NEPH'ELITE  (from  Gk.  jt^Aij,  nephele, 
cloud).  A  mineral  sodium-aluminum  silicate 
that  crystallizes  in  the  hexagonal  system,  has  a 
vitreous  or  greasy  lustre,  and  is  generally  color- 
less or  light  yellow,  though  sometimes  when 
found  massive  it  is  green  or  red.  It  occurs  in 
both  ancient  and  modern  volcanic  rocks,  and  in 
such  as  syenite.  It  is  found  in  the  lavas  of  the 
volcanoes' of  Italy;  also  in  Bohemia,  in  France, 
in  Brazil,  and  in  Canada:  in  the  United  States 
the  massive  and  crystallized  varieties  are  found 
in  Maine,  New  Jersey,  in  the  Ozark  Mountains 
(Arkansas),  and  in  Montana. 

NEPHE'LIUM.     A  genus  of  plants.     See  Ll- 

TCHI. 

NEPHI,  ne'fi.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Juab  Countv,  Utah,  87  iniles  south  of  Salt  Lake 
City;  at  th"e  Junction  of  the  Oregon  Short  Line 
and"  the  Sanpete  Valley  railroads  (Map:  Utah, 
B  2).  It  is  the  distributing  point  for  a  district 
interested  chiefly  in  farming,  lumbering,  and 
cattle-raising,  and  in  the  mining  of  salt  and 
gypsum.  Population,  in  1890,  2034;  in  1900, 
2208. 

NEPHOSCOPE  (from  Gk.  vi<j>o(,  nephos, 
cloud  +  mo-civ,  skopein,  to  view).  An  instru- 
ment used  by  meteorologists  for  observing  the 
clouds,  and '  especially  for  determining  the 
amount  and  direction  of  the  horizontal  com- 
ponent of  the  apparent  motion  of  a  cloud.  The 
modern  nephoscope  is  the  development  of  an 
idea  embodied  by  Aimf-  in  1846,  in  his  so-called 
'reflecting  anemometer,'  and  in  its  best  form  it 
has  a  wide  range  of  usefulness.  The  simplest 
form  is  merely  a  horizontal  mirror,  having  a  cir- 
cular graduated  edge.  The  observer  brings  one 
eye  to  such  a  position  that  the  reflected  image  of 
the  cloud  is  seen  to  pass  from  the  centre  of  the 
mirror  to  the  ciromiference,  and  he  merely  re- 
cords the  direction  in  wliich  the  image  appears 
to  pass  off.  The  Marvin  nejihoscope,  an  instru- 
ment of  high  i)recision,is  used  by  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau  observers,  and  has  been  exten- 
sively employed  in  cloud  observations.  A  form 
of  nephoscojic  for  use  on  vessels  at  sea  was  de- 
vised by  Professor  Finemann  and  used  by  him 
about  1888.  About  the  same  time  Professor  Abbe 
devised  his  marine  nephoscope  and  a  method  of 
using  it  for  determining  absolute  altitudes  and 
movements  of  clouds  at  sea.  It  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  light  bronze  circle  fitting  rather  loosely 


NEPHOSCOPE. 


360 


NEPOS. 


on  top  of  the  oniiiiaiv  ship's  tuiiipass;  it  there- 
fore lephices  the  nearly  horizontal  circle  of  the 
apparatus  ordinarily  used  by  the  navigator  to 
sight  upon  the  sun  when  measuring  azimuths. 
The  bronze  circle  is  graduated,  and  at  its  zero 
point  carries  a  hinge  and  an  adjustable  arm,  ha^•■ 
ing  at  its  end  a  knob  which  serves  to  define  the 
line  of  sight.  The  circle  also  carries  a  glass 
mirror  from  which  the  quicksilver  backing  has 
been  removed,  leaving  a  transparent  circle, 
through  which  the  graduation  of  the  compass 
nwdle  can  be  read.  As  this  marine  nepho.scope 
enables  one  to  locate  a  stiirm  centre  by  the  mo- 
tions of  the  lower  clouds  better  than  can  be  done 
by  the  wind,  and  as  it  gives  the  direction  of  the 
pennant  at  masthead  much  more  accurately  tlian 
it  can  be  observed  by  the  unaided  eye,  it  is 
strongly  recommended  for  use  by  navigators  at 
sea.  To  ordinary  meteorological  observers  it  has 
the  special  advantage  of  being  the  only  instru- 
ment by  means  of  which  observers  at  sea  can 
easily  determine  the  absolute  altitude  and  move- 
ments of  clouds. 

BiBLioGR.\i»nv.  A  full  account  of  various  forms 
of  nephoscopes  is  gi\en  in  .\bbe.  Treatise  on  Me- 
leoroloyical  Appurotus  and  Methods  (Washing- 
ington,  1888),  published  as  part  2  of  the  Annual 
Kvpfnl,  Chief  Signal  Offieer  for  1887.  The  ilar- 
viii  nephoscope  is  described  in  the  Monthly 
Weather  Uevieir,  vol.  x.\iv.  (Washington.  ISOli), 
and  also  in  separate  pami)hlets.  The  description 
of  Abbe's  marine  nephoscope  was  first  published 
in  1893  in  the  h'eporl  of  the  International  Mcteo. 
riiUiffieal  Congress  held  in  Chicago  ( Weather 
liurenu  Bulletin  it.).  A  general  description  of 
work  (lone  with  it  is  contained  in  the  American 
Meteorolofiieal  .Inurnal  for  October,  1891. 

NEPHRECTOMY  (from  Gk.  vf<t,pbs.  neph- 
ros,  kidney  +  ^kto/h),  elctome,  excision,  from  iK, 
ek  +  To^iJ,  tome,  a  cutting,  from  rfuveiv,  tern- 
tiein,  to  cut).  The  total  removal  of  a  kidney  in 
rare  cases  of  acute  or  chronic  infection,  either  be- 
cause the  kidney  is  useless  or  because  it  is  a 
source  of  infection  owing  to  abscesses  in  its  sub- 
stance. The  ol)li(|ne  extraperitoneal  lumbar  in- 
cision is  the  operative  procedure  of  choice.  Cut- 
ting through  the  luMd):ir  MMiscles  obliquely  from 
the  outer  border  of  the  sacrolumbalis  muscles,  an 
inch  below  and  parallel  to  the  twelfth  rib,  making 
his  incision  downward  and  forward,  the  surgeon 
reaches  the  kidney.  IJlunt  dissection  frees  it 
from  its  site  and  ilivests  it  of  its  capsule.  Its 
pedicle  is  then  tied  .and  it  is  separated  and  re- 
moved. There  is  considerable  danger  from  hcmcu"- 
rhage  of  the  vessels  of  the  pe<licle.  Tuffier  states 
the  mortality  as  follows:  I'riniary  nephrectomy, 
.'i'l  cases,  36.8  per  cent.:  himliar  nephrectomy, 
200  cases,  28.4  per  cent. :  secondary  nephrectomy 
following  nephrotomy  (q.v. ),  36  cases,  13.9  per 
cent.  (Jarceau  gives  the  mortality  of  nephrec- 
tomy for  tuberculosis  as  17.4  per  cent.,  of  sec- 
ondary nephrectomy  following  nephrotomy,  11.9 
p<T  cent.  Consult  Wnrren-tJouId.  International 
Te.Tllionk  of  Surqen/  (Philadelphia  and  London, 
1902). 

NEPH'RITE  (from  Ok.  vt<t>p6t.  nephron,  kid- 
ney). .\  variety  of  aniphihole  that  varies  from 
white  to  dark  preen  in  color,  according  to  the 
amount  of  ferrous  oxide  that  it  contains.  It  is 
known  chiefly  through  the  carved  ornaments  and 
utensils  that  are  found  among  the  remains  of 
primitive  man  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  es- 


pecially in  China  and  .Mexico,  and  known  under 
the  collective  name  of  jade  (q.v.).  Many  imagi- 
nary virtues  were  ascribed  to  it,  and  it  was 
especially  sought  after  as  a  cure  for  epilepsy  and 

diseases  of  the  kidneys. 

NEPHRI'TIS.     See  Bright's  Disease;  Cik- 

RUOSI.S. 

NEPHROT'OMY  (from  Gk.  «0p4j,  nephros, 
kidney  +  TOfn^,  tuniC,  a  cutting),  'i'he  operation 
of  cutting  open  a  kidney  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
moving a  stone  or  evacuating  pus.  An  incision  is 
made  in  the  lumbar  region,  obliquely,  from  the 
outer  border  of  the  sacrolumbalis  muscle,  an  inch 
below  the  twelfth  rib,  parallel  to  the  rib  and 
forward  and  downward.  The  kidnej-  is  reached 
by  the  finger,  and  then  the  incision  is  modified 
as  the  nature  of  the  case  demands.  The  organ  be- 
ing grasped  and  drawn  into  reach,  after  blunt 
dis.section,  the  surgeon  bisects  it  through  its 
convex  edge,  removes  the  calculi,  and  evacuates 
the  pus.  I'he  viscus  is  then  sutured  together  and 
rci)laccd.  Tullier  gives  the  results  of  the  ojjcra- 
tion  in  these  figures:  In  43  cases  there  were  3 
deaths,  2  fistuhe,  and  38  recoveries.  Consult 
W'arren-liould,  Interniilional  Text-Book  of  Sur- 
(jenj   (Philadelphia  and  London,  1902). 

NEPH'THYS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  X^^flus,  Egyp- 
tian Xeht-hat).  An  Egj'ptian  goddess,  the 
daughter  of  Seb  and  Xrtt,  and  the  sister  and 
wife  of  Set  (q.v.).  By  her  brother  Osiris,  she 
was  the  mother  of  Anubis  (q.v.).  In  the  leg. nd 
she  joins  with  her  sister  Isis  in  mourning  over 
and  guarding  the  body  of  Osiris,  and  therefore  in 
funerary  scenes  the  two  goddesses  are  often  de- 
l>ictcd  protecting  tlie  mummy  of  the  decea.sed. 
The  lamentations  of  Isis  and  Nephthys  over 
til.'  body  of  Osiris  form  the  subject  of  a  poem  of 
which  several  cojiics  have  been  preserved.  Neph- 
thys is  usually  represented  as  a  woman  wearing 
upon  her  head  the  ideogram  of  her  name.  As  a 
])rotector  of  the  dead  from  evil  inP.ueiiccs  she 
was  worshiped  throughout  Kgj-pt.  Consult: 
Wiedemann,  Ifelif/ion  of  the  .ineieni  Egyptians 
(New  York,  1897)  ;  Horrack,  Lamentationx  d'l.tis 
el  ,lr  yrphthys  (Paris.  1866). 

NEPI,  na'pe.  An  episcopal  city  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Rome,  Italy.,  17  miles  southeast  of  Viterho 
(Map:  Italy,  G  .5).  It  is  the  Etruscan  Nepete 
and  the  Roman  Colonia  Xcpensis.  The  town  is 
encircled  by  its  ancient  walls  and  towers,  and 
has  an  eleventh-century  cathedral,  a  ruined 
castle,  the  residence  of  I.ucretia  Borgia  in  1500, 
and  a  handsome  Renaissance  municipal  palace. 
I'upulafinn.   in    1901.  .30.36. 

NEPIGON,   Lake.     A   lake  of  Canada.     See 

XlrlcON.    I.AKK. 

NEP'ISSING,  Lakk.     A  lake  of  Canada.    See 

Xn'issT\(i.  Lakk. 

NEPOMTJK,  na'pA-muk,  .Tonx  of.  See  Joiix 
oi'    N'ki'omik. 

NETPOS,  CoRNEi.irs.  .\  Roman  historian, 
who  flourished  abcuit  the  middle  of  the  first  cen- 
tury B.C.  The  place  and  precise  time  of  his  birth 
are  unknown.  lie  was  fhe  friend  of  Cicero  and 
(';itullus.  The  only  work  of  his  which  has  sur- 
vived (if  indeed  it  be  his)  is  n  series  of  twenty- 
five  generjiUy  f>rief  bioi^raphies  of  \\';irriors  and 
statesmen,  mostly  Greeks.  Thcsp  biographies  are 
distinguished  by  the  purity  of  tlieir  Latinity.  the 
conciseness  of  their  style,  and  their  admirable 
delineation  of  character,  but  suflicicnt  care  has 


NEPOS. 


361 


NEPTUNE. 


not  been  exercised  in  the  examination  ol"  authori- 
tiea,  nor  is  the  rehitive  iniportauee  of  things  iluly 
regarded.  Until  llie  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, those  biographies,  ou  the  strength  of  the 
titles  given  in  the  various  manuscripts,  were 
generally  ascribed  to  .Emilius  Probus,  a  writer 
who  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury: but  in  15(i'J  an  edition  was  put  out  by  the 
famous  Dionj'sius  Lambinus,  who  pronounced  the 
so-called  Lives  of  ^Emilius  Probus  to  be  in  real- 
ity the  lost  work  of  Cornelius  Nepos,  De  Yiris 
IlluNlrihiis.  There  arc  many  editions,  among 
which  nuiy  be  mentioned  those  of  Van  Staveren 
(Leyden,  1773),  of  Tz-schucUe  (Giittingen,  1804), 
of  Vleckeisen  (Leipzig.  1884),  of  Xipperdey 
( 10th  ed.,  Leipzig,  18!)U) ,  of  Lindsay  (New  York, 
1895),  and  of  Klagg  (New  York,  1895). 

NEP'TUNE  (Lat.  Neptttnus;  connected  with 
Av.  iiiijild.  moist),  or  Poseidon  (Gk.  UixraSuv, 
Posruli'm.  Doric  UoTiiSafuv,  l'otcidai-On,lloTubS.ii, 
I'oteidan;  of  uncertain  etymology).  In  classical 
mytliology,  a  brother  of  Zeu.s  and  lord  of 
the  sea.  In  legend  he  is  the  son  of  Cronus  and 
Rhea.  His  home  is  a  splendid  palace  in  the 
depths  of  the  sea  near  -Ega?,  though  which  town 
of  this  name  was  meant  causeil  much  dispute. 
His  wife  in  Hesiod  is  Amphitrite,  and  she  shared 
his  cult  on  tlie  Istlimus.  As  a  lover  he  rivals  his 
brother  Zeus,  and  many  legends  traced  local 
heroes  to  Poseidon  and  some  nymph  or  daughter 
of  an  early  king.  So  Xeleus  and  Pelias  were  sons 
of  Poseidon  and  Tyro.  In  his  nature  Poseidon 
is  always  wild  and  implacable,  never  becoming  a 
guardian  of  higher  virtues.  He  i.s  the  'shaker  of 
the  earth.'  a  natural  conclusion  from  the  fre- 
quency with  which  disturbances  of  the  sea  ac- 
company the  shocks  on  land,  but  he  is,  above  all, 
the  master  of  the  sea,  who  .sends  the  dreaded 
storms,  and  at  his  will  controls  the  waves,  which 
are  called  his  swift  liorses.  His  attribute  is  the 
trident,  or  three-pronged  harpoon  of  the  .-Egean 
fisherman,  with  which  he  controls  the  waves,  or 
brings  springs  from  rocks.  Closely  associated 
with  him  is  the  horse.  He  was  the  horse-tamer, 
was  lionorcd  with  liorse-races  at  many  points, 
horses  were  frequently  sacrified  to  him,  and 
there  are  traces  of  a  belief  that  he  was  in 
the  form  of  a  horse.  His  worship  was  chiefly 
conhned  to  the  coast,  though  he  had  temples  even 
in  the  inland  country  of  Arcadia,  and  it  is  not  at 
all  improbable  that  he  was  originally  a  god  of 
wafer  and  moisture  in  general.  There  is  some 
evidence  for  a  decline  in  Poseidon  worship,  which 
seems  rellected  in  the  legends  of  his  contest  with 
Athena  for  Attica  and  with  Hera  for  Argos.  At 
Athens  lie  was  worshiped  in  the  Ercchtheum,  and 
it  seems  clear  that  both  Erechtlieus  and  .Egeus 
are  in  essence  the  same  deity.  From  him  was  also 
named  the  Attic  month  Poseideon  (about  De- 
cember). He  was  a  great  Ionian  divinity,  and 
the  Panionia  were  celebrated  by  the  twelve  Ionic 
cities  at  his  sanctuary  at  Mycale.  His  temple 
on  the  island  of  Calauria.  where  Demosthenes 
died,  was  in  very  early  times  the  centre  of  an 
amphictyony  or  league  of  maritime  States.  His 
must  famous  cult,  however,  was  on  the  Isthmus 
of  Corinth,  where  the  Isthmlnii  Gninrif  were  cele- 
brated in  his  honor.  In  art  Poseidon  lias  much 
the  same  tvpe  as  Zeus,  hut  without  the  dignity 
and  benignity  of  the  latter.  Statues  of  him  are 
by  no  means  common.  Two  of  the  best  are  the 
Poseidon  of  Melos.  now  in  .Athens,  and  tlie  fine 
statue  in  the  Lateran,  which  many  regard  as  de- 


rived from  the  famous  bronze  by  Lysippus  on  the 
Isthmus. 

At  Kome  the  old  Italian  or  Koman  water-god, 
who  appears  dimly  in  religious  tradition, seems  to 
have  been  early  idi-'ntilicd  with  Poseidon,  and 
during  the  historical  period  Neptune  is  scarcely 
distinguishable  from  the  Greek  god  of  the  sea, 

NEPTUNE.  The  outermost  member  of  the 
solar  system.  Its  mean  distance  from  the  sun 
is  2,792,000,000  miles;  its  diameter  34,800  miles; 
period  of  revolution  about  105  solar  years;  mass 
.seventeen  times  that  of  the  earth ;  <lensity  one- 
fifth  of  the  earth's.  Thus,  it  is  about  eighty-five 
times  larger  than  the  earth,  but  from  its  ex- 
treme remoteness  iS  of  almost  inappreciable  mag- 
nitude when  seen  through  an  ordinary  telescope. 

Discovery.  The  discovery  of  Neptune  was  an 
event  unique  in  scientific  history.  It  was  the 
disturbance  in  the  motion  of  t'ranus.  caused  by 
the  attractive  force  of  Neptune,  which  led  to  its 
discovery.  From  1690  to  its  discovery  as  a 
planet  by  Herschel,  Uranus  (q.v.)  had  been  re- 
peatedly recorded  as  a  fixed  stjir.  Earlier  obser- 
vations were  found  not  to  agree  with  later 
observations,  and  hence  it  became  evident  that 
either  the  earlier  observations  were  erroneous 
or  that  Uranus  was  wandering  from  its  ancient 
track.  On  October  21,  1845.  .John  Couch  Adams 
(q.v.)  communicated  to  the  Royal  Astronomer 
estimates  of  the  elements  and  position  in  the 
heavens  of  a  planet,  whose  mass  would  account 
for  the  orbital  irregularities  of  Uranus.  This  did 
not,  however,  lead  to  any  search  for  the  planet 
in  the  heavens,  and  "the  matter  remained 
buried  in  obscurity.  In  the  same  year  the 
attention  of  .Jean  Joseph  Leverrier  (q.v.), 
a  teacher  of  astronomy  in  the  Ecole  Poly- 
technique,  was  brought  to  the  Uranian  ditli- 
eulty.  In  two  papers  communicated  to  the 
French  Academy,  Leverrier  proved  that  only  an 
exterior  body  could  produce  the  irregularities 
in  the  Uranian  orbit.  In  a  third  paper,  sub- 
mitted August  31,  1840,  he  had  computed  the 
orbit  of  the  supposed  planet,  the  visibility  of 
which  he  described  as  that  of  a  star  of  the  eighth 
magnitude.  These  results  were  communicated  to 
Gallc  of  the  Berlin  Observatory,  with  a  request 
to  look  for  the  jilanet  in  the  place  assigned  to  it. 
This  Galle  did  in  the  evening  of  September  23d. 
and  perceived  a  small  body  with  a  disk  nearly  3" 
in  diameter.  The  place  where  it  was  found  was 
within  less  than  1°  of  the  spot  indicated.  Be- 
fore the  news  of  the  discovery  reached  England, 
it  had  already  been  duplicated.  Under  the  di- 
rection of  Airy,  director  of  the  Greenwich  Ob- 
servatory, Chailis  of  the  Cambridge  Observatory 
had  commenced  a  search  for  the  planet  July 
29th,  and  recorded  3150  stars,  three  of  which 
were  dilTerent  positions  of  the  planet,  recorded  on 
August  4th,  August  12th,  and  September  29th. 
Chailis  proceeded  to  map  them,  but  as  he  had  no 
good  star  map  this  required  considerable  time, 
and  before  this  was  accomplished,  news  of  the 
discovery  arrived  from  Berlin  on  October  1,  1840. 
Neptune  had  already  been  seen  by  Lalande  on  the 
8th  and  again  on  'the  lOtli  of  'May,  1795,  but 
was  taken  to  be  a  fixed  star  and  repeatedly  en- 
tered in  the  catalogues  as  such  till  its  discovery 
as  a  planet. 

Neptune  is  attended  by  one  satellite,  which 
was  discovered  October  10.  184(),  bv  Lassell.  This 
satellite,  like  those  of  T^ranus.  differs  from  the 
satellites  of  other  planets  in  the  direction  of  its 


NEPTUNE. 


362 


NERETJS. 


motion,  which  is  from  east  to  xvcjt  in  a  plane 
iiii'lint'd  at  an  anjile  of  35°  to  that  of  the  ecliptic. 
Its  period  of  revolution  is  5  days  21  hours,  and 
its  distance  from  the  planet  somewhat  less  than 
that  of  our  moon  from  the  earth.  i"or  a  complete 
account  of  the  discovery  of  Neptune,  consult 
C'lerke,  History  of  Astronomy  During  the  Xine- 
leeiith  Century  (London,  1890).  See  Pla>'ej'S; 
Soi^vK  System. 

NEPTUNE,  Temple  of.  (1)  A  remarkably 
prcMMViil  and  majestic  Doric  temple  at  Picstiuii, 
originally  called  Posidonia.  in  hucania.  The  tem- 
ple is  a  perii)teral  he.xastylc,  and  measures  120  hy 
8.5  feet.  The  cella  is  surrounded  by  a  passageway, 
and  has  two  columns  in  anlis-.at  front  and  rear. 
The  temple  stands  on  a  platform  of  three  steps. 

(i)  A  temple  forming  part  of  a  group  of 
buildings  erected  on  the  Campus  ^Martins  at 
Rome,  in  B.C.  20,  bv  Agrippa  in  commemoration 
of  the  victories  at  Mysa:,  Naulochus,  and  Actium. 
It  stood  in  the  midst  of  a  great  square  sur- 
rounded by  a  colonnade,  the  Portico  of  the  Argo- 
nauts, which  was  decorated  with  naval  paintings. 
The  whole  group  was  called  the  Xeptuniuni.  and 
was  the  seat  of  the  Admiralty.  It  was  destroyed 
in  the  great  fire  of  a.d.  80,  and  was  restored 
by  Hadrian.  Eleven  colunnis  of  the  temple, 
with  a  part  of  the  cella  and  decorated  ceiling,  are 
still  preserved.  The  substructure,  now  buried, 
bore  under  each  column  the  figure  of  a  Roman 
province,  with  tro|)hies  between  the  columns,  of 
which  there  were  thirty-six.  corresponding  to  the 
number  of  Roman  provinces  at  the  time  of 
Hadrian.  A  number  of  the  figures  have  been  re- 
covered, but  are  dispersed  in  various  collections. 
The  cornice  is  mistakenly  restored  with  a  copy 
of  1lie  cornice  of  tlic  Temple  of  Concord. 

NEPTU'NIAN  ( from  Lat.  Xeptunius,  rela- 
ting to  Xeptiinc,  marine,  from  Lat.  yeptunus, 
name  of  the  Roman  sea -god).  A  term  formerly 
applied  to  the  geologists  who  maintained  the 
aqueous  as  against  the  igneous  theory  of  the 
origin  of  rocks.  The  discussions  between  the  two 
schools  were  long  and  bitter. 

NERAC,  nii'nik'.  Tlie  capita!  of  an  arron- 
dissemcnt  in  the  Department  of  Lotet-Garonne, 
France,  on  the  Haise,  1(!  miles  southwest  of  Agen 
(Map:  France,  G  7).  The  old  town  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river  is  united  by  bridges  to  the 
modern  industrial  quarter  rm  the  left  bank.  The 
ruins  of  its  former  imposing  royal  castle,  now 
numbered  among  French  historical  monuments, 
and  its  park  of  l,a  Garenne,  are  the  chief  objects 
of  interest,  and  there  is  a  small  but  interesting 
museum  containing  numerous  remains,  indicating 
the  presence  of  an  unknown  city  of  Roman  days 
on  the  site  of  Xerac.  Corks,  machines,  coaches, 
and  cloth  are  manufactured,  and  there  is  a  gen- 
eral trade  in  wine,  grain,  and  hemp.  Here  Henry 
I\'..  to  whom  there  is  a  monument,  sjient  his 
youth.     Population,  in  1000.  04.35. 

NERBUDDA,  ner  bud'dA,  more  correctly 
NARBADA  (  Skt.  .V«ir»io(/-i ) .  .\  river  of  India. 
It  ri-is  in  tlic  Maikal  Range  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  Central  Provinces,  and  flows  south- 
we.stward  for  800  miles,  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of 
Cnmbay  through  an  estuary  beginning  at  Broach, 
200  miles  north  of  Hunibay  (Map:  India.  C  4). 
In  the  upper  half  of  il'>  course,  below  .Tabalpur. 
it  (lows  throuL'h  a  great  depression  between  the 
Vindhya  ^[nuntnins  on  the  north  and  the  Satpura 
range  on  the  south,  and  is  broken  by  numerous 


falls  and  rapids.  In  this  valley,  near  Hoshanga- 
bad,  are  important  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  ore. 
In  its  lower  course  tlie  river  is  broad,  and  be- 
comes a  tidal  stream  50  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Sea-going  vessels  ascend  the  estuary  to  Broach, 
and  the  river  is  navigable  82  miles  for  large 
boats,  while  smaller  ones  can  ascend  28  miles 
farther.  The  Xerbudda  is  to  the  Hindus  one  of 
the  most  sacred  streams  of  India. 

NEREID  (nO're-id)  MONUMENT.  The 
name  given  to  a  sculptured  luioi'in  at  Xanthus 
in  Lycia,  dating  from  the  fouvlli  century  B.C.,  and 
discovered  in  1838  by  Sir  Charles  Fellows.  The 
sculptures  from  the  monument,  jireserved  in  the 
British  Museum,  show  ten  female  figures  with 
dripping  g:irments,  which,  with  the  shells  and  sea- 
weed rcpre-cnted,  gave  the  monument  its  name. 

NEREIDS  (Gk.  ^vpV'S(s,  Nij/xfact,  Xerei- 
dcs).  Sea-nymphs,  daughters  of  Xereus  and 
Doris,  daughter  of  Oceanus.  Their  number  is 
variously  given,  though  fifty  seems  to  have  been 
the  popular  belief.  We  have,  however,  in  the 
various  lists  some  seventy-seven  dilTerent  names. 
Few  of  them  appear  as  individuals,  and  of  these 
Thetis,  mother  of  Achilles.  Aniphitrite.  the  wife 
of  Poseidon,  and  Galatea,  beloved  by  the  Cyclops 
Polyphemus,  are  alone  conspicuous.  In  art  they 
appear  frequently  as  spectators  in  scenes  in- 
volving sea-deities,  as  at  the  contest  between 
X'ereus  and  Hercules,  or  the  capture  of  Thetis 
by  Peleus.  while  a  favorite  scene  represents  them 
as  bringing  to  Achilles  the  armor  made  by 
Hephsstus.  In  the  later  art  they  appear  riding 
on  various  sea-monsters,  sporting  with  Tritons, 
or  attending  on  Poseidon  and  Aniphitrite.  The 
name  has  continued  in  the  popular  belief  of  the 
Greeks  of  to-day,  but  the  Xcreids  are  no  longer 
sea-maidens,  but  have  become  nym])hs  of  the  land. 
The  stories  arc  in  part  such  as  correspond  with 
the  ancient  ideas,  but  in  many  tales  they  appear 
as  dangerous  and  vindictive  spirits,  carrying 
away  children,  or,  vampire  like,  sucking  human 
blotxl.  In  summer  they  are  supposed  to  be  es- 
Ijccially  dangerous  at  mid-day,  seizing  their  vic- 
tims by  a  sudden  stroke  or  destroying  their 
senses.  The  old  ludief  that  whoso  s:iw  a  nymph 
might  be  smitten  with  madness  reappears  in  the 
modern  popular  superstition,  and  it  is  thought 
dangerous  to  haunt  their  caves,  and  still  more 
to  be  caught  in  the  whirlwinds  of  dust  raised  in 
their  dances. 

NEREIS.  .\  genus  of  annelids  (family  ycrei- 
(J(V)  having  a  long  slender  body,  a  distinct  head, 
with  tentacles  and  eyes,  the  whole  body  covered 
with  tubercles,  and  the  gills  lobed  and  tufteil. 
They  arc  all  marine,  and  generally  hide  under 
rocks  or  in  the  sand.  They  swim  actively  by 
rapid  and  undulating  inilcctions  of  the  boily.  and 
by  the  aid  of  numerous  'oars'  (sct.T)  arranged 
along  the  sides.  The  proboscis  is  thick,  strong, 
and  nrnied  with  two  jaws. 

NEREITES,  ne'ri^-Vtez  (X"'eo-I,at..  from  Lat. 
TCereis,  Xereid).  A  peculiar  fossil  frail  found  in 
many  of  the  Cambrian  rocks  of  .\merif:i  and 
Europe,  and  supposed  to  have  been  made  by  a 
crawling  worm, 

NEREUS,  m"V-i1s  or  nv'rHTIs  (Gk.  Ni)p«!j\ 
In  (Ireek  le^'cnd,  an  ancient  sea-divinity,  son  of 
Pont  us  (sea)  and  Gjpa  (earth),  and  father,  by 
Doris,  of  the  Nereids.  He  seems  to  have  been 
worshiped  at  Gythium.  and  probably  elsewhere: 
but  his  cult  was  never  prominent,  and  in  legend 


NEREUS. 


363 


NEEO. 


he  plajs  scarcely  any  other  part  than  fatlier  of 
the  Xereids.  among  whom  was  included  Tlietis, 
inotliur  ol  Auliilles.  -lu  the  mytlis  he  is  usually 
friendly  and  helpful,  and  his  only  contest  is 
with  Hercules,  who,  in  order  to  learn  the  way 
to  the  Garden  of  the  Ilesperides,  was  obliged 
to  wrestle  with  and  hold  Nereus,  in  spite  of  his 
manilcild  changes  of  shape. 

NER'GAL.  A  prominent  deity  in  the  Baby- 
lonian and  Assyrian  pantheons.  The  name  (prob- 
ably better,  Nerigal)  is  assured  by  the  Old 
Testament;  its  meaning  is  obscure  ('the  rager,' 
or  'the  great  ruler') ,  the  Babylonian  etjTiiologists 
explaining  it  as  'the  mighty  one  of  the  great 
dwclling-])lace,'  with  reference  to  Nergal's  lord- 
ship over  Hades.  His  original  aspect  sterns  to 
liave  been  that  of  a  solar  deity,  representing 
especially  the  blazing  beat  of  the  sun  at  noon  or 
the  summer  solstice;  thus  he  is  referred  to  as 
"the  hero  of  the  gods,  the  lofty  meridian  sun.' 
As  a  destructive  deity  he  became  the  god  of  war 
and  the  god  of  pestilence.  He  shares  the  former 
characteristic  with  Xinib,  along  with  whom  he 
also  appears  as  the  god  of  the  chase.  But  he 
appears  more  uniquely  as  the  god  of  pestilence, 
and  so  he  became  by  an  easy  transition  of  thought 
the  god  of  those  whom  he  destroyed,  and  thus 
the  deity  of  the  lower  world.  Accordingly  in  the 
later  mythology  he  stood  for  the  declining  sun. 
and  the  month  of  Chislcv  (December)  is  dedi- 
cated to  him.  This  development  in  the  char- 
acter of  X'ergal  is  presented  in  a  story  preserved 
in  an  .\marna  tablet,  to  the  effect  that  the  gods 
of  the  upper  world  became  engaged  in  war  with 
Allatu  ( Ercsh-kigal ) ,  the  godd(;ss  of  Hades; 
Xergal  as  their  leader  makes  his  way  into  her 
]>resence,  but  is  induced  by  her  supplications  to 
save  her  life  and  to  marry  her,  so  becoming  the 
god  of  the  lower  world.  With  this  may  be  com- 
pared the  classic  myth  of  Pluto  and  Proserpine. 
Xergal  had  also  as  wife  Laz,  probably  an  upper- 
world  goddess.  As  god  of  war  and  destruction, 
Xergal  was  identified  with  the  planet  JIars, 
while  the  lion  was  his  symbol.  X^ergal's  ancient 
sanctuary,  with  which  he  was  always  associated 
from  earliest  to  latest  times,  was  Cutha,  the 
name  of  which  even  became  a  synonym  of  Hades. 
Accordingly,  the  Cutha'an  colony  which  was  set- 
tled in  Samaria  after  the  deportation  of  Israel 
brought  thither  the  cult  of  X''ergal  (11.  Kings 
xvii.  301 .  His  cult,  however,  was  widespread  and 
seems  to  have  been  especially  patronized  in  the 
later  Assyrian  Em])ire.  Consvilt  .Tastrow.  I?eli- 
gion  of  Bahtjlotiia  and  Assyria   (Boston,  1898). 

NERI,  na're,  Philip.  See  Philip  Neei,  Saint. 

NERIN'EA  (Neo-Lat..  from  Lat.  .Vcnjip,  vari- 
ant of  Xrrrix.  X^ereid).  A  genus  of  siphnnosto- 
mate  gastropods  allied  to  the  Cerithiid;p  and 
ex'clnsively  restricted  to  the  Jlesozoic  formations, 
where  it  is  especially  abundant  in  and  character- 
istic of  the  .Jurassic  coral  beds  of  Kurope.  The 
shell  is  long  and  turreted,  with  many  whorls, 
and  the  columella  always,  and  usually  also  the 
inner  lip  of  the  aperture,  are  ornamented  with 
strong  ridges.  Longitudinal  sections  of  the  shell 
show  that  Ihese  ridges  increase  in  size  and  com- 
plexity from  the  apex  to  the  aperture  of  the  shell, 
in  other  words,  as  the  shell  increases  in  gro^vth 
from  it^;  young  to  its  adult  stage. 

NEKIS'SA.  In  Shakespeare's  Merchant  of 
Venire,  the  companion  of  Portia.  She  marries 
Gratiano. 

Vol.  XIV.— 24. 


NE'RIUm.     A  subtropical  plant.     See  Ole- 

ANUEK. 

NERLY,  ner'le  (properly  Xeuklicu),  Fbied- 
HU II  il.SOT-78).  A  German  architectural  and 
landscape  painter,  born  at  Krfurt,  and  educated 
at  Hamburg.  After  studying  in  Home  for  several 
years,  Xerly  visited  Southern  Italy,  and  in  1837 
settled  in  Venice.  Thenceforth  he  painted,  almost 
exclusively,  views  in  Venice,  one  of  the  first  being 
the  "Piazzetta  by  -Moonlight."  a  subject  which  met 
with  universal  favor.  A  fine  view  of  "San  Gio- 
vanni e  Paolo"  is  in  the  National  Gallery,  Berlin, 
and  mention  may  be  made  of  a  "Team  of  Buffaloes 
Drawing  a  Huge  Marble  Block  Through  the  Cani- 
pagmi."  in  tlie  Schwerin  Gallery.  His  son  and 
pupil.  Fbiedbk'II  ( 184;: — ),  attained  distinction  as 
an  able  landscape  and  marine  painter. 

NERNST,  nernst,  Waltheb  (1804—).  A 
German  |jhysicist,  born  at  Briesen  (West  Prus- 
sia ) .  He  studied  at  the  universities  of  Zurich, 
Berlin,  Gratz,  and  Wiirzburg;  in  1887  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  to  Ostwald  at  Leipzig,  and  in 
1889  lecturer  in  [)hysical  chemistry  in  the  uni- 
versity. In  1891  he  became  professor  at  Giittin- 
gen,  where  in  189.5  he  also  organized  and  be- 
came director  of  the  institute  for  physical  chem- 
istry. He  is  known  as  the  inventor  of  the  Xernst 
incandescent  electric  lamp,  in  which  the  carbon 
filament  of  the  ordinary  incandescent  lamp  is 
replaced  by  a  bar  of  magnesia,  which,  unlike  the 
carbon,  is  efficient  at  nearly  its  melting-point,  and 
therefore  much  superior  in  illuminating  power. 
The  cost  of  operation  is  also  said  to  be  consid- 
erabU"  less.    See  Electbic  Lighting. 

NERNST  LAMP.     See  Electric  Lighting. 

NE'RO  (.\.D.  .37-08).  A  Roman  Emperor  {  a.d. 
54-68).  He  was  born  at  Antium,  on  the  coast  of 
Latitnn.  December  1.5,  a.d.  37.  and  was  the  son  of 
Cn.  Domititis  Ahenobarbus  and  of  Agrippina,  the 
daughter  of  Gernuinicus  Coesar,  and  sister  of 
Caligula.  His  mother  afterwards  became  the 
wife  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  who  adopted  him 
(A.D.  50),  and  his  name,  originally  L.  Domitius 
Ahenobarbus,  was  changed  to  Nero  Claudius 
Ciesar  Drusus  Gennanicus.  After  the  death  of 
Claudius  (.\.D.  54),  the  Prsetorian  Guards,  at  the 
instigation  of  Afranius  Burrus.  their  prefect,  de- 
clared him  Emperor,  instead  of  Claudius's  son 
Britannicus,  and  their  choice  was  acknowledged 
both  by  the  Senate  and  the  provinces.  His  reign 
began  imder  the  gtiidance  of  Burrus  and  his  tutor, 
Seneca,  the  philosopher;  but  the  inlhience  of  his" 
mother,  together  with  his  own  moral  weakness 
and  sensuality,  frustrated  their  efforts,  and  ho 
soon  plunged  into  debauchery,  extravagance,  and 
tyranny.  He  caused  Britannicus.  the  son  of 
Claudius,  to  be  poisoned  at  the  age  of  fourteen, 
because  he  dreaded  hiin  as  a  rival,  and  afterwards 
(A.n.  59)  procured  the  death  of  his  own  mother, 
-Agrippina.  to  please  his  mistress,  Poppa;a 
Sabina.  She  was  the  wife  of  his  principal  boon- 
companion.  Otho.  afterwards  Emperor,  and  in 
order  to  marry  her  he  divorced  and  afterwards 
put  to  death  his  wife  Octavia.  the  sister  of  Bri- 
tanniciLs  (A.n.  0)2).  The  affairs  of  the  Empire 
were  at  this  time  far  from  tranquil.  In  A.D.  Gl 
an  insurrection  broke  out  in  Britain  among  the 
Tceni  under  their  Queen,  Boadicea.  which  was, 
however,  suppressed  by  Suefoniiis  Paulinus.  The 
following  year  saw  an  imsuccessful  war  against 
the    Parthians   in   Armenia.      At   home   matters 


NEBO. 


364 


NERVA. 


were  not  niudi  better.  Tlie  Knipcror  was  lam- 
pooned in  verse;  tlie  Senate  and  priesthood,  alike 
venal,  were  also  satirized  by  audacious  malcon- 
tents; Burrus  died,  and  even  Seneca  removed 
from  Court.  In  July,  04,  occurred  a  great  con- 
llagration  in  Rome,  by  which  two-thirds  of  the 
city  was  reduced  to  ashes.  Xero  himself  is 
usually  believed  to  have  been  the  incendiary.  It 
is  said  that  he  admired  the  spectacle  from  a  dis- 
tance, recitinj;  verses  about  the  burning  of  Troy, 
but  many  scholars  are  doubtful  whether  he 
really  had  any  hand  in  it.  At  all  events,  he  laid 
the  blame  on  the  Christians,  and  persecuted  them 
with  great  fury.  lie  rebuilt  the  city  with  great 
magnificence,  ami  reared  for  liimself  a  splendid 
palace  extending  from  the  Palatine  Hill  over  the 
intervening  valley  to  Ihe  slopes  of  the  Esquiline, 
called,  from  the  inuncnse  profusion  of  its  golden 
ornaments,  the  IJoiiiiis  Antra,  or  Golden  House; 
and  in  order  to  ])rovido  for  this  expenditure,  and 
for  the  gratification  of  tlie  Roman  populace  by 
spectacles  and  distrili\itions  of  corn.  Italy  and 
the  ))rovinccs  were  unsparinglv  plundered.  A 
conspiracy  against  him  failed  in  the  year  Co.  and 
Seneca  and  the  poet  Lucan  fell  victims  to  his 
vengeance.  In  a  fit  of  passion  he  killed  his 
wife  Poppa?a.  He  then  proposed  marriage  to 
Antonia,  the  daughter  of  Claudius,  but  was  re- 
fu.sed,  wliereupoM  lie  caused  licr  to  be  put  to 
death,  and  married  Statilia  Jlessalina,  after 
killing  her  husband.  His  vanity  led  him  to 
.seek  <listinction  as  a  poet,  a  philosopher,  an  actor, 
a  musician,  and  a  charioteer,  and  he  received 
applause,  not  only  in  Italy,  but  also  in  (iroeee, 
which,  upon  invitation  of  the  Greek  cities,  he 
visited  in  (!".  In  08  the  Gallic  and  Spanish 
legions,  and  after  Ihem  the  Pnetorian  Guards, 
rose  against  him.  proclaimed  (Jalba  Emperor,  and 
Xero  fled  from  Koine  to  the  house  of  a  freedman, 
Phaon.  about  fcmr  miles  distant.  The  Senate, 
which  had  hitlicrto  been  most  subservient,  de- 
clared him  an  enemy  of  his  country,  and  the 
tyrant  ended  his  life  by  suicide,  June  9,  08. 

NERTCHINSK,  nyer'chlnsk.  A  district 
town  in  the  ieriitory  of  TransBaikalia,  Siberia, 
situated  on  the  Xerteha  and  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railway,  184  miles  east  of  Tehita,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Territory  (Map:  Asia,  L  3).  It  is 
poorly  bviilt.  It  has  a  museum  and  a  library. 
The  inhabitants  are  engaged  chiefly  in  the  culti- 
vation of  tobacco  and  vegetables,  and  in  the  fur 
trade,  of  which  Xertchiiisk  is  still  an  important 
centre.  The  town  was  foiuided  in  10.')(J  ovei-  a 
mile  from  its  present  site.  It  soon  rose  to  great 
importance  as  the  centre  of  the  trade  with  China. 
With  the  rise  of  Kiaklita  (q.v.)  Xcrtchinsk  lost 
in  commercial  importance,  but  it  .soon  became  the 
centre  of  an  extensive  mining  region  and  re- 
ceived many  immigrants,  a  considerable  propor- 
tion being  convicts.  Ry  the  Treaty  of  Nertchinsk, 
concluded  in  108!),  the  two  rivers  of  Argun  and 
(iorbitsa  and  the  Stanovoi  mountain  chain  were 
fixed  upon  as  the  boundary  lines  between  Siberia 
and  Manchuria.  The  mining  industry  in  the 
vicinity  of  Xcrtchinsk  is  now  of  secondary  im- 
portance. Population,  in  1807,  6713.  including 
nliont   IJOn  c\jlcs. 

NER'THUS.  In  Northern  mytholog>-.  a  god- 
dess worshiped  by  the  tribes  of  Northern  Ger- 
many, among  whom  she  journeyed  at  intervals, 
bringing  peace  ami  fertility.  Her  shrine  was  nn 
island,  sometimes  identified  with  Riigen.     She  is 


also  called  Hertha,  from  a  former  reading  of  the 
passage  in  Tacitus  in  w'hich  she  is  mentioned. 

NERtTDA,  nye'ri.i-da,  ,fAX  (1834-Dl).  A  Bo- 
hemian poet  and  novelist,  born  at  Prague.  He 
was  educated  at  the  university  in  his  native 
city,  and  began  to  write  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Janko  Hovora.  His  poetical  works  belong  to  the 
Romantic  School,  new  in  Uoliemia  in  his  time,  and 
he  was  influenced  by  the  conleiii])orarv  movement 
in  the  same  direction  in  Germany.  His  volumes 
of  verse  include:  Hrbitoviii  kviti  ("Flowers  from 
the  Cemetery,"  1858)  ;  Knihy  veHu  ("Books  of 
Verse,"  1868);  and  Pisnd  kosmick^  ("Cosmic 
Songs,"  1878).  He  also  wrote  several  plays  of 
lesser  importance.  NCruda  was  connected  with 
various  newspapers  as  editor  and  contributor; 
he  founded  the  review  Krrlii  in  ISOli,  and  much 
of  his  best  work  appeared  in  the  yiirodni  Li.sty, 
for  which  he  was  feuilletonist  from  1805  to  18!11. 
His  prose  masterpiece,  the  studies  of  life  in 
Prague  called  Jlalostninske  povidkij,  was  pub- 
lished in  1878.  Others  of  his  sketches  and 
novels  are:  Arnhcxki/  (1804)  :  Ritzni  lidc  (1871)  ; 
Ohra:>j  z  ciziny  (1872)  ;  and  Feuillcton;/  (1870et 
seq.),  all  remarkable  for  humor,  observation,  and 
a  style  full  of  charm.  His  complete  works  were 
edited  by  Herrmann  in  18!ll-i)i)   (Prague). 

NERTJDA  (  X"^orm.\nn--Xeruda  ) ,  Wilma  Maria 
Franci.soa  (1839 — ).  A  European  violinist,  born 
at  Briinn,  in  Moravia,  where  her  father  was  or- 
ganist of  the  cathedral.  She  became  a  pupil  of 
.Jansa.  and  made  her  first  appearance  at  Vienna, 
in  1840.  In  1849  she  went  to  London  to  ])lay  at 
the  Philharmonic  in  one  of  Beriot's  concerts. 
She  then  returned  to  the  Continent  and  passed 
several  years  traveling  as  a  soloist,  chiefly  in 
Russia.  In  1804  she  visited  Paris  and  played 
with  great  success  at  the  Pasdeloup  concerts,  the 
Conservatory,  and  elsewhere.  In  the  same  year 
she  was  married  to  Lndwig  X'ormann.  a  Swedish 
musician.  She  returned  to  London  in  1809,  again 
taking  part  in  the  Philharmonic;  in  the  winter 
following  she  played  the  first  violin  at  the  Mon- 
day Popular  Concerts;  and  in  1888  married  Sir 
Charles  Ilalle,  with  whom  she  toured  Australia 
in  1890-91.  She  visited  the  United  States  in 
February,  1899. 

NER'VA,  FoBiM  OF,  or  I^oiaii  Thax.sito- 
lUiM.  Tlie  fourth  of  the  Imperial  fora  at  Rome, 
formed  from  the  highway  which  separated  the 
Forum  of  Peace  from  the  Fortim  of  Augustus. 
It  was  also  called  Forum  Palladium,  from  the 
Temple  of  Jlinerva  (Pallas),  of  which  two 
Corinthian  columns  remain,  the  temple  having 
been  de.st roved  in  1000  to  build  the  Chapel  of 
Saint  Paul  in  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  ilag- 
giore. 

NERVA,  Marcus  CoccEirs.     A  Roman  Em- 

penu-  (A. 11.  90-08).  He  was  born  a. I).  32.  of  a 
family  belonging  to  Narnia.  in  tiiibria.  and  twice 
held  the  honor  of  consulship  before  his  election 
by  the  Senate  to  the  dignity  of  Emperor.  aft<'r 
the  murder  of  Pomitian.  He  displayed  great  wis- 
dom and  moderation,  rectified  the  administration 
of  justice,  and  diminished  the  taxes;  but.  finding 
himself,  on  account  of  his  ailvanced  age,  not  vig- 
orous enough  to  repress  (he  Pnetorian  Guards,  he 
adopted  Jl.  ITpius  Trajanus,  then  at  the  head  of 
the  .\rmy  of  Germany,  who  succeeded  him  on  his 
death,  .lanuarv  25,  98.  .After  his  decease,  he 
obtained  an  apotheosis. 


NERVAL. 


365 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


NERVAL,  nfir'val',  Gekard  de.  A  French 
writer.     See  Gekaku  de  Xehvai.. 

NERVE.     See  Xeuvuls  System  axd  13raix. 

NERVE-STRETCHING.  A  variety  of  treat- 
ineiit  of  sciatica,  wliieh  is  acconiplisliecl  by  put- 
ting the  patient  on  his  back  and  Hexing  the  thigh 
strongly  upon  the  abdomen,  it  has  been  suc- 
cessful in  alleviating  the  pain  in  a  few  cases. 
See  Sciatica. 

NERVI,  ner've.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Genoa,  Italy,  situated  on  the  seacoast,  six  miles 
east  of  Genoa.  It  is  a  favorite  winter  health 
resort  of  the  eastern  Riviera.  Population  (com- 
mune), in  1901,  67CG. 

NERVII,  nPr'vM.  An  ancient  tribe  in  Gallia 
Belgicii,  nurtli  of  the  Ambiani.  In  the  time  of 
Ca'sar,  who  first  mentions  them,  they  were  a  war- 
like people,  who  prohibited  trade  with  their 
neighbors,  forbade  the  introduction  of  luxuries, 
and  attempted  to  make  an  alliance  of  the  sur- 
rounding tribes  against  the  Romans.  Ca'sar  sub- 
dued them  in  B.C.  57. 

NERVOUS  DISEASE.  An  affection  of  any 
part  of  tile  nervous  system,  either  of  the 
brain,  spinal  cord,  sympathetic  nerves,  or  peri- 
pheral nerves.  Diseases  of  the  nervous  system 
are  divided  into  functional  and  organic.  In  the 
latter  local  anatomical  alteration  of  nerve 
structure  is  apparent.  There  are  in  reality  no 
such  things  as  functional  diseases.  While  not 
seen  or  described,  undoubtedly  anatomical 
changes  are  present  in  many  cases;  and  in  others 
tliere  are  lesions  at  a  distance  which  constitute 
the  real  disease,  while  the  symptoms  which  oc- 
cupy the  attention  are  the  result  of  reflex  action. 
It  cannot  be  airirmed  that  there  are  no  structural 
changes  in  ncrve-filires  in  so-called  functional  dis- 
eases of  the  nervous  system,  which  constitute  the 
bulk  of  nervous  diseases.  There  are  176  special 
nervous  diseases,  classed  as  follows:  peripheral, 
87  ;  spinal  cord,  40  ;  brain,  28  ;  and  functional.  21. 
Of  these  there  are  about  65  which  are  either  very 
common  or  extremely  important  (Dana).  In 
their  proper  place  are  found  articles  on  the  fol- 
lowing nervous  diseases  or  conditions:  Acrome- 
galy; Apoplexy;  Caisson  Disease;  Catalepsy; 
Chorea;  Embolism;  Epilepsy;  Facial  Neural- 
gia; Goitre;  Hysteria;  Insomnia;  Locomotor 
Ataxia  ;  Meningitis  ;  JIyelitis  ;  Neur.\stheni.\  ; 
Nei-ralgia;  Neuritis;  Neurosis  (including 
ocvupation  neuroses);  Neurotic;  Paralysis: 
Sclerosis;  Sleeping  Sickness;  Thrombosis, 
etc.  There  is  also  an  article  on  Neurology'. 
In  addition  there  are  articles  in  the  domain  of 
psyeliiatry,  on  Insanity;  Mania;  Melan- 
cholia; Monomania;  Paranoia;  Paresis; 
Kleptomania;  Dip.somani.\  ;  Pyroma.ma;  Puer- 
peral Insanity,  etc.,  as  well  as  on  Idiocy  and 
Imbecility. 

Consult :  St;irr,  Familiar  Forms  of  Nervous  Dis- 
ease (New  York,  1805)  ;  Charcot,  Clinical  Lee- 
lures'  on  Certain  Diseases  of  the  Nerrous  f!iis- 
tem.  translated  by  Hurd  (Detroit,  18.S8)  ;  Ili'rt, 
The  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  ftt/stem.  translated 
by  Hoch  (New  York.  1893)  ;  Gowers,  Manual  of 
Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System.  (London,  1899)  ; 
Beevor.  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  Sj/stem  (Phila- 
delphia, ISnS)  ;  Church  and  Peterson,  Nervous 
and  Mental  Diseases  (ib.,  1901);  Dana,  Text- 
book  of   Nervous  Diseases    (New   York,    1901); 


Oppenlieini,     Lthrbuch     der     Nerrenlcrankheiten 
(lierlin,  1902). 

NERVOUSNESS.  A  condition  of  unstable 
nervous  eiiuilibrium,  which  is  largely  tempera- 
mental. A  person  alllicted  with  nervousness 
startles  easily  at  sudden  sounds,  is  unduly  emo- 
tional, lacks  poise  and  self-possession.  If  the 
condition  go  beyond  these  limits,  actual  disease 
is  prest^it,  and  the  person  is  a  neurasthenic,  i.e. 
a  sufferer  from  nerve  fag.  This  state  is  char- 
acterized by  unfounded  feelings  of  apprehension, 
tremor,  headache,  disordered  digestion,  insomnia, 
loss  of  power  of  application,  and  irritabilitj*. 
Overwork,  excesses,  and  di.sease  may  cause  ner- 
vousness in  normally  stable  jicople,  which  disap- 
pears when  the  cause  is  removed. 

NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN.  His- 
torical. It  is  impossible  in  an  article  such  as  the 
present  to  do  more  than  touch  upon  some  of  the 
more  important  investigations  which  have 
brought  us  to  our  present  conception  of  nervous 
system  structure.  To  the  philosopher  Descartes, 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  be- 
longs the  honor  of  the  first  recorded  description 
which  gives  any  intelligent  conception  of  the 
structure  of  the  nervous  system.  His  drawings 
of  the  brain  possess  a  very  fair  degree  of  ac- 
curacy as  regards  general  shape,  though  the 
lobes  and  convolutions  appear  nuich  distorted. 
He  pictured  the  nerves  as  originating  in  the 
brain  and  described  their  function  as  the  carrying 
of  the  'animal  spirits'  from  the  brain  to  the 
[jcriphery.  For  the  next  two  hundred  and  fifty 
years  little  progress  was  made  in  the  study  of 
the  structure  of  the  nervous  system,  though  some 
work  was  done  upon  the  gross  anatomy  of  the 
brain  by  men  wiiose  names  remain  to  us  in  our 
anatomical  nomenclature.  Thus,  Vesalius,  Fal- 
lopius,  and  Eustachius  were  among  the  earliest. 
In  the  seventeenth  century  we  have  Willis,  whose 
name  we  recognize  in  the  circle  of  Willis,  and 
who  described  the  basal  ganglia,  the  pyramids 
and  the  olives;  Vieussens,  whose  name  is  famil- 
iar in  the  valve  of  Vieussens ;  and  Duboise.  whose 
medical  cognomen  of  'Sylvius'  marks  that  promi- 
nent sulcus  of  the  cerebrum.  The  results  of  the 
labors  of  these  investigators,  as  well  as  of  those  of 
Van  Leeuwenhoek,  of  Malaearne,  of  Rolando,  of 
Vico  d'Azyr,  of  Arnold,  of  Jlonro,  and  others 
were  collected  and  summed  up  in  an  extensive 
volume  published  by  Buvdach  in  1819.  Descartes 
had  discovered  the  nerve  fibre,  and  the  next  step 
forward  in  the  histology  of  the  nervoiis  system 
was  not  taken  until  Ehrenberg  in  IS.'i.'i  discov- 
ered the  nerve  cell  in  the  spinal  ganglia.  This 
discovery  was  emphasized  when  four  years  later 
Purkinje  observed  the  presence  of  cells  not  only 
in  the  ganslia.  but  in  the  cerebrum  and  cei-e- 
bellum.  The  important  fact  that  the  dorsal 
roots  of  the  spinal  nerves  are  concerned  with 
sensation  and  the  ventral  roots  with  motion 
was  discovered  by  Sir  Charles  Bell,  an  eminent 
British  surgeon  and  anatomist,  and  communi- 
cated by  him  to  the  Roy;il  Society  of  London 
about  1820.  In  1834  Een'iak  discovered  that  the 
cells  of  the  sympathetic  ganglia  had  processes, 
and  that  these  processes  were  connected  with 
nerve  fibres.  The  importance  of  this  discovery, 
confirmed  in  1842  bv  Helmholtz.  was  not  at  tlie 
tinu'  appreciated.  One  of  the  most  careful  stud- 
ies of  nerve  cells  and  their  processes  was  made 
by  Otto  Deiters  of  Bonn  and  published  after  the 


NERVOUS  system:  and  brain. 


366 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


investigator's  death  by  -Max  fSeliullzu  in  18C5. 
Dciters  divided  the  processes  given  oil'  from 
nerve  cells  into  two  kinds,  protoplasmic  proc- 
esses, which  branched  rapidly  and  the  structure 
of  which  resembleil  that  of  the  cell  body,  and 
axis  cylinder  processes  or  nervous  processes 
which  "were  often  continuous  with  the  axis  cyl- 
inders of  meduUated  nerves.  Gerlach's  publica- 
tion in  1872  was  far-reaching  in  its  intluence. 
Uy  the  use  of  the  chloride  of  gold  method,  he  was 
able  to  demonstrate  many  more  and  finer  proc- 
esses of  nerve  cells  than  had  been  recognized  by 
the  older  methods  of  staining.  These  delicate 
processes  were  believed  by  Cierlach  to  form  a  dif- 
fuse nervous  network  within  the  gray  matter. 
Besides  describing  this  nervous  network,  Ger- 
lach  built  up  upon  this  as  a  basis  a  tlieoiy  of 
nervous  system  structure  which  was  accepted  by 
most  neurologists  until  the  advent  of  the  so- 
called  'newer  investigations.'  Gerlach  believed 
that  from  the  anterior  horn  cells  of  the  spinal 
cord,  i)rocesses  passed  directly  off  to  form  the 
motor  roots  of  the  spinal  nerves.  According  to 
liis  theory  the  protoplasmic  processes  of  these 
cells  ramified  in  the  gray  matter  of  the  cord, 
■where  they  anastomosed  with  ])rotoi)lasmie  proc- 
esses from  otlKT  cells,  forming  a  reticulum  from 
which  arose  the  fibres  which  passed  out  of  the 
oird  as  the  posterior  or  sensory  roots.  Gerlach 
believed  that  this  same  relation  of  afferent  and 
el^ercnt  fibres  to  the  nerve  cells  and  to  the 
rtlieviluni  obtained  throughout  the  entire  nervous 
system,  which  thus  consisted  of  a  remarkably 
complex  continuum  of  nervous  ])rotoplasm. 

The  so-called  'newer  investigations'  upon  which 
is  based  our  present  conception  of  the  structure 
of  the  nervous  system  must  be  considered  as  be- 
gining  with  the  discovery  by  Golgi  of  the  stain- 
ing method  which  bears  his  name.  This  was  an- 
nounced by  Golgi  in  187.3,  although  it  was  not 
tintil  ten  years  later,  when  Golgi  published  a  con- 
siderable volume  of  his  investigations,  that  the 
neurological  world  began  to  realize  the  impor- 
tance of  his  discovery.  To  the  investigations 
since  that  time  of  Golgi,  His.  Ki'illiker.  Van 
Gehuchten,  Forel,  Hctzius,  Ramon  y  Cajal.  Von 
I,enluissek,  and  others  nuist  be  ascribed  the  over- 
throw of  Gerlach's  theory  of  a  difTuse  nervous 
network  and  the  establishment  upon  n  firm  basis 
of  the  at  present  aeceijted  neurone  theory  of  ner- 
vous-.system  structure. 

Method.s  ok  Nkikolocicm-  1xvestig.\tiox.  Tlie 
history  of  the  development  of  our  knowledge  of 
the  structure  of  the  nervo>is  system  is  necessarily 
intimately  associiited  witli  the  history  of  ad- 
vances in  methods  of  investigation.  Among  the 
general  methods  which  have  proved  of  greatest 
value  in  working  out  the  structiire  of  the  ner- 
vous system  the  following  may  be  mentioned: 
(1)  Method  of  .\natomical  Dissection. — Only  the 
coarser  fibre  tracts  can  be  determined  by  this 
method,  its  main  use  being  in  studying  the  gross 
anatomy  of  the  nervous  system.  ('2)  Metho<l  of 
Embryology. — The  extreme  value  of  this  method 
is  shown  by  the  important  investigations  of  His. 
By  means  of  this  methoil  it  i*  jiossible  to  study 
the  development  of  the  neurone  from  its  first  ap- 
pearance to  its  adult  condition  and  to  observe 
how  groups  of  neurones  become  separated  off  by 
thcni.selves  to  form  the  different  parts  of  the  ner- 
vous system.  Of  especial  importance  is  the  fact 
that  tiie  fibres  of  <lifferent  systems  of  neurones 
acquire  their  medullary  sheaths  at  different  em- 


bryonic ages.  In  this  way  it  is  possible,  by  study- 
ing the  nervous  systems  of  embryos  of  dili'erent 
ages,  to  dillerentiate  many  of  the  libre  systems. 
(3)  Method  of  Pathology. — This  is  based  upon 
the  fact  that  any  disease  or  injury  wliich  de- 
stroys the  cell  bodies  of  neurones,  or  which  in- 
terrupts the  continuity  of  their  a.\ones,  causes  de- 
generation in  the  axones  whose  cells  are  destroyed 
or  whose  continuity  is  interrupted.  Thus,  e.g. 
in  an  injury  crushing  the  spinal  cord  at  a  cer- 
tain level,  tliere  will  be  found  degenerated  above 
the  point  of  injury  all  fibres  whose  cells  lie  be- 
low the  injury,  while  below  the  injury  there  will 
be  found  degenerated  all  fibres  whose  cells  lie 
above  the  injury.  More  recently  it  has  been  de- 
termined that  not  only  does  the  distal  portion  of 
a  cut  nerve  or  cut  libre  tract  die,  but  that  in 
disease  of  peripheral  nerves  changes  take  place 
in  the  central  stump  and  in  the  cells  from  wliich 
the  diseased  axones  originate.  It  has  thus  been 
possible  in  some  cases  to  determine  the  cells  from 
which  diseased  ner\-es  originate.  (4)  Method  of 
Arrested  Development. — This  method  depends 
upon  the  fact  that  tliere  sometimes  occur  abnor- 
malities in  the  nervous  system  such  as  absence 
or  malformation  of  a  part,  thus  causing  an  ab- 
sence of  develoiiment  in  other  parts  dependent 
upon  them.  (5)  Method  of  Animal  Experimenta- 
tion.— This  method  consists  essentially  in  subject- 
ing animals  to  certain  conditions  which  cause 
changes  in  the  nervous  system  and  then  studying 
those  changes. 

Most  of  our  knowledge  of  the  nervous  system 
has  been  acquired  by  the  application  to  the  above 
general  methods  of  certain  special  staining  meth- 
ods. Of  these  the  four  most  important  are  the 
method  of  Weigert,  the  method  of  Golgi,  the 
method  of  Xissl,  and  the  method  of  Ehrlich.  For 
the  details  of  these  methods  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  text-books  on  histologj'  and  histologi- 
cal technique. 


ff.r 


Neu-por. 


Med-gr- 


■Ant.cerrb.ves. 

\fiil.cereb.  vfs. 
Jhstcerebtvts. 
Heart. 


Somite. 


ASTERIOR  niRTIOX  OF  THE  BOHY  OF   A  CHICK. 

Theliead  ilistilH'tly  diffcreiitinted.  kwii  from  tliPBnrfnre. 
n.  (.,  head  fold ;  .Veli.  po/-.,  iinuro-i>orU(*;  //.  /)..  hfiid  idat<': 
F.  g.,  IdivKUt;  r.  le..  yolkvelu ;  Meil.  gr..  iih  iliilliirj 
prnovo;  Ant.  roreb.  re.«.,  nntorior  corebrnl  veaicle;  .VW. 
cfrvlt.  yrs.,  middle  cerebral  vesicle;  Post,  cereb.  rM.,I>08- 
t4?rior  cerebral  vesicle. 

De\t:i.op>ient.  The  differentiation  of  the  ner- 
vous system  begins  very  early  in  embryonic  life. 
There  is  first  the  formation  of  a  groove  or  fur- 
row in  the  outer  layer  of  the  blastoderm.  This 
is  known  as  the  medullary  or  neural  groove.  By 
an  increase  of  the  cells  at  the  sides  of  the  groove 
and  their  union  dorsally.  this  groove  is  converted 
into  a  closed  canal,  the  neural  or  medullary 
canal.  Tliis  canal  corresponds  to  the  central 
canal  of  the  spinal  cord  and  to  the  ventricles  of 


NEEVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


367 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


the  brain  in  the  adult  nervous  system,  and  it  13 
troiu  till'  cjiililastic  cells  surrounding  the  medul- 
lary canal  that  the  entire  nervous  system  is 
developed.  At  that  end  of  the  canal  which  cor- 
responds to  the  head  ot"  the  embrj'o,  three  dila- 
tations appear.  These  are  known  respectively  as 
•  the  fore-brain  (anterior  cerebral  vesicle — telen- 
cephalon), the  mid-brain  (middle  cerebral  vesicle 
— mesencephalon),  and  the  hind-brain  (posterior 
cerebral  vesicle — nietencci)halon) .  These  three 
vesicles  soon  become  five  from  the  development 
from  the  fore-brain  of  tlie  interbrain  or  dien- 
cephalon.  and  from  the  hind-brain  of  the  after- 
brain  or  myclencephalon.  From  the  anlorior 
cerebral  vesicles  are  developed  the  cerebral  hemi- 
spheres, the  corpus  striatum,  the  optic  thalami, 
and  posteriorly,  as  far  as  the  anterior  corpora 
quadri^iemina.  From  the  middle  cerebral  vesicle 
are  developed  the  corpora  quadrigemina  and  the 
cerebral  peiluncles.  From  the  posterior  cerebral 
vesicles  are  de\'eloped  the  cerebellum,  pons,  and 
medulla  oblongata.  From  the  remaining  undi- 
lated  portion  ot  the 
medullary  •  canal  is 
formed  the  spinal  cord. 
During  the  closiire  of 
the  canal  there  become 
separated  off  at  vary- 
ing intervals  groups  of 
cells  which  form  the 
cerebro-spinal  ganglia. 
Histologically.  t  w  o 
Kinds  of  cells  may 
be  observed  in  the 
walls  of  the  medul- 
laiy  canal,  spongio- 
blasts and  neuroblasts. 
From  the  former  is 
developed  the  neuro- 
glia or  connective  tis- 
sue of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, from  the  latter 
are  developed  tlie  ner- 
vous elements  or  neu- 
rones. The  neuroblast 
is  at  first  a  small 
round  cell.  It  soon 
becomes  pear-shaped, 
and  from  the  small 
end  of  tl\e  pear  a 
process  grows  out — • 
the  axis  cylinder  proc- 
ess or  axonc.  Other 
processes  of  a  different 
nature  appear  later. 
They  are  known  as 
protoplasmic  processes 
or  dendrites.  This 
nerve  cell  with  all  its 
processes  is  what  is  known  as  the  'neurone.' 

Xekvous  Tissue.  The  structural  element  of 
nervous  tissue  is  the  neurone.  This  has  already 
been  defined  as  the  nerve  cell  with  all  its 
branches.  These  neurones  in  their  association 
with  one  another  to  form  the  organs  of  the  ner- 
vous system  are  supported  by  a  peculiar  type  of 
connective  tissue  called  neuroglia.  As  noted 
above  in  describing  its  development,  each  adult 
neurone  consists  of  a  cell  body,  and  passing  off 
from  this  two  kinds  of  processes,  the  axis  cylin- 
der process  and  the  dendritic  processes.  The  cell 
body,  as  in  most  other  cells,  consists  of  a  mass 
of  protoplasm  containing  a  nucleus. 


wenvprocess 

■  —C0tt*r£PAL  bffAHCft 

—MeduZlary  sheath' 


—Axis  cyliji^er 


—^eurilenurta 


1 


JTcffMINAt  BffAf*CH£S 


DIAGI[.\:\I  OF  A  KEURONE. 

1.  Xcrve  process  naked ;  2. 
Euvelojied  only  by  neurilem- 
ma; :i.  Enveloped  only  by  me- 
dullary Hlieath :  4.  Enveloped 
by  both  medullary  sheath  and 
neurilemma. 


Our  knowledge  of  tlie  internal  structure  of  the 
nerve  cell  has  been  greallj'  enhanced  within  the 
last  few  years  by  the  application  of  a  new  method 
known  as  the  method  of  Nissl.  This  method 
consists  essentially  in  placing  fresh  tissue  in 
some  quick  fixative  such  as  absolute  alcohol,  and 
staining  sections  with  such  a  dye  as  methylene 
blue.  This  method  demonstrates  two  very  diller- 
ent  types  of  cell  in  the  nervous  tissues.  In  one 
of  these  the  nucleus  alone  stains,  the  cell  body 
remaining  unstained;  in  the  other,  both  nucleus 
and  cell  body  are  stained.  The  former  are  known 
as  caryochrome  cells,  the  latter  as  somaloehronie 
cells.  The  structure  of  a  somatochronie  cell  as 
shown  by  the  method  of  Nissl  is  as  follows:  The 
rather  large  nucleus  situated  in  tlie  centre  of  the 
cell  differs  in  no  essential  from  the  nuclei  of 
other  cells.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  nuclear  mem- 
brane and  traversed  by  an  intranuclear  network, 
both  of  which  stain  blue.  The  nucleoplasm  or 
basement  substance  of  the  nucleus  remains  un- 
stained. Within  eacli  nuclexis  is  a  darkly  stain- 
ing nucleolus.  The  body  of  the  cell  shows  three 
distinct  elements  in  its  structure,  a  basement 
substance,  a  cytoreticulum  or  fibrillar  element, 
and  chromophilic  bodies.  The  basement  sub- 
stance is  unstained  by  Xissl's  method  and  ap- 
pears homogeneous.  Traversing  this  basement 
substance  may  be  seen  very  delicate  fibrils.  The.se 
are  described  by  some  investigators  as  fibrilla; 
passing  through  the  cell  body,  by  others  as  a 
definite  reticulum.  This  reticulum  or  fibrillar 
structure  extends  not  only  throughout  the  body 
of  the  cell,  but  also  into  the  dendrites  and  into 
the  axis  cylinder,  possiblj"  as  far  as  these  proc- 
esses themselves  extend.  The  chromophilic  bodies 
are  blue,  staining  granular  masses  scattered 
throughout  the  cell  body.  The  size  and  arrange- 
ment of  these  bodies  differ  greatly  for  difTerent 
cells,  and  are  quite  characteristic  for  certain 
types  of  cells.     In  addition  to  the  elements  al- 


TWO   FORMS  OF   MULTIPOLAR   .NEHVE  CELLS. 

From  the  ventral  horn  of  the  siiinal  cord  of  a  new-bom 
rabbit,  showing  the  richly  branclied  protoplasmic  proc- 
esses.    (Schaper.) 

ready  described,  there  is  present  in  many  nerve 
eells'more  or  less  yellow  or  brown  pigment.  This 
pigment  is  absent  in  the  nerve  cells  of  the  new- 
born child.  The  internal  structure  of  the  den- 
drites is  similar  to  that  of  the  cell  body. 
They  usually  branch  rapidly  and  end  in  the  gray 
matter  near  their  cell  of  origin.  The  method 
of  Oogli  shows  them  to  be  covered  with  little 
knob  like  jjrojections  known  as  'gemmules.'  The 
axonc  diflfers  from  both  cell  body  and  dendrites  in 
that  it  contains  no  chromophilic  bodies.  It  arises 
from  a  portion  of  the  cell  called  the  axone  hill, 
which  is  also  free  from  chromophilic  bodies.  In 
Golgi  preparations  the  axone  is  distinguished  by 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


368 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


its  liiicuess,  its  straight  course,  approximately 
uuiform  diameter,  and  its  few  branohos.  These 
few  biuiK-hes  pass  off  at  right  angles  and  are 
known  as  collaterals.  In  sonic  cells  tlie  axone 
branches  rapidly  and  ends  in  the  gray  matter 
near  its  cell  of  origin.  Other  axones  pass  into 
tlie  white  matter  and  become  axis  cylinders  of 
nerve  (ibres.  At  its  origin  from  the  cell  body 
and  at  its  termination,  the  axone  is  uncovered  by 
any  sheath.  Some  axones — confined  to  the  gray 
matter — are  entirely  devoid  of  any  covering. 
Other  axones — fibres  of  Remak.  found  mainly  in 
the  sympathetic  system — are  covered  by  a  deli- 
cate sheath  known  as  the  neurilemma  or  sheath 

of  Schwann.  The 
axones  of  the  wliite 
matter  of  the  brain 
and  cord  are  jjro- 
tected  by  a  thick 
sheath  called  the 
medullary  sheath. 
The  axones  of  the 
periplieral  cranial 
and  spinal  nerves 
arc  covered  by  a 
medullary  sheath 
anil  outside  of  this 
a  neurilemma.  Such 
axones,  with  their 
sheaths,  are  known 
as  medullated  nerve 
fibres.  A  medullated 
nerve  fibre  thus 
consists  of  a  central 
core  or  axis  cylinder 
whicli  is  contiinious 
fliroughout  the  fibre 
and  is  the  axone  of 
a  nerve  cell.  This 
axis  cylinder  is  cov- 
ered byarather  thick 
sheath  of  a  fatty 
nature  known  as  the 
medullary  or  myelin 
slieath.  outside  of 
which  is  the  delicate 
neurilemma.  From 
tlu>  neurilenuna  fine 
septa  extend  into  the 
myelin  called  tlu'  in- 
cisures of  Schmidt. 
At  intervalsthe  med- 
ullary sheath  is  in- 
terrupted and  the 
axis  cylinder  is  un- 
covered or  covered 
only  by  the  neuri- 
lemma. These  points 
are  known  as  the 
nodes  of  Ranvier,  and  the  portion  of  the  nerve 
fibre  between  two  nodes  as  an  internodal  segment. 
As  to  the  physiological  significance  of  these 
dilTerent  parts  of  tlie  neurone,  our  ideas  are  still 
based  hugely  upon  theoretical  grounds.  The  cell 
body  has  been  shown  to  1h"  the  birth  or  genetic 
centre  of  the  neurone.  Krom  the  fact  that  any 
portion  of  the  neurone  which  is  cut  ofT  from  the 
cell  body  dies,  the  cell  would  seem  to  be  the 
nutritive  or  trophic  centre  of  the  neurone.  From 
the  absence  of  nervous  activity  in  portions  of  the 
neurone  which  have  been  cut  olT  from  their  cell 
of  origin,  the  cell  body  would  also  appear  to  be 
the  functional  centre  of  the  neurone.     The  most 


MEDULLATBD    NERVE   FIDRKS 
(08MIC   AC1I>). 

.\.  VIpw.  B.  .Section,  lijin. 
no'l..  RanviiT'H  iioilfH,  where  the 
ineduliar.v  sheatli  is  internipted. 
and  tlie  axis  (•.vlliuliT  iippfiirH; 
Ax.  c.r/..  A.xis  cylinder:  tn.Sclim., 
liU'iHiireK  (if  Si'liinidt :  (int.  mth., 
(fruniiinr  substance  nt  tlie  poles 
n(  tht'  nueletiH;  Stiv..  .Nucleus; 
Sh.  Svh.,  Sheath  of  Schwann. 


generally  accepted  theories  of  tlie  significance  ot 
the  component  parts  of  the  cell  itself  may  be 
summed  up  as  follows.  The  function  of  the 
nucleus  is  the  same  as  in  otlier  cells.  It  seems 
to  jjreside  over  the  constructive  activities  of  the 
neurone,  by  which  food  products  brought  to  the 
cell  by  the  lymph  are  transformed  into  food 
elements  of  the  cell,  and  finall.v  into  its  nervous 
elements  proper.  The  basement  substance  and 
the  cliromophilic  bodies  represent  the  food  ele- 
ments of  the  cell.  The  cytoreticulum  represents 
the  working  nervous  mechanism  of  the  cell,  it 
alone  lieing  concerned  in  tlie  reception,  trans- 
formation, and  emission  of  the  nervous  impulse. 
Of  the  processes  the  axone  is  centrifugal  in  func- 
tion, carrying  impulses  awav  from  the  cell  body, 
the  dendrites  are  centripetal  in  function,  bring- 
ing impulses  to  the  cell  body.  Axones  thus  act 
as  organs  of  distribution  as  regards  the  nervous 
impulse,  dendrites  as  organs  of  reception.  Neu- 
rones are  associated  with  one  another  by  approxi- 
mation or  bv  contact,  and  not  liv  continuity  of 
their  protoplasm :  that  is.  no  two  neurones  are 
believed  to  be  diiectl.v  connected  with  each  other. 
The  axonal  terminations  of  one  neurone  siuipl.v 
lie  in  contiguity,  or  at  most  in  touch  with  the 
dendrites  or  cell  bodies  of  other  neurones,  the 
impulse  passing  over  from  one  to  the  other. 

Neuroglia,  or  the  connective  tissue  of  the 
nervous  svstem,  difl'ers  both  in  structure  and  in 
origin  from  the  form  of  connective  tissue  found 
in  other  organs.  .\s  alrcadv  stated,  it  is  epi- 
blastic  in  origin,  dcveloiiing  like  the  neurone 
from  the  cells  which  line  the  embrvonic  ni'ural 
canal.  These  cells,  at  first  morphologically  iden- 
tical, soon  differentiate  into  neuroblasts,  or  future 
neurones,  and  spongioblasts,  or  future  neuroglia 
cells. 

In  adult  neuroglia  two  main  t.vpes  of  cells  arc 
found,  spider  cells  and  mossy  cells.  The  spider 
cell  has  a  rather  small  body,  from  which  are 
given  oir  on  all  sides  straight,  unbranchiiig,  s]iine- 
like  processes.     They  occur   mainly  in  the  white 


CEI.L8    FROM   SECTIONS   OF  THE    DRAIN   OF    ADULT   MAN. 

a.  Mossy  cell;  b,  spider  cell. 

matter.  The  mossy  cell  has  also  a  rather  small 
bodv,  its  processes  are  fewer,  arc  coarse,  rough, 
and  brnnching;  they  occur  mainly  in  connection 
with  blood-vessels.  As  in  the  case  of  the  nerve 
cell,  the  jirocesscs  of  these  cells  do  not  anasto- 
mose, but  interlace,  forming  a  dense  feltwork. 

The  nervous  system  is  composed  in  all  ver- 
tebrated  animals  of  two  distinct  portions  or 
systems — viz.  the  ccrcbro-spiniil  and  .ii/iiiixilliclic 
or   (iiintilirmic. 

The  cerebrospinal  si/stem  includes  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord  (which  form  the  rcrrhronpinnl 
axis,  or  central  nervous  .system)  and  the  cranial 
and  spinal  nerves.  It  was  termed  bv  Bichat  the 
nervous  system  of  animal  life,  and  comprises  all 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


369 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


the  nervous  i)if,'aiis  eonoorned  in  sensation,  voli- 
tion, and  menial  action. 

The  syxiijullutic  system  consists  essentially  of 
a  chain  of  yanirlia  connected  l)y  nervous  cords, 
whicli  extends  from  the  cranium  to  the  pelvis. 
aloni;  each  side  of  the  vertehral  c(dunin.  an<l  from 
which  nerves  with  large  ganglionic  masses  pro- 
ceed to  the  viscera  and  bloodvessels  in  the  cavi- 
ties of  the  ehest.  abdomen,  and  pelvis.  It  was 
termed  by  Bichat  the  nervous  system  of  organic 
life,  since  it  seems  to  regulate — almost  or  quite 
independently  of  tile  will — the  due  performance 
(if  ihe  functions  of  the  organs  of  respiration,  cir- 
culation, and  digestion. 

The  Centk.^l  Nervous  System.  The  brain  and 
spinal  cord  are  covered  and  protected  by  three 
membranes  or  meninges,  as  they  are  frequently 


Occipla 


L.sacpUx. 


VIEW   OF   THE   CEI1EBH0-8PISAL   AXIS. 

The  right  half  of  the  cranium  and  trunk  of  the  body 
havpbpen  removed  by  a  vertii-al  section  :  the  membranes  of 
tlip  ri^ht  side  of  tlie  brain  and  spinal  curd  havp  been 
rlpaivii  nway,  and  tlip  roots  and  first  part  of  the  fifth  and 
twi-lfth  oranial  nerves,  and  of  all  of  tlu-  spin.'il  nerves  of  the 
ri^bt  sidp.  liavp  bppn  dissprt^'d  out  and  laid  spparately  on 
the  w;tll  of  tlip  skull  and  on  the  spveral  verti'brie  opposite 
to  the  place  (»f  their  natural  exit  from  the  cranio-spiual 
eavity. 

Fvun.  in.,  frontal  lobp;  Temp,  lo.,  temporal  lobe;  Ofcip. 
1(1.,  ori-ipital  lobP :  1'rreh..  cprpbpllum :  I'o.  Var..  pons 
Varolii  ;  .\lfil.  (thl.,  nu'dnlla  oblongata:  .'J  and  b.  upper  and 
loupi- extrpMiitips  of  the  spinal  cord;  Cau.  fti.  on  tlip  last 
lumbar  vprt-pbrul  spine  marks  thp  cauda  equina ;  \er.  trig., 
tlip  three  prini-ipal  branches  of  the  nervous  tri|i?eminus  ;  C. 
1.ST,  the  sub-occipital  or  first  cervical  nerve;  ('.  Stti,  the 
eighth  or  lowest  cervical  nerve :  D.  1st,  the  first  dorsal 
nprvp  :  D.  12tb,  the  last  dorsal  nerve  ;  L.  Ist.  the  first  lum- 
bar iiprve ;  L.  5th,  the  last  lumbar  nerve ;  N.  Ist,  the  first 
sacral  nerve;  S.  5tb,  the  fifth  sacral  nerve;  L.  aac.  plex,, 
the  left  sacral  plexus;  Coc.  Be.,  the  coccygeal  nerve. 

termed — viz.  the  dura  mater,  the  arachnoid,  and 
the  pia,  mater.  The  dirra  mater  is  a  strong  fibrous 
membrane,  which  supplies  the  cranial  bones 
with  blood  in  early  life,  and  adheres  firmly  to 
their  inner  surface.  The  arachnoid  (so  called 
from  its  being  supposed  to  be  as  thin  as  a  spi- 


der's web)  is  a  serous  membrane,  and,  like  all 
serous  membranes,  is  a  closed  sac,  consisting  of 
a  parietal  and  a  visceral  layer.  The  parietal  layer 
adheres  to  tlie  inner  surface  of  the  dura  mater, 
wliile  the  visceral  ^ayer  somewhat  loosely  invests 
the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  from  direct  contact 
with  which,  however,  it  is  separated  by  the  inter- 
vention of  the  piu  mater  and  some  loose  areolar 
tissue.  The  pia  mater  is  an  extremely  vascular 
membrane  consisting  of  minute  blood-vessels, 
held  together  by  an  extremely  fine  areolar  tissue. 
It  dijis  down  between  the  convolutions  and  fis- 
sures of  the  brain,  and  is  prolonged  into  the 
interior,  forming  the  velum  interp<jsitum  and  the 
choroid  plexuses  of  the  fourtli  ventricle.  It  is 
by  means  of  this  membrane  that  the  blood-vessels 
are  conveyed  into  the  nervous  substance. 

The  C'EnEiiHo-SpiNAL  Nervous  System.  In  de- 
scribing this  it  is  more  convenient  to  begin  with 
a  description  of  the  spinal  cord,  the  study  of 
which  is  essential  to  a  proper  appreciation  of  the 
higher  and  more  complicated  centres. 

The  Spinal  Cord  is  that  portion  of  the  cerebro- 
spinal axis  wliich  is  contained  in  tlie  spinal  canal. 
It  extends  from  the  upper  liorder  of  the  first 
cervical  vertebra  or  atlas  above,  to  the  middle  or 
lower  margin  of  the  first  luniliar  vertelira  below. 
The  cord  is  continuous  superiorly  with  the  me- 
dulla oblongata,  while  its  lower  extremity  tapers 
ofi'  into  a  slender  cord,  the  filuni  terminale.  At 
two  levels,  one  in  the  cervical  and  one  in  the 
lumber  region,  the  diameter  of  the  cord  is  con- 
siderably larger  than  elsewhere.  These  are 
known  respectively  as  the  cerrical  and  the  lum- 
hur  enlargements.  The  posterior  median  septum 
and  the  anterior  median  fssure  almost  divide 
the  cord  longitudinally  into  two  symmetrical 
halves,  while  the  spinal  nerve  roots  leaving  the 
cord  at  quite  regular  intervals  serve  to  divide 
it  into  segments.  These  segments  correspond  in 
number  to  the  spinal  nerves.  There  are  thus 
eight  cerrical,  twelve  dorsal,  five  lumbar,  five 
sacral,  and  one  or  two  cocryyeal  segments.  The 
internal  structure  of  the  cord  can  be  best  appre- 
ciated by  studying  a  transverse  section  through 
the  cervical  enlargement  stained  by  Weigert's 
method.  Such  a  section  shows  that  two  sub- 
stances enter  into  its  composition,  one  situ- 
ated centrally,  the  other  on  the  periphery.  On 
account  of  their  ajipearanee  in  fresh  tissues,  the 
former  is  called  firai/  matter,  the  latter  uMte 
matter.  The  gray  matter  is  made  up  mainly  of 
cells  and  their  dendrites,  and  of  non-mediillated 
axones;  the  white  matter  consists  mainly  of 
medullated  nerve  fibres,  its  whiteness  being  due 
to  the  myelin.  The  gray  matter  presents  some- 
what the  form  of  the  letter  TI.  Posteriorly,  it 
is  slender,  and  almost  touches  the  surface — 
posterior  horns — while  anteriorly  it  is  broad — 
anterior  horns — and  separated  from  the  surface 
by  a  considerable  layer  of  wliite  matter.  The 
expanded  tip  of  the  posterior  horn  is  known  as 
tlie  head  or  caput,  and  contains  a  ffclatinous  sub- 
stance, the  .s»;;.s7(rH/ia  gelatinosa  of  Rolando.  The 
narrow  portion  connecting  the  head  with  the 
central  gray  matter  is  called  the  neck  or  ccriiij;. 
Laterally,  the  gray  matter  extends  out  somewhat 
into  the  white  matter  as  the  lateral  horn  or 
processus  reticularis  lateralis.  The  gray  horns 
of  the  two  sides  of  the  cord  are  connected  by  a 
commissure  containing  the  central  canal.  In 
foetal  life  this  canal  is  open  and  continuous  with 
the    ventricles    of    the    brain.      In    adults    it    is 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


370 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


usually  iiioiu  ur  less  oblileialcd.  It  is  sur- 
luuiidJd  by  the  sutislanlia  yclatinosa  centralis, 
and  divides  the  >;iay  couimissuie  into  an  an- 
ttiiur  gray  coiiiiiiinsure  and  a  posterior  gray 
commissure.  I'assing  uut  from  the  anterior  horns 
to  the  surface  of  the  cord  are  bundles  of  fibres 
which  constitute  the  aiiteriur  or  »io/oc  si>inal 
nerve  roots.  Just  to  the  median  side  of  the  pos- 
terior horns  are  seen  the  entering  fibres  of  the 
posterior  or  sensory  nerve  roots.  By  the  pos- 
terior horns  the  white  matter  of  the  cord  is  di- 
vided into  posterior  columns  and  untero-htteral 
columns,  the  latter  being  again  rather  indelinitely 
subdivided  by  the  fibres  of  the  anterior  roots 
into  lateral  and  anterior  ooluiiins.  The  poste- 
rior columns  are  also  usually  subdivided  at  this 
level  by  a  connective  tissue  septum  from  the  pia 
mater  into  an  internal  portion,  the  column  of 
Goll,  and  an  external  portion,  the  column  of 
liurdach. 

Fibre  Systems  or  Tracts  of  the  Cord.  As  al- 
ready noted,  the  cell  bodies  of  the  neurones  are 
grouped  in  the  gray  mailer  of  the  brain  and  cord 
in  the  ganglia  of  the  cranial  and  of  the  spinal 
nerves  and  in  the  end  organs  of  certain  of  the 
nerves  of  special  sense.  This  grouping  is  for 
definite  physiological  purposes.  The  a.\ones  from 
many  of  these  neurone  groups  pass  into  the  white 
matter  as  distinct  bundles  and  constitute  fibre 
systems  or  fibre  tracts.  In  the  normal  aihilt 
cord  these  various  tracts  of  fibres  present  tlie 
same  appearance  and  cannot  Ix'  ditlerenlialed 
from  one  another.  Certain  of  the  methods  de- 
scribed above,  however,  especially  the  method  of 
embryology  and  the  method  of  pathology,  have 
enabled  us  to  determine  the  following  systems: 
(1)  Descending  tracts:    (a)  The  direct  pyraniid- 


AnLmMt  AnLlonaflu. 


the  direct  cerebellar  tract;  postero-lalcral  ascend- 
ing tract  or  tract  of  l-Techsig;  (e)  the  tract  of 
Uowers  or  the  antero-lateral  ascending  tract. 
(3)  Short  systems,  fundamental  colunms  or 
ground  bundles,  composed  of  short  ascending 
and  descending  fibres  intermingled. 

LocATiox  oi'  THE  Fibre  Systems  of  the  Cord 
AND  Origin  of  Their  Fibres.  The  location  of  the 
fibre  tracts  can  be  best  understood  by  reference  to 
the  accompanying  diagram:  The  direct  pyramidal 
tract  occupies  a  small  oval  area  adjacent  to  the 
anterior  fissure.  It  decreases  in  size  as  it  passes 
dowiiward  and  disajjpears  entirely  in  the  mid  or 
lower  dorsal  regions.  The  crossed  pyramidal 
tract  occupies  the  posterolateral  region  of  the 
cord.     In  the  cervical   and  dorsal   regions   it  is 


■Batmed.iiss. 


JbttaintJ,       s<plp<K':l 

TRA.S8VEHHE  BKCTION  OT   THE   Iir.MAN   SPIS.M.    COUD   AT  THE 
LEVEL  OF   THE   EIOIITII    IIOHSAL   VEUTEBHA. 


Ant.  lonp.   ff«9.,  nntcrlor  longitiulinal  fissure;  Sep.  post, 
nciitiim  |i«sterinni;   .Ant.  com.,  anteriur  commissure;  ^Su6. 


jxV.  .-in.,  8iil>stiiiitia  geliitiniisa  ceiitr.-ilis;  Ceii.  can.,  central 
caliai;  Post,  rom.,  posteriDf  conimissure;  i'e.,  vein;  .-tnt. 
Iw.,  nnti;riiir  lii>rn ;  L<tl.  Int.,  latmal  lioni.  anil  behind  it 
the  prwiss  ri'lliularis;  /'oxt.  Iio.,  |«i8tuiior  horn;  .lulu. 
/a/ .  iinloro  npilinn  Rronp  of  ganglionic  cells;  ('.  Inl.  tin, 
cells  of  llii!  laliral  liorn  ;  C.  f  7*.  c»/..  cells  of  Clark's  rolumn  ; 
.Sol.  r.  iiokI.  Im.,  solitary  cells  of  the  [mstcrlor  liorn ;  Aiil. 
rl ,  anterior  root:  /W.  rl.,  |K)Stirlor  root;  Postn.  inl.  I:, 
fiostoro-intcrnal  bunillc;  Fik.  bundle  of  Ilbres  altaclncl  to 
the  posterior   root:    Umii.  >*.,   longitudinal    librea   of  tlic 

IMwterior  cornu;  f!vt.  aiiI/'.  Ito.,  gelatinous  substance  of 
lolanilo;  .ln(.  eol.,  anterior  eolunin;  L<il.  cil.,  lateral 
column;  Post,  col.,  posterior  column. 

nl  trnrt  or  column  of  Tiirck:  (b)  the  cro.ssed 
pyramidal  tract;  (c)  the  descending  comma  tract 
of  the  posterior  coltimn:  (d)  the  descending 
cerebellar  tract  of  Lopwenthal.  (2)  .\scending 
tracts:  In)  The  column  of  OoU;  (b)  the  column 
of   Biirdnch;    (c)    the  column  of   Lissnuer;    (d) 


- -,  Ou/t'J. 


^pui  ntT 


SPIXALi  COUD.      SinE  VIEW. 

n.in  of  tlie  fissures  and  columns.  Prnsl.  mttt.  n'ss.,  iios- 
teiior  median  lissure;  Post.  lai.  Jiss.,  iiosteiior  lateral  lis- 
sure;  Post  rt.,  posterior  root;  ertK.;.,  ganglion;  .Spin,  ni-r., 
spinal  nerve;  Aiil.  nuil.  fc.s.,  anterior  median  lissure;  .•/"(. 
lal.  liss.,  anterior  literal  fissure;  .itit.  rt.,  anterior  root; 
AnI.'cot..  anterior  column;  Lat.  col.,  lateral  colulun;  Po!>t. 
col.,  posterior  column  ;  Post.  mtd.  col.,  posterior  median 
column. 

separated  from  the  surface  by  the  direct  cere- 
bellar tract.  In  the  lumbar  region  the  latter 
tract  is  no  longer  present  and  the  crossed  pyra- 
midal comes  to  the  surface.  This  tract  extends 
to  the  lowermost  part  of  the  chord,  decreasing  in 
size  as  it  descends.  The  fibres  of  the  pyramidal 
tracts  are  axones  of  cells  situated  in  the  lirain  in 
the  region  of  the  fissure  of  Kolando  or  motor 
area.  These  fibres  descend  through  the  internal 
capsule,  pons,  and  medulla.  In  the  medulla  they 
form  a  large  bundle  of  fibres  known  as  the  (in- 
terior  pyramids,  lying  on  either  side  of  the  ante- 
rior fissure.  At  the  junction  of  medulla  and 
cord  most  of  these  fibres  cross  over,  in  wliat 
is  called  the  pyramidal  decussation,  to  the  oppo- 
site posterolateral  region,  to  continue  down  the 
cord  as  the  crossed  pyramidal  tract.  A  small 
number  of  fibres  remain  in  the  anterior  region 
and  pass  down  the  cord  as  tlie  f/ircc(  pyramidal 
Iraet.  Hoth  tracts  as  they  dcseend  send  collat- 
erals and  terminals  into  the  gray  matter  of  the 
anterior  horns,  where  they  end  in  arborizations 
around  the  motor  cells  there  situated.  These 
tracts  thus  constitute  the  motor  pathway  cfin- 
necling  the  brain  and  cord,  carrying  voluntiiry 
tnntor  impulses  from  the  brain  to  the  cells  of  the 
anterior  horns,  which  latter  directly  control  mus- 
cular movements.  The  descending  comma  tract 
is  a  small  tract  of  fibres  in  the  dorsal  region  sit- 
uated about  the  middle  of  the  column  of  Bur- 
.lach.      Bv  some   investigators   it  is  believed  to 


NEBVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN.         371        NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


roprs'seiit  di'scendinj.'  l>raiiilifs  iruin  posterior  root 
fibres,  by  others,  (lescending  aximos  of  cells  sit- 
uated in  the  cord.  The  descending  cerebellar 
tract,   or  tract   of   Loewenthal,   consists,   as   its 


TBANSVERSE  SECTION  OP    THE    SPIXAL    CORD  OF  A  CHICK   ON 
THE  Uth   day   of  IXCirUATIOS. 

a,  Asia  cylinders  of  anterior  root  fibres  isHiiing  from 
large  (reilM  of  the  anterior  horn  (c);  h.  posierior  root  fibres 
passinf?  from  ttie  t)i-poIjir  ceils  of  the  Kj)iiml  ganjjrlion  into 
the  iK)St*'rior  cnlnnin  f)f  the  Bjiinal  eonl ;  tl,  when  they  bi- 
furcate, and  e,  when  they  be<'orne  luii^itudinai :  f  an<I  g, 
collaterals  from  the  fibres  passing  into  tlio  gray  matter. 

name  intiinatcs,  of  descending  axones  of  neurones 
whose  colls  are  situated  in  the  cerebellum.  The 
results  of  investigations  as  to  the  paths  which 
these  axones   follow  in  passing  from  cerebellum 

Cervical 


SECTIONS    OF    THE    SPINAL  COUD,   IN    THE    LOWER  CERVICAL, 

Min-noRSAL,  AN»   Min-LCMnAR   UKOIONrt   (ON   THK   RIGHT 

SIDIi:   THE  CONDUCTING   TRACTS  ARE  INDICATED). 

Nerve  cells  ;  //.  mesial  n'n^uit;  />.  lateral  or  ventro-iateral 
group;  c.  dorsal  or  dorso-laterai  group:  il,  lateral  cell 
column  group;  c.  Clark's  column  group. 

to  cord  are  not  in  accord.  It  is  probable  that  in 
the  ease  of  many  of  the  fibres  two  neurones  are 
involved,  the  connection  beinj;  made  through  the 


olivary  nucleus  of  the  medulla.  These  axones 
end  in  the  gray  matter  of  the  cord.  The  col- 
li tun  of  Ootl  and  the  column  of  liurdarh  are  com- 
posed of  the  axones  of  the  cells  of  the  ganglia  of 
the  posterior  roots  of  the  spinal  nerves.  Entering 
the  ])osterior  columns,  these  axones  divide  into  as- 
cending and  descending  arms.  The  latter  is  short 
and  soon  ends  in  the  gray  matter.  The  ascending 
arm  may  be  short,  of  medium  length,  or  long.  The 
short  and  medium  length  fibres  end  in  the  gray 
matter  of  the  cord,  after  sending  in  collaterals  at 
different  levels.  The  long  tibres  pass  up  to  the 
medulla  and  end.  those  of  the  column  of  (JoU  in 
the  nucleus  gracilis,  tlio.se  of  the  column  of 
Burdach  in  the  nucleus  cuneatus.  The  column 
of  Lissauer  consists  of  the  shortest  fibres  which 
enter  the  posterior  roots.  These  fibres  end  in  tlie 
posterior  horns.  These  neurones,  whose  central 
axones  form  the  entering  fibres  of  the  posterior 
roots  of  the  spinal  nerves  taken  in  connection 
with  the  analogous  sensory  roots  of  the  cranial 
nerves,  constitute  the  [icrijilieral  .srnsorii  neurone 
siistciH.  It  is  by  means  of  tliese  neurones  that  all 
impulses  are  conveyed  from  the  periphery  or  sur- 
face of  the  body  to  the  cord  and  brain.  By  their 
influence  over  the  motor  cells  of  the  cord  they 
determine  the  direct  reflex  actions.    By  their  in- 


JYoiopro. 

LARGE    GANGLION    CELL    OP    THE     VENTRAL    HORN    OF    THE 
SPINAL    CORD. 

As.  cyh  pro.,  axis  cylinder  process;  iVuc.  reti.,  nucleo- 
reticulum;  Nucls,  nucleolus;  Xuc.  m.,  nuclear  membrane; 
Cyto  reti.,  c.yto-reticuluni;  Cliro.  b.,  chromophilic  bodies: 
Proto.  pro.,  protoplasmic  processes. 

iluence  over  other  cells  situated  in  the  cord,  me- 
dulla, and  mid-brain,  sensory  impressions  ane 
transmitted  through  other  systems  of  neurones 
to  the  brain,  and  thus  enter  into  consciousness. 
By  their  influence  upon  motor  cells  of  the  cortex 
they  complete  the  cycle  of  a  sensory  impression  en- 
tering consciousness  and  being  transformed  into  a 
voluntary  motion.  The  direct  cerchcllnr  tract  or 
dorsolateral  axcrnding  tract  lies  near  the  lat- 
eral surface  of  the  cord  from  the  jiosterior  horn 
to  about  the  mid-lateral  point.  It  begins  in  the 
upper  lumbar  region  and  extends  to  the  cerebel- 
lum. Its  fibres  are  axones  of  the  cells  of  Clark's 
column  or  the  nucleus  dorsalis  of  the  same  side. 
This  nucleus  is  a  group  of  cells  lying  in  the  gray 
matter  Just  to  the  median  side  of  the  base  of 
the  posterior  liorn.  It  extends  as  a  continuous 
column  from  the  iiiid-Iumb;ir  to  the  lower  cervi- 
cal region.  In  the  niedulla  the  direct  cerebellar 
tract  enters  the  rcstiform  body  an<l  thus  reaches 
the  cerebellum  by  means  of  the  inferior  cerebel- 
lar peduncle,  (lo'rer.i'.':  tract. or  the  ventro-lalcral 
a.iccndinfi  tract,  lies  along  the  perii>her}'  of  the 
cord  from  the  anterior  limit  of  the  direct  cere- 
bellar to  the  anterior  nerve  roots.  The  tract 
first  appears  in  the  upper  lumbar  cord  and  in- 
creases in  size  as  it  passes  upward.  Its  fibres  are 
axones  of  cells  scattered  through  the  gray  matter 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


372 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


ot"  tlie  same  ami  ijjtpuailu  sidus  ut"  thu  curd.  ^lany 
of  tilt"  tibi't'S  of  this  tract  are  probalily  spinal 
assouiatiou  libres  ami  reenter  the  gray  matter  to 
terminate  there.  Other  libres,  however, 
pass  upward  to  higher  centres,  their  ex- 
act terminations  being  as  yet  undeter- 
mined. The  remainder  of  the  wliite  mat- 
ter of  the  cord  is  constituted  by  the  short 
libre  systems  (fundamental  columns  or 
ground  bundles).  It  will  be  seen  that  in 
the  main  thc.-^c  short  libres  lie  adjacent  to 
the  gray  matter  and  arc  more  extensive 
in  tlie  anterior  part  of  the  cord.  They 
are  axones  of  cells  situated  in  the  gray 
matter  of  the  cord.  These  axones  enter 
the  white  matter,  pass  up  or  down,  or, 
splitting,  send  one  branch  up.  the  other 
down,  and  finally  terminate  in  the  gray 
matter.  .Along  their  course  they  send 
collaterals  into  the  gray  matter.  These 
fibres  of  the  fundamental  columns  thus 
serve  to  connect  the  gray  matter  of  different 
levels  of  the  cord  and  may  be  considered  of  the 
nature  of  longitudinal  commissural  fibre  sys- 
tems. By  means  of  these  neurones  an  impulse 
coming  into  the  cord  by  the  posterior  nerve  root 
may  lie  conveyed  to  many  motor  or  sensory  cells 
within  the  gray  matter.  In  this  way  are  accom- 
plished the  more  complex  reflex  actions. 


scribed  arc  lhu>c  of  the  aiilcriur  liorns  con- 
nected with  the  motor  spinal  nerve  roots.  These 
arc  large  multipolar  cells  rich  in  chromatic  sub- 


Perinai. 


■Endoneu. 


ISl.ves. 


Med.slv. 


Fib.s7i.. 


POKTIOS   OF  A  CROSS  SECTION  OP  THE   BVMAX   MEDIAL   NEKVE. 

PeriDCH.,  periueurium  :  Enrfoneu.,  eiuloiipuriuni;  HI.  res.,  blood- 
vt'Hsel  containing  blood  eorpnsL-les;  Fiit.  nh.,  fibre  sheatb;  Ax.  cyi., 
axis  i-ylindor;  Med.  sli.,  medullary  sheatli. 

stance.  They  are  arranged  in  columns,  two  long 
columns  extending  the  entire  length  of  the  cord 
for  the  innervation  of  the  muscles  of  the  trunk, 
while  in  the  cervical  and  lumbar  enlargements 
extra  columns  are  added  for  the  supply  of  the 
muscles  of  the  exlreniities. 

The  Spinal  Xerves.  These  are  the  peripheral 
nerves  connected  with  the  spinal  cord.  There  are 
31  pairs  of  spinal  nerves,  which  arc  named  from 
the  levels  of  the  cord  from  which  they  originate: 
8  cervical,  12  dorsal.  5  lumbar.  ,5  sacral,  and  1 
coccygeal.  Each  spinal  nerve  is  connected  with 
the  cord  by  two  roots,  an  anterior  or  motor  root 
and  a  posterior  sensory  riwt..  Tlie  anterior  root 
consists  of.  a.xones  of  tlie  motor  cells  of  the  ante- 
rior liorns.  These  pass  out  in  small  bundles,  by 
the  ganglion  of  the  posterior  riwit,  beyond  which 
they  join  the   fibres   from   the  ganglion   to   form 


«       '     ^   RtiAveiii 
8CHEMK  OF   THE   eTRfCTURE   OF   THE   SPINAL  CORD. 

a.  Fa,srlriiliiH  ctTebro-spinalis  ventruHH;  b,  fartciculiis  ven- 
trnliH  proprluH  :  c.  fayclculuH  veiitrn-lateralis  (iowersi;  rf, 
fanclculiis  eerebello  Bpinalis:  e,  fasciouhiM  rproln-o-Hplnalla 
lat^'valiH;  f,  fascIcuIUH  lrtt«Tali8  jirnpriua;  g.  fimicuhis  diir- 
8ali>*:  Hud.  rior,.  radix  linrsalis;  llatl.  vent.,  radix  vt'iitrallB; 
(Snng.  spia.,^&i\i£\Un\  sphialf;  1 .  rtminiiwHuml  rt-ll.  (trlietiero- 
iiitTlL-  lU-Mironert:  ono  Is  seen  eendhiK  its  axdininto  tin'  gray 
HubHtanco  of  tho  other  sido.  tlio  otlu^rH  Ni'ud  t  hflr  axmies 
into  tin?  whlto  matt«'r  of  tlio  oi>po8ite  side;  '1,  nmtorcellH; 
Htdt's  of  flbrllM  are  Been  arlsiiiK  from  their  axonoH;  3.  taiito- 
intTic  iiouronew.  the  axonen  koIuk:  to  the  ventral  and  latfrnl 
funleuH;  anions  tlicwe  arp  cells  in  the  nucleus  dnrHjilis  and 
sfini*'  of  the  cells  in  the  Hubntaiitia  Kelatlnosa  of  Uolando. 
collateralH  are  enniiiij^  off  from  the  iixunes;  4,  a  (JoIk'  •""•H. 
or  ilendraxone :  5,  cells  sending  their  axones  to  the  dorsal 
funiculi ;  (i.  cell  bodies  of  peripheral  sensory  neurfnies  slt- 
uat*>d  in  the  ^anKllon  spinaje;  their  central  prolonf::ations 
are  shown  enterinj?  the  spinal  cord  as  dorsal  root  fibres 
whieh  tufurcutjiiff  send  collaterals  to  t»'rniiriate  In  different 
parts  of  the  substantia  trrisea;  7.  collaterals  and  t4Tniln- 
als  n'|»res"ntin»c  fibres  from  the  fawcleull  cerebro-spinnles 
or  pyramidal  tnut;  ft,  collaterals  from  the  whit<'  fibres 
In  the  ventral  and  lattTal  funiculi. 

Xkrve  C'klls  of  T!IK  Couii.  In  ilcscrihint;  the 
orij,'in  of  fibro  systems  of  the  cord,  many  of  the 
cells  of  tlie  cord  have  been  necessarily  referred 
to.  o.R.  thoHe  cells  the  axones  of  which  form 
the  columns  of  (Jowcrs  and  of  Fleehsip,  and  the 
fund:iMu>ntal  columns.  There  are  also  found  in 
the  \iT\\\  matter  cells  which  have  short  axones 
which  never  leave  the  f;ray  matter,  Init  terminate 
in  the  vicinity  of  their  cells  of  oripin.  The  most 
important  groups  of  cells   remaining  to  be  de- 


^7  ^{ec(.  cmLmin. 
■  y^J .J'o/fyjHitjlossat 

^5^^r^V;.^_j^  Orcipi/oFrofUali^ 
\Stemo-Masloid 

Auriadar 
^Facial 
purl-:"'' 


CLAN   OK  CERVICAL   PLEXl'B. 

t!ie  mixed  spinal  nerve.  The  fibres  of  the  sensory 
root  have  been  already  described  in  connection 
with  the  posterior  columns.  These  are  the  cen- 
tral processes  of  the  spinal  ganglion  cells.  The 
peripheral  processes  of  these  cells  pass  out  of  the 
outer  end  of  the  ganglion  and  join  the  motor 
tibres.  The  nerves  leave  the  spinal  canal  througii 
the  intervertebral  foramina,  beyond  which  each 
nerve  divides  into  two  branches,  a  posterior  and 
an  anterior. 

The  posterior  divisions  of  the  spinal  nerves  are 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


373 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


smalk'i"  lliau  llie  aiilLiiur  and  aru  distributed 
to  till'  muscles  and  skin  uf  the  back. 

The  antc'iiiir  divisions  of  the  spinal  nerves 
supply  llie  anterior  parts  of  the  body  and  the 
extreiuilies.  Kach  anterior  branch  is  connected 
by  some  slender  filaments  with  the  sympathetic. 
In  the  dorsal  refjion  tlie  anterior  divisions  are 
separate  and  distributed  quite  evenly,  but  in  the 
cervical,  hunliar,  and  sacral  regions  they  unite 
to  form  intricate  plexuses. 

T]iic  ('i;!tvKAL  I'LEXis.  This  is  formed  by  the 
anterior  divisions  of  the  first  four  cervical  nerves. 
The  branches  of  distribution  of  this  plexus  may 
be  divided  into  a  superficial  set  and  a  deep  set, 
the  former  supplying  the  integument  and  the 
more  superficial  muscles  of  (he  side  and  front  of 
the  neck  and  upper  part  of  the  throat;  the  latter 
supplying  the  more  dee])ly  seated  muscles  of  the 
neck  and  sending  one  very  important  branch,  the 
phrenic,  to  the  diaphragm. 


C.WITH  PHRSU/C 


ens.  TOLOnbus 

COUt  6 

SCALENI 


Rhomboid 
Sub-clayioTi 

Strpra  -scGpuJar 


Ext.ani.ihoraeic 
Upper  sub-  scapular 
'Ou/ercord. 
Ctrcu/nfUx 
■Sub-scapular 
-Posteriorcord 


PLAN   OF   THE   BRACHIAL   PLKXU8. 

The  brachial  plexus  is  formed  by  the  anterior 
divisions  of  the  last  four  cervical  and  the  first 
dorsal  nerves.  These  five  nerves  unite  to  form 
three  main  cords  known  respectively  as  the  outer, 
the  inner,  and  the  posterior  cords  of  the  brachial 
plexus.  Before  uniting  to  form  these  cords, 
four  main  branches  or  sets  of  branches  are  given 
oft".  These  are  ( 1 )  a  communicating  branch  to 
the  phrenic;  (2)  muscular  branches  to  the  longus 
colli,  scaleni,  rhomboidei,  and  subelavius;  (3) 
posterior  thoracic  nerve,  to  the  serratus  mag- 
nus ;  (4)  the  supra-scapular,  sending  branches 
to  supply  the  supra-  and  infraspinatus.  From 
the  three  main  cords  of  the  plexus  branches  are 
given  00"  to  the  chest,  shoulders,  and  arms.  Those 
to  the  clicst  are  the  external  and  internal  ante- 
rior tlioracic,  which  supply  the  pectoralis  major 
and  pectoris  miniu'  r.uiscles.  The  branches  to 
the  shoulder  are  the  subscapular  and  the  circum- 
flex, the  former  supplying  the  subscapularis,  the 
lalissimus  dorsi.  and  the  teres  major;  the  latter 
supplj'ing  the  deltoid  and  the  teres  minor.  The 
circumflex  nerve  also  supplies  part  of  the  in- 
tegument of  the  shoulder  and  sends  filaments  to 
the  musculocutaneous  nerve.  This  nerve  in  the 
arm  supplies  the  biceps,  eoraco-brachialis.  and 
part  of  the  brachialis  anticus  muscles.  In  the 
forearm  it  becomes  cutaneous,  supplying  the  in- 


tegument on  the  radial  side.  The  internal  cu- 
taneous nerve  is  a  small  nerve  to  the  integument 
of  the  front  of  the  arm  and  forearm.  The 
lesser  internal  cutaneous  or  nerve  of  Wrisberg, 
the  smallest  branch  of  the  plexus,  is  a  branch  to 
the  integument  on  the  inner  side  of  the  arm. 
The  musculo-spiral  supplies  the  triceps,  anconeus, 
supinator  longus, 

^scormeds  wUli  12^^  Dorsal 


•ui/tal 


2"-''L 


rural 


CLAN   OF   LUMBAR   PLEXUS. 


extensor  carpi 
radialis  longior, 
and  part  of  the 
brachialis  anti- 
cus. It  sends  a 
cutaneous  branch 
to  the  skin  of 
the  outer  part  of 
the  forearm.  It 
then  divides  into 
radial  and  i)os- 
t  e  r  i  o  r  interos- 
seous branches, 
the  former  pass- 
ing to  the  skin  of 
the  radial  side  of 
the  hand,  includ- 
ing thumb,  index, 
middle  and  railial 
side  of  ring  fin- 
gers ;  the  latter  supplying  the  carpal  articu- 
lations and  muscles  of  the  back  of  the  fore- 
arm. The  ulnar  nerve  supplies  the  flexor 
carpi  ulnaris  and  inner  part  of  the  flexor  pro- 
fundus digitorum.  In  the  hand  it  supplies  the 
adductor  and  part  of  the  short  flexor  of  the 
thumb,  the  interossei,  the  two  inner  lumbricales, 
and  the  muscles  of  the  ball  of  the  little  finger. 
It  supplies  a  cutaneous  branch  to  the  back  of  the 
little  and  ulnar  side  of  the  ring  fingers,  and  to 
the  front  of  the  same  fingers.  It  also  supplies 
articular  branches  to  the  elbow  and  w'rist  joints. 
The  median  nerve  supplies  all  the  fle.xors  and 
pronators  of  the  forearm  except  those  supplied 
by  the  ulnar.  In  the  hand  it  supplies  the  two 
outer  lumbrical  muscles,  part  of  the  short  flexor 
of  the  thumb,  the  opponens  and  the  abductor.  It 
also  innervates  the  skin  of  the  palm  and  of  the 
palmar  surfaces  of  the  fingers  not  supplied  by 
the  ulnar. 

The  linnbar  plexus  lies  at  the  back  of  the 
abdominal  cavity  behind  the  peritoneum.  It  is 
formed  l)y  the  anterior  divisions  of  the  four  up- 
per lumbar  nerves.  Comnuinicating  branches 
connect  the  plexus  with  the  luml>ar  ganglia  of 
the  sympathetic.  Some  muscular  branches  pass 
directly  from  the  plexus  to  the  quadratus  lumbo- 
rum  and  psoas  muscles.  Cutaneous  branches  are 
the  (I)  iliohypogastric,  which  sends  an  iliac 
branch  to  the  skin  of  the  buttock  and  a  hypoglos- 
sal branch  to  the  skin  of  the  lower  abdomen;  (2) 
the  ilioinguinal,  to  the  skin  of  the  groin;  (3) 
the  external  cutaneous,  to  the  skin  of  the  outer 
side  of  the  thigh.  Mixed  branches  of  the  plexus 
are  ( 1 )  the  genito-crural.  to  the  skin  of  the 
groin  and  to  the  cremaster  mu.scle ;  (2)  the  an- 
terior crural,  a  large  and  important  branch  which 
supplies  the  sartorius,  the  peetineus,  the  psoas 
iliacvis,  and  the  extensors  of  the  knee  joint,  be- 
sides giving  off  three  cutaneous  branches,  the 
internal  cutaneous  to  the  skin  of  the  inner  aspect 
of  the  thigh,  a  middle  cutaneous  to  the  skin  of 
the  front  of  the  thigh,  and  the  long  saphe- 
nous to  the  skin  of  the  inner  side  of  the 
knee,   leg,   and  foot;    (3)    the   obturator,   which 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


374 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


supiilies  the  obturator  txternus,  the  adductor 
lonj;\is  gracilis,  and  adductor  niagnus.  Branches 
ol  this  nerve  sometimes  pass  to  the  adductor 
brevis  and  pectineus.  It  forms  the  main  nerve 
supply  of  the  hip  and  knee  joints  and  sometimes 
sends  a  cutaneous  branch  to  the  skin  of  the  lower 
and  inner  part  of  tlie  thigh.  There  is  sometimes 
an  accessory  obturator  nerve  to  the  pectineus  and 
hip  joint.  It  is  usually  connected  with  the 
obturator. 

The  Uimlo-sacral  cord  is  formed  by  the  union 
of  tlie  fifth  lumbar  nerve  with  a  branch  from  the 
fourtli  lumbar.  It  gives  rise  to  a  communicating 
branch  to  the  liftli  lumbar  ganglion  of  the  sym- 
Ijathetic,  and  a  muscular  branch,  the  superior 
gluteal,  to  the  gluteus  medius  and  minimus  and 
tlie  tensor  fasci;B  femoris,  after  which  the  cord 
joins  the  sacral  ple.\us. 

The  sacral  plexus  is  formed  by  the  union  of 
the  lumbo-sacral  cord  with  the  first,  second, 
third,  and  ])art  of  the  fourth  sacral  nerves.  It 
is  a  large  plexus  situated  in  the  cavity  of  the 
pelvis.  Like  the  other  plexuses,  it  gives  rise  to 
communicating  muscular  and  mi.xcd  brandies. 
The  communicating  liranchcs  ])ass  to  the  upper 
sacral  sympathetic  ganglia.  The  muscular 
branches  supply  the  quadratus  femoris,  the  ob- 
turator internus,  the  geiiiclli,  the  pyriformis,  and 
a  part  of  the  gluteus  niaximus.  The  mixed  nerves 
are:  (  1 )  The  small  sciatic,  which  supplies  part  of 
the  gluteus  maximus  and  the  skin  of  tlie  back 
part  of  the  thigh,  buttock,  popliteal  space,  and 
])art  of  the  leg.  By  means  of  the  long  pudendal 
branch  it  also  supplies  the  skin  of  the  perineum. 
(2)  The  pudic  supiilies  the  muscles  and  skin  of 
the  external  generative  organs.  (3)  The  great 
sciatic.  This  nerve  is  the  largest  nerve  of  tho 
body.  It  passes  down  the  back  of  the  thigh,  giv- 
ing off  branches  to  the  adductor  magnus  and  the 
hamstring  muscles.  Above  the  poiiliteal  space 
the  nerve  divides  into  the  internal  and  the  ex- 
ternal popliteal  branches.  The  internal  popliteal 
sends  a  branch  to  tho  knee  joint,  supplies  the 
popliteus  muscle,  and  the  muscles  of  the  calf  of 
the  leg.  It  furnishes  a  branch  called  the  com- 
municans  tibialis,  which  joins  the  communicans 
pcronei  to  form  the  external  saphenous  nerve, 
which  supplies  the  outer  side  of  the  foot.  Be- 
low, the  internal  popliteal  is  continued  into  the 
posterior  tibial,  which  supplies  the  long  fle.xor 
of  the  toes,  the  tibialis  posticus,  and  the  skin  of 
the  heel.  In  the  foot  it  diviilcs  into  the  internal 
and  the  external  plantar  nerves.  The  former 
supplies  the  skin  of  the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  the 
great,  second,  third,  and  inner  side  of  the  fourth 
toes,  the  flexor  brevis  poUicis.  the  (lexor  brevis 
digit(num,  the  abductor  polliiis,  and  the  two  in- 
ner liiiiibrical  muscles;  the  latter  supplies  the 
skin  of  the  little  an<l  outer  side  of  the  fourth 
toes,  and  the  muscles  of  the  sole  of  the  foot  not 
supplied  by  the  internal  plantar.  The  external 
popliteal  sends  branches  to  the  knee  joint,  gives 
off  the  communicans  peronei  to  the  skin  of  the 
outer  side  of  the  back  of  the  leg,  supplies  the 
peronei  longus  and  brevis,  and  divides  into  the 
external  cutaneous  and  anterior  tibial  iiervcs. 
The  former  supplies  the  skin  of  the  upper  surface 
of  the  foot  and  of  all  the  toes  except  the  outer 
side  of  the  little  too  and  adjacent  sides  of  the 
great  and  second  toes.  The  anterior  tibial  sup- 
plies the  extensors  of  the  toes,  the  tibialis  anti- 
cus,  and  peroneus  tertius,  and  ends  as  a  cutqfie- 


ous  branch  to  the  skin  of  the  adjacent  sides  of 
the  great  and  second  toes. 

The  sucro-coccygral  plexus  is  a  small  plexus 
formed  by  the  fourth  and  fifth  sacral  and  the 
coccygeal  nerves.  It  sends  communicating 
branches  to  the  sacral  and  coccygeal  ganglia  of 
the  sympathetic,  cutaneous  branches  to  the  skin 
of  the  arms  and  coccygeal  region,  muscular 
branches  to  the  external  anal  sphincter,  the  leva- 
tor ani,  and  coccygeal  muscles,  and  branches  to 
the  pelvic  plexus  of  the  sympathetic,  whence  they 
supply  the  rectum  and  bladder. 

Peripheral  Teh.mix.\tion-s  of  Spixal  Nerves. 
The  modes  of  terminations  of  these  processes  are 
extremely  varied  and  complicated.  The  termina- 
tions are  always  'free'  in  the  sense  that  while 
possibly  sometimes  penetrating  cells,  they  are 
never  directly  continuous  with  their  protoplasm. 
The  motor  nerve  fibres  end  in  voluntary  and  in- 
voluntary muscle.  On  its  way  to  a  muscle  a 
motor  fibre,  which,  as  noted  above,  is  the  a.xone 
of  an  anterior  horn  cell,  may  divide  into  several 
branches,  a  single  cell  thus  innervating  more 
than  one  muscle  fibre.  On  reaching  a  voluntary 
muscle  the  bundle  of  nerve  fibres  breaks  up  to 


■L.sac.c 


■Sup-glut. 


Qu.femr 


THE  SACRAL   PLEXUS  OP  THE   RIOHT   SIDE  FBOU   BEHIND. 

L.  sac.  c,  himbo-sacral  ford  :  Sup.  filtit..  fluperior  glu- 
teal:  /n/^  ^/Hf..  iufLTior  gliitt'ai:  I'er..  perforating:  Sta. 
scia.,  small  sciatic  ;  I'opl..  poplit»?al :  P.vr.,  nerves  to  p.vrl- 
fonnla;  Per.  cat.,  perforating^  cutaneous:  Obt.  int.,  obtu- 
rator Internus;  Qa.  fern.,  quadrator  femoris;  Pu.,  pudic. 

form  a  ple.xus  in  the  connective  tissue  which  sur- 
rounds the  bundles  of  muscle  fibres.  I'roin  this 
plexus  nerve  fibres  pass  to  the  individual  muscle 
fibres.  Having  arrived  at  the  muscle  fibre  in 
which  it  terminates,  the  nerve  fibre  loses  its 
medullary  sheath,  and  its  neurilemma  fuses  with 
the  sarcolenima.  The  naked  a.xone  then  (accord- 
ing to  most  observers)  penetrates  the  sarcolenima 
and  terminates  in  a  more  or  less  elaborate  expan- 
sion known  as  a  'motor  end  plate' 

The  sensory  or  afferent  jiart  of  the  spinal 
nerves  is  made  by  the  peripheral  processes  of  the 
spinal  ganglion  cells.  In  the  skin,  and  in  those 
mucous  membranes  which  are  covered  with 
squamous  epithelium,  the  nerve  fibres  lose  their 
medullary  sheaths  in  the  subepithelial  tissue, 
an<l,  penetrating  the  epithelial  layer,  split  up 
into  niinuto  fibrils  which  pass  in  between  the 
cells  and  terminate  there,  often  in  little  knoli- 
like  swellings.  In  aildition  to  such  comparatively 
sini|de  nerve  endings,  tliere  are  also  found  in  the 
skin  and  mucous  membranes,  especially  where 
sensation   is   most  acute,   much   more   elaborate 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


375        NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


terminations.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
ilerkel's  iastxellcii,  or  touch  cells,  the  tactile 
corpuscles  of  Meissner,  and  the  Pacinian  bodies. 
In  tendons  and  in  muscle,  sensory  nerve  fibres, 
after  losing  their  medullary  sheaths,  divide  into 
minute  fibrils  which  are  often  studded  with 
irregular  exjiansions.  In  gland  tissue,  nerve 
fibres  usually  end  as  fine  fibrils,  which  pass  to 
the  epithelial  cells. 

PlIY.SIOLOGY   OF  THE   SplNAL   CoRD  AND   SplNAL 

Xekves.  The  sensory  nerve  endings  serve  as  the 
receptive  apparatus  by  means  of  which  e.\ternal 
stimuli  may  induce  a  nervous  impulse.  The 
motor  nerve  endings  serve  as  organs  of  distribu- 
tion through  which  an  impulse  may  so  aflect  a 
muscle  as  to  cause  a  contraction  and  consequent 
muscular  action.  The  nerves  themselves  appar- 
ently serve  merely  as  a  conductive  apparatus  for 
transmitting  the  sensory  impulses  from  tlie  peri- 
phery to  the  spinal  cord  and  tlie  motor  impulses 
from  the  cord  to  the  muscles.  The  spinal  cord 
must  be  considered  as  subserving  several  quite 
dillerent  though  related  i)hysiological  purposes, 
of  which  the  following  are  the  most  important: 
(I)  Its  gray  matter  acts  as  a  reflex  centre,  i.e. 
a  centre  in  which  an  impulse  brought  to  it  by 
the  fibres  of  the  posterior  nerve  root  (usually  a 
sensory  impulse)  can  determine  an  impulse  pass- 
ing out  in  the  fibres  of  an  anterior  nerve  root 
(usually  a  motor  impulse).  In  this  way  a  motion 
is  produced  by  an  external  stimulus  without  any 
involvement  of  consciousness.  A  simple  reflex 
is  one  in  which  the  impulse  passes  directly  from 
the  posterior  root  fibres  to  the  cells  of  the  an- 
terior horns.  A  compound  reflex  is  one  in  which 
the  impulse  passes  through  another  neurone  sit- 
uated within  the  cord  in  passing  from  the  pos- 
terior root  fibre  to  the  anterior  horn  cell.  (2)  An 
automatic  centre.  By  an  automatic  action  is 
meant  one  which  apparenlhi  occurs  without  any 
determining  external  stimulus,  e.g.  the  rhyth- 
mical action  of  the  heart  or  the  contraction  and 
expansion  of  the  arteries.  (3)  A  relay  station 
in  the  transmission  of  impulses  from  and  to  the 
higher  centres.  This  takes  place  through  the 
fibre  tracts  of  the  cord  and  has  been  already  re- 
ferred to  in  connection  with  the  description  of 
those  tracts.  (4)  A  conduction  path.  This 
also  has  been  noted  in  connection  with  the  de- 
scription of  the  fibre  tracts  of  the  cord. 

THE  BRAIN. 

By  this  term  is  usually  meant  all  that  portion 
of  the  cerebro-spinal  axis  contained  in  the  cranial 
cavity. 

Tlie  human  brain  is  larger  and  heavier  rela- 
tively to  the  size  and  weight  of  the  body  than 
the  brain  of  any  other  animal,  with  the  pos- 
sible exception  of  some  of  the  snuiUcst  birds 
and  mammals.  It  is  ^arger  and  heavier  abso- 
lutely than  that  of  any  other  animal  except 
the  elephant  and  larger  whales.  It  is  largest 
in  the  white  races,  smallest  in  some  of  the 
Central  African  savages.  It  is  larger  in  the  male 
than  in  the  female.  The  average  weight  of  the 
adult  male  brain  of  the  white  races  of  Kurope 
and  America  has  been  estimated  at  from  40  to  50 
ounces,  of  the  female  at  from  4.S  to  4.5  ounces. 
The  brain  is  much  larger  relatively  to  the  size 
of  tlie  liody  in  the  infant  than  in  the  adult,  the 
brain  of  the  new-born  child  weighing  on  an 
average  from  10  to  12  ounces.  The  brain  in- 
creases in  weight  up  to  middle  life.    After  sixty 


it  usually  decreases  sumeuhat  in  weight.  It  is 
a  common  idea  that  large  brains  are  apt  to  be 
associated  with  unusual  intellectual  development. 
.Such  is  not,  however,  the  case.  While  the  brains 
of  some  men  of  great  intellectual  attainments 
have  proved  to  be  above  the  average  in  weight — 
Cuvier,  64  ounces;  Abercrombie,  (i3  ovmces; 
Goodsir,  57  ounces — the  brains  of  other  men  ap- 
parently equally  intellectual  have  not  been  above 
the  average  in  weight,  and  Thurman  reports  a 
case  of  a  male  epileptic  whose  brain  weighed  62 
ounces,  and  liicknill  one  from  a  similar  case 
which  weighed  O414  ounces.  Brains  weighing 
over  60  ounces  have  also  been  observed  in  the 
insane. 

The  brain  may  be  subdivided  into  the  medulla 
oblongata,  the  pons  Varolii,  the  midbrain,  the 
cerebellum,  the  basal  ganglia,  and  the  cerebral 
hemispheres. 

The  medulla  oblongata  is  the  continuation 
upward  of  the  spinal  cord  and  extends  from  the 
lower  limit  of  the  pyramidal  decussation  below, 
to  the  lower  margin  of  the  pons  above.  The 
length  of  the  me- 
dulla is  about  an 
inch,  and  its  diam- 
eters, which  at  its 
lower  portion  cor- 
respond to  those  of 
the  cord,  increase 
from  below  upward. 
Externally  the  me- 
dulla shows  the 
continuation  u  p  - 
ward  of  the  ante- 
rior and  of  the  pos- 
terior fissures  of 
the  cord.  These  fis- 
sures become  more 
shallow  as  they  as- 


Pf^py 


•litOi.jKd.cer 
OlitMy. 

-F(ss.dec 


MEDULLA     0BLON{J.\TA     A.ND     PONB 
VAROLII. 

Pon.  Vsr.,  pons    Varolii:    .Vid. 
,     ,,  ^      .        ped.  rer.,  middle  peduacle  of  cere- 

cend,  the  posterior  helium:  Oliv.  txl.v..  olivary  body; 
fissure  disappear-  Fiss.dec,  pyramidal  derusnation  ; 
ino-    nt     nbnnf     the    '"<"'■     "'''••     medulla    oblongata; 

.",  ,,        y  ?,  F.y-  IVrs..  anterior  pyramids, 

middle  of  the  me- 
dulla, where  the  central  canal  opens  into  the  fourth 
ventricle.  On  either  side  of  the  anterior  fissure  is 
a  prominence  caused  by  the  anterior  pyramid, and 
to  the  outer  side  of  the  pyramid  the  bulging  of 
the  olivary  body  may  be  seen.  The  antero-lateral 
surface  of  the  medulla  is  also  marked  by  the 
exit  of  the  sixth  to  the  twelfth  (inclusive) 
cranial  nerves.  The  posterior  surface  shows  two 
prominences  on  cither  side,  one  next  the  pos- 
terior fissure  known  as  the  clava,  caused  by  the 
nucleus  gracilis  or  nucleus  of  the  column  of 
Goll :  the  other  just  to  the  outer  side  of  the  clava, 
due  to  the  nucleus  cuncatus  or  nucleus  of  the 
column  of  Burdaeh.  The  internal  structure  of 
the  medulla  shows  considerable  resemblance  to 
that  of  the  cord.  This  is  especially  true  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  medulla,  the  structures  of 
which  are  directly  continuous  with  those  of  the 
cord.  The  fibre  tracts  of  the  cord,  however,  as- 
sume, in  the  medulla,  new  directions,  and  in  do- 
ing so  break  up  the  formation  of  the  gray  matter. 
This,  together  with  the  appearance  of  some  new 
masses  of  gray  matter  and  some  new  fibre 
bundles,  is  the  main  factor  in  determining  the 
difTerence  in  structure  between  cord  and  medulla. 
The  internal  structure  of  the  medulla  can  be  best 
understood  by  tracing  into  it  the  structures  of  the 
spinal    cord.     At   the   junction   of   medulla   and 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


376        NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


cord  occurs  llie  iiyraiiiidal  docussaliun.  Above 
this  decussation  the  fibres  of  tlie  main  cortico- 
spinal motor  tracts  lie  in  two  large  bundles,  one 
on  cither  side  of  the  anterior  median  fissure,  and 
known  as  the  anterior  pyramids.  In  the  decussa- 
tion of  the  pyramids  the  majority  of  these  fibres 
cross  over  to  the  opposite  posterolateral  region 
and  pass  down  into  the  cord  as  the  crossed 
pyramidal  tract,  the  few  fibres  remaining  next 


Vayruui^  Zing 


^I^fpaner, 


6ECT10S  OP  Tlip  MEUCLLA   OBLOS0A1  A   AT   ABOTT   THE 
SlIUDLE  OK   THE  OLIVAKY  BODY. 

Sue.  fun.  /tT.,  nucleus  of  ftinicuhis  teres;  Vag.  tiuc/., 
vagus  nuclei;  Lint/.,  lingulu;  Xur.  fira.,  nucleus  gracilis; 
JV'«c.  cu;i.,  nucIeUB  cuncatus;  Corp.  rest.,  corpus  reslifornie  ; 
Asc.  rt.  .''th  Mcr.,  .'uiccitdiiig  root  of  5tli  nerve;  Vait.  rt.^ 
vagus  root;  .4rci.  jih.^  arciform  fibres  ;  Otiv.  jjmc,  olivary 
nucleus;  lltipo,  n'er.,  hypoglossal  nerve;  Ant.  nwtl.  jUs.^ 
anterior  niediati  fissure  ;  Iltjpo.  nuc,  liypoglossal  nucleus  ; 
liap.y  median  raphe  ;  Form,  recti  ,  formatio  reticularis  ; 
font.  ant.  co/.,  continuation  of  the  anterior  column ; 
Access,  oliv.  nuct.^  accessory  olivary  nuclei. 

the  anterior  fissure  forming  the  direct  pyramidal 
tract.  The  crossing  fibres  of  the  decussation  sep- 
arate off  tlio  anterior  horns  from  the  rest  of  the 
gray  matter,  while  the  intermingling  of  white 
matter  and  gray  matter  is  known  as  tlie  formr.tio 
reticularis.  Shortly  above  the  pyramidal  decus- 
sation masses  of  gray  matter  l)cgin  to  appear  in 
the  posterior  columns.  These  are  known  respect- 
ively as  the  nucleus  gracilis  or  nticlcus  of  the 
column  of  Goll  and  the  nucleus  cuneatus  or 
nucleus  of  the  column  of  Burdach.  In  these 
nuclei  terminate  most  or  all  of  the  fibres  of  the 
columns  of  (!oll  and  of  Burdach.  The  nuclei 
increase  in  size  pari  passu  with  the  decrease  in 
the  size  of  the  columns,  the  latter  finally  entirely 
disappearing.  These  nuclei  are  therefore  nuclei 
of  termination  for  the  fibres  of  these  columns  and 
arc  of  the  nature  of  a  relay  station  in  the  main 
spino-cortical  sensory  conduction  path.  From 
cells  in  these  nuclei,  axones  pass  around  the  cen- 
tral canal — internal  arcuate  fibres — decussate  in 
the  median  line — sensory  decussation — and  then 
turn  upward  as  the  fillet  or  lemniscus.  This  is 
the  main  continuation  brainward  of  the  great 
sensory  tract.  Some  axones  from  cells  in  the 
nuclei  do  not  turn  upward  in  the  fillet,  but.  skirt- 
ing the  ventral  stirface  of  the  pyramids,  as  the 
external  arcuate  fibres,  pass  to  the  cerebellum  in 
the  rcstiform  body.  Of  the  lateral  tracts  of  the 
cord,  the  direct  cerebellar  tract  joins  the  rcsti- 
form body  and  thus  reaches  the  cerebellum 
through  its  inferior  pedtmclc.  while  the  tract  of 
Oowers  continues  upward  in  the  hiteral  region  of 
the  medulla,  its  exact  terminations  being  as  yet 
tindeterniincd.  The  posterior  horns  become,  in 
the  medulla,  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  pray 
matter,  and,  becoming  broken  up,  serve  as  nuclei 


of  termination  for  the  sensory  divisions  uf  some 
of  the  cranial  nerves.  As  it  passes  up  through 
the  medulla,  the  central  canal,  surrounded  by  an 
increased  amoimt  of  gelatinous  substance,  gradu- 
ally approaches  the  posterior  surface,  to  o])en  at 
about  the  middle  of  the  medulla  into  the  fourth 
ventricle.  Of  the  new  masses  of  gray  matter 
which  appear  in  the  medulla,  the  largest  are  the 
olivary  nuclei.  These  are  irregular  convoluted 
masses  of  gray  matter  situated  in  the  ventral 
part  of  the  medulla  Ixdiind  and  to  the  outer  side 
of  the  pj'ramids.  They  extend  from  the  upper 
limit  of  the  sensory  decussation  to  the  pons. 
Each  olivary  nucleus  has  a  central  core  of  white 
fibres  which  cross  the  median  line  and  pass  to  the 
opposite  rcstiform  body  forming  the  cerebello- 
olivary  tract.  To  the  inner  side  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  olivary  nucleus  is  a  smaller  mass  of 
gray  matter  know-n  as  the  accessory  olivary 
nucleus,  while  above  the  main  mass  of  the  olive 
is  the  superior  olivary  nucleus.  The  distinct  line 
of  decussating  fibres  which  extends  through  the 
centre  of  medulla  and  pons  is  called  the  median 
raphe.  The  nuclei  of  certain  of  the  cranial 
nerves  form  masses  of  gray  matter  in  the  me- 
dulla. These,  together  with  the  root  fibres  of  the 
nerves,  will  be  found  described  below  in  connec- 
tion with  the  cranial  nerves. 

The  pons  Varolii,  or  bridge,  lies  just  above 
the  medulla.  Superficially  its  ventral  surface  is 
seen  to  be  cimiposcd  of  fibres  which  ]]ass  trans- 
versely, forming  a  sort  of  bridge  between  the  two 
cerebellar  hemispheres.  Internally  the  pons  is 
composed  of  tracts  of  fibres  (white  matter)  and 
of  nuclei  (masses  of  gray  matter).  The  fibre 
tracts  pass  both  longitudinally  and  transversely. 
The  longitudinal  fibres  are  mainly  the  continua- 
tion upward  of  tracts  already  mentioned  in  the 
description  of  the  medulla,  the  pyramidal  tract 
or  main  motor  tract,  and  the  fillet  or  main 
sensory  tract.  Some  of  the  longitudinal  fibres 
are.  however,  fibres  connecting  the  nuclei  pontis 
w  ith  higher  centresand commissural  fibres  between 
the  nuclei  pontis.  The  transverse  fibres  of  the 
pons  arc  mostly  fibres  connecting  the  cerebellum 
with  the  nuclei  pontis. and  are  consequently  often 
called  the  middle  cerebellar  peduncles.  They 
are  composed  of  two  sets  of  fibres,  which  from 
their  location  are  known  respectively  as  the 
superficial  transverse  pontile  fibres  and  the  deep 
transverse  pontile  fibres.  In  the  median  line 
the  fibres  decussate,  forming  a  median  raphe  con- 
tinuous Avith  that  of  the  luedulla.  ribrcs  of  the 
roots  of  the  fifth  and  some  of  the  higher  fibres 
of  the  roots  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  nerves  pass 
from  their  nuclei  of  origin  to  the  ventrolateral 
surface  of  the  pons.  The  gray  matter  of  the 
pons  consists  of  the  nuclei  of  the  nerves  just 
mentioned  and  of  nuclei  scattered  throughout  the 
pons,  which  are  known  as  the  nuclei  pontis  and 
are  connected  with  the  middle  cerebellar  pe- 
duncles and  with  the  cerebrum.  Near  the  pos- 
terior surface  of  the  pons  is  the  fourth  ventricle, 
which  becomes  narrow  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
pon'  as  it  approaches  the  aqueduct  of  Sylvius. 
In  the  floor  of  the  ventricle  is  a  group  of  nerve 
cells  which  are  so  deeply  pigmented  as  to  present 
a  dark  appearance  to  the  naked  eye.  This  dark 
area  is  called  (he  locus  Cicrulcus. 

.M)Ove  the  pons  is  the  midbrain.  Here  the  long 
fibre  tracts  are  cnllected  into  two  main  bimdles 
known  as  the  cerebral  peduncles  or  crura  cerebri. 
Each  peduncle,  or  crus,  consists  of  a  ventral  por- 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN.         377        NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


I 


tion  or  criista,  a  dorsal  jiurtiou  or  ti'gmentum, 
ami,  Ix'twcen  tliesc,  a  mass  ul'  {;ray  matter,  the 
substantia  nigra.  The  dorsal  part  of  the  cerebral 
pcduiicle,  or  tegmentum,  represents  the  continua- 
tion brainward  of  the  main  sensory  tract  to  the 
cortex  cerebri.  Of  the  ventral  jiart  of  the  pe- 
duncles, or  crusta,  about  the  middle  three-fifths 
arc  taken  up  by  the  fibres  of  the  pyramidal  sys- 
tem (including  fibres  to  the  motor  nuclei  of  the 
cranial  nerves).  .Medial  to  these  fibres  in  the 
l)c(hincle  are  the  fibres  which  pass  from  the 
frontal  lol)e  to  the  nuclei  pontis,  while  external  to 
tile  pyramidal  fibres  are  the  fibres  connecting  the 
temporal  lobe  with  the  nuclei  pontis.  As  the 
peduncles  appmach  the  basal  ganglia  the  sub- 
stantia nigra  disappears  and  the  tegmentum  lies 
just  dorsal  to  the  crusta.  These  bundles  of 
fibres  pass  through  the  basal  ganglia  between  the 
nucleus  caudatus  and  the  optic  thalamus  on  the 
mesial  side  and  the  nucleus  lenticularis  on  the 
lateral  side.  Here  they  form  the  internal  cap- 
sule, which  is  directly  continuous  above  with 
the  corona  radiata.  through  which  the  fibres  enter 
the  cortex  cerebri.  A  bend  divides  the  capsule 
into  an  anterior  portion  and  a  posterior  portion. 
The  anterior  ])ortion  lies  between  the  caudate 
nucleus  internally  and  the  lenticular  nucleus 
externally.  This  part  of  the  capsule  consists 
nuiinly  of  fibres  which  connect  the  cortex  cerebri 
and  the  optic  thalamus.  The  posterior  portion  of 
the  internal  capsule  lies  between  the  lenticular 
nucleus  on  its  outer  side  and  the  optic  thalamus 
on  its  inner  side.  About  the  anterior  two-thirds 
of  this  portion  is  occupied  by  the  fibres  of  the 
pyramidal  tracts  (including  descending  fibres  to 
the  motor  cranial  nerve  nuclei).  The  cortico- 
pontal  fibres  connecting  tlie  cortex  cerebri  with 
the  nuclei  pontis  pass  through  the  internal  cap- 
sule in  two  separate  bundles :  one  bundle,  coming 
from  the  frontal  lobe,  passes  down  in  front  of 
the  main  motor  tract;  the  other  bundle,  coming 
from  the  temporal  lobe,  passes  through  the  pos- 
terior portion  of  the  internal  capsule  just  behind 
the  pyramidal  tract.  Through  the  posterior  part 
of  the  internal  capsule  also  passes  the  continua- 
tion upward  of  the  tegmentinn  or  main  sensory 
tract  to  the  cortex.  On  the  posterior  surface  of  tlie 
mid-brain  are  the  corpora  quadrigemina  or  optic 
lolies.  These  are  four  in  numlier.  two  anterior 
and  two  posterior.  Their  structure  is  complex. 
The  anterior  pair  seems  to  be  connected  in  some 
way  with  vision.  In  the  mid-brain  the  fourth 
ventricle  becomes  narrowed  and  is  known  as  the 
iter  or  aqueduct  of  Sylvius. 

The  cerebellum — or  little  brain — is  that  part 
of  the  brain  which  lies  in  the  inferior  occipital 
fossa.  It  is  situated  beneath  the  oeci])ital  lobes 
of  the  cerebrum,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
the  tentorium  ccrebelli.  The  average  weight  of 
the  cerebellum  is  about  51{.  ounces.  Its  size  rela- 
tive to  tliat  of  the  cerebrum  is  about  1  to  8.  In 
the  infant  the  cerebellum  is  relatively  much 
smaller  than  in  the  adult,  its  weight  being  about 
^  that  of  the  cerebrum.  The  cerebellum  meas- 
\ires  from  31,^  to  4  inches  in  transverse  diameter 
and  about  2  inches  from  before  backward  at  its 
centre.  It  consists  of  two  heniisplieres  or  lateral 
lobes  and  a  smaller  central  lobe  called  the  vermi- 
form process.  The  cerebellum  is  connected  with 
other  parts  of  the  nervous  system  by  means  of 
bimdles  of  fibres  known  as  peduncli's.  Two  of 
these,  one  on  either  side,  the  superior  peduncles, 
connect  it  with  the  cerebrum.    Two  others,  the  in- 


ferior peduncles  or  rcstiform  bodies,  connect  the 
cerebellum  with  the  spinal  cord.  The  third  set 
of  peduncles,  the  middle  peduncles,  connect  it 
with  the  pons.  The  heniisplieres  of  the  cere- 
bellum are  separated  in  front  by  a  fossa  which 
encircles  the  corpora  quadrigemina.     Posteriorly 


Ar/,  :i/ 


Corp.cUint 


VERTICAL  SECTION  OF  THE  CEBEBELLU.M. 

Arb.    vit.,  arbor  vit«»;    Oliv.   hdy.,  olivary  Lotlv  ;  Corp. 
dent.,   corpus  dentatuni. 

the  furrow  is  deeper  and  narrower.  On  the 
superior  surface  of  the  cerebellum,  between  the 
anterior  and  posterior  furrows,  the  central  lobe 
has  a  very  slight  elevation  and  is  called  the 
superior  vermiform  process.  On  the  inferior 
surface  of  the  cerebellum  the  central  lobe,  called 
the  inferior  vermiform  process,  lies  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  furrow,  where  it  forms  a  distinct  pro- 
jection and  is  subdivided  into  an  anterior  portion, 
the  nodule,  a  middle  portion,  the  uvula,  and  a 
posterior  portion,  the  pyramid.  Two  small  lobes 
stand  out  distinctly  from  the  main  bulk  of  the 
hemisphere,  one.  the  flocculus,  lying  to  the  outer 
side  of  the  nodule,  the  other,  the  tonsil,  lying 
to  the  outer  side  of  the  uvula.  Each  hemisphere 
is  divided  transversely  by  a  deep  fissure  called 
the  great   horizontal   fissure,  which  separates   it 


SCHEME  or  THK  CEBEBELLAR  CORTEX. 

A,  Gray  or  molecular  lajor;  /f,  jA-ranulc  layer;  C  medulla 
or  white  matter;  a,  enuill  praunle  cell;  It,  large  >;raitule 
cell;  c,  plexus  of  uerve  flbrcs;  (/,  horizontal  buiidle;  e, 
fibres  of  molecular  layer;  f,  cell  of  I'urkinje ;  ^,  basket 
cell;  b,  small  cortical  cell;  ;',  glia  cell  of  the  molecular 
layer;  i,  mossy  cell  resembling  a  glia  cell;  /,  spider  cell. 

into  an  upper  or  tentorial  surface  and  a  lower 
or  occipital  surface.  In  addition  to  the  flocculus 
and  tonsil,  the  surface  of  the  cerebellum  is 
divided  into  several  less  distinct  lobes.  On  the 
upper  surface  are  the  anterior  or  square  lobe  and 
tlie  posterior  or  semilunar  lobe.  On  the  under 
surface  may  be  seen  from  before  backward  the 
digastric  lobe,  the  slender  lolie,  and  the  inferior 
posterior  lobe.    Besides  the  deeper  furrows  sepa- 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


378 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


rating  tlie  lolies,  tlie  entiio  suifuce  of  the  cere- 
bellum is  crossed  Ijy  a  iiuiltitude  of  transverse 
grooves  whioli  divide  it  into  plates  or  lamella 
and  give  it  a  foliated  or  laminated  appearance. 
On  cutting  into  tlie  cerebellum  it  is  seen  to  con- 
sist of  a  central  portion  or  core  of  white  matter 
which  extends  outward  into  the  cortex  as  a  series 
of  transversely  disposed  hranching  plates.  These, 
covered  over  by  a  layer  of  gray  matter,  form 
the  lamina  already  referred  to,  which  on  cross- 
section  present  the  characteristic  leaf-like  ap- 
pearance known  as  the  "arbor  vitae."  The  white 
matter  of  the  cerebellum  is  composed  of  mcdul- 
lated  nerve  fibres  which  pass  out  in  a  radial 
manner  into  the  gray  matter  of  the  cortex.  Tliesc 
fibres  are  axones  coming  from  cells  situated  in 
the  cerebellum  and  passing  out  to  terminate 
either  in  some  other  part  of  the  eerebellum  or  in 
some  other  part  of  the  nervous  system,  or  coming 
from  cells  located  in  other  parts  of  the  nervous 
system  to  their  terminations  in  the  cerebellum. 
The  gray  matter  of  the  cerebellum  is  composed  of 
three  layers,  an  external  or  molecular  layer,  an 
internal  or  granular  layer,  and.  between  the  two, 
a  layer  composed  of  a  single  layer  of  large  cells, 
the  layer  of  Purkinje  cells.  The  molecular  layer 
contains  multipolar  cells  of  various  sizes  known 
as  "basket  cells'  from  the  fact  that  while  their 
dendrites  pass  mostly  toward  the  surface,  their 
axones  pass  downward  and  end  in  a  basket  like 
network  around  the  I'urkinje  cells.  The  granular 
or  nuc-lear  layer  derives  its  name  from  the  fact 
that  after  the  ordinary  methods  of  staining  it 
appears  to  be  comi)osed  of  a  mass  of  small  close- 
ly packed  cells,  each  cell  consisting  of  a  nucleus 
surroimded  by  an  extremely  small  amount  of 
protoplasm.  Intermingled  with  these  cells  are 
inedullated  and  nun-medullated  fibres.  By  the 
application  of  the  niethoil  of  Golgi  these  cells 
have  been  divided  into  small  granule  cells  (by 
far  the  more  numerous)  and  large  granule  cells. 
In  the  case  of  the  small  granule  cell  the  den- 
drites ramify  in  the  granular  layer,  while  the 
axone  terminates  freely  in  the  molecular  layer. 
Tlie  large  granule  cells,  on  the  other  hand,  send 
their  dendrites   into  the  molecular  layer,  while 


X>endrUef 


yerve /process 


NERVE  CKI.I.    (CEbb  OK    l-CRKIXJE). 

From  a  section  through  tho  human  cerebellar  cortex. 

their  axones  form  a  rich  plexus  within  the 
granular  layer.  The  dense  network  of  fibres 
found  in  the  granular  layer  is  derived  from 
the  cells  just  di'scribcd.  from  axones  and  col- 
laterals of  Purkinje  cells,  and  from  fibres  coining 
from  the  white  matter.     The  cells  of  Purkinje 


form  a  single  layer  along  the  boundary  between 
the  molecular  layer  and  the  granular  layer. 
Krom  the  outwardly  directed  part  of  the  cell 
a  thick  neck  is  given  oil',  from  which  arise  two 
main  dendritic  processes,  which  subdivide  and 
give  rise  to  an  enormous  number  of  processes 
which  ramify  and  terminate  in  the  molecular 
layer.  From  the  opposite  pole  of  the  cell  is  given 
olT  the  axone  which  passes  through  the  granular 
layer  and  becomes  a  meduUated  fibre  of  the  white 
matter. 

JSesides  the  gray  matter  of  the  cortex,  certain 
independent  masses  of  gray  matter  occur  in  the 
eerebellum.  These  are  the  corpus  dentatum,  a 
convoluted  body  of  gray  matter  situated  to  the 
inner  side  of  the  centre  of  the  core  of  white  mat- 
ter, and  the  roof-nuclei  of  Stilling,  situated  at 
the  anterior  end  of  the  su])erior  vermiform  proc- 
ess and  projecting  forward  into  the  roof  of  the 
ventricle. 

The  functions  of  the  cerebellum  have  been 
made  the  subject  of  much  discussion  and  inves- 
tigation. It  is  itself  insensible  to  irritation,  and 
has  been  cut  away  in  various  animals,  without 
eliciting  signs  of  pain;  moreover,  its  removal  or 
disorganization  by  disease  is  generally  unaccom- 
panied with  loss  or  disorder  of  sensibility,  ani- 
mals from  whom  it  has  been  removed  being  ap- 
parently able  to  smell,  see,  hear,  and  feel  as 
]ierfcctly  as  before.  I'Tourens  extirpated  the  cere- 
bellum in  birds  by  successive  layers.  Feebleness 
and  want  of  harmony  of  the  movements  resulted 
from  the  removal  of  the  superficial  layers.  When 
he  reached  the  middle  layers,  the  animals  became 
restless;  their  movements  were  violent  and 
irregular.  By  the  time  that  the  organ  was  en- 
tirely removed,  the  animals  had  completely  lost 
the  power  of  Hying,  walking,  standing,  and  pre- 
serving their  equilibrium.  \\  lieu  a  pigeon  iu 
this  slate  was  laid  upon  its  back,  it  could  not 
recover  its  former  position,  but  lluttered  its 
wings,  and  saw  and  tried  to  avoid  a  threatened 
blow.  Hence  volition,  sensation,  and  memory 
were  not  lost,  but  merely  the  faculty  of  combining 
the  actions  of  the  muscles.  From  a  large  series 
of  experiments  of  this  kind,  subseciuently  made  on 
all  classes  of  animals,  Floureiis  inferred  that  the 
cerebellum  belonged  neither  to  the  sensitive  nor  to 
the  intellectual  apparatus;  that  it  was  not  the 
source  of  voluntary  movenients,  although  belong- 
ing to  the  motor  apparatus:  that  it  is  the  organ 
for  the  coordination  of  the  voluntary  move- 
ments, or  for  the  excitement  of  the  combined 
and  harmonious  action  of  the  muscles. 

In  spite  of  the  above  facts,  the  extent  to  which 
muscular  coordination  is  dependent  upon  the 
cerebellum  cannot  be  considered  as  satisfactorily 
determined. 

The  cerebrum — sometimes  called  the  brain 
proper — constitutes  in  man  the  largest  part  of 
the  cerebrospinal  axis.  Lying  within  the  cav- 
ity of  the  skull,  its  shape  eonforiiis  to  that  of 
the  cranial  cavity.  Anteriorly,  supcriiuly.  and 
posteriorly,  a  deep  fissure  runs  lengthwise  of 
the  brain,  called  the  great  longitudinal  fissure, 
separating  the  brain  into  two  equal  halves  or 
hemispheres.  At  the  bottom  of  the  fissure  a 
broad  band  of  fibres — the  corpus  callosiim — 
tmitcs  the  two  hemispheres.  Kaih  lieniisphere 
])resents  three  surfaces — .'in  outer,  which  is  con- 
vex and  corresponds  to  the  inner  surface  of  the 
skull;  an  inner,  which  is  Hat.  lying  against  the 
similar  surface  of  the  opposite  hemisphere,  from 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


379 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


wliicli  il  is  M'paiatcd  liy  tlio  falx  ceifbri ;  and 
an  under  suilati'.  wliieh  is  somewhat  concave 
and  rests  upon  tlu-  anterior  and  middle  fossa' 
of  tlie  skull  and  upon  tlie  tentorium  ocrelxdli. 
Tlie  surface  of  each  heniispliere  is  nuirked  1)}'  nu- 
merous elevations  and  de|)ressions, 
the  former  known  as  convolutions 
or  ^ri.  the  latter  as  fissures  and 
sulci.  These  convolutions  serve  to 
increase  the  actual  surface  of  the 
lirain  without  increasing;  the  actual 
size  of  the  orijan,  and  the  number 
and  e.xtent  of  the  convolutions  are 
in  direct  relation  to  the  intellectual 
development,  increasing  tliroughout 
the  ascent  of  the  mammalian  scale, 
and  reaching  their  highest  com- 
plexity in  civilized  num. 

FissrRE.s.  Of  the  five  principal 
fissures  of  the  brain,  two  have  al- 
ready been  mentioned — the  great 
longitudinal  fissure,  separating  the 
hemispheres,  and  the  great  trans- 
verse fissure,  separating  the  cere- 
brum from  the  cerebellum.  Eacli 
lu'misphere  presents  three  fissures 
which  separate  the  heniispliere  into 
lol)es.  These  are:  (1)  The  fisjuro 
of  Sylvius.  Tliis  begins  at  the 
base  of  the  brain  (see  diagram) 
aiul  ])asses  upward  and  backward 
on  the  external  surface  of  the  hemi- 
.sphere.  where  it  divides  into  a  short- 
er ascending  limb  and  a  longer  horizontal  linili. 
It  separates  the  frontal  and  ])arietal  lobes  from 
the  tcmpero-sphenoidal  lolie.  (2)  The  fissure 
of  Rolando  begins  a   little  behind  the  mid-point 


of  Kulando  and  the  jiosU'rior  extremity  of  the 
brain,  sends  a  short  branch  outwaid,  while  its 
longer  branch  extends  downwanl  and  forward 
on   file   inner  surface  of  the  hemisphere. 

LoHEs.     The   frontal   lobe   includes   that   part 

gnd  ofCaUoso 


CONV<ILUTION8  AND   FISSURES    OF    THE    OUTER    SURFACE  OF   THE   CBREDRAL 
HEMISPHERE. 

of  tlie  brain  which  lies  in  front  of  the  fissure 
of  Rolando  and  above  the  fissure  of  Sylvius. 
It  presents  the  following  convolutions:  (a)  The 
ascending  frontal  convolution,  lying  just  in  front 
of  the  fissure  of  Rolando  and  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  lobe  by  the  vertical  or  precen- 
tral  sulcus.  This  remaining  portion  of  the  front- 
al lobe  is  divided  by  two  longitudinal  sulci  into 
(b)  the  superior  frontal  convolution,  (c)  the 
middle  frontal  convolution,  and  (d)  the  inferior 
frontal  convolution.  The  last  is  sometimes  known 
as  the  convolution  of  Broca.  These  convolutions 
also  extend  more  or  less  into  the  under  surface 
of  the  lobe,  which  is  also  marked  by  a  groove 
in  which  lies  the  olfactory  bulb. 


Parieto-occipttajb 
J^issure 

UPPER    SURFACE    OP    THE     BRAIN.    THE     ARACHNOID     HAVING 
BEEN   REMOVED. 

of  the  great  longitudinal  fissure  and  extends 
downward  and  forward  to  a  point  somewhat 
above  and  behind  the  bifurcation  of  the  (sylvian 
fissure.  It  separates  the  frontal  lobe  from 
the  ]iariptal  lobe.  (3)  The  parieto-occipital  fis- 
sure begins  about  midway  between  the  fissure 
Vol.  XIV.— 25. 


CONVOLUTIONS    AND    FISSCHES    OF    THE    INNER    SURFACE  OP 
THE  CEREBRAL   HEMISPHERE. 

The  parietal  lobe  is  separated  from  the  front- 
al lobe  by  the  fissure  of  Rolando,  from  the 
tcmpero-sphenoidal  lobe  below  by  the  horizontal 
limb  of  the  fissure  of  Sylvius,  from  the  occipital 
lobe  by  the  parieto-occipital  fissure.  It  may 
be  subdivided  into  four  fairly  well  marked  eon- 
volutions:  (a)  Tlie  ascending  parietal,  lying  just 
behind  the   fissure  of  Rolando.     Behind  the  as- 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


380 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


cenilinj;  jiaiictal  convoliitii)ii  is  tlic  inlra-parietal 
sulcus.     The  portion  of  tlie  parietal  lobe  above 
the  horizontal  part  of  the  .sulcus  is  known  as  (b) 
the    superior-parietal    convolution,    and    is    con- 
tinuous with  the  ascending  pari- 
etal.    That   part  of   tlie  lobe  be- 
low  the    horizontal    arm   of   the 
sulcus   is   divided    by   a   vertical 
s\ilcus  into  (c)  an  anterior  part, 
the    supraniarginal    convolution, 
and     (d)     a    jjosterior    i)art.    the 
angular  convolution. 

The  occipihil  lobe  is  separated 
from  the  iipijer  part  of  the  pari- 
etal lobe  by  the  parietooccipital 
lis>ure.  while  it  is  more  or  less 
continuous  with  the  lower  part 
of  the  parietal  lobe  and  with  the 
tenipero-splicnoidal  lobe  by  small 
connecting  convolutions.  The  lobe 
is  rather  indefinitely  divided  by 
two  small  transverse  fissures  into 
first,  second,  and  third  occipital 
convolutions. 

The  tcmpero-sphenoidal  lohe 
lies  in  the  middle  fossa  of  the 
skull  and  is  bounded  above  and  in 
front  by  the  Sylvian  fissure.  Pos- 
teriorly,  connecting   convolutions 

nnife  it  with  the  parietal  and  OC-  space.  J'os't.  p'erf.  .s^j.,  imsterior  perforated  space;  Vh.  sur.  ctnb.,  under  sur- 
ninit-il  1<ilw.«  It-  is  divided  bv  two  face  of  cerebellum;  Mtd.  obi.,  medulla  obUmgata  :  L,m.  Jiss.,  lonsitudiiial 
Cl|iiiai  loues.  it  is  un  meu  m  i«o  jg^,,^^  .  ,.„^p  „,,;  corpus  callosum  ;  Pit.  bihi.  pituitary  body  ;  Infumlih., 
horizontal  sulci  into  three  convo-  infundibulum ;  Aut.  per/,  up.,  anterior  perforated  space;  Tub.  ciiic..  tuber 
Intions  called  from  above  down-  ctnereum  :  /'ost.  dir.  St/t.  riss.,  posterior  division  of  Sylvian  fissure:  Corjio. 
vvni-<1  tlio  first  spiond  and  third  «"''.,  corpora  albicantia :  ('■ni.  crrf.,  crura  cerebri;  roup.  .«)*.  M.,  temporo- 
waul,  tne  lii.sl,  setonii,  .um  uiiiu  g^e„(,ij;ji  ,ot,e;  Occip.  lo.,  occipital  lobe;  Pons  Var.,  pons  Varolii 
teinpero-sphenoidal    convolutions. 

The  central  lobe  or  Ultinil  of  Rcil  is  situated     parallel  to  the  curve  of  the  surface  of  tlie  brain, 
in  the  depth  of  the  fissure  of  Sylvius,  and  com-     separating   the    marginal    or    first    frontal    con- 


C^szircvrrU 


cipilal,  the  calcarine,  the  collateral,  and  the 
dentate.  The  calloso-marginal  is  the  longest 
of  these  fissures,  begins  on  the  superior  surface 
just    behind    the    mid-point,    and    runs    forward 

Xort./}es. 

Corp^calL. 

Pron.Zo. 
PU-bdy. 
InfuncUb. 

•Ant.perTsp. 
Tub.ctne. 
PosLdiv.Syl.ftsr. 
\~-Corpo.  cU6i. 
O'u.cere. 

^^Temp.sph.lo,. 
Occip.  lo. 


BASE    OF   THE    BRAIX. 

Frmi.  In.,  frontal  lobe  ;  Bn.,  bulb:  Olf.  tr.,  olfjictory  tract;  Fiss.  Si/l  ,  lityjure 
of  Sylvius ;  Ojt.  tic,  optic  nerve;  Op.  com.,  optic  commissure;  O/i'  fr.,  opiic 
tract;  Ttinp.  uph.  lo.,  temptiro-spbenoidal  lobe  ;  Int.  ped.  sp.,  interiH;duncular 


posed  of  five  or  si.\  rather  small  convolutions 


•frU-parsuL 


Coll  ml.- 


Z-^lmipjvl 


volution  from  the  gj'rus  fornicatus,  which  lies 
just  over  the  corpus  callosum.  The  quadrate 
lobule  lies  between  the  calloso-marginal  sulcus 
and  the  parieto-occipital  sulcus.  The  cuneus 
or  occipital  lobule  lies  between  the  parieto-oc- 
cipital sulcus  in  front  and  aliove  and  the  cal- 
carine sulcus  below.  The  unciniite  gyrus  lies  be- 
low the  .Sylvian  fissure  and  the  dentate  sulcus, 
while  below  it  is  separated  from  the  tempero- 
sphenoidal  lobe  by  the  collateral  sulcus.  The 
tempero-sphenoidal  lobe  is  continuous  with  the 
already  described  lobe  of  the  same  name  in  the 
outer  surface  of  the  cerebrum.  It  presents  two 
convolutions  in  addition  to  those  already  de- 
scribed on  its  outer  surface. 

The  under  surface  of  the  cerebrum  shows  some 
ini]iortant  features,  which,  passing  from  before 
biiekward,  are  as  follows:  (1)  the  longitudinal 
fissure,  separating  the  frontal  lobes.  (2)  The 
corpus  callosum,  appearing  in  the  depth  of  the 
longitudinal  fissure  and  serving  as  a  great 
transverse  commissure  connecting  the  two  hemi- 
spheres. (3)  Tlie  olfactory  nerve  with  its  ex- 
panded extremity  the  olfactory-  bulb,  lying  in 
a  groove  in  the  under  surface  of  the  frontal  lobe. 
(41  The  fissure  of  Sylvius, separating  the  anterior 
from  the  midille  lobe.  (.5)  The  anterior  perforated 
space — so  called  from  the  perforations  for  the 
passage  of  blood-vessels — is  the  under  surface 
..„n;  Si/I  ni<«  .Sylvian  llssurc  ;  /in.,  insula  ;  (Vdiij  ,  claus-  of  the  corpus  striatum  (see  below).  (fi)  The 
■  rum;  (//o. /»i//.,  tflobus  pallidas ;  /'.ir.  n*«.,  parallel  lis.  ,,j(„j,,,rv  l.odv  or  hvpophvsis  cerebri.  (7)  The 
,urc;  .'.,</  Itmp.  ,ul.,  secoml  temporal  sulcus.  infutwliliulum "  is   a   narrow"  tube  of  gray   matter 

The  internal  surface  of  the  cerebrum  is  less  connecting  the  pituitary  !)ody  with  (S)  the 
distincllv  marked  olT  into  lobes  than  the  ex-  tuber  einereum.  an  eminence  of  gray  malter  lying 
tcrnal  surface.  The  fissures  on  the  intern.il  l)etween  the  diverging  cerebral  peduncles  (!)) 
surface  arc  the  lalloso-marginal,  the  parieto-oc-     The   corpora    aDiicantia    or    coriiora    maiiullarm 


Tin:  nBAI.N  VIEWEn  FROM  BF.niSn  A  FBOXTAI.  BECTIOS 
THHOllill  TUK  Kli;llT  UEMISFIIEKK  TAKE.S  JI^ST  BEHIND 
THE  (JCTIC  CUIASMA. 

Call.  m.  »u/.,  calloBo-marKinal  flssnro:  T^il.  rent.,  lateral 
vciilrlclc;  lorp.  call.,  c.irpus  callosum:  lldii  /"r.c.,  b.i.lv 
of  fornix;  Thai.,  llialamus;  .;r</  mil ,  tliird  ventricle;  Jut. 
rap.,  internal  capsule;  <>p  (r..  opIic  tr.ict  ;  -Vur.  amiiij., 
nucleus  anivgdala  ;  Op.  c/ii.,  optic  cldasma ;  Ant.  hip/m., 
anieri.ir  end  of  ldp|««'auipU9  nn^or  projecting  into  llie 
dei-ccndini;  cornu  of  the  lateral  vcntrlelu  ;  Voll  »ii/.,  collat. 
eral  sulcus;  hit.  par.  .ttil.,  intr:it>arielal  sulcus;  Jto.  siil.. 
liolandic  sulcus;  S'lic  caiid.,  nucleus  candatus:  Sir.  mnl  , 
stria  medullarls:  A'rf.  c.//>.,  external  capsule  ;  /'i/di.,  luilu- 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


381 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


arc  two  siiuiU  while  piotubcraiices  each  about 
the  size  of  a  jjca  just  behind  the  tuber  cinereum. 
They  are  composeil  externally  of  white  matter, 
internally  of  gray  matter,  and  are  formed  by 
the  anterior  crura  of  the  fornix.  (10)  The  pos- 
terior perforated  space  lies  between  the  corpora 
albicantia  and  the  anterior  fibres  of  the  pons. 
Its  perforations  are  due  to  vessels  which  pass 
to  the  optic  thalarai.  (11)  Tlie  optic  commissure 
is  the  crossing  of  the  right  and  the  left  optic 
tracts  to  form  the  optic  nerves.  It  is  situated 
just  in  front  of  the  tulier  cinereum.  (See  also 
below — optic  nerve,  xuuler  Criiniul  Xcrvcs.)  (12) 
The  ccreliral  peduncles  or  crura  cerebri  are  two 
diverging  bundles  of  white  fibres  which  appear 
to  come  out  from  behind  the  anterior  border  of 
the  pons.  Each  peduncle  passes  upward,  for- 
ward, and  outward,  and  enters  the  under  surface 
of  the  hemisphere.  (For  description  of  cerebral 
])cduncles,  see  above  under  M id-Druin.)  (13) 
The  under  surface  of  the  cerelirum  also  show's 
the  exit  of  the  third  and  fourth  cranial  nerves, 
the  former  coming  out  from  the  inner  margins 
of  the  crura  in  front  of  the  pons,  the  latter 
from  the  outer  margins  in  front  of  the  pons. 


4ntcor.lat\vnl. 

Sep  tuci: 

ATUpttfor 

T.scmz. 


Corp.calL 

Cozul.Tvuo. 
Forajifart, 


METENCEPHALON,  MESEXCEPHALON.  AND   TUALAMENACEPHA- 
LON   FROM   THE   PORSAb  BFRFACE. 

Ant.  COT.  lat.  vent.^  anterior  cornu  of  later.al  ventricle; 
hth  rfn^,  fifth  ventricle;  S^p.  luci.,  eeptum  Ivicidnm;  Ant. 
pil.fnr.,  anterior  pillar  of  fornix;  T.  semi.,  taenia  semicir- 
cularis;  Ant.  com.y  anterior  commissure;  Sul.  c/^or.,  sulcus 
choroideus;  Na.^  n.ites ;  Corp.  gen.  iH^,  corpus  genicula- 
tuin  internum;  L<it.  tjv.  inesen.,  lateral  groove  of  mesen- 
cephalon; /v.,  pons;  Conduct,  soh.,  conductor  sonorous; 
Snf.  long,  met/.,  sulcus  longitudinalis  medianus;  Trig, 
tiijpo.,  trigonum  hypoglossi ;  Corp,  rest.,  corpus  resti- 
forme :  C/<(,,  clava;  /'n..:t.  Jiss.,  posterior  tissure  ;  Sut.  para. 
r/or5.,  sulcus  paramedianus  dorsalis ;  .Sul.  lat.  (/ors.,  sulcus 
lateralis  dorsalis;  Corp.  ct//.,  corpus  callosum ;  Cauit.  nnc, 
caudate  nucleus:  Fora.  Mon.,  foramen  of  Monroe;  Op, 
tka.,  I'ptic  thalamus:  >7r.  pin.,  stria  pinealis;  Peif.  con., 
pedunculus  conarii ;  Pin.  gl.,  pineal  gland;  Snl.  corp.q.  /., 
sulcus  corpus  ([uadratus  Inngitudinalis  ;  Test.,  testis;  Fren. 
vet,,  i'rcnalus  veli  ;  Ling,  liiigula;  Em.  ter.,  eminentia  teres; 
Tuher.  acuit.,  tuberculuTn  acusticuni :  .^/.  ci»/.,  ala  cineroa; 
Tulier.  cnn  ,  tiihcrculnni  cuneatuui :  Fun.  gra.,  funiculus 
gracilis;  Fun.  cun.,  funiculus  cuneatus ;  Lat.  col.,  lateral 
column. 

Ventricle.s  of  tiik  I'.RAiN.  The  lateral  ventri- 
cles represent  the  expanded  anterior  end  of  the 
embryonic  neural  canal,  and  are  the  cavities 
of  the  heniis])lieres.  They  are  lined  by  a  single 
layer  of  simple  cylindrical  ppitheli\nn,  the  epen- 
dyma,  derived  from  the  epiblastic  lining  of  the 
neural  canal.     The  two  ventricles  are  separated 


from  each  other  in  tlie  median  line  by  a  vertical 
septum  known  as  the  septum  lucidum.  The 
shape  of  the  ventricles  is  irregular,  each  ven- 
tricle consisting  of  a  main  cavity  or  body  and 
extending  oil'  from  this  three  smaller  cavities 
called  cornua  or  horns.  The  anterior  horn  passes 
outward  and  forward  into  the  anterior  lobe. 
The  posterior  horn  extends  backward  into  the 
posterior  lobe,  while  the  middle  horn  descends 
into  the  substance  of  the  middle  lobe.  The  main 
ca\it}-  of  the  ventricle  is  roofed  in  by  the  uiuIlT 
surface  of  tlie  corpus  callosum.  its  lloor  is  made 
by  the  corpus  striatum  and  o])tic  thalamus,  al- 
though tlie  ta'uia  semicircularis,  choroid  plexus, 
corpus  fimbriatum,  and  fornix  are  also  situated 
in  its  lloor.  The  third  ventricle  is  a  long  nar- 
row cavity  lying  between  the  optic  thalami. 
Above  it  is  bouiuled  by  the  under  surface  of  the 
velum  interpositum,  to  which  is  attached  the 
choroid  plexus  of  this  ventricle.  Its  fioor  is 
made  by  the  lamina  cinerea,  tuber  cinereum,  in- 
fundibulum,  corpora  albicantia,  and  posterior 
perfor.ited  space.  Three  commissures  cross  the 
cavity  of  the  ventricle,  known  respectively  as 
the  anterior,  the  middle,  and  the  posterior  com- 
missures. Four  openings  connect  the  third  ven- 
tricle with  other  cavities.  In  front  the  fora- 
mina of  Monroe,  one  on  each  side,  serve  to  con- 
nect the  third  ventricle  with  the  lateral  ven- 
tricles. Posteriori}",  the  aqueduct  of  Sylvius  con- 
nects the  third  ventricle  with  the  fourth.  A 
fourth  opening  in  the  anterior  part  of  the 
lloor  leads  into  the  cavity  of  the  infundibulum. 
The  so-called  fifth  ventricle  of  the  brain  is,  prop- 
erly speaking,  not  a  true  ventricle,  being  simply 
a  part  of  the  great  longitudinal  fissure  which 
has  been  cut  off  in  the  development  of  the  brain, 
by  the  union  of  the  two  hemispheres,  through 
the  corpus  callosum  and  the  fornix.  It  is  not 
lined  by  epithelium  as  are  the  other  ventricles. 
The  fourth  ventricle  is  described  above  in  con- 
nection  with   the   medulla   oblongata. 

Certain  structures  remain  to  be  described 
which  have  already  been  mentioned  as  lying  in 
the  floor  of  the  lateral  ventricles.  The  two 
largest  of  these,  often  called  the  basal  ganglia, 
are  the  corpora  striata  and  the  optic  thalami. 

The  corpora  striata  are  two  masses  of  mingled 
gray  matter  and  white  matter,  the  superior 
stirfaces  of  which  appear  in  front  of  the  body 
of  the  lateral  ventricles.  The  extra-ventricular 
portion  is  known  as  the  lenticular  nucleus.  The 
intra-ventricular  part  known  as  the  caudate  nu- 
cleus is  smaller  than  the  extra-ventricular,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  internal  capsule, 
a  large  band  of  fibres  which  represents  the  con- 
tinuation upward  of  the  main  tracts  of  the 
cord  and  crura  on  their  way  to  the  cerebrum. 
A  layer  of  white  matter  which  covers  the  extra- 
ventricular  portion  of  the  lenticular  nucleus  is 
known  as  the  external  capsule. 

The  optic  thalamus  lies  to  the  inner  side  and 
behind  the  lenticular  nucleus,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  a  part  of  the  internal  capsule. 
Each  thalamus  is  composed  of  white  matter  ex- 
ternally, of  gray  matter  internally,  and  rests 
upon  the  corresponding  cms  cerebri.  It  forms 
a  part  of  the  lateral  wall  and  fioor  nf  the  body 
of  the  lateral  ventricle.  As  the  middle  or  de- 
scending horn  of  the  ventricle  descends  the 
thalamus  comes  to  form  the  roof  of  this  portion 
of  the  ventricle.  In  front  is  a  prominence  kno\vn 
as  the  anterior  tubercle,  while  its  posterior  part 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


presents  two  small  rounded  eminenees,  the  in- 
ternal  and   the   external   geniculate   bodies. 

The  tania  semieireularis  is  a  narrow  band  of 
white  libres  which  lies  in  the  depression  between 
the  caudate  nucleus  and  the  optic  thalamus.  An- 
teriorly, it  follows  the  deseenilin;;  pillar  of  the 
fornix ;  posteriorly,  it  passes  into  the  descending 
liorn  of  the  ventricle,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the 
horn  enters  a  mass  of  gray  matter  known  as  tha 
nucleus  amygdahe. 

The  velum  interpositum  is  a  vascular  extension 
of  the  |)ia  mater  into  the  interior  of  the  brain 
through  the  great  transverse  fissure.  It  enters 
the  tliird  ventricle  beneath  the  corpus  callosum 
and  above  the  optic  thalami,  corpora  quadrigc- 


(iim(4)  mtm 


(SM)  (S) 


DIAGRAM   OF  THE  CELL9   Of  THE  CEREBRAL  CORTEX. 

A.  Sii|)ertlcial  or  nioli'ciilar  Irt.vfT;  (/)  funifi)riii :  (i>)  tri- 
aiijurulnr;  (.V)  pol.VK'Xi'il  c«*I1s  of  ('jiiiil.  H.  I.ji.vtT  nf  Hiimll 
p.vfamldM;  {4\  Hiiuilli'Ht;  (.7)  sitiull ;  ('»')  rinMliuiri.sIzod  pyram- 
idal ct'llH  with  tht'ir  axcmi'S  ilfsri'mihiif  U^  tho  whit^ 
matter.  Klvin^f  off  coUatiTfilH  in  tlii-ir  course.  C,  Lnyer  of 
larfft'  pyrutnlilal  ct^Hs;  (")  larKo  p.vniiiiidnl  cflU  witii  very 
niiiiH'rou.-^  liendritt'H:  v**)  larK»'Ht  j^iant  pyramidal  cells;  (.*/) 
Mnrtlnottl  coll  with  dcBcomJin^;  dendrites  and  aHciMidtnj? 
a.xniie;  {10)  polygonal  ccIIh.  It.  Iie»'p  layer;  (77)  fusiform 
ccIIh;  (/!')  polyKonal  ceilH.  K.  The  white  matt«r  eoiituln- 
liiK  axones  from  pyranililal  cells :  {4).  (.7).  («).  (*),  and  from 
cella  (12)  o(  the  deep  layer :  (US)  neuroglia  fibre. 

mina.  and  pineal  gland.  Anteriorly,  it  bifurcates, 
a  part  entering  each  lateral  ventricle  through 
the  foramen  of  Monroe.  In  the  thinl  ventricle 
two  vascular  fringes  hang  down  from  the  velum. 
These  are  the  choroid  plexuses  of  the  thirl 
ventricle.  In  the  lateral  ventricles  similar 
fringes  are  attached  to  the  lateral  margin  of 
the  velum.  These  are  the  choroid  plexuses  of 
the   lateral   ventricles. 

Tlip  corpus  (imbriatum  or  tania  hippocampi 
is  the  lateral  edge  of  the  posterior  pillar  of  the 
fornix.  It  is  a  narrow  white  hanil  lying  just 
behind  the  choroid  plexus  of  the  lateral  ventricle. 


382         NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 

The  fornix  is  an  arcli-shapod  band  ot  white 
fibres,  running  longitudiiuiUy,  which  bifurcates 
both  anteriorly  and  |)Osteriorly,  forming  the  an- 
terior and  the  posterior  pillars  of  the  fornix. 
The  central  portion  or  body  of  the  fornix  is  tri- 
angular in  shape,  its  narrow  anterior  en<l  being 
attached  to  the  septum  luoidum,  its  broad  pos- 
terior extremity  being  continuo\is  with  the  cor- 
pus callosum.  The  anterior  pillars  curve  down- 
ward in  the  lateral  walls  of  the  ventricle 
and  enter  the  corpora  albicantia,  from  which 
they  pass  into  the  optic  thalami.  The  i>osterior 
pillars  of  the  fornix  pass  downward  in  the  de- 
scending horns  of  the  lateral  ventricle,  their  thin 
margin  forming  the  already  described  corpora 
fimbriata. 

The  hippocampus  major  or  cornu  Ammonis,  so 
called  from  its  fancied  resemblance  to  a  ram's 
horn,  is  a  long  cur\'ed  body  consisting  of  both  gray 
matter  and  white  matter  which  follows  the  curve 
of  the  floor  of  the  middle  horn  of  the  lateral 
ventricle.  It  is  formed  by  an  extension  inward 
of  the  dentate  sulcus.  The  gray  substance  of 
the  sulcus  forms  an  irregular  ridge  along  the 
margin  of  the  hippocampus  major,  known  as 
the  fascia  dentata.  The  lower  end  of  the  hippo- 
campus major  is  marked  by  several  rounded  ele- 
vations which  from  their  resemblance  to  the  paw 
of  an  animal  are  known  as  the  pes  hipiiocamjii. 
The  hippocampus  minor  is  a  longitudinal  emi- 
nence in  the  iloor  of  the  posterior  horn  of  the 
lateral  ventricle.  It  is  due  to  the  extension 
inward  of  the  calcarine  sulcus.  The  emincncia 
collateralis  or  pes  accessorius  is  an  eminence 
caused  by  the  inward  projection  of  the  collateral 
fissure,  'it  lies  between  the  hipiiocanipus  major 
and  hippocampus  minor,  and  between  the  poste- 
rior and  descending  horns  of  the  lateral  ventricle. 

General  Histology  of  the  Cereurum.  Each 
cerebral  convolution  consists  of  a  central  white 
core  covered  over  by  a  layiT  of  gray  matter, 
which  latter  constitutes  the  cerebral  cortex.  The 
cerebral  eorte.x  may  be  divided  into  three  fairly 
distinct  layers:  (1)  an  outer  barren  or  mole- 
cular layer;  (2)  a  middle  l.iyer.  or  layer  of 
pyramidal  cells;  (3)  an  inner  layer,  or  layer 
of  polymorphous  cells. 

( 1)  The  nerve  cells  of  the  barren  or  molecular 
layi'r  are  known  as  the  cells  of  C'ajal.  They 
are  fusiform,  triangular,  or  irregular  in  shaiic, 
and  both  their  dendrites  and  axones  ramify  in 
this  outer  layer,  the  axones  passing  mainly  in 
a  direction  parallel  to  the  surface.  This  layer 
also  contains  the  terminations  of  the  apical  den- 
drites of  the  pyramidal  cells,  some  medullated 
nerve  fibres  running  parallel  to  the  surface,  called 
superficial  tangential  fibres,  ami  a  rich  jiU'Xus 
of  neuroglia. 

(2)  The  layer  of  pyramiilal  cells  is  often  de- 
.scribed  as  two  separate  layers,  an  outer  layer 
of  small  i)yraniidal  cells,  and  a  deeper  layer  of 
large  i)yramiilal  cells.  Each  pyramidal  cidl  has 
]>assing  olV  from  its  outwardly  directed  angle 
a  large  ajiical  or  main  dendrite.  Smaller  ilcn- 
dritcs  iiass  olT  from  the  sides  and  base  of  the 
cell.  The  axone  originates  from  the  base  of 
the  cell  and  enters  the  white  matter  of  the 
corona  radiata.  During  its  passage  through 
the  gray  matter  it  sends  off  collateral  branches. 
Some  of  these  collateral  branches  are  nu'dullatcd 
and  form  the  deep  tangential  filires.  .Among 
the  deeper  cells  of  this  layer  are  foimd  some 
very   large   pyramidal   cells,   called   the   cells   of 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


383 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


Nerve  process 


CEUEHUAI.  CORTEX  OF 
AUILT  MAN. 

The  terminal 
branches  of  the  den- 
drites running  to- 
ward the  molecular 
layer  are  not  visible. 


Bctz.  Tlicse  cells  a'le  found  onlj-  in  the  motor 
cortex,  and  it  is  believed  that  it  is  the  axones 
of  these  cells  which  pass  down  through  the 
internal  cajisule  to  the  cord  as  the  main  motor 
tract.  In  this  layer  arc  also  found  cells — cells  of 
Jlartinolti — the  dendrites  of  which  pass  down- 
ward, while  their  axones  pass  upward  to  the  molec- 
ular layer,  where  they  turn 
and  run  parallel  to  the  sur- 
face as  the  superficial  tan- 
gential fibres.  Cells  of  G(dgi 
t.vpe  11.  are  also  found  in  this 
layer.  The  axones  of  these 
cells  branch  rajiidly  and  end. 
in  the  gray  matter  in  the 
vicinity  of  their  cells  of 
origin.  The  fibres  of  this 
layer  consist  of  the  axones  and 
...,....■„..     „„,.    dendrites    of    the    cells    above 

PVKAMIDAL     CELL      ,  .,       ,  ...  „ 

FHo.M  A  PERPENDicc-   described,  and  of  axones  from 
LAH  SECTION  OF  THE   cclls    ill    othcr    rcgious    which 
are  passing  to  their  termina- 
tions here. 

(3)  The  cells  of  the  third 
la.yer  are  fusiform  or  irregu- 
lar in  shape.  They  have  no 
apical  dendrites,  their  proto- 
plasmic [jrocesses  coming  off  irregularly  and  ram- 
ifying mainly  in  this  layer.  Their  axones  pass 
down  into  the  corona  radiata.  The  fibres  of  this 
layer  consist  of  axones  and  dendrites  of  the  cells 
just  described,  of  the  axones  of  pj'ramidal  cells, 
and  of  axones  of  cells  in  other  parts  of  the  ner- 
vous system  which  are  passing  to  their  termina- 
tions here. 

The  corona  radiata  or  central  core  of  white 
matter  radiating  out  into  the  gray  matter  con- 
sists of:  (1)  Descending  fibres,  which  are  axones 
of  the  large  and  small  pyramidal  cells  and  of 
the  polygonal  cells  of  the  third  layer.  These 
axones  become  medullated  and  pass  ( a )  to  other 
convolutions  of  the  same  hemisphere — associ- 
ation fibres;  (li)  through  the  corpus  callosum 
to  the  opposite  hemisphere — commissural  fibres ; 
(c)  to  the  internal  capsule  as  fibres  of  the 
descending  tracts — projection  fibres.  (2)  Ascend- 
ing fibres,  w'hich  are  axones  of  cells  situated 
elsewhere  in  the  nervous  system,  and  which 
are  here  passing  to  their  terminations.  These 
fibres  are  (a)  a.xones  of  cells  situated  in  other 
convolutions  of  the  same  hemisphere — associ- 
ation fibres;  (b)  axones  of  cells  situated  in  the 
opposite  hemisphere,  which  have  come  through 
the  corpus  callosum — commissural  fibres;  (c) 
axones  which  have  come  through  the  internal 
capsule  from  cells  situated  in  lower  centres — 
projection  fibres. 

('iRcrL.\Tiox.  The  arterial  supply  of  the  brain 
comes  from  two  sources,  the  internal  carotids 
and  the  vertebrals.  At  the  base  of  the  brain 
these  four  vessels  form  a  remarkable  anasto- 
mosis of  large  arterial  trunks  which  is  known 
as  the  circle  of  \\illis.  The  arrangement  of 
these  vessels  can  be  best  appreciated  by  refer- 
ence to  the  accompanying  diagram.  From  this 
circle  there  pass  ofl'  to  the  brain  three  main 
sets  of  branches:  (1)  The  anterior  cerebral, which 
pass  forward  in  the  great  longitudinal  fissure, 
curve  around  the  anterior  border  of  the  cor- 
pus callosum,  and.  running  backward  on  its 
upper  surface,  terminate  by  anastomosing  with 
the  posterior  cerebral  arteries.  They  supply 
the   under  surfaces   of  the  anterior   lobes,   part 


of  the  internal  surfaces  of  the  hemispheres,  the 
corpus  callosum,  the  third  ventricle,  and  the 
;interior  perforated  space.  Near  their  origin 
from  the  internal  carotids,  the  two  anterior  ce- 
rebrals are  united  by  a  short  thick  trunk,  the 
anterior  communicating.  (2)  The  middle  cerebral 
or  I^vlvian  arteries,  which  pass  outward  along 
the  .Sylvian  fissures,  within  which  each  divides 
into  three  branches — an  anterior  to  the  anterior 
lobe,  a  posterior  to  the  posterior  lobe,  and  a 
median  to  the  small  lobe  near  the  end  of  the 
fissure  of  .Sylvius.  (3)  The  posterior  cerebral 
arteries,  which,  arising  from  the  basilar,  pass 
backward  and  outward  on  the  under  surfaces 
of  the  occii)ital  lobes,  each  terminating  in  three 
branches,  which  pass  respectively  to  the  uncinate 
gyrus,  to  the  temporo-sphenoidal  lobe,  and  to  the 
lingual  lobule,  cuneus,  and  occipital  lobe. 


■Zang  flse. 


Oortp-Co. 


■Infcerttf 


THE  AKTERIEB  OF  TUB  BASE  OP  THE  BRAIN.       (The  right 

half  of  the  cerebellum  and  pons  Varolii  have  been  removed.) 
Frou.  lo..  frontal  lobe;  Ant.  t-erfb..  anterior  cerebral; 
i^/ss.  .S.W.,  fissure  of  Sylvius  ;  Mirl.  i-erfh.,  middle  cerebral) 
Int.  cavo.,  internal  carotid:  Ant.  rlinr..  anterior  choroid  ; 
Post,  cowniu.,  posterior  communicatiufi" :  Past,  cbor., 
posterior  Choroid;  Ant.  spin.,  anterior  spinal;  Verteh., 
vertebral;  Mptl.  ohl.,  medulla  oblongata;  Ot-cifi.  lo.,  oc- 
cipital lobe  ;  Long.  Uss.,  longitudinal  fissure  ;  Ant.  conimu., 
anterior  conimunii-ating;  Corp.  call.,  corpus  callosum; 
Olf.ue.,  olfactory  nerve;  Lam.  cio..  lamina  cinerea :  Op. 
De. ,  oi)tic  nerve;  Op.com..  optic  commissure:  InfuntUh., 
infundibulum ;  Corpo.  albi.,  corpora  albicantia :  Svp. 
cereb..  superior  cerebellar;  P.  Vnr.  trims,  iir..  pons  Varolii 
transverse  arteries;  liasi.,  liasilar;  .Ant.  cereb.,  anterior 
cerebellar;  ^'ere/j/zn..  cerebellum ;  Inf.  cereb.,  inferior  cere- 
bellar; A.,  circle  of  Willis. 

All  these  arteries  ramify  in  the  pia,  where 
they  anastomose  freely.  From  this  anastomosis 
are  given  oil'  small  branches  which  enter  the 
substance  of  the  brain,  the  shorter  ones  breaking 
lip  into  a  capillary  network  in  the  gray  matter, 
the  longer  ones  passing  to  the  more  deeply  situ- 
ated white  matter.  -\fter  entering  the  brain 
substance,  there  is  no  further  anastomosis,  the 
arterial  ca])illaries  passing  diiectly  into  ve- 
nous capillaries  without  communicating  with  the 
capillaries  of   neiglilioring  arteries. 

Besides  these  cortical  branches,  branches  from 
the  circle  of  Willis  supply  tJie  basal  ganglia. 
Like  those  in  the  cortex,  these  arteries  do  not 
anastomose  after  entering  the  brain  substance. 

The  blood  supply  of  the  spinal  cord  is  derived 
from  three  main  arteries,  the  anterior  spinal 
and  two  posterior  spinal.  The  anterior  spinals 
arise  from  the  vertebrals,  and,  passing  downward 
on  the  anterior  surface  of  the  medulla,  unite  to 
form    a    single    trunk,    which    passes    down    the 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


384 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


cord  along  tlie  aiitciior  median  fissure.  The 
posterior  spinal  arteries  also  arise  from  the 
vertebral  arteries  and  pass  down  the  posterior 
aspect  of  the  cord  aloii'^  the  line  of  the  posterior 
nerve  roots.  Branches  from  the  spinal  arteries 
form  an  extensive  anastomosis  in  the  pia  mater. 
From  this  network  brandies  pass  into  the  sub- 
stance of  the  cord.  These  arteries,  like  those  in 
the  brain,  do  not  anastomose  after  entering  the 
nervous  tissue  proper. 

FuxcTio.NS  OF  THE  Cerebeum.  The  brain,  and 
more  especially  the  cerebral  hemispheres,  must 
lie  consi<lered  as  the  organ  of  the  mind.  It  is 
liere  that  those  material  activities  take  place 
vhich  underlie  those  mental  attributes  which  we 
recognize  as  consciousness,  intellect,  emotions, 
and  will.  In  the  case  of  the  higher  animals 
removal  of  the  cerebrum  results  so  promptly  in 
death  of  the  animal  that  few  conclusions  can  be 
drawn.  In  one  of  the  lower  animals,  e.g.  the 
frog,  the  result  is  the  destruction  of  all  volition 
and  apparently  of  all  consciousness.  Stimula- 
tion, such  as  pincliing  the  toes  or  applying  the 
electric  current  to  nerves  or  muscles,  causes 
muscular  contraction  and  consccpu'nt  movement, 
but  if  left  entirely  alone  the  frog  shows  no  sign 
of  movement,  with  tlie  exception  of  the  automatic 
movements  connected  with  the  heart  beat  and 
with  breathing.  In  some  cases  where  after  a 
time  slight  voluntary  movements  seemed  to  occur, 
it  was  found  that  small  jiortions  of  the  brain 
liad  not  been  removed.  Professor  Dalton's  de- 
scription of  a  pigeon  from  which  the  cerebrum 
liad  been  removed  is  as  follows:  "The  elFcct 
of  this  mutilation  is  simply  to  plunge  the  animal 
into  a  state  of  jirofound  stupor  in  which  it  is 
almost  entirely  inattentive  to  surrounding  ob- 
jects. The  bird  renuiins  sitting  motionless  upon 
his  perch  or  standing  upon  the  ground  with  eyes 
closed  and  head  sunk  between  the  shoulders. 
The  plumage  is  smooth  and  glossy,  but  is  luii- 
formly  expanded  by  a  kind  of  erection  of  the 
feathers,  so  that  the  body  appears  somewhat 
puffed  out  and  larger  than  natural.  Occa^iiinally 
the  bird  opens  its  eyes  with  a  vacant  stare, 
stretches  its  neck,  perhaps  shakes  its  bill  once 
or  twice,  or  smooths  down  the  feathers  upon 
its  shoulders,  and  then  relapses  into  its  former 
apathetic  condition."  The  brain  would  thus 
seem  to  be  essential  to  any  conscious  activity. 
Whatever  functions  are  carrie'd  on  by  the  rest 
of  the  nervous  system  enter  into  consciousness 
only  through  the  brain.  Thus  stimulation  ot  a 
sensory  nerve  may  be  concciveil  as  causing  .a 
motion  (as  in  the  case  of  the  frog  without  a 
cerebrum)  entirely  independent  of  the  brain,  but 
in  such  a  case  there  is  neither  any  consciousness 
of  the  stimulation  (sensation),  nor  any  knowl- 
edge or  control  of  the  resulting  motion.  It  is  a 
purely  retlex  net.  By  menus  of  the  brain,  then, 
stinuilation  of  sensory  nerves  results  in  an  ac- 
tivity in  consciousness  which  we  call  sensation, 
and  by  the  same  nu-ans  both  knowledge  of  and 
control  over  motion  are  accom)dislied.  The  so- 
called  higher  mental  activities,  intellect  or 
thought,  and  feeling  or  emotion,  are  also  entirely 
dependent  upon  the  cerebrum. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  localization  in  the  brain 
of  its  various  functions  is  still  far  from  perfect. 
Much  of  the  experimentation  upon  cerebral 
localization  hns  been  done  upon  the  nuinkey  by 
exposing  the  brain  and  electrically  stinuilating 
its  surface.     The  work  of  Fcrrier  along  this  line 


has  been  of  exlreiue  importance.  By  electrically 
stimulating  the  cortex  in  the  monkey  he  deter- 
mined the  area  stimulation  of  which  caused  mo- 
tion of  some  part  of  the  body,  and,  by  eiimi)aring 
the  convolutions  of  the  monkey's  brain  with  those 
of  the  human  brain,  he  determined  the  probably 
analogous  areas.  The  results  may  be  brielly 
summed  uj)  as  follows:  There  is  a  eonsidcralde 
area  having  the  tissure  of  Kolando  for  its  central 
line,  which  is  known  as  the  general  sensory- 
motor  area.  The  motor  relations  of  this  area  are 
well  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagrams.  Stim- 
ulation of  other  parts  of  the  brain  failed  to  elicil 
any  reaction.  The  sensory  areas  are  not  so  well 
ilclined.  and  for  obvious  reasons  are  much  more 
dillicult    of    determination.      Within    this    same 


THE   LKFT    C£REDR.\Li    BEMISPHEKE    (HUMAN)   SHOWI.NO     THE 
DIFFEHENT  LOCALIZAKLE   AKEAS  OS   THE   EXTERNAL 

SURFACE. 

region  are  ])robably  located  the  areas  which 
have  to  do  with  general  sensations.  The  special 
senses  have,  however,  si)ecial  localizations.  Thus 
the  cortical  visual  centre  is  sittiated  in  the  occi- 
pital lobe,  the  centre  for  the  conscious  apprecia- 
tion of  sound  (hearing  centre)  in  the  fnmt  and 
upper  part  of  the  temporal  lobe,  while  the  sense 
of  smell  is  located  below  the  latter  in  the  tip  of 
the  temporal  lobe. 

That  the  frontal  lobes  are  most  concerned  in 
the  higher  intellectual  activities  has  long  been 
believed.  Stimulation  of  these  lobes  causes  no 
reaction.  According  to  Ferrier  their  complete 
removal  causes  no  sensory  or  motor  disturl>ances. 
His  description  of  the  nu)nkey  after  complete  re- 
moval of  the  frontal  lobes  is  as  follows:  "The 
animals  retain  tlicir  appetites  and  instincts  and 
are  capable  of  exhibiting  emotional  feeling.  The 
sensory  faculties — sight,  hearing,  touch,  taste, 
and  smell — remain  imimpaired.  The  (lowers  of 
voluntary  motion  are  retained  in  their  integrity 
and  there  is  little  to  indicate  the  presence  of 
such  an  extensive  lesion  or  the  removal  of  so 
large  a  part  of  the  brain.  .-\nd  yet.  notwith- 
standing this  ajiparent  absence  of  physiological 
symptoms,  I  could  perceive  a  very  decided  altera- 
tion in  the  animal's  character  and  behavior, 
though  it  is  dillicult  to  state  in  precise  terms 
the  nature  of  the  change.  The  animals  operated 
on  were  selected  on  account  of  their  iiitelligint 
character.  After  the  operation,  though  they 
might  seem  to  one  who  had  not  compared  their 
present  with  the  past  fairly  up  to  the  average  of 
monkev  intelligence,  they  had  undergone  a  con- 
siderable psychological  alteration.  Instead  of,  as 
before,  being  actively  interested  in  their  sur- 
roundings, and  curiously  prying  into  all  that 
came  within  the  field  of  their  observation,  they 
remained  apathetic  or  dull,  or  dozed  off  to  sleep, 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN.         385        NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


rcspoiulin>j  only  to  sensations  or  impressions  of 
the  moment,  or  varying'  their  listlessuess  with 
ve-tk'ss  and  purposeless  wanderings  to  and  fro. 
\Vhile  not  actually  deprived  of  intelligence,  tliey 
hail  lost  to  all  appearance  the  faculty  of  attentive 
and  intelligent  observation." 


THE    RIGHT    CEHEBB.IL    BE.MI8PHKRE   (HCMAN)   SHOWING     LO- 
CALIZABLE   AREAS  OS   THE   MEDIAN   8CUFACES. 

The  separate  localization  of  the  diflferent  emo- 
tions, such  as  hate,  love,  fear,  etc.,  which  the 
teachings  of  phrenology  would  lead  one  to  expect, 
has  never  been  accomplished.  In  fact,  there  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  no  .such  localization 
exists,  the  same  parts  of  the  cortex  being  con- 
cerned in  very  different  emotions. 

The  C'kani.\l  Nerves.  The  cranial  or  ence- 
phalic nerves  arise  from  the  under  surface  of  the 
cncephalon  or  brain  and  leave  the  cranial  cavity 
tlirough  foramina  in  its  floor.  According  to 
the  older  classification  of  Willis,  the  cranial 
nerves  were  divided  into  nine  pairs.  The  later 
and  now  more  generally  used  classification  of 
Sommerring  recognizes  twelve  pairs  of  cranial 
nerves.  The  names  of  these  nerves,  taken  in 
order  from  before  backward,  are,  according  to 
these  classifications,  as  follows: 


I  Soraraerring 


I  OUactory 

I  Optic 

Motor  oculi 

Pathetic 

Trifacial 

Abduceiia 

Facial  (Hortio  dura) 

Auditory  (Portio  mollis).. 

OloSBO-pharyngeal 

Piuniniop:astric 

Spinal  accessory 

Hypoglossal 


Pair 
First 
Second 
Third 
Fourth 
Filth 
Sixth 
Seventh 
Eighth 
Ninth 
Tenth 
Eleventh 
Twelfth 


Willis 


Pair 

Fir.xt 

S.totkI 

Third 

Fnnrth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh 
'-  Eighth 
}  Ninth 


From  the  physiological  standpoint  these  nerves 
fall  into  three"  groups,  according  to  their  func- 
tions. (1)  Motor  nerves:  (a)  oculomotor; 
(b)  pathetic;  (c)  abducens;  (d)  facial;  (e)  hy- 
poglossal. (2)  Sensory  nerves:  (a)  olfactory; 
{h)  optic;  (c)  auditory.  (3)  Mixed  nerves:  (a) 
trifacial;  (b)  glosso-pharyngeal ;  (c)  pneumogas- 
tric;  (d)  spinal  accessory.  Of  these  the  olfac- 
tory, optic,  auditory,  and  parts  of  the  glosso- 
pharyngeal and  trifacial  are  sometimes  classified 
by  tliemsclves  as  nerves  of  special  sense. 
"  The  cranial  nerves  are  connected  with  the  sur- 
face of  the  brain  at  various  points.  These  points 
are  known  as  the  apparent  or  superficial  origin 
of  the  nerves.  From  these  points  their  fibres  can 
be  traced  into  the  substance  of  the  brain  to  their 
real  or  deep  rtrigins  in  the  gray  matter. 

The  cranial  nerves,  with  the  exception  of  the 
first    (olfactory)    and    the    second    (optic),    are 


analogous,   both    eiiibiyologically   and    anatomic- 
ally, to  the  spinal  nerves. 

The  motor  root  fibres  of  the  cranial  nerves  are 
the  axinies  of  neurones  whose  cell  bodies  are 
situated  in  the  gray  matter  of  the  medulla  and 
parts  above  (motor  nuclei  of  the  cranial  nerves), 
just  as  the  motor  root  fibres  of  the  spinal  nerves 
are  the  axones  of  neurones  whose  cell  bodies  are 
situated  in  the  gray  matter  of  the  cord  (anterior 
horns).  These  motor  nuclei  are  the  nuclei  of 
origin  for  these  nerves.  They  are  nuclei  of  ter- 
mination for  neurones  of  higher  systems  which 
serve  to  bring  the  periiiheral  neurone  under  the 
control  of  higher  centres. 

The  neurones  which  constitute  the  sensory  por- 
tions of  the  cranial  nerves  have  their  cell  bodies 
situated  in  ganglia  outside  the  central  nervous 
■system.  These  ganglia  correspond  to  the  pos- 
terior root  ganglia  of  the  spinal  nerves.  The 
outwardly  directed  processes  of  these  cells  pass 
to  their  periiiheral  terminations,  as  do  those  of 
the  spinal  ganglia  cells.  The  central  axones  of 
these  neurones  enter  the  medulla  and  form  longi- 
tudinal tracts  of  fibres  in  a  manner  quite  anal- 
ogous to  the  formation  of  tlie  posterior  columns 
by  the  central  axones  of  the  spinal  ganglia  cells. 
The  sensory  root  fibres  of  the  cranial  nerves, 
however,  do  not  ascend,  as  do  those  of  the  spinal 
nerves,  but  turn  spineward,  forming  descending 
roots.  These  fibres  terminate  in  the  gray  matter 
of  the  medulla  (terminal  nuclei  of  the  cranial 
nerves)  in  the  same  manner  as  do  the  spinal 
sensory  root  fibres  in  the  gray  matter  of  the 
cord  and  medulla. 

The  first,  or  olfactory  nerve,  is  properly  not 
a  nerve,  but  a  slender  process  of  the  brain  which 
terminates  in  an  enlargement,  the  olfactory  bulb, 
from  which  the  olfactory  nerves  themselves  are 
given   off.      The   size    and    development    of    this 
olfactory  process  and  bulb  vary  greatly  in  differ- 
ent animals,  being  in  man  quite  rudimentary  as 
compared   with    animals    noted    for    their    acute 
sense   of   smell.     The   olfactory   process   is   con- 
nected with  the  rest  of  the  In-ain  by  three  roots 
called  respectively  the  internal,  or  sliort  root,  the 
middle,   or  gray  "root,  and   the  external,  or  long 
root.     The  olfi'ictory  nerves  proper,  that   is  the 
bundles   of   filaments   extending   from   the   under 
surface  of  the  olfactory  bulb  through  the  fora- 
mina in  the  cribriform  plate  of  the  ethmoid  to 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nose,  are  made  up  ot 
axones  of  neurones  whose  cell  bodies  are  located 
in  the  nasal  mucous  membrane.     In  this  respect 
the  peripheral  olfactory  neurones  differ  from,  all 
other  human   perijiluTal   sensory  neurones.      Hie 
short,   hair-like    processes    of   these    cells   which 
pass  outward   toward   the   surface   are  the  den- 
drites     The  centrally  directed  processes  are  the 
a.xones      They  are  non-medullated,  and,  passing 
through  the  'cribriform   plate  in   bundles    (olfac- 
tory nerves),  enter  the  olfactory  bulb,  where  they 
terminate   in   end-arborizations   in   the  olfactory 
glomeruli.     In  the  glomeruli  they  come  into  re- 
lation with  the  dendrites  of  the  mitral   cells  of 
the  olfactory  lobe.     The  axones  of  these  mitral 
cells  are  m'edullated  and   form   the   main   mass 
of  fibres  which  pass  back  to  the  brain  tlirough 
the  olfactory  process  or  tract  and  its  roots. 

The  second  cranial,  or  optic  nerve,  is  the 
nerve  concerned  in  the  special  sense  of  sight. 
It  is  distributed  entirely  to  the  eyeball.  The 
nerves  from  the  two  eyes,  passing  backward  and 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


386 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


inward,  unite  to  I'oiin  tlie  optic  commisi?ure.  the  pons,  and,  passing  along 
Kroni  the  coumiissuie  two  large  bundles  of  fibres  cavernus  sinus,  enters  the 
— the  optic  tracts — pass  backward  and  outward  sphenoidal  fissure.  It  su 
to  the  brain.  The  eye  differs  from  all  other  oblique  muscle. 
sense  organs  in  that  its  nervous  apparatus  is 
develoiied  by  a  direct  outgrowth  from  the  embry- 
onic neural  canal.  Later,  the  ingrowth  of  meso- 
blastic  tissue  separates  the  external  or  retinal 
part  from  the  central  nervous  -system.  This 
retinal  part  is  analogous  to  the  posterior  root 
gangli(m  of  the  spinal  nerves,  and,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  latter,  its  subsequent  connection  with 
the  central  nervous  system  is  made  by  the  growth 
of  axones  from  the  peripherally  situated  cells 
back  into  the  central  system,  i'or  structure  of 
retina,  see  Eye. 

The  third,   or  oculomotor  nerve,  is  a   purely 
motor   nerve.      Its    fibres    are   the   axones   of   a 


Outlimrds. 


Mem,lun.exU 


Nuc.v.c.e^l— 


li!- 


IxtretU. 

{ 
Int.gran.l~- 


\    >\,       .s      V  ,      (-^ — Z.ext.ffran.L 
-yucJifiilr.fih. 


Ini.rettl: 


Gangn' 
Mar.lini 

TBANSVKi;    L 


■JfCilftb. 


mdjfiiirib. 


LTINA  OF   MAN. 


the  outer  wall  of  the 

orl)it    through    the 

pplies    the    superior 


Rds.&.cos.l. 

Vc.ext.nuc.l. 

£xtpl&x.l. 

Mp.cintjiucl. 


Iniplex.l. 


Gang.cel.1. 

yc.mi. 


SCHEME  OF  THE  STRUCTPRE  OF  THE  RETINA.   MAN. 

Rds.  &  COS.  I.,  rods  and  cones  layer;  V.  c.  ext.  nuc.  /., 
bodies  of  visual  cells  (externa!  nuelear  la,ver);  Ex.  ptrx.  /., 
external  plexiform  layer;  Gang.  eel.  /..  f?anKliou  cell  layer; 
JV'e.  tib.  I.,  nerve  ftl)rc  layer ;  1.  rods  ;  2.  cones ;  3,  cone  gran- 
ule and  fibre:  4.  rod  grannie  and  fibre;  5,  bi-polar  (ri>d) 
cells ;  )!,  bi-polar  (cone)  (-ells :  7.  ganglion  cells  branching  in 
different  layers  of  the  internal  plexiform  zone;  8.  louer 
branching  of  bi-polar  (rod)  cells;  9,  lower  branching  of  bi- 
polar (cone)  cells;  10,  centrifugal  nerve  fibre;  11,  Miiller's 
cells;  1*2,  contact  between  the  rods  and  the  bi-polar  (rod) 
cells;  1-3,  contact  between  the  cones  and  tlie bi-polar  (cnnei 
cells;  Hi.  p.  c.  int.  nuc.  /.,  layer  of  bi-polar  cells  (internal 
nuclear  layer):  Int.  plex.  1.,  internal  plexiform  layer. 

The  fifth,  trifacial,  or  trigemintis,  is  the 
largest  of  the  cranial  nerves.  It  resembles  tlie 
spinal  nerves  in  being  composed  of  a  motor  part 
and  a  sensory  part.     The   fibres  of  the  smaller 


Inf.troch.nz. 


Pig.  epitfi.,  pigment  epithelium  :  Wrf.t.  d'  cna.,  rods  and 
cones;  Alem.  /im.  cxt.^  membrane  Hmitans  externa;  .Vnc. 
V.  c.  e.  //.  /.,  nuclei  of  visual  cells  (external  granular  layer); 
£xt.  reti.  /.,  external  reticular  layer  ;  Jut.  t/ran.  /.,  internal 
granular  layer;  /»?.  n^i. /.,  internal  reticular  layer;  Ofitir/. 
eel.  I.,  ganglion  cells  laver;  Ne.  fib.  /.,  nerve  fibres  layer; 
Mar.  lim.  l^^,  miirgo  llmitans  internus;  Out.  lim.  rils., 
outer  limbs  of  rnds^  In.  tim.  rtta.,  inner  liinl)s  of  roils; 
Cos.,  cones;  Z.  txt.  t/rati  /,,  zone  of  external  granular 
layer  free  from  nuclei  (llenlis  external  fibre  layer);  Cd. 
gaiiq.  ret.t  cells  of  the  g.inglion  retina  ;  S'uc.  .\fHl.  r.  ,ritt., 
nuclei  of  ;\ruller*3  radial  fibres;  .S>o«j/.,  SiHingfblasts;  Milt, 
fill.,  .Miiller's  fibres;  Wed.  Mill,  fib.,  wedge  of  MUller's 
fibres. 

group  of  cells  situated  just  to  one  side  of  the 
median  line  in  the  fioor  of  the  iter  beneath  the 
corpora  quadrigemina.  Passing  internally  to  the 
red  nucleus,  the  nerve  reaches  the  ventral  surface 
of  the  mid-brain  at  the  inner  margin  of  the  cere- 
bral peduncle  just  in  front  of  the  pons.  The 
nerve  runs  forw;ird  along  the  inner  wall  of  the 
cavernus  sinus,  and,  dividing  into  two  parts,  en- 
ters the  orbit  through  the  sphenoiilal  fis>ure.  The 
su|)<>rior  branch  of  the  nerve  supplies  the  superior 
rectus  and  levator  palpi'brir.  The  inferior  branch 
,su))plies  the  internal  rectus,  the  inferior  rectus, 
and  the  inferior  oblique. 

The  fourth,  or  pathetic  nerve,  is  the  smallest 
cranial  nerve.  Like  the  preceding,  it  is  n  purely 
motor  ner\"p.  Its  fibres  originate  in  a  group  of 
rolls  in  the  floor  of  the  iter  jtist  lx>low  the  nucleus 
of  the  third  nerve.  The  nerve  winds  around  the 
outer  side  of  the  crus  cerebri  just  in  front  of 


>-,_r 

-'Sttp.orb.ne. 

||v 

-lajch.gl. 

¥: 

-EUvpaL 

-fron.ne. 

fZ 

—£xL  rcctm. 

Gasscr.gano. 


NERVES   OF  TIIF  ORIIIT.  SEEN   FHOM   ABOVE. 

Sup.  troch.  ?t^.,  suprfttrochlear  nerve;  /"/.  frock.  «c.,  in- 
fratrochleiir  nerve;  Sup.  ohl.  ??i.,  HUiierior  "oblique  muscle; 
Crib,  pi,  ith.,  cribriform  plate  of  etnmoiil  ;  Sas.  tic,  nanal 
nerve;  Op.  ne.,  optic  nerve;  .ir<l  ne.^  tliinl  nerve;  ith  nc, 
faurtli  nerve;  Mot.  rt.,  motor  root;  Setts,  rt.,  sensory 
root;  Slip.  orb.  »»•.,  fuipra-orltitnt  nerve;  TmcH.  f//.,  lacli- 
rynial  giantl ;  Elev.  jmL,  elevator  palpebne ;  /■"'roH.  «*•., 
frontal  nerve;  Jj-ich.  «<■.,  lachrymal  nerve;  Ext.  rect.  m., 
external  rerdis  muscle;  '>/>A.,  ophtluilmic ;  Gasser.  gang^ 
liasserian  ifanelioii  ;  'th  ui\.  tiUU  nerve;  liec.  Jil.  <i.  m., 
recurroiit  tllameiil  to  dura  matiT. 

motor  root  come  from  colls  situated  in  the 
iiu-thilla.  The  fibres  of  the  sensory  root  come 
fnun  cells  in  the  Gasserian  pan^rlion.  The  cen- 
tral processes  of  these  cells  enter  the  pons  and 
pass  to  two  nuclei  in  the  floor  of  the  fourth  ven- 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


387 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


triolc.  The  Gasscrian  gangliun  lios  in  a  depres- 
sion iii  tlic  petrous  portion  of  tlie  temporal  bone. 
From  tlu'  anterior  as]iect  of  the  yanj;lion  tliree 
branelies  ari'  jriven  oil — tlie  o))htlialniie,  tlie  su- 
perior maxillary,  and  the  inferior  maxillary.  The 
ophthalniie  divides  into  three  branches,  the 
laehrymal.  frontal,  and  nasal,  which  enter  the 
orbit  through  the  sphenoidal  fissure  and  supply 
the  eyeball,  lachrymal  gland,  mucous  membrane 
of  the  eye  and  nose,  and  the  skin  of  the  eyebrow, 


PLAN  OF  THE   FIFTH    CRANIAL   NERVK. 

forehead,  and  nose.  Connected  with  the  ophthalmic 
branch  is  a  small  ganglion  called  the  ophthalmic 
or  ciliarj'  ganglion.  The  superior  maxillary  is 
the  middle  of  the  branches  of  the  Gasserian 
ganglion.  It  crosses  the  sphenomaxillary  fossa, 
in  which  it  gives  off"  three  branches,  the  orbital, 
the  spheno-palatine.  and  the  posterior  dental. 
The  nerve  next  enters  the  infra-orbital  canal, 
where  it  gives  off  the  anterior  dental  branch. 
The  nerve  then  passes  to  the  face  through  the 
infra-orbital  foramen  and  terminates  in  palpebral, 
nasal,  and  labial  branches.  The  spheno-palatine 
or  ileekel's  ganglion  is  connected  with  this 
branch  of  the  fifth  nerve.  It  sends  off  four 
main  sets  of  branches:  ascending,  to  the  orbit; 
descending,  to  the  palate;  posterior,  to  the 
pharynx;  and  internal,  to  the  nose.  The  inferior 
maxillary  is  the  largest  branch  of  the  Gasserian 
ganglion  and  receives  the  entire  motor  portion 
of  the  nerve.  .Just  beneath  tlie  base  of  the  skull 
the  nerve  divides  into  two  branches,  an  anterior 
branch  and  a  posterior  branch.  The  anterior 
branch  contains  nearly  all  the  motor  fibres,  and. 
splitting  up  into  mas.seteric,  deep  temporal, 
buccal,    and    pterygoid    branches,    supplies    the 


nuisdes  of  ma--tication.  The  posterior  division 
is  mainly  sensory  and  is  distributed  as  three 
branches — the  auriculotemporal,  gustatory,  and 
inferior  dental.  Two  small  ganglia,  the  otic  or 
Arnold's,  and  the  submaxillary,  are  connected 
with  this  branch  of  the  tilth  nerve. 

The  sixth,  or  abduccns  nerve,  is  a  small  motor 
nerve  whose  libres  are  axones  of  a  group  of  cells 
situated  in  the  floor  of  the  fourth  ventricle.  The 
nerve  reaches  the  under  surface  of  the  medulla 
just  behind  the  pons  between  the  pyramid  and 
the  olive.  It  passes  through  the  sjihenoidal  fis- 
sure, enters  the  orbit,  and  is  distributed  entii-ely 
to  the  external  rectus  muscle. 

The  seventh,  or  facial  nerve,  is  a  motor  nerve. 
Its  nucleus  of  origin  consists  of  a  group  of  cells 
situated  deep  in  the  forniatio  reticularis  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  medvilla.  The  nerve  leaves  the 
surface  of  the  brain  just  behind  the  pons  between 
the  olive  and  the  re.stiform  body,  tiius  lying  to 
the  outer  side  of  the  sixth  nerve.  The  nerve 
passes  forward  and  enters  the  internal  auditory 
meatus  with  the  si.xtli  nerve.  At  the  bottom  of 
the  meatus  it  passes  into  the  Fallopian  aqueduct, 
by  means  of  which  it  traverses  the  petrous  por- 
tion of  the  tem])oral  bone,  finding  exit  through 
the  stjdomastoid  foramen.  It  tlien  enters  tlie 
parotid  gland,  and  just  behind  the  jaw  divides 
into  two  main  branches,  the  tempero-facial  and 
eervico-facial.  During  its  passage  through  the 
temporal  bone  it  is  connected  with  a  small  gray 
mass  known  as  the  geniculate  ganglion.  Its 
branches  of  distribution  are  as  follows:  Within 
the  Fallopian  ar|ueduct  a  tympanic  branch  to  the 
stapedius  muscle,  and  the  corda  tympani  to  the 
muscle  of  the  tongue  (lingualis)  ;  at  its  exit  from 
the  styloid  foramen,  the  posterior  auricular 
branch  to  the  retrahens  aurem  and  part  of  the 
occipito-frontalis.  the  stylo-hyoid  to  the  muscle 
of  that  name,  and  the  digastric  to  the  digastric; 
on  the  face,  the  tempero-facial.  dividing  into  tem- 
poral branches  and  malar  branches,  and  the  eer- 
vico-facial, distributed  to  the  muscles  of  the 
head  and  face. 

The  eighth,  or  auditory  nerve,  is  the  nerve  of 
the  special  sense  of  hearing  and  is  distributed  to 
the  internal  ear.  The  nerve  is  composed  of  two 
divisions,  the  cochlear  division  and  the  vestibular 
division.  The  fibres  of  the  cochlear  division  are 
axones  of  bipolar  cells  in  the  ganglion  of  Corti. 
The  peripheral  processes  of  these  cells  end  among 
the  epithelial  cells  of  Corti"s  organ  within  the 
cochlea.  Their  central  processes  enter  the  me- 
dulla at  the  junction  of  the  medulla  and 
pons  and  terminate  in  two  nuclei  known 
as  the  ventral  and  dorsal  nuclei  of  the 
cochlear  nerve.  By  means  of  neurones  whose  cell 
bodies  are  situated  in  these  nuclei,  auditory  im- 
pressions are  carried  to  higher  centres.  The 
neurones  of  the  vestibular  division  of  the  nerve 
have  tlicir  cell  bodies  located  in  Scarpa's  ganglion 
or  the  ganglion  vestibulare.  Tlie.se  cells  are 
bipolar  and  their  peripheral  processes  end  among- 
the  hair  cells  of  the  crista  and  mascula  acustica. 
Their  central  processes  enter  the  medulla  and 
pass  to  two  nuclei  of  termination  in  which  are 
cells  whose  axones  carry  the  impulses  to  higher 
centres.    See  also  E.\R. 

The  ninth,  or  glosso-pharyngeal  nerve,  leaves 
the  upper  part  of  the  medulla  in  the  groove  be- 
tween the  olive  and  the  restiform  body.  It  con- 
sists of  a  sensory  part  and  a  motor  part.     The 


NEKVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


388 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


nerve  cells  of  the  sensory  i)art  are  situatcii  in 
two  small  ganglia,  the  jugular  ganglion  and 
the  |)etrous  ganglion.  The  eentral  proees.ses  of 
these  cells  enter  the  medulla  and  terminate  in  a 
nucleus  in  the  lloor  of  the  fourth  ventricle,  which 
is  common  to  this  nerve  and  the  tenth.  The  cells 
whose  axones  make  up  the  motor  root  are  situ- 
ated in  a  nucleus  which  is  called  the  nucleus 
ambiguus  because  of  its  connection  witli  this  nerve 
and  the  tenth,  and  which  lies  dee])  in  the  fornia- 
tio  reticularis.  The  two  parts  of  the  nerve 
unite  and  leave  the  skull  through  the  jugular 
foramen.  Branches  of  this  nerve  are  distributed 
to  the  traipanum,  to  the  carotid,  to  the  muscular 
coat  and  mucous  membrane  of  the  pharynx,  to 
the  stylo-pharyngeus,  to  the  tonsil,  and  to  the 
tongue. 

The  tenth,  vagus,  or  pneumogastrie  nerve, 
leaves  the  medulla  just  behind  the  ninth.  It  is 
composed  of  two  portions,  a  sensory  and  a  motor, 
which  arc  connected  with  the  already  described 
nuclei  common  to  both  ninth  and  tenth  nerves. 
The  nerve  leaves  the  cranial  cavity  through  the 
jugular  foramen.  In  the  foramen  it  presents  a 
swelling  known  as  the  ganglion  jiigulare  or 
ganglion  of  the  root,  while  just  outside  the  fora- 
men is  a  second  ganglion,  the  inferior  ganglion 
or  ganglion  of  the  trunk.  It  is  in  these  two 
ganglia  that  the  cell  bodies  of  the  sensory  neu- 
rones of  the  nerve  are  situated.  After  its  exit 
from  the  foramen,  the  nerve  passes  vertically 
down  the  neclc  within  the  sheath  of  the  carotid 
vessels. 

The  eleventh  nerve,  or  spinal  accessory,  is 
compo.sed  of  two  parts,  a  spinal  part  and  a 
cerebral  part,  or  part  accessory  to  the  vagus. 
The  latter  is  the  smaller,  an<l  arises  from  a  group 
of  cells  situated  in  the  medulla  below  the  nucleus 
of  the  vagus.  It  leaves  the  medulla  as  three  or 
four  small  filaments  just  below  the  exit  of  the 
vagus.  It  passes  through  the  jugular  foramen 
in  a  sheath  common  to  it  and  the  vagus.  The 
spinal  portion  of  the  nerve  originates  in  a  long 
nucleus  situated  in  the  lateral  region  and  ex- 
tending from  the  middle  of  the  medulla  to  the 
fifth  or  sixth  cervical  nerve.  The  fibres  leave 
the  cord  in  the  mid-lateral  region  and  pa.ss 
through  the  jugular  foramen. 

The  twelfth,  or  hypoglossal  nerve,  serves  as 
the  motor  nerve  for  the  tongue.  Its  nucleus  is 
situated  in  the  middle  and  lower  part  of  the 
medulla,  in  the  floor  of  the  fourth  ventricle,  and 
ventral  and  lateral  to  the  central  canal.  Fibres 
from  this  nucleus  leave  the  medulla  in  bundles, 
from  ten  to  fifteen  in  number,  between  the  olive 
and  the  anterior  pyramids.  The  nerve  passes 
through  the  anterior  condyloid  foramen.  The 
branches  of  distribution  are  the  deseendens  noni, 
the  thyrohyoid  muscular  branches,  and  menin- 
geal branches. 

TirE  Sympathetic  Xervovs  System.  This  is 
C(unposed  of  (a)  two  series  of  ganglia  which  are 
connected  with  one  another  by  nerve  fibres  and 
extend  along  either  side  of  the  vertebral  column 
from  the  base  of  the  skull  to  the  coccyx;  (b) 
plexuses,  three  in  number,  which  lie  in  front  of 
the  spine  in  the  thoracic,  abdominal,  and  pelvic 
caTities;  fc)  smaller  ganglia  which  are  situated 
in  or  upon  various  viscera:  (d)  nerve  fibres 
which  serve  to  connect  the  ganglia  with  one  an- 
other, with  the  cercbro-spinal  system,  and  with 
the  periphery. 


The  series  of  ganglia  is  known  as  the  gangli- 
ated  cord  and  may  be  subdivided  into  three  cer- 
vical, twelve  dorsal,  four  lumbar,  and  five  sacral 
ganglia.  In  the  neck  these  ganglia  lie  upon  the 
transverse  processes  of  the  vertebra-,  in  the 
thora.x  upon  the  heads  of  the  ribs,  in  the  abdo- 
men and  pelvis,  upon  the  bodies  of  the  vertebroe 
and  upon  the  sacrum.  As  the  two  cords  pass 
into  the  pelvis  they  unite  in  a  ganglion  called  the 
ganglion  impar.  in  front  of  the  coccyx.  Superi- 
orly, the  qangliated  cord  is  continued  into  the 
sympathetic  plexus  on  the  carotid  artery,  this 
plexus  lieing  cimnected  by  filaments  with  the 
lower  cranial  nerves.     The  ganglia  are  connected 


■Pfuvyn^tfraiis. 


Card-brans. 

-I?eep  cardpUx. 
■Supf^card-pia. 


-SoIarpUx. 

-Aor.plex, 


■IfypoffpUx. 


Sac.  gang. 
Gang.Unpar 


THE   SYMPATHETIC   NEBTE. 

Caro.  plex.,  carotiil  plexus;  iSwp.  cerv.  gang.,  superior 
C(-'rvli'ul  KiiUM^Hon ;  Mid.  ccrv.  ganu.,  middle  cervical  praii- 
gli4.>n ;  liij.  cerv.  yang.,  liiferi<)r  cervical  panpliim  ;  Dor$, 
ganfi.,  dorsal  {^auKlia  :  Lu mb.  gana.^Xwmhav  Kuiigliii;  Sac. 
fffirtff.,  sncrftl  gaii^lin:  Gano-  if"l>ar.  ffanplion  impur; 
Pharifn.  brans.,  phar.viifrcRl  braucliea;  Card,  brant., 
cariliac  branches;  Deep  card,  iilrr..  deep  cardiac  plexus; 
Sup/,  card,  pies.,  superficial  cordiac  plexus:  Solar  plex., 
solar  jjIcxus:  Aor.  plex.,  aortic  plexus;  Hypog.  plex., 
hypognstric  plexus. 

with  one  another  by  bundles  composed  of  inter- 
mingled gray  fibres  and  white  fibres,  the  white 
fibres  being  derived  from  the  sjiinal  nerves.  The 
branches  which  connect  the  sympathetic  ganglia 
with  the  cercbro-spinal  system  are  composed  of 
both  white  fibres  (modullated)  and  gray  fibres 
(noninedullated) .  The  former  arc  derived  from 
the  cerebrospinal  axis  and  pass  to  the  sympa- 
thetic, the  latter  originate  in  the  sympathetic 
system  and  end  in  the  ccrcbros|)inal. 

The  three  great  gangliatcd  plexuses  are  known 
respectively  as  the  cardiac,  the  solar  or  epigas- 
tric, and  the  hypogastric.  They  are  composed 
of  nerve  fibres  and  ganglia,  the  former  coming 
from  the  cerebrospinal  nerves  and  from  the 
gangliatcd  cord.  The  cardiac  plexus  consists  of 
a  superficial  portion  which  lies  in  the  concavity 
beneath  the  arch  of  the  aorta,  and  of  a  deep 
portion  situated  between  the  aorta  and  trachea. 


■^1 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  BRAIN. 


389 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


TKe  sciliir  plrxii^  is  thi-  ;,'ieat  jili'xus  of  the  ab- 
domen and  .suiiplics  all  the  abdoiiiiiial  viscera.  It 
is  sLiljiliviilcd  into  sevi'ial  smaller  ple.xuses,  the 
names  of  which  sulliciently  indicate  their  location 
and  distriliulion.  They  are  known  as  the  aortic 
plexus,  the  cadiac  ple.xus,  tlie  phrenic  (dia- 
phragmatic) plexus,  the  supra-renal  ple.xus,  the 
renal  plexus,  the  spermatic  plexus,  and  the 
superior  mesenteric  plexus.  The  hypogastric 
plexus  lies  on  the  front  of  the  sacrum  between 
the  two  common  iliac  arteries,  liclow  the  hypo- 
gastric plexus  is  continued  into  the  pelvic  plexus, 
which  is  situated  at  the  side  of  the  rectum  and 
bladder  in  the  male;  of  the  reetvnn,  vagina,  and 
bladder  in  the  female.  It  sends  branches  to  all 
the  pelvic  viscera  and  gives  rise  to  the  following 
subsidiary  plexuses,  the  inferior  hemorrhoidal, 
the  prostatic,  the  vesicle,  and  in  the  female  the 
uterine  and  vaginal. 

Smaller  ganglia  are  situated  in  certain  viscera, 
notably  in  the  heart,  stomach,  intestines,  and 
uterus.    They  are  mostly  microscopic  in  size. 

All  of  these  ganglia  serve  as  true  nerve  centres 
and  from  them  pass  otl'  branches  of  distribution 
to  the  involuntary  muscles  of  the  blood-vessels 
and  of  the  gastro-intestinal  canal,  to  the  thoracic 
and  abdominal  viscera,  to  the  secreting  cells  of 
the  various  glands,  etc. 

Functionally  the  sympathetic  system  is  quite 
distinct  from  the  cercbro-spinal  system.  It  has 
been  called  the  system  of  vegetative  e.xistence  be- 
cause of  its  presiding  over  the  processes  of  nutri- 
tion and  growth,  ihe  so-called  vegetative  func- 
tions, in  contra-distinction  to  the  cerebrospinal 
system,  which  presides  over  such  distinctly  ani- 
mal faculties  as  sensation,  motion,  and  intellect. 
The  sympathetic  system  controls  the  so-called 
automatic  mechanisms  of  the  body,  the  rhythmi- 
cal beating  of  the  heart,  contraction  and  dilata- 
tion of  the  arteries,  the  peristaltic  action  of  the 
gastro-intestinal  tract,  the  contraction  of  smooth 
muscle  in  general  wherever  found,  the  control  of 
secretion  of  various  glands,  etc.  It  has  also 
been  customary  to  ascribe  to  the  sympathetic  a 
certain  'trophic' function  by  which  was  meant  the 
determination  of  the  nutrition  of  the  various 
tissues  and  organs.  It  seems  more  proper  to 
ascribe  this  nutritional  control  to  its  vaso-motor 
function,  by  means  of  which  it  determines  the 
blood  supply  to  the  various  parts.  The  sympa- 
thetic nerves  contain  both  alVerent  and  efferent 
fibres,  so  that  impulses  are  transmitted  both  to 
and  from  the  ganglionic  centres.  It  is  doubtful 
how  many  of  the  afferent  impulses  are  sensory, 
while  certainly  many  of  the  efferent  impulses  are 
not  motor.  The  close  anatomical  relation  which 
exists  between  the  cercbro-spinal  and  the  sympa- 
thetic system  has  been  mentioned,  and  while  the 
latter  seems  to  be  to  a  certain  extent  independent 
in  its  action,  it  is  not  infrequently  brought  under 
the  control  of  the  former  even  in  our  conscious 
activities.  Thus  in  the  case  of  blushing,  an  im- 
pulse reaching  the  cercbro-spinal  centres  through 
the  eye.  car,  or  other  sense  organs  caviscs  such  a 
reaction  on  the  part  of  the  sympathetic  as  to 
bring  about  a  dilatation  of  the  capillaries  of  the 
face.  Again,  in  the  case  of  the  heart,  quick  beat- 
ing and  palpitation  are  frequently  caused  by  the 
reaction  of  the  sympathetic  to  impulses  which 
have  passed  in  through  ihe  cerebro-spinal  nerves. 

BiBLlORRAPllY.  Vntemirhiiiiffni  iihcr  fjchini 
vnd  Riickcnmark  des  Mensclicn  tind  tier  Siiu- 
gethiere;  Gerlach,  The  Spinal  Cord — Mnnuiil  of 


Bislology.  Iiy  ^^.  .Strieker  I  F.ng.  trans..  New 
York,  1.S72)  ;  Golgi.  "  Sulla  struttura  della  .sos- 
tanza  grigia  del  cervello,"  in  Gazzetta  Mcdica 
Italiuna-Loinbdida,  vol.  vi.  (1S73):  Golgi,  HuUa 
fiiia  analoiiiiu  dci/li  ortjuni  ceiitrali  del  sislciiia 
nervosa   {Reggio-Kmilia.  l.S^i2). 

For  review  of  the  liner  structure  of  the  neurone, 
consult  The  Nervous  Nyslem  and  Its  l!ons1Huent 
yeurones, by  Lewellys  F.  Barker  ( Xew  York,  1  SO'J ) . 
For  gross  anatomy  of  nervous  system,  consult: 
Gray's  Anatomy,  14th  edition;  Quain's  Anatomy, 
vol.  iii.,  parts  1  and  2;  Gardinier,  The  Anatomy 
of  the  Central  Xerrous  t<ysleni.  For  histology  of 
the  nervous  system,  consult:  .Stolir,  Text-boul;  of 
/jf ts?o/o3y  (Philadelphia,  1901);  Piersol,  Xornial 
Hisloloyy :  Schiifer,  .4  Course  of  Practical  His- 
toloyy  and  Essentials  of  Histology. 

NERVOUS  SYSTEM,  Evolution  of  the. 
The  nervous  system  com|)rises  those  tissues  that 
have  the  property  of  irritability  or  of  sensitive- 
ness to  external  inllucnces,  and  whose  function  it 
is  to  mediate  between  the  outer  world  and  the 
inner,  and  to  convey  to  the  nuiscles  and  other 
organs  motor  impulses  so  as  to  bring  about  move- 
ments harmonious  and  advantageous  to  the  or- 
ganism. In  the  nervous  system  also  are  centred 
those  phenomena  which  we  designate  as  thought, 
reason,  will,  etc.  The  origin  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem is  apparently  independent  of  that  of  the 
muscular  system,  but  the  development  of  nerv- 
ous tissue  accompanies  that  of  the  contractile 
organs.  In  the  most  primitive  organisms,  such 
as  the  amoeba,  the  whole  protoplasm  of  the  ani- 
mal body  is  .sensitive  to  external  inlluences;  there 
is  a  diffuse  irritability.  Thus  the  whole  body 
of  the  amoeba  moves  away  from  strong  light. 
Moreover,  it  has  the  ability  to  move  with  refer- 
ence to  objects  that  stimulate  it  in  some  physical 
or  chemical  way. 

Lower  Ixvertebk.\te.s.  In  the  Metazoa  the 
nervous  system  develo])s  in  the  ectoderm  or  outer 
layer  of  the  body  wall,  which  is  the  region  that 
comes  in  contact  with  the  outside  world  and 
hence  is  the  one  in  which  we  should  expect  sensi- 
tiveness to  become  first  developed  and  localized. 
Some  of  the  coelenterates  have  in  the  ectoderm 
superficial  sensory  cells  with  which  the  nerve 
cells  are  in  contact.  Fibres  from  the  nerve  cells 
connect  in  turn  with  the  fibrillar  jiart  of  the 
muscle  cells.  In  the  llatworms  the  nervous  sys- 
tem is  almost  com])letely  separated  from  the 
epithelium  and  lies  in  or  clos(>  under  the  dermal 
musculature,  and  a  "brain'  is  best  developed  in 
some  of  the  Polycladida  and  some  trematodes. 
The  nervous  system  of  echinoderms  has  a  devel- 
opment unknown  in  other  animals.  It  is  com- 
posed of  three  independent  systems:  (I)  the  su- 
perficial oral;  (2)  the  apical  oral;  (.3)  the 
deeper  oral.  The  superficial  oral  consists  of  a 
ring  around  the  oesophagus,  and  of  radial  nerves 
which  branch  out  from  this  ring  to  the  arms  and 
radii.  This  .system  innervates  the  intestine,  am- 
bulacral  feet,  and  integument.  The  nervous  sys 
tern  of  ilollusca  is  of  a  complex  type  of  its  own, 
but  shows  some  affinities  to  that  of  annelids  and 
arthro))ods.  In  its  simplest  form  (chitons)  it 
consists  of  a  cerebral  part,  from  which  four  pairs 
of  commissures  are  sent  off.  Passing  ventrally 
from  it  there  is  a  ring  with  ganglia,  and  passing 
backward  two  pairs  of  conunissures.  one  called 
'pedal"  and  the  other  'pallial.'  All  of  these  con- 
tain ganglion  cells  along  their  whole  length,  and 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


390 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


seiul  oil'  various  brauchcs  aiul  luiinnissures.  The 
pallial  commissures  are  uniti'il  posteriorly.  In 
the  Puk'cypoda  the  nervous  system  is  somewhat 
more  comple.x,  but  it  is  always  symmetrical,  and 
consists  of  two  ganglia,  the  cerebro-pleural,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  gullet,  and  united  above  by  a 
commissure.  Each  ganglion  gives  off  a  nerve 
cord,  which  passes  downward  and  backward  to 
the  bilobed  pedal  ganglion  of  the  foot.  Directly 
backward  from  the  cerebral  ganglia  also  proceed 
two  other  cords  to  the  bilobed.  fused,  visceral 
ganglion,  situated  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  pos- 
terior adductor  muscle:  this  ganglion  sends  out 
branches  to  the  palps  and  mantle.  The  pedal 
ganglion  innervates  the  foot,  the  viscera,  the 
enteric  canal,  the  heart,  the  gills,  and  a  part  of 
the  mantle.  The  nervous  system  of  gastropods 
varies  in  the  different  groups  both  in  regard  to 
the  arrangement  of  the  ganglia  and  the  commis- 
sures. There  is  usually  a  pair  of  ganglia  near 
together  or  some  distance  apart,  which  lie  above 
the  gullet,  and  give  off  the  visceral  nerve  cords 
behind.  The  visceral  cords  pass  eventually  into 
a  pair  of  ganglia,  but  only  after  they  have 
passed  through  the  pKniral  ganglia.  Pedal  and 
buccal  ganglia  with  their  commissures  also  exist. 

The  nervous  system  of  annelids  is  well  devel- 
oped and  has  a  bilateral  ami  metameric  arrange- 
ment. It  consists  of  the  bilobed  cerebral  ganglion 
or  brain  and  of  a  double  ventral  chain  of  ganglia 
and  commissures.  The  brain  lies  in  the  prosto- 
mium  or  a  little  farther  back,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  earthworm.  Branches  are  given  off  from  it 
to  the  eyes,  tentacles,  and  sensory  epithelium. 
Two  lateral  commissures  from  it  pass  vent  rally 
around  the  alimentary  canal  and  unite  below  it 
into  the  double  ventral  nerve  chain.  One  ganglion 
occurs  in  this  nerve  chain  for  each  segment.  In 
some  forms  the  two  halves  of  the  chain  are  widely 
separated  and  are  united  by  transverse  commis- 
sures. The  arrangement  of  the  nervous  system 
of  arthropo<ls  is  essentially  like  that  of  annelids. 
There  is  a  supraiesophageal  ganglion  or  brain 
that  gives  olT  commissures  which  pass  downAvard 
and  backward  to  unite  with  the  first  ganglion  of 
the  ventral  nerve  chain.  Various  degrees  of  con- 
centration of  the  nervous  system  occur  through- 
out the  Crustacoa  and  the  insects.  The  higher 
Crustacea,  as  well  as  the  insects,  have  a  visceral 
nervous  system.  The  brain  of  insects  is  rela- 
tively large  and  is  lobed. 

VEUTKniiATKS.  The  nen-ous  system  of  the 
higher  vertebrates  consists  of  a  double  chain  of 
ganglia  lying  in  the  median  line  on  the  dorsal 
side  of  the  body,  which  consists  of  the  spinal 
cord  and  the  brain.  The  segmental  origin  of  the 
spinal  cord  is  shown  by  the  regular  repetition  of 
the  spinal  nerves  that  branch  out  from  it  in 
pairs,  one  on  each  side.  The  visceral  or  sympa- 
thetic system  of  vertebrates  consists  of  a  series 
of  ganglia  on  each  side  of  the  vertebral  column. 
Fibres  connect  this  system  with  the  spinal  nnd 
cranial  nerves.  Xerves  from  the  neural  axis 
pass  to  all  the  various  sense  organs,  muscles,  and 
glands.  The  spinal  cord  is  made  np  of  two  kinds 
of  nervous  matter,  a  superficial  white  layer  and 
an  internal  H-slmped  rod  of  gray  matter.  The 
cord  merges  gradually  into  the  brain,  wliich 
has  a  bilateral  form  an<i  consists,  in  its  sim- 
ph'st  form,  of  thrif  |)arts,  the  f(nebrain,  mid- 
brain, and  hind-brain.  The  two  lobes  of  the 
cerebrum  comprise  the  most  anterior  part  of  the 
brain.    The  mid-brain  connects  the  fore  and  liiml 


brain.  The  hind-brain  inchules  the  bilobed  cere- 
bellum on  its  dorsal  side  and  the  pons  Varolii  and 
medulla  oblongata  on  the  ventral  side.  The  brain 
is  made  up  ot  two  kinds  of  nervous  matter,  the 
white  and  the  gray.  Its  surface  is  nuich  con- 
voluted, so  as  to  give  a  greater  surface  for  the 
gray  matter  which  forms  the  outer  coating.  The 
cranial  nerves  arise  from  the  lower  surface  of 
the  brain. 

The  brain  of  the  Acrania  (Amphioxus)  is  the 
enlarged  anterior  end  of  the  neural  axis  and  in  it 
the  central  canal  enlarges  to  form  the  ventricle. 
The  ventricle  opens  dorsally  to  the  exterior  of 
the  brain.  Anterior  to  the  opening  there  is  a 
pocket  known  as  the  olfactory  lobe.  The  brains 
of  cyclostomes  and  teleosts  re])resent  a  low  stage 
of  development  in  that  they  possess  an  unpaired 
prosencephalon  whose  dorsal  wall,  the  corti 
cerebri,  consists  of  a  single  layer  of  cells  covered 
by  the  pia  mater.  In  the  larva  of  cyclostomes 
(Annnocetes)  the  metencephalon  is  the  largest 
part  of  the  brain.  Selachians  ])ossess  a  more 
complicated  brain.  They  lead  an  active,  ]ireda- 
tory  life,  and  correspondingly  the  prosencephalon 
is  relatively  large  and  shows  a  slight  furrow  or 
division  into  two  lateral  parts  or  lobes.  A  prom- 
inent pair  of  bulbi  olfa<'torii  pass  from  in  front 
to  the  nose.  The  thalamencephalon  gives  rise 
to  two  small  optic  thalami  and  there  are  other 
modifications  in  the  rest  of  the  brain  which 
render  it  a  more  complex  organ.  There  is  a 
bundle  of  fil)res  from  each  side  of  (he  prosen- 
cephalon that  probably  corresponds  to  the  cms 
cerebri  of  manunals.  The  brains  of  ganoids  and 
dipnoans  resemble  those  of  amphibians  in  the 
absence  of  the  lobi  inferiores.  In  all  three  the 
cereliral  hemispheres  show  a  marked  develoiiment. 
The  cerebellum  exists  only  as  a  small  fold  nt 
the  anterior  end  of  the  medulla.  In  the  Anura 
the  optic  lobes  are  well  developed. 

In  Reptilia.  as  in  Amphibia,  the  cerebellum  is 
small.  A  well-developed  median  eye-like  struc- 
ture, the  pineal  eye,  is  present  on  the  root  of 
the  mid-brain.  The  prosencephalon  is  the  largest 
part  of  the  brain.  It  is  paired,  and  its  surface 
is  smooth.  There  is  a  large  olfactory  lobe  nnd 
a  well-developed  corpus  striatum.  The  avian 
brain  is  characterized  by  a  considerable  cranial 
flexure,  by  large  cerebral  lobes,  by  a  cerebellum. 
In  sagittal  section  the  latter  shows  the  arhor- 
vitae  structure  so  evident  in  the  brain  of  man. 
Externally  the  brain  is  folded  transversely  or 
convoluted.  The  manunalian  brain  exhibits  in 
the  did'ercnt  grou]is  a  steady  growth  in  complex- 
ity from  the  reptilian  to  the  human  condition. 
The  cranial  flexure  is  most  pronounced  in  the 
mammalian  brain. 

That  the  degree  of  development  of  the  different 
organs  within  the  group  of  mammals  is  dependent 
upon  their  functional  aetivit.v  can  hardlv  be 
doubted.  Thus,  the  'pyramids'  are  the  motor 
nerves  coming  from  the  coilrdinnting  centres  of 
movement.  These  are  relatively  small  in  the 
dolphins,  which  possess  no  hinder  extremities. 
The  frontal  lolie  of  the  cerebrum,  upon  which 
probably  many  of  the  higher  functions,  s\ich  ns 
spce<h,  depend,  are  best  developed  in  man:  so, 
too.  the  olfactory  lohes  are  reduced  in  man  in 
correspondence  with  the  nnlimentarv  condition 
of  their  function  in  man.  While  the  midbrain  is 
more  or  less  exposed  in  some  of  the  lower  mam- 
mals (e.g.  marsupials,  rodents,  and  insectivores), 
the    hemispheres    come   gradually   to   cover   the 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


301 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


i 


entire  liraiii.  Xlie  maiiimaliun  brain  is  char- 
atterizcd  by  tbc  presence  of  large  cummissures, 
the  eurjius  ealiosum  and  fornix,  which  connect 
the  lienuspheres.  Xlie  jjons  Varolii  is  another 
large  commissure  and  connects  the  two  lateral 
lobes  of  the  cerebellum,  and  a  number  of  other 
bands  serve  as  connectives.  In  mammals  the 
mid-brain  is  relatively  smaller  than  in  other 
vertel)rates.  The  brain  of  Tertiary  manunals  was 
relatively  small.  The  reduction  was  especially 
evident  in  the  hemispheres.  Jn  many  points  of 
structure  their  brain,  too,  was  reptilian  in  char- 
acter, although  the  possessors  were  related  to 
groups  as  high  as  ungulates. 

Three  main  and  well-defined  types  of  nervous 
system  may  be  determined  in  the  animal  king- 
dom. There  is  first  the  radial  type,  such  as  has 
been  described  for  the  starfish.  This  consists 
of  a  ring  of  nervous  tissue  in  the  disk  which 
surroiuuls  the  oesophagus  and  sends  out  a  branch 
to  each  arm.  This  is  the  echinoderm  type.  An- 
other type  is  the  symmetrical,  bilateral  type  of 
annelids  and  arthropods,  to  which  tlie  nervous 
system  of  moUusks  may  also  be  relegated.  This 
type  consists  of  a  brain  ganglion  above  the  esoph- 
agus, with  commissures  that  pass  around  and 
below  the  digestive  tract,  where  they  unite  ven- 
trally  with  a  chain  of  ganglia  extending  posteri- 
orly. The  pedal  ganglion  of  mollusks  repre- 
sents the  subcesophageal  ganglion.  The  rest  of 
the  ventral  chain  is  absent  in  unsegmented  mol- 
lusks. The  third  type  of  nervous  system  is  the 
bilateral  type  of  vertebrates.  Here  the  double 
nerve  cord,  segmental  in  origin,  as  is  shown  by 
the  repetition  of  paired  spinal  nerves,  lies  on 
the  dorsal  side  of  the  alimentary  tract.  Except 
in  Amphioxus  the  vertebrate  nerve  cord  widens 
anteriorly  into  a  large  and  complex  ganglion 
mass,  the  brain.  The  sympathetic  system,  which 
appears  first  in  leeches  and  arthropods,  is  an 
almost  independent  nervous  system,  for  while  it 
is  in  direct  union  with  the  other  nervous  system, 
it  is  not  at  all  under  its  control. 

Sense  Orciaxs.  As  soon  as  sense  organs  ap- 
pear the  nervous  elements  of  animals  consist 
of  three  parts:  (1)  the  so-called  terminal,  end, 
or  sense  organ;  (2)  the  ganglia;  and  (.3)  the 
nerves.  End  organs  appear  first  clearly  defined 
in  the  Coelenterata,  although  the  pigment  spots 
of  Euglena  are  in  a  particularly  sensitive  region 
in  that  infusorian.  The  sense  organs  of  the  Coe- 
lenterates  are  most  developed  in  the  medusa>  and 
consist  of  the  tentaculocysts  with  calcareous  lith- 
ites.  pigiuent  spots  or  ocelli,  and  sensory  pits 
known  as  olfactory  pits.  Pigment  cells  or  'eye 
spots'  are  found  in  many  of  the  flatworms,  some 
of  the  polyclads  possessing  several  hundred. 
These  eyes,  in  many  forms,  are  grouped  in  pairs 
at  the  anterior  end  of  the  body  or  are  scattered 
along  the  anterior  margin,  or  even  along  the 
entire  margin  of  the  body.  In  many  forms  the 
eyes  are  simple  i)igment  spots.  In  others  a  re- 
fractive body  occurs.  In  triclads  and  polyclads 
the  eye  consists  of  a  pigmented  apparatus  with 
retinal  or  light-perceiving  cells  within  a  cup- 
shaped  organ.  These  cells  connect  with  the 
optic  nerve.  Auditory  organs  also  occur  in  the 
flatworms.  each  consisting  of  a  fluid-filled  sphere 
lying  close  to  the  brain  in  which  is  an  otolith. 
The  skin  is  everywhere  very  sensitive,  due  to 
tactile  hairs,  especially  on  the  tentacles.  The 
proboscis  of  certain  forms  contains  an  invagina- 
tion which  is  capable  of  extrusion,  and  is  be- 


lieved to  be  a  touching  organ.  The  suckers  of 
Irematodes,  too,  are  especially  sensitive.  There 
are  ciliated  pits  in  the  epithelium  of  triclads 
and  other  forms  to  which  an  olfactory  function 
luis  been  ascribed. 

Sense  organs  occur  over  the  whole  integument 
of  mollusks.  These  cells,  when  in  exposed  posi- 
tions, may  have  a  tactile  function.  The  pallial 
sensory  organs  and  the  ospharadium,  which 
occur  near  the  gills,  are  probably  olfactory 
organs  to  test  the  condition  of  the  water.  The 
optic  tentacles  of  pulmonates  and  the  dorsal  ten- 
tacles of  opisthobranchs  are  stated  by  some  au- 
thorities to  be  olfactorj-  organs.  Ciliated  ridges 
in  the  mantle  furrows  of  certain  chitons  are 
supposed  to  have  an  olfactory  function.  Auditory 
organs  are  absent  in  the  Amphineura  alone 
among  mollusks.  The  auditory  organ  consists 
of  a  closed,  fluid-filled  vesicle,  or  'otocyst,'  in 
which  a  varying  uiunber  of  otoliths  are  inclosed. 
Sensory  cells  occur  on  the  wall  of  the  otoc^-st, 
which  bear  sensory  hairs.  The  otocysts  of 
cephalopods  have  been  shown  to  have  a  statjcal 
function  also.  The  simplest  visual  organs  of 
mollusks  are  optic  pits.  The  retina  lies  at  the 
base  of  the  pit,  and  along  this  base  the  optic 
nerve  spreads  out.  The  retina  consists  of  cells 
with  and  without  pigment.  External  to  the 
retina  is  a  gelatinous  cuticle  or  even  a  lens.  By 
the  approach  and  fusion  of  the  edges  of  the  pit 
the  vesicular  eye  is  formed.  That  part  of  the 
epithelium  which  is  free  from  pigment  consti- 
tutes the  cornea.  This  type  of  eye  occurs  on  the 
tentacles  of  gastropods.  By  a  further  develop- 
ment the  simple  cup-like  eye  is  differentiated  into 
the  complex,  highly  developed  organ  of  cephalo- 
pods. The  mantle  eyes  of  the  scallop  resemble 
vertebrate  eyes  in  that  the  visual  rods  are 
turned  awaj'  from  the  light,  that  is  to  say,  they 
are  directed  toward  the  body. 

The  sense  organs  of  echinoderms  comprise  the 
auditory  organs  and  eyes.  The  auditory  organs 
are  of  two  types.  The  first  type  is  represented  in 
holothurians,  and  consists  of  an  otocyst  which 
is  lined  with  ciliated  epithelium,  container  and 
otolith,  and  filled  with  fiuid.  In  echinoids  is 
found  the  second  type  of  auditory  or  orienting 
organs,  which  are  believed  to  be  transformed 
spines.  Organs  of  this  type  are  known  as 
'sphirridia,'  and  are  developed  only  on  the  oral 
side ;  they  are  spherical. stalked  bodies  and  may  be 
inclosed  in  a  pit  of  the  test.  The  organs  of 
special  sense  in  the  annelids  are  the  eyes,  ten- 
tacles, cirri,  and  otocysts.  The  structure  of  the 
eye,  when  that  organ  is  present,  is  very  simple. 
The  eyes  are  confined  to  the  prostomium,  but 
there  are  eye-like  organs  on  many  or  all  the 
body  segments  or  on  the  branchial  filaments  of 
many  species.  Eyes  are  lacking  in  nearly  all 
Oligochipta  and  some  of  the  Polycha-ta.  The  eye 
is  usually  a  capsule  with  a  layer  of  elongated 
cells  on  the  side  toward  the  brain.  A  thickening 
of  the  cuticle  may  form  a  lens.  Otocysts  with 
otoliths  are  not  common.  Tactile  cells  occur 
generally  all  over  the  bod.v  and  especially  on 
the  prostomium. 

The  organs  of  special  sense  in  arthropods  are 
eyes,  olfactory  seL-e,  auditory  organs,  and  organs 
of  touch.  The  eyes  are  of  two  sorts,  median 
eyes  and  a  pair  of  faceted,  compound  eyes.  The 
median  or  'nauplius'  eyes  sometimes  occur  in  the 
larvne  only,  and  arc  composed  of  a  cuticular  lens 
and  a  group  of  specially  modified  epidermal  cells. 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


392 


XTESSELBODE. 


Tlic  paired,  coiiipouml  eyes  are  covered  liy  a 
transparent  eutieula.  A  single  visual  element  of 
the  compound  eye  is  called  an  onimatidium. 
Kacli  clement  is  composed  of  two  parts,  an  outer 
vitreous  and  an  inner  sensory  group  of  cells. 
The  latter  is  known  as  the  rhalKlonie  and  is 
made  up  of  the  retinule  and  a  refracting  rod.  Kach 
onimatidium  is  in  a  state  of  optical  isolati(jn. 
Fibres  pass  from  the  optic  j;aii<;lia  to  tlie  retinule. 
The  organs  of  touch  are  hristled  cells  on  the 
appendages,  especially  on  the  antennic,  the  palpi, 
and  on  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  olfact(uy 
organs  of  the  crayfish  consist  of  a  number  of 
delicate  seta-  borne  on  the  antennules.  The  audi- 
tory organ  is  a  pit  ujKjn  the  exterior  and  lined 
with  auditory  setic.  Grains  of  sand  in  the  case 
of  Crustacea  often  serve  the  function  of  otoliths. 
These  must  be  renewed  after  each  molt. 

.Amphioxus  possesses  an  olfactory  pit.  It  is  a 
ciliated  depre-sion  at  the  level  of  the  anterior 
end  of  the  brain.  It  is  connected  with  the  olfac- 
tory lobe  of  the  brain.  This  pit  may  correspond 
with  the  'pituitary  body'  of  Urochorda  and 
C'raniata.  The  organ  of  sight  is  merely  a  pig- 
ment spot.  It  is  median  and  without  a  lens. 
Cells  supposed  to  have  a  sensory  function  occur 
on  the  roof  of  the  oral  hood  and  tactile  cells  occur 
on  the  buccal  cirri. 

The  organs  of  special  sense  of  vertebrates  com- 
prise various  kinds  of  tactile  organs,  of  which 
may  he  mentioned  the  lateral-line  organs,  which 
in  structure  resemble  the  organs  of  eh*topods. 
The  lateral-line  organs  occur  in  amphibians  and 
fishes,  and  are  supposed  to  perceive  vibrations 
in  the  water  and  also  to  have  an  auditcuy  func- 
tion. End-bulb  organs  likewise  occur  here  and 
there  over  the  entire  surface  of  fishes.  From 
amphibians  upward  they  are  restricted  to  the 
mouth.  Specialized  tactile  cells,  such  as  the 
Pacinian  corpuscles  of  the  duck's  beak,  occur 
in  difl'crent  vertebrates. 

The  olfactory  organ  is  in  fishes  a  pair  of 
sensory  pits  near  the  anterior  end  of  the  snout. 
From  the  Dipnoi  onward  these  pits  communicate 
with  the  mouth  cavity  as  well  as  with  the  ex- 
terior. From  the  Dipnoi  onwanl  also  these 
organs  are  more  or  less  inclosed  either  in  a 
cartilaginous  capsule  or  they  are  included  in  the 
cranium.  The  internal  nostrils  with  their  glamls 
are  developed  in  Dijinoi  and  .\mphibia.  The 
nasal  cavity  of  Lacertilia  is  divided  into  an 
outer  and  an  inner  jiart.  From  the  crocodiles 
onwanl  the  nasal  organs  recede  in  correspondence 
with  the  forward  extension  of  the  facial  region. 
Hoth  in  repliles  an<l  birds  there  is  only  one  true 
turbinal  Ikjuc  in  the  nasal  canal.  Heeause  of  the 
extreme  facial  devel(i]iment  of  the  skull  of  mam- 
mals, tile  nasal  cavity  is  prttportionatcly  larger. 
The  turbinals  co!i-.|.i|Ucntly  greatly  develop  here. 
The  nasal  cavity  "I  mamnutls  connnimicates  with 
certain  sinuses  of  the  face. 

The  .sensitive  elements  of  the  vertebrate  eye 
develop  from  outgrowths,  primary  optic  vesicles, 
of  the  brain.  The  pigment  epitlu-lium  develops 
from  an  inpocketing  of  this  vesicle.  The  lens 
develops  from  thickened  epidernnil  cells.  In 
cydostomes  the  lens  and  iris  arc  absent  and  the 
sclerotic  and  cornea  arc  undifrcrentiated.  A 
plolinlar  lens  is  |)rescnt  in  the  eyes  of  true  fishes. 
.Amiihibian  eves  are  simpler  than  those  of  fishes, 
but  a  ciliary  muscle  is  present.  The  sclerotic  is 
cartilaginous  with  bony  plates  oven  in  lizards 
and   birds.     The  eye-ball   of   nocturnal    birds   is 


elongated  and  tubular.  The  iris  of  birds  may 
be  highly  colored  owing  to  the  presence  both  of 
pigment  and  of  fat  globules.  The  e\e  of  mam- 
mals is  more  or  less  inclosed  in  the  bony  orbit, 
the  sclerotic  is  fibrous,  and  the  fibres  of  the 
optic  nerve  pass  into  the  retinal  cells.  The 
retina  is  histologically  a  complicated  structure 
and  consists  of  seven  layers;  the  light  must  pass 
through  all  the  layers  in  order  to  reach  the 
innermost  rod  and  cone  layer.  The  region  of 
acutest  vision  is  the  fovea  centralis,  where  only 
the  cones  persist. 

As  to  aiulitory  organs,  it  is  the  sacculus  and 
cochlea  in  the  vertebrate  ear  that  attain  a  higher 
and  higher  degree  of  develo|)ment.  In  fishes  the 
cochlea  is  a  knob-like  appendage  of  tlie  sacculus. 
In  amiihibiaus  it  is  constricted  off  from  the  sac- 
culus and  only  remains  connected  by  a  strand  of 
cells.  In  mammals  the  cochlea  becomes  spirally 
coiled.  There  are  three  coils  in  man.  A  chain 
of  three  auditory  ossicles  ajipear  in  the  higher 
vertebrates. 

LiTEH.\TUEE:  Wiedersheim,  Comparative  Anat- 
omy  of  Vertebrates  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1897)  ; 
Kingsley,  Text-bvolc  of  Vcrtctirate  Zoiiluriy  (New 
York,  1S99)  ;  Lang,  Text-book  of  Comjiuratirc 
Aiiiitom!/  (London.  lSI)I-!)(i|  :  Lang,  "L'cbcr  pri- 
miire  Jlctamerie  des  Xeuralrohres  ilcr.  Vertebra- 
ten,"  in  Sit.tiiiifisherirhte  (hr  kuitUttUh  huicrisch- 
<ii  Akdilrmie  der  Wissenschaftcn  (.Mimich,  1885). 

NES'BIT,  Edith.  An  English  poet.  See 
Bi..\.\i).  EuiTH  Xesbit. 

NESS,  Loch.  A  lake  in  the  County  of  Inver- 
ness, Scotland.  It  occupies,  together  with  Loch 
l.ocliy  and  Loch  Linnhc,  the  bottom  of  the  great 
fracture  which  in  an  almost  straight  line  severs 
the  northwestern  Highlands  from  the  rest  of 
Scotland,  and  which  is  known  as  Glen  More,  or 
Great  Glen  (.Map:  Scotland.  D  2).  Loch  Xesa 
is  2.3  miles  long,  from  one-half  to  one  and  one- 
half  miles  broad,  and  connected  by  rivers  and 
canals  with  the  Firth  of  l.cirnc  on  the  southwest 
and  Jloray  Firtb  on  tlie  northeast.  It  receives 
the  waters  of  several  small  rivers,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  high  and  steep  mountains  which  make 
tlie  scenery  very  |)icturcsi|ue.  Owing  to  its  im- 
mense depth  tile  Loeli  never  freezes. 

NESSELRODE,  nes'sd-ro'dc,  ICvrl  RonERT, 
('(iinit  (  17801S()2).  .-\  Russian  diplomat,  born 
at  Lisbon,  where  his  father  then  resided  as  Rus- 
sian .Ambassador.  The  young  man  devoted  him- 
.self  to  a  diplomatic  career,  won  the  confidence 
of  the  Emperor.  .-Mexander  I.,  and  was  in  the 
diplomatic  suite  of  the  latter  during  the  eventful 
year  of  181.3  and  the  negotiations  at  Paris  after 
the  first  defeat  of  Xapoleon.  lie  was  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  treaty  of  the  i|uailruple  alliance 
at  Chaiimont.  and  also  of  the  treaty  with  Mar- 
shal .Marinont  for  the  surrender  of  Paris.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  ]irominent  of  the  plenipo- 
tentiaries in  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  and  in  1816 
became  Minister  of  Foreign  .All'airs.  and  accom- 
panied the  Emperor  .\lexander  to  the  congresses 
of  Aix-la-Clinpelle.  Troppau.  Laibach,  and  Ve- 
rona, where  he  always  advocated  a  policy  of  mod- 
eration. Under  Nicholas  I.,  Ncsselrode  became 
Vice-chancellor  (1829)  and  Imperial  Chan- 
cellor (1844).  It  fell  to  him  to  direct  the 
Russian  policy  in  the  affairs  of  Greece  and 
Turkey,  Xesselrode  was  opposed  to  the  policy 
which  brousibt  on  the  war  of  18.")3-.')ri  and  retired 
from  the  Foreign  Office  after  signing  the  Treaty 


NESSELRODE. 


393 


NESTORIANS. 


of  Paris  in  ISOti,  tlujui;li  he  ictiiiiicd  the  ilignily 
of  Chiincellor  of  the  Empire  and  a  seat  in  the 
Ministerial  Couneil.  He  died  at  Saint  Peters- 
hurg,  ilarcli  2;i,  18U2.  His  autohidyraphy,  which 
is  nut  of  espeeial  value,  was  published  in  ISliU. 

NESSLER,  nes'ler.  Julius  (1S27— ).  A  Ger- 
man a;;ricuUural  elieniist,  horn  at  Kehl.  He 
established  at  Karlsruhe  the  important  experi- 
mental station  which  afterwards  passed  under 
Government  control.  Among  the  preparations 
known  by  his  nanjc  are  Nessler's  reagent  for  am- 
■monia,  a  mixture  of  iodide  potassium  and  iodide 
of  mercury  with  free  potash,  and  Xessler's  insect 
powder,  powdered  tobacco,  fusel  oil,  soap,  and 
sjjirits  of  Vine.  He  described  his  important 
studies  on  the  culture  of  the  vine  and  of  tobafco, 
and  on  the  tests  of  tlie  jjurity  of  wine,  in  Der 
Wcin,  seine  I}cs-,la»dleile  iind  seine  liehandlung 
(2d  ed.  186G)  ;  Drr  Tahnk.  seine  lieslnndteile 
und  seine  lielidndlun;!  (1807);  and  Die  Berei- 
tunff,  P/lege  und  Vnlersuchung  des  Weins  (7th 
ed.    1S'.)7). 

NESSLER,  VicTOi!  (1841-00).  A  German 
composer,  born  in  lialdcnheini,  Alsace.  He  re- 
ceived his  musical  education  in  Leipzig,  where 
he  was  a  student  of  theology,  during  wliich  period 
he  successfully  conducted  several  singing  socie- 
ties. The  success  of  his  opera  Fleurette  (18()4) 
determined  his  career;  and  after  further  study 
in  Leipzig,  he  devoted  himself  entirely  to  com- 
position. His  works  comprise  half  a  score  of 
operas  and  operettas  of  varying  merit,  the  most 
successful  of  which  is  the  universally  popular 
Der  Trompeter  von  Sdkkingen ;  also  choruses, 
song-cycles,  and  part-songs.  He  died  at  Strass- 
burg. 

NES'STIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  XfViros,  Xessos).  In 
Greek  mythology,  a  centaur  who  carried  travelers 
over  the  river  Evenus.  When  Hercules  came 
with  Deianira  to  the  river,  he  swam  across,  but 
allowed  the  centaur  to  carry  his  wife.  Nessus 
offered  violence  to  her  and  was  killed  by  Her- 
cules. In  revenge,  he  told  Deianira  that  his  blood 
would  prove  an  invincible  love  philter.  Later, 
becoming  jealous  of  lole.  she  dipped  a  robe  in 
the  blood  and  sent  it  to  her  husband,  who  was 
so  tortured  by  the  venom  from  the  arrows  pois- 
oned in  the  hydra's  blood,  that  he  sought  death 
on  the  funeral  pile.  Sophocles  deals  with  this 
myth  in  the  Traehiniee. 

NEST.  A  receptacle  for  eggs  or  young,  pro- 
vided by  many  sorts  of  animals.  The  nest 
reaches  its  greatest  elaboration  among  birds, 
where  in  some  cases,  as  that  of  the  cotton-bird, 
liangnests,  weaver-birds,  etc.,  it  becomes  a  fabric 
woven  with  astonishing  ingenuity.  The  nests 
of  certain  swifts  (see  8.\L.\XG.\NE)  are  further 
remarkable  for  edible  (|ualitics.  Xests  and  the 
habits,  instincts,  and  utilities  connected  with 
them  are  fully  discussed  under  Xidificatiox. 

NES'TOR  (Lat..  from  Gk.  N^o-rup).  In  the 
Homeric  epic,  the  type  of  the  wMse  yet  vigorous 
old  man.  He  was  said  to  be  a  son  of  Neleus  and 
Chloris,  and  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  War  had 
already  outlived  two  generations.  He  is  the 
persuasive  speaker,  drawing  on  his  .stores  of  wis- 
dom and  experience  for  the  guidance  of  the 
younger  leaders.  In  the  war  which  Hercules 
waged  against  Xeleus.  all  the  brothers  of  Nestor 
were  killed,  but  he  escaped  through  his  absence 
in  Geronia.  On  his  return  to  Pylos  he  punished 
the  neighboring  Epeians  of  Ells  for  their  raids. 


He  even  took  part  in  the  war  between  the 
Lapitha;  and  Centaurs,  but  it  is  only  in  later 
writers  that  he  appears  as  a  participant  in  the 
Calydonian  Hunt  and  the  Argonaulie  expedition. 
His  part  in  the  Iliad  is  prominent,  since  the 
Ionian  princes  of  Asia  Minor  regarded  themselves 
as  his  descendants.  He  appears  in  the  Odyssey  as 
safely  returned  from  Troy  to  Pylos,  where  he 
hospitably  receives  the  young  Telemachus.  Of 
his  death  there  was  no  tradition,  but  Pausanias 
mentions  his  grave  at  Pylos. 

NESTOR  (10.10-1114).  The  first  Russian 
chronicler.  In  108.'?  he  entered  the  convent  at 
Kiev,  where  he  died  after  a  life  of  asceticism  and 
holiness.  The  original  of  his  chronicle  has  not 
come  down  to  us,  nor  is  there  any  faithful  copy 
of  it  extant.  One  can  only  gather  what  it  was 
from  the  numero\is  later  chronicles,  all  based  on 
one  archetype  directly  ascribed  to  Nestor  in 
one  codex.  Like  the  mediaeval  chronicles  of 
•Toannes  IMalalas  and  Georgios  Hamartolos,  on 
which  it  drew  for  nnich  information  in  general 
history,  Nest(n-'s  story  begins  with  the  distribu- 
tion of  mankind  after  the  flood  and  then  leads  up 
to  the  .Slavs — a  branch  of  the  Japhetic  race — 
and  their  svibdivisions.  A  note  after  the  year 
1110  shows  that  the  subsequent  narrative  belongs 
to  another  person.  Nestor  made  xise  of  all  jjos- 
sible  sources  of  information,  incorporating 
treaties  with  Greek  emperors,  didactic  works 
written  by  princes  for  their  children's  instruction, 
lives  of  saints,  church  annals,  popular  legends 
and  traditions,  personal  reminiscences  of  old  peo- 
ple, and  finally  his  own  recollections.  The  rapid 
growth  of  Kiev  inspired  the  avithor  to  a  high 
pitch  of  patriotism,  the  narrative  often  attaining 
great  poetic  fervor  and  charm.  Besides  the 
chronicle,  Nestor  is  reputed  to  have  written  the 
Lives  of  Saint  Boris  and  Glyeh  and  the  Life  of 
Saint  Theodosius.  Consult:  Chroniqne  dite  de 
y  est  or,  trans,  by  L.  Leger  (Paris.  1884)  ;  Pogo- 
din,  Nestor,  trans,  into  German  by  F.  Lowe 
(Saint  Petersburg,  1844). 

NESTO'RIANS.  The  name  conunonly  given 
to  one  of  the  schismatic  churches  of  the  East, 
formely  large  and  nourishing,  but  now  small  in 
numbers  and  with  little  inlluence.  The  name  is 
derived  from  Nestorius  (q.v. ).  It  was  first  ap- 
plied to  them  by  a  theological  opponent,  Philox- 
enus,  Monophysite  Bishop  of  Hierapolis,  about 
the  year  a.d.  .500,  and  although  the  Nestorians 
themselves  never  adopted  the  title,  preferring  to 
be  known  as  Chaldican  or  Oriental  Christians,  it 
passed  into  common  use  and  has  remained  their 
usual  designation.  The  Nestorians  claim  an 
Apostolic  origin  for  their  Church,  aiqiealing  to 
an  ancient  tradition  according  to  which  the  Apos- 
tle Thadda'us  is  said  to  have  carried  the  Gospel 
to  King  Aligar  of  Edessa,  but  tliis  story  lacks  his- 
torical contirniation.  There  is  no  clear  evidence 
of  the  presence  of  Christianity  in  Persia  before 
about  200.  when  the  Bishop  of  Antioch  held  con- 
trol over  that  section  of  the  Church.  Under  the 
Neo-Persian  kingdom  of  the  Sassanid.T  (q.v.),  in 
the  third  century,  a  new  bishopric  was  estab- 
lished at  Seleucia-Ctesiphon,  on  tlie  Tigris,  which 
in  time  assumed  ecclesiastical  leadership.  But  it 
was  not  until  the  fifth  century tliat  the  Nestorians 
began  to  call  tlie  Bishop  of  Seleucia  their  'Catb- 
olic\is.'  or  national  patriarch,  and  still  longer 
before  his  primacy  was  acknowledged  by  the 
other  bishops. 


NESTOBIANS. 


394 


NESTOKIUS. 


Tlie  c-liief  causes  which  yave  rise  to  the  sep- 
arate existence  of  the  Xestorian  Church,  during 
tlie  lilth  century,  were  as  follows:  (Ij  the  re- 
organization of  tlie  Church  by  a  synod  of  forty 
bishops,  held  in  Ctesiphon  in  410,  after  a  severe 
persecution;  ("2)  the  condemnation  of  Xestorius, 
in  431;  (3)  the  expulsion  of  Nestorius's  sympa- 
thizers from  Kdessa  by  Bishop  Kabulas.  after 
the  Council  of  Ephesus;  (4)  tlie  rise  of  Xi.- ibis 
as  a  centre  of  Christian  learning  and  theological 
inllucnce.  from  435  onward;  and  (5)  the  final 
closing  of  the  school  at  Edessa  by  the  Emperor 
Zcno,  in  4S0,  on  account  of  its  persistent  Xes- 
torian  leanings.  All  these  things  operated  to 
centralize  Persian  Christianity,  and  to  separate 
it  from  organic  connection  with  the  See  of  Con- 
stantinople. The  X^estorian  leaders  succeeded  in 
winning  favor  with  tlie  Persian  kings  to  such 
an  extent  as  completely  to  control  the  ecclesias- 
tical situation.  They  had  been  aided  in  the 
earlier  stages  of  their  growth  by  the  prestige  of 
adherents  like  Aphraates.  in  the  fourth  century, 
and  Il)as.  Bishop  of  Edessa,  in  the  fifth:  hut  their 
most  important  leader,  in  the  formative  period, 
was  Barsumas,  one  of  those  whom  Rabulas  had 
driven  out  of  Edessa  in  431.  Barsumas  became 
Bishop  of  Xisibis,  and  for  more  than  half  a  cen- 
tury (43.'>-48fl)  iie  guided  the  fortunes  of  the 
Persian  Church,  wisely  administering  his  See, 
winning  royal  favor,  and  cstalilishing  schools  of 
learning  (e.g.  at  Seleucia )  to  perpetuate  the 
movement  to  which  he  had  devoted  his  life. 

During  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  the 
X'estorians  greatly  extended  their  numbers  and 
inllucnce,  reaching  out  by  means  of  missions  into 
Arabia,  Armenia.  India.  Tartary.  Ceylon,  and 
China.  An  ancient  monument,  erected  in  7S1  at 
Si-ngan-fu  and  discovered  by  Jesuit  missionaries 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  bears  testimony  to  the 
existence  of  Xcstorian  Christianity  in  China 
from  the  year  (i3n.  when  the  mission  appears  to 
liave  been  started.  In  042.  as  a  conse()ueiice  of 
the  Arab  conquest  of  the  Sassani<I  kingdom,  the 
X^estorians  passeii  under  Mohammedan  rule.  But 
the  caliphs  granted  them  a  considerable  degree 
of  religious  toleration,  and  their  Catholicus  was 
treated  as  if  he  were  patriarch  of  all  the  Asiatic 
Christians  under  Moslem  rule.  He  took  up  liis 
residence  in  Bagdad  (in  7G2)  and  there  remained 
as  long  as  the  caliphate  endured.  In  Aral)i:i 
also  the  Xestorians  met  with  favor  in  the  eyes 
of  thi'ir  Mobamniedan  neighbors.  This  friendly 
treatment  was  possibly  <lue  in  part  to  the  ex- 
ample of  Mohammed  liimself.  wlio  is  said  once 
to  have  come  into  friendly  contact  in  Arabia  with 
n  Xestorian  monk,  named  Sergiiis.  from  whom  he 
may  have  gained  some  knowledge  of  Christianity. 
From  a  Mohammedan  historian  of  the  eleventh 
century  we  learn  that  the  Xestorians  were  then 
noted  for  their  intellectual  acumen,  in  which 
tl.ey  surpassed  their  orthodox  contemporaries. 
'Ihey  differed  somewhat  from  Catholic  Cliristians 
in  points  of  ritual  observance,  especially  those 
relating  to  the  calendar,  and  it  has  been  thought 
possibli!  that  they  were  influenced  by  the  customs 
and. usages  of  their  Jewish  neighbors  in  Babylonia. 

X'estiirian  Christianity  culminated  in  the  thir- 
teen! h  century,  when  there  were  twenty-five 
metropolitans  in  the  hiernrehy,  no  one  of  whom 
had  fewer  than  six  bishops  under  his  jurisdic- 
tion. The  Catholicus  was  almost  a  pope  in  the 
extent  of  his  ecclesiastical   domain.      But   from 


this  time  onward  their  prosperity  diminishes. 
After  the  fall  of  Bagdad  before  the  Mongols 
(1258),  the  Catholicus  was  obliged  frequently  to 
change  his  residence,  which  was  in  itself  a  seri- 
ous administrative  disadvantage.  In  the  four- 
teenth century  came  the  Tatars,  under  the  fierce 
Timur  (ipv.  I,  who  made  sad  havoc  of  the  Xes- 
torians. Internal  dissensions  split  the  Church 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  but  those  who  claimed 
to  be  the  true  Xestorians  adhered  to  the  hered- 
itary line  of  ilar  Shiniun,  the  family  from 
which  the  Catholicus  has  been  chosen  ever  since 
the  fifteenth  century.  Their  patriarch  always 
bears  the  name  of  Simeon  (Shiniun).  Some  ulti- 
mately joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  admit- 
ting the  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  but  retaining 
s]iecial  privileges,  such  as  clerical  marriage, 
which  was  a  very  ancient  custom  among  them. 
These  constitute  the  so-called  I'niat  Chaldicans. 
The  X'estorian  hierarchy  at  the  present  time  con- 
sists of  only  one  metropolitan  and  aliout  ten 
bishops,  in  addition  to  their  Catholicus.  They 
number  perhaps  as  many  as  50.000  souls,  but 
precise  statistics  are  lacking.  Some  estimates 
are  much  larger  than  this. 

The  X'estorians  take  their  stand  upon  the  first 
two  ecumenical  councils,  rejecting  the  decisions 
of  Ephesus.  and  of  course  taking  no  jiart  in  sub- 
sequent councils  of  the  Catholic  Church.  They 
have  never  been  persuaded  to  accejit  the  orthodox 
view  of  the  Papacy,  or  of  the  doctrine  of  tran- 
substantiation.  or  of  purgatory.  Their  hierarch- 
ical organization  culminates  in  the  patriarchate. 
They  have  sanctioned  clerical  marriage  ever  since 
the  fifth  century,  although  this  privilege  does 
not  extend  to  the  bishops.  Syriac  is  their  official 
language.  Their  former  generous  iihilanthropy, 
exem])lified  in  the  foundation  of  asyluins.  alms- 
houses, etc..  has  vanished  along  with  their  gen- 
eral prosperity  as  a  Church  anil  people,  and  at 
present  they  are  themselves  the  objects  of  charity 
and  of  missionary  effort.  Friemlly  negotiations 
have  been  carried  on  with  them  by  representative.s 
of  the  Church  of  England,  jiartly  in  the  hope  of 
bringing  about  ecclesiastical  union.  Protestant 
missionaries  have  been  sent  to. them  from  Amer- 
ica, especially  by  the  American  Board  (Congre- 
gational), with  a  view  to  arousing  them  to  new 
evangelical  effort  on  their  own  behalf.  But  thus 
far  these  cfloits  have  met  with  little  success.  In 
18!IS  the  Persian  branch  of  the  Xestorian  Church, 
estimated  at  about  30.000  persons,  formally 
joined  the  Orthodox  Church  of  Russia,  thereby 
gaining  the  political  protection  of  the  Czar. 

The  Christians  of  Saint  Thomas,  dwelling 
on  the  coast  of  Malabar.  India,  are  historically 
connected  with  the  X'estorians. 

Consult:  Assemani.  Bibliotheca  Orientalis,\«\. 
iii.  (Rome,  1725-28)  ;  Badger,  The  Xestoriaiis 
rnt'l  Their  Rilutil  (2  vols.,  London.  1852 1; 
Hefele,  Hislonj  of  Ihe  Councils,  vol.  iii.  (Edin- 
burgh, 1883)  ;  Perkins,  A  Residence  of  Eight 
Years  in  I'ersia  (Andover,  1843)  ;  Hore,  .S7u- 
tlrnl's  History  of  the  llrcek  Church  (London. 
11(02). 

NESTO'RITTS  (Lat.,  from  C.k.  ycrrSpiot,  Xes- 
toriijfii.  liisliop  of  Constantinople.  428-431,  and 
author  of  the  Christological  heresy  known  as  N'es- 
torianisni.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Theodore  of  Mop- 
suestia.  one  of  the  leading  theological  teachers 
of  -Vntioch,  who  was  greatly  revered  throughout 
the  .\siatie  section  of  the  Eastern  Church. 


NESTORIUS. 


395 


NETHERLANDS. 


In  428  Ncstoi'ius  was  sunmionod  from  Ids 
monastic  rt'tircnu-nt  near  Antiocli  to  become 
Bi^liop  of  Constantinople,  wliither  his  fame  as  an 
a.scelic  and  preaclier  liad  ]iieti'de<l  him.  As 
patriarch,  Nestorius  immediately  declared  war 
upon  all  lieretics.  and  liegan  persecutions  against 
Arians,  (^uartodccimanians,  Macedonians,  etc. 
The  popular  theology  of  Constantinople  did  not 
escape.  A  presbyter  nametl  Anastasius,  preach- 
ing in  the  cathedral  church  one  day.  declared 
witJi  energy.  "Let  no  man  call  JIary  'ilother  of 
God,'  for  Mary  was  only  a  woman,  and  it  is 
impossible  that  God  should  be  born  of  a  woman." 
Nestorius  hastened  to  support  and  reiterate  the 
position  his  presbyter  had  taken,  which  was  an 
open  defiance  of  the  Alexandrian  party. 

A  tierce  controversy  ensued.  Cyril,  supported 
by  Coelestine,  Bishop  of  Rome,  published  twelve 
anathemas  against  Nestorius,  to  which  Nestorius 
replied  in  kind.  The  Emperor,  Tlieodosius  II., 
was  obliged  to  convene  a  general  council  to  settle 
the  disturbance.  It  met  at  Ephesus  in  4.31.  (See 
EpiiE-si's,  CouxciLS  OF.)  Its  stormy  proceedings 
were  directed  by  Cyril,  and  Nestorius  was  con- 
demned. John  of  Antioch,  who  arrived  late,  en- 
tered an  unavailing  protest  against  this  verdict. 
The  writings  of  Nestorius  were  burned,  by  Im- 
perial order,  and  his  followers  were  branded  with 
the  opprobrious  name  of  Simonians.  Nestorius 
was  allowed  to  return  to  his  old  monastery  near 
Antioch.  where  he  passed  four  years.  He  was 
then  banished  to  Arabia,  and  afterwards  to  Egj'pt, 
where  he  endured  many  hardships,  and  won  the 
title  of  martyr  among  his  followers.  He  wrote 
a  defense  of  liis  life  and  teaching,  of  which  only 
a  few  fragments  survive  ( in  the  works  of  his 
opponents).  We  have  a  melancholj'  picture  of 
the  closing  years  of  his  life  in  Evagrius's  Eccle- 
siastical History,  i.  7,  which  is  evidently  colored 
by  the  author's  hostility.  The  place  and  date 
of  his  death  are  unknown.  The  Nestorians 
(q.v. ),  although  bearing  his  name,  do  not  cherish 
his  peculiar  teaching.  An  illustration  of  Mono- 
physite  detestation  of  his  memory  is  found  in 
the  grim  ceremony  of  the  .Jacobites,  who  once  a 
year  assemble  and  cast  stones  upon  the  spot 
where  his  body  is  supposed  to  have  been  buried. 
Consult:  .Smith  and  \Vace,  Dictionary  of  Chris- 
tian liiot/raphy.  article  "Nestorius;"  Harnack, 
History  of  Doyma.  vol.  iv.  (Eng.  trans.,  Lon- 
don. 1808)  ;  Schair.  History  of  the  Christian 
Church,  vol.  iii.  (3d  ed..  New  York,  1880)  ;  Du 
Bose,  The  Ecumenical  Councils,  ehs.  10  and  11 
(2d  ed.,  ib.,  1897):  Bright,  The  Age  of  the 
Fathers    (  I.onilon.    100.3). 

NETH'ERLANDS,  The;  often  called  HoL- 
L.\xn.  The  country  forming,  with  the  coastal 
region  of  Belgium,  the  lowest  part  of  Europe. 
It  is  the  western  continuation  of  the  low  plain  of 
North  Germanv  and  lies  between  latitudes  50° 
4.>'  and  .i.3°  30'  N..  and  longitudes  3°  22'  and  7° 
12'  E.  It  is  bounded  on  the  west  and  north  by 
the  North  Sea,  on  the  east  by  Prussia,  and  on  the 
south  by  Belgium.  With  an  area  of  only  12,048 
square  miles,  it  is  one  of  the  smallest  indcjiendent 
States  of  Europe.  Its  topograph)'  has  had  a  lead- 
ing part  in  shaping  its  history.  The  country  is 
emphatically  a  maritime  State.  Half  of  its 
boundaries  (46.5  miles)  are  formed  by  the  sea, 
and  no  place  in  the  kingdom  is  more  than  120 
miles   from   it. 

TorooRAPiiY.  The  northern  part  of  the  Nether- 
lands is  indented  by  the  Zuyder  Zee,  which  repre- 

VOL.  XIV.— 26. 


sents  in  part  an  ancient  lake,  the  sea  having 
l)roken  through  the  intervening  land  in  the  thir- 
teenth century.  There  are  many  considerable 
islands  along  the  coast,  distributed  in  two  groups. 
Utr  the  north  coast  are  the  Frisian  Islands,  com- 
prising Tcxel,  Vlieland,  Ter  Schelling,  Anieland, 
and  others.  In  the  .southwest  are  the  numerous 
islands  of  the  great  Rhine-Jleuse-Scheldt  Delta, 
among  which  are  Voorne,  Overllakkee,  Schouwen 
Tholen,  North  Beveland,  South  Beveland,  and 
Walcheren.  The  country  is  the  llattest  part  of 
the  Continent,  mainl_y  a  region  of  monotonous 
stretches  of  plains,  interrupted  only  by  sand 
dunes  and  some  other  undulations  and  low  hills, 
particularly  in  the  .southeast.  One-fourth  of  this 
region  adjoining  the  sea  front  lies  below  the 
level  of  the  sea,  a  considerable  part  of  it  in 
North  and  South  Holland  as  much  as  20  feet. 
Thirteen  per  cent,  lies  between  sea  level  and  3 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  mean  height  of  the  entire 
kingdom  is  onl\-  30  to  33  feet  above  the  sea. 

Three  features,  the  dunes,  dikes,  and  polders, 
characterize  the  north  and  south  belt  nearest  to 
the  sea.  The  dunes  stretching  along  the  coast 
were  formed  by  the  winds  and  sea,  which  heaped 
up  the  ocean  sands  into  rows  of  hills  from  20  to 
60  feet  apart  and  from  35  to  200  feet  high. 
Wherever  they  front  the  coast  they  are  adequate 
protection  against  the  sea.  These  sand  ridges 
and  hills  are  sparsely  wooded,  but  are  saved  from 
disintegration  by  natural  or  cultivated  growths 
of  plants.  Few  parts  of  them  are  tilled,  but  the 
sandy  regions  behind  them  are  carefully  culti- 
vated. The  dikes  are  gigantic  artificial  em- 
bankments of  earth  faced  with  stone  or  pro- 
tected by  stakes.  They  guard  the  country  against 
the  sea  at  the  places  where  there  are  no  dunes. 
The  largest  is  the  Helder  Dike.  (See  Heldeb.) 
There  are  also  smaller  dikes,  as  a  precaution 
against  floods,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  and 
other  streams.  Inside  the  line  of  dunes  and  dikes 
are  great  numbers  of  polders,  which  are  areas  of 
land  inclosed  by  dikes  that  not  only  protect  them 
from  floods,  but  also  render  it  possible  to  pump 
out  the  water  from  within  the  inclosure.  The 
land  thus  won  with  enoriuous  toil  is  exceedingly 
fertile  and  valuable. 

The  lands  reclaimed  from  the  sea  along  the 
coast  and  the  basins  of  the  rivers  in  the  south 
are  the  most  industrial  and  populous  parts  of 
the  Netherlands.  Here  are  the  richest  pastures, 
where  most  of  the  tine  breeds  of  Dutch  cattle  are 
reared  and  the  dairy  industry  thrives.  Back  of 
these  lowest  lands  and  polders  stretch  the  low 
plains  strewn  with  the  gravel  and  sand  brought 
down  from  the  north,  with  swellings  of  ground 
cau.sed  by  deeper  accumulations  of  this  material ; 
and  in  the  east  are  many  moors  or  bogs  covered 
with  moss  and  heather,  many  of  which  have  been 
drained,  the  peat  ctit  away  for  fuel,  and  the  land 
reclaimed  for  cultivation.  The  country  is  not 
quite  destitute  of  important  elevations,  for  there 
are  hills  in  the  extreme  southeast,  and  to  some 
extent  in  the  central  east.  One  of  these  ranges 
attains  a  height  of  600  feet,  and  in  the  provinces 
of  Drenthe,  Gelderland,  Overyssel,  Utrecht,  and 
Limburg  are  gravel  hills  from  150  to  over  300 
feet  in  elevation :  near  Limburg  is  the  highest 
elevation  in  the  kingdom   (1055  feet). 

Hydroohapiiv.  The  numerous  bogs  and 
marshes  testify  to  the  imperfect  drainage.  There 
are  many  small  streams,  but  no  large  rivers  ex- 
cept in  the  south.     These  large  rivers  flow  in  the 


NETHERLANDS. 


396 


NETHERLANDS. 


direction  of  tlie  j;eiKMal  slopi?  ot  the  country  from 
east  to  west.  Tliey  are  all  international  streams, 
important  in  the  commerce  of  Western  Kiirope. 
The  Khiue  is  the  great  hij;li«ay  between  Western 
Germany  and  the  sea.  i^ntering  HoUanil,  it  ili- 
viiles  into  numerous  arms,  the  chief  of  which 
are  the  Waal,  the  Lek,  and  the  Yssel.  Four-fifths 
of  the  river  trade  of  Holland  is  carried  on  the 
Rhine  and  the  Waal,  making  Rotterdam  a  Rhine 
harbor.  The  Meuse  (Dutch  Maas)  joins  the 
Waal,  thus  mingling  its  waters  with  those  of 
the  Rhine,  and  is  important  in  the  commerce  of 
Eastern  Belgium.  The  Scheldt  or  Scheldt-,  whose 
estuary  is  mainly  in  the  Netherlands,  carries 
ocean  vessels  to  Antwerp,  and  small  boats  from 
the  Netherlands  ascend  the  river  to  the  centre  of 
Belgium.  Lakes  are  scattered  all  over  the  coiui- 
trj-.  Some  of  the  lakes,  such  as  the  large  Haar- 
lem Lake,  have  been  drained,  and  their  beds 
converted  into  arable  land.  The  stupendous  un- 
dertaking of  draining  a  great  part  of  tlic  Zuyder 
Zee  is  in  progress. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  moist  and  with  small 
range  in  temperature.  The  summers  arc  not 
very  warm,  nor  are  the  winters  often  very  cold. 
With  an  average  annual  temperature  of  .50°  F., 
the  mean  temperature  is  4!l°  in  the  spring  and 
autumn,  64.4°  in  July  and  August,  and  35. U°  in 
January.  The  annual  precipitation  is  about 
thirty  inches,  rain  falling  on  about  two  days  in 
three  throughout  the  year.  The  fact  that  most 
days  are  misty  and  damp,  a  week  of  bright 
weather  being  a  rarity,  induces  the  diseases  which 
characterize  sucli  conditions,  ilarsh  fevers  are 
also  prevalent  in  the  lioggy  districts:  and  though 
on  the  whole  Holland  is  regarded  as  having  a 
healthful  climate,  the  annual  death  rate  in  the 
western  lowlands  is  from  30  to  40  per  1000, 
which  is  about  one-third  greater  than  in  other 
parts  of  the  kingdom. 

Soil  .\Nn  VF.iiET.VTiON'.  The  country  is  poor  in 
vegetable  |)roducts  excepting  cultivated  plants. 
The  most  fertile  regions  are  those  with  a  stilf 
clay  soil  on  the  reclaimed  lands  of  the  niuthern 
and  western  provinces  and  on  the  fluvial  clays 
along  the  large  rivers.  These  are  the  chief  agri- 
cultural anil  grazing  lands,  though  the  zone  of 
cereals  and  some  other  crops  also  extends  over 
a  large  part  of  the  diluvial  sands  and  gravels  of 
the  central  regions.  About  one-fifth  of  the  area 
is  unproductive.  The  country  is  almost  destitute 
of  timber,  scarcely  one-fiftpenth  of  the  surface 
being  occupied  by  woods.  Pasturage  covers  about 
one-third  of  the  country,  and  the  arable  lands, 
including  the  areas  devoted  to  kitchen  garden- 
ing, occupy  rather  less  than  a  third  of  the  sur- 
face. 

Fisheries.  Fishing  is  an  important  source  of 
wealth,  the  industry  being  divided  into  river  and 
coast  fishing  and  the  <leep-sea  fishing.  The  chief 
product  of  the  coast  fisheries  arc  sprats,  which 
are  packed  for  export,  and  the  oyster,  which 
thrives  in  the  alluvial  mud  brought  down  by  the 
rivers  and  is  protected  from  high  seas  by  the 
islands  along  the  coast.  The  herring  fishery  is 
the  most  important  branch  of  dee|i-sea  fishing, 
the  annual  catch   averaging  about   250.000   tons. 

flEOLooY  AND  MiXKRAL  Uksoirces.  Nearly  the 
whole  surface  is  eoveri'd  by  very  recent  Quater- 
nary format  ions,  diluvium  occupying  40  per  cent, 
and  alluvium  50  per  cent,  of  the  ari'a.  The  coal 
measures,  chalk,  and  Tertiary  sands  and  loams 
occupy  only  about  one  per  cent,  of  the  surface 


and  are  found  only  in  the  extreme  east  and  south- 
east. The  diluvium  was  spread  over  the  coun- 
try during  the  lee  Age  from  .Scandinavia  in  the 
north,  while  in  a  later  glacial  period  the  ilcuse 
and  lihine  spread  coarse  sand  and  grit  over  the 
south.  The  winds,  sea,  rivers,  and  vegetation 
cooperated  in  the  formation  of  the  alluvial 
strata.  Most  of  the  country  being  composed  of 
water  or  ice-borne  debris,  the  supply  of  min- 
erals is  very  small.  ISuilding  stone  is  imported 
from  Norway;  the  lack  of  this  material  has 
stinuilated  the  production  of  brick  and  tile. which 
are  made  in  abundance,  chiclly  from  the  Rhine 
clays,  and  are  of  superior  ipiality.  Some  coal 
is  mined  near  Limburg.  but  there  is  no  iron,  ex- 
cept a  small  <[uantity  of  bog  iron  ore  obtained 
from  the  bog  regions  of  the  east.  Turf  or  peat  is 
cut  in  very  large  quantities. 

AcRicrLTURF..  Over  500.000  of  the  inhabitants 
are  engaged  in  agriculture,  which  has  reached 
very  high  development  in  the  northern  and  west- 
ern provinces  and  along  the  southern  rivers;  but 
scarcely  three-tenths  of  the  surface  is  arable  land, 
and  the  ]uoduction  fails  to  meet  the  home  con- 
s\imi)tion.  Rye,  buckwheat,  and  potatoes  are  the 
chief  products  of  the  sandy  soils;  hops,  sugar 
beets,  tobacco,  and  wheat,  of  the  clay  soils.  Rye, 
vegetables,  and  beet  sugar  are  the  chief  agricul- 
tural products.  The  beet  farms  are  in  the  richer 
lands  of  the  river  valleys,  the  country  ranking 
sixth  in  the  production  ot  beet  sugar.  Wheat 
from  the  United  States  sup|)lemcnts  the  home 
supply,  only  a  small  [)art  of  the  people  eating 
l-j-e  bread,  as  they  prefer  a  mixture  of  rye  and 
wheat.  The  cereal  crops,  in  order  of  importance, 
after  rye,  are  oats,  wheat,  buckwheat,  and  barley. 
Beans  are  also  a  large  crop,  and  ])ot.;itoes  are  the 
most  important  product  after  rye.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  vegetables  are  sent  to  England.  The  culti- 
vation of  flowers  has  reached  a  very  advanced  de- 
velopment, Haarlem  being  the  centre  of  the 
flower  industry,  and  exporting  luilbs  to  all  quar- 
ters of  the  world.  Owing  to  very  careful  and 
scientific  methods  of  tillage,  the  yield  of  all 
crops  is  large.  In  1890  the  land  in  farm  crops 
was  2.139.144  acres;  pastures.  2.929,123;  gar- 
dens and  orchards,  153.440:  and  forests,  624,421. 
Large  areas  of  tind)er  land  were  long  ago  cleared 
for  cultivation,  and  the  country  is  compelled  to 
import  most  of  its  timber  supply  from  various 
parts  of  Europe  and  from  America. 

STonc-RAisiNO.  .\s  the  moist  climate  pro- 
motes the  growth  of  grass,  animal  rearing  is  the 
most  important  resource  of  the  country.  Cattle- 
raising  has  attained  a  development  equaled  in 
few  other  countries  of  the  world.  Cattle  thrive 
best  in  the  coast  provinces.  Dairy  farming  is 
also  far  advanced  near  the  sea.  and  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  the  famous  Dutch  cheeses  are  sent 
to  foreign  markets,  butter  being  also  a  large 
product.  Horses  are  brc<l  with  great  success  in 
Kriesland.  Gelderland,  and  Niuth  Brabant.  Sheep 
are  reared  more  for  their  llesh  than  their  wool, 
chiclly  in  North  Holland  and  in  the  south.  The 
poultry  yards  stipply  large  cpiantities  of  eggs 
to  England,  and  many  tons  of  honey  are  i)ro- 
duced.  chiefly  among  the  higher  lands  of  the  east. 

Mamfactires.  The  country  is  of  inferior 
importance  as  an  industrial  State.  Coal  and 
iron,  the  bases  of  large  mantifacturing  devcbqi- 
ment.  are  lacking,  with  the  result  that  manu- 
factures hardly  meet  the  home  demand,  and  only 
a  few  articles  are  exported.     The  metal   Indus- 


NETHERLANDS. 


397 


NETHERLANDS. 


tries  liavc  been  little  developed,  though  coal  and 
iron  are  brought  to  Amsterdam,  Kotterdam,  and 
The  Hague  for  the  eunstruetion  of  railroa<l  ma- 
terial, ships,  maehinerv,  and  hardware.  Many 
of  the  steel  and  iron  ships  owned  in  Holland  are 
built  in  Kngland.  Tin  plate  is  produced  at  The 
Hague,  and  gold  and  silverware  are  nianufac- 
tuied  at  Amsterdam  ;  but  few  fancy  articles  in 
metals  are  produced.  Textile  manufactures  have 
been  largely  ileveloped  since  the  separation  from 
lielgiuin  in  IS.'JO.  Calicoes  are  made  in  large 
quantities  for  the  East  Indies,  Africa,  and  China 
trade,  re])resenting  usually  an  export  value  of 
about  $7,000,000  a  year.  The  number  of  spindles 
is  about  300,000,  the  leading  factories  being  in 
Overyssel  and  Xorth  Brabant.  Amsterdam, 
Haarlem,  and  Leyden  have  dye  works  and  calico- 
printing  works.  Linen  is  manufactured  chiefly  in 
the  southeast  and  North  Brabant.  The  best  qual- 
ity of  sailcloth  is  made  in  Xorth  and  South 
Holland.  Tilburg  is  the  leading  centre  of  the 
\vo(den  industry,  and  the  carpets  of  Deventer 
are  in  much  request:  but  with  the  growth  of  the 
woolen  industries  in  England.  France,  and  Ger- 
numy,  Dutch  woolens  have  declined  in  impor- 
tance. Many  towns  make  leather,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  earthenware  is  spread  all  over  the 
country.  Brick  and  tile  works  are  found  in 
many  places :  clay  pipes  are  made  in  South  Hol- 
land; Delft  still  produces  the  glazed  earthenware 
that  made  the  town  famous;  JIaestricht  also  pro- 
duces stoneware  and  glassware.  The  diamond- 
cutters  of  Amsterdam  are  still  famous,  though 
their  business  is  declining  on  account  of  the  com- 
l)etition  of  Paris,  London,  and  Antwerp.  This 
industry  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews. 
Many  industries  are  connected  with  the  trans- 
formation of  agricultural  products,  such  as 
liqueurs,  distilled  from  orange  peel  and  other 
materials  in  Amsterdam.  Rotterdam,  and  Schie- 
dam, the  same  cities  also  leading  in  the  produc- 
tion of  Holland  gin,  distilled  from  rve.  There 
were  516  distilleries  in  IflOO,  503  breweries,  and 
0  vinegar  works.  Large  quantities  of  cigars 
and  manufactured  tobacco  from  home-grown  or 
East  Indies  leaf  are  made,  the  most  extensive  fac- 
tories being  at  Amsterdam  and  LHrecht.  The 
sugar  refineries,  chierty  in  Amsterdam  and  North 
Brabant,  are  using  every  year  more  raw  sugar 
from  beet  root  and  less  from  sugar  cane. 

Commerce.  The  Dutch  trade  embraces  every 
continent,  and  is  therefore  first  and  chiefly  mari- 
time. Most  exports  of  home  products  go  to  the 
neighboring  countries  of  Europe.  England,  Oer- 
niany.  and  Belgium  are  the  largest  buyers  of  the 
live  animals,  butter,  cheese,  and  oleomargarine 
which  the  country  exports.  In  1000  the  leading 
exiHirts  to  neighboring  countries  of  home  products 
were:  49.000  cattle.  0000  calves,  49.000  sheep, 
4000  swine.  51.000.000  pounds  of  butter.  120.000.- 
000  pounds  of  oleomargarine,  102.000.000  pounds 
of  cheese,  and  330,000.000  pounds  of  sugar,  be- 
sides eggs,  vegetables,  flax,  and  fish. 

The  exports  of  colonial  products  are  sold  all 
over  the  world,  and  the  chief  trade  of  the 
Netherlands  is  in  the  import  and  re-export  of 
these  colonial  commodities.  The  Dutch  colonial 
possessions  in  the  East  Indies,  extending  from 
Sunuitra  to  New  Guinea,  are  about  sixty  times  as 
large  as  the  mother  country,  and  have  seven 
times  the  population.  Most  of  the  tea.  stlgar, 
coffee,  quinine,  tin,  tobacco,  indigo,  dyewoods, 
spices, and  gums  they  export  are  sent  to  the  Neth- 


erlands, chiefly  to  Rotterdam  and  also  to  Amster- 
dam. I'alui  oil.  rubber,  and  ivory  from  the  Congo 
State,  and  guano  :uid  nitrates  from  South  Ameri- 
ca are  also  imjiorted.  Some  of  these  articles  are 
greatl}'  enhanced  in  value  by  nuinufacture  in  the 
Netherlands.  (Quinine,  for  example,  is  prepared 
for  the  market  in  the  Netherlands,  where  also 
Java  raw  sugar  is  refined  and  Sumatra  tobacco 
is  made  into  cigars.  The  colonies,  on  the  other 
hand,  buy  from  the  mother  country  great  quanti- 
ties of  cott(ms  and  of  other  goods  manufactured 
for  them  at  home  or  purchased  in  other  lands  and 
sold  by  Dutch  merchants  in  the  colonies  at  a 
large  profit.  The  colonies  are  the  best  cus- 
tomers of  the  Netherlands,  excepting  Europe. 

Most  of  the  imports  for  home  consumption 
come  from  Northern  Europe  and  the  United 
States.  The  L'nited  States  contributes  about  one- 
eightli  of  these  imports,  on  an  average,  chiefly 
wheat,  flour,  maize,  rye,  petroleum,  tallow,  bacon, 
leaf  tobacco,  and  lumber.  Great  Britain.  Ger- 
many, Russia,  and  Belgium  supply  nearh'  all  the 
other  imports,  consisting  chiefly  of  coal,  timber, 
metals,  and  manufactures.  Most  of  the  home 
trade,  as  distinguished  from  the  colonial  trade,  is 
with  these  countries.  The  rapid  giowth  of  the 
imports  for  home  consumption  and  the  exports 
of  home  products  may  be  seen  from  the  follow- 
ing table,  which  shows  the  average  annual  trade: 


1882-86 

1892-96 

1901 

Imiiortfl  .   ... 

S448..500.000 
342.500,000 

$602..50O,0O0 
490,000,000 

*822,894.000 

700,686,000 

The  value  of  the  imports  and  exports  of  the 
largest  classes  of  products  in  1901  was: 

Food  products 

Raw  materials 

Manuf.iotured  products 
Miscellaneous 


Imports 


$230,136,960 
182,478.654 
103.004.460 
163,701,234 


Exports 


$213,021,408 
131,392,494 
91,8S4,336 
127,290,486 


Tlie  following  table  gives  the  trade  with  lead- 
ing countries  in  1901 : 


Imports 

Exports 

Belgium                   

$90,791,200 
8.400,000 

18,894.000 
9,165,600 

99,816.600 
174.387.600 

64,320.000 

16,40<),OO0 
130,047,000 
121,846.200 

$70,510,800 

Brazil  • 

Britisii  India  • 

700  000 

France 

Great  Britain            ,  .. 

5.185,800 
171  131,400 

349.297,800 

3.336.600 

Spain  * 

1,300.000 

24  723.000 

Unit«d  States 

31,838,400 

*  Tlie  flgurea  (or  Brazil   (imports).   British  India    (ex- 
ports), and  Spain  (imports  and  exports)  are  given  for  1899. 

The  Dutch  derive  large  profit  from  the  for- 
warding trade.  They  find  the  business  of  carry- 
ing freight  for  other  nations  a  very  profitable 
branch  of  conmierce,  and  their  position  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Rhine  gives  them  luisurpassed  op- 
portunities to  pursue  this  branch  of  business. 
A  great  deal  of  the  trade  of  (Jermany  and  also  of 
Austria  and  Switzerland  with  other  countries 
passes  through  the  Netherlands,  and  most  of  it 
is  tributary  to  Rotterdam,  the  port  of  the  Rhine 
mouth  and  one  of  the  greatest  forwarding  ports 
of  the  world.  Amsterdam's  connection  by  river 
and  canal  with  the  Rhine  enables  that  city  to 
take  a  large  though  inferior  part  in  the  transit 


NETHERLANDS. 


398 


NETHERLANDS. 


trade.  The  value  oi  tla-  ;;ooil.s  carried  iu  tliis 
transit  business  in  lUOU  was  .$243,1130,000. 

l'"ree  trade  is  tlie  Government  policy,  duties 
being  levied  on  a  few  articles  only  for  purposes 
of  revenue.  Xo  article  pays  more  than  o  per 
cent,  duty,  and  grain,  iron,  wool,  cotton,  coal, 
and  many  other  commodities  are  on  the  free  list. 
The  chief  centres  of  ilomcstic  trade  are  Rotter- 
dam. Amsterdam,  Khisliiiig.  Dordrecht  (timber). 
Jliddelburg,  Lcyden,  Utrecht,  Alkmaar,  and 
Hoorn    (cheese). 

Traxsportatiox  and  Commu>-icatio.\s.  The 
largest  routes  of  trade  by  water  or  rail  con- 
verge on  Rotterdam,  Amsterdam,  and  Flushing. 
Great  ship  canals  have  given  their  preeminence 
to  Rotterdam  (SlS.oO?  inhabitants  in  lOOO)  and 
Amsterdam  (.tIO.OOO).  Rotterdam,  near  the 
mouth  of  tjie  Meuse.  was  threatened  with  being 
cut  oir  from  the  sea  by  accumulations  of  sand  in 
the  river;  a  new  waterway  was  therefore  dug 
across  the  Hook  of  Hidland  through  the  dunes 
to  the  north  of  the  lleuse,  by  which  ships  of 
the  heaviest  tonnage  now  reach  the  town.  I'ully 
three-fourths  of  the  sea  trade  of  the  Netherlands 
pertains  to  Rotterdam,  steamers  plying  between 
that  city  and  all  the  largest  ports  of  Western  and 
Northern  Europe  and  to  the  Kast  Indies  and  Unit- 
ed States.  TIk'  traflic  by  sailing  ships  with  the 
colonies  and  other  distant  lands  is  also  very  im- 
portant. Amsterdam  is  also  connected  by  regu- 
lar lines  of  steamers  with  many  ports  of  Kurope. 
America,  and  Asia.  The  two  ports  command 
about  nine-tenths  of  the  total  sea  trade;  Flush- 
ing, iliddelburg,  and  Harlingen  also  have  some 
importance.  The  Dutch  merchant  marine  being 
small  (213  steamers  and  425  sailing  vessels  in 
1000).  a  little  more  than  one-half  of  the  sea 
trade  is  carried  umler  the  Uritish  flag.  Two  ship 
canals  connect  .\msterdani  with  the  sea.  The 
older  is  the  North  Ibdland  Canal,  extending  from 
Amsterdam  to  Alkmaar  and  fielder.  52  miles 
long,  completed  in  1825.  By  means  of  this  canal 
the  <langer(nis  passage  of  the  Zuyder  Zee  was 
avoided.  In  recent  years,  however,  the  impor- 
tance of  the  canal  declined,  as  it  is  not  wide 
enough  for  the  more  modern  large  ships.  The 
North  Sea  Canal  was  therefore  built  between 
Amsterdam  and  the  North  Sea.  16  miles  in  length 
and  fully  meeting  the  rei|uircnients  of  modern 
trade.  These  arc  the  great  ship  canals  of  the 
Netherlands,  but  the  wliole  country  is  a  land  of 
canals.  All  the  towns  and  even  the  villages  are 
conneete<l  with  one  another  by  these  waterways. 
The  larger  canals  are  over  00  feet  broad.  0  to  9 
feet  deep,  and  sometimes  they  lie  higher  than  the 
fields  through  which  they  pass.  The  domestic 
traffic  of  the  country  is  carried  on  the  canals. 
There  is  little  coasting  trade. because  commodities 
are  carried  from  one  juirt  to  another  on  the 
canals.  The  total  extent  of  the  canals  is  nearly 
2000  miles,  and  the  length  of  navigable  waters 
outside  of  the  canals  is  ahoiit  3000  miles. 

The  railroads  are  of  more  importance  for 
international  than  for  internal  cnmmeree.  They 
carry  most  of  the  freiirlit  that  England  sends 
into  Central  Europe.  Flushing,  on  the  ."seheldt. 
and  Hook  of  Holland,  near  Rotterdam,  are  ports 
on  the  main  rail  routes  between  England  and 
Germany.  In  1000  the  railroails  had  a  length 
of  1S30  miles,  of  which  the  State  ownerl  about 
nnehalf  and  private  companies  the  remainder. 
Good  wagon  roads  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  all 
paved    with    brick     (klinkers),    supplement    the 


other  excellent  means  of  communication.  Their 
total  length  is  about  3000  miles. 

Banking.  All  banks  are  private  banks,  but  the 
Bank  of  the  Netherlands  is  the  only  one  that  is 
permitted  to  issue  bank  notes,  the  amount  of 
which,  in  1901,  was  221,b09.000  llorins,  or  $89,- 
101.338  in  our  currency.  The  money  in  general 
circulation,  however,  is  ehielly  silver.  Two-lifths 
of  the  ]iaper  money  in  circulation  must  be  cov- 
ered. The  bank  secured  the  right  to  issue  bank 
notes  in  1803  for  twenty-tive  years;  in  1888  the 
right  was  prolonged  for  fifteen  years,  with  a 
continuation  for  ten  years  more  unless  rescinded 
by  the  (iovernment  or  the  bank,  two  years'  notice 
lieing  given.  In  accordance  with  notice  given  by 
the  Government  in  1901,  the  present  arrangement 
will  terminate  in  November.  1903.  The  Ijaiik  of 
the  Netherlands  has  branches  in  all  important 
towns,  and  does  the  same  business  as  other  lianks, 
but  provides  more  guarantees.  It  is  the  ile- 
positorv  of  the  State  funds  and  of  the  cash  of  the 
Post-Ol'lice  Savings  Bank.  in  1901  the  total 
exchanges  of  the  bank  were  .$194,700,060;  stock  of 
gold.  .$29,808,000;  stock  of  silver, '  .$27,352,080; 
capital,  .$8,040,000;  reserve  fund.  .$2,211,000.  The 
bank  receives  5  per  cent,  of  the  prolits.  the  bal- 
ance being  divided  between  the  State  and  the 
hank.  In  1809  there  were  389  jirivate  savings 
banks,  with  420,885  depositors  and  .$30,900,534 
tleposits.  The  State  I'ostal  Savings  Baidc,  in 
1000,  had  820,131  depositors  and  $44,048,194 
deposits. 

Finance.  The  sources  of  revenue  in  1901  were: 
excise,  .$20,211,500;  direct  taxation,  $14,500,- 
872;  indirect  taxation,  $0,027,015;  post-office, 
$4,328,750;  export  and  im|)ort  duties,  $4,007,500; 
pilot  dues,  $1,358,335;  Government  tele2rai)hs, 
$030,875;  State  domains,  $735,000;  State  lot- 
teries. .$271,250;  fisheries.  $55,000;  railroails.  $1.- 
807.500.  The  expenditures  were:  national  delit, 
$14,431,070;  Department  of  War,  $9,405,180;  De- 
partment of  Public  Works,  $12,241,095:  Depart- 
ment of  Finance,  $10,401,715;  Department  of 
Marine,  $0,940,705;  Department  of  Interior,  $0.- 
052,815;  Department  of  .lustice.  $2,045,705;  De- 
partment of  Colonies.  $548,840;  Department  of 
Foreign  Affairs.  .$355,505;  royal  housi-bold,  $333,- 
335;  superior  State  authorities,  $283,900;  mis- 
cellanecnis.  $20,830.  The  total  revenue  was  $50,- 
971.100  and  the  expenditures  were  $04,481,445. 
The  total  debt  anKninted  in  1901  to  $482,800,435, 
About  $130,000,000  of  the  revenue  of  the  past 
half  century  has  been  applied  to  the  ri'duction 
of  the  public  debt. 

Money,  Weights,  and  Measire.s.  The  stand- 
ard coin  is  the  10-llorin  gold  piece,  containing 
0.048  granunes  of  fine  gohl.  The  unit  of  the 
silver  coinage  is  the  florin,  containing  9.45 
grammes  of  fine  silver.  The  country  has  the 
gold  standard,  and  gold  ami  the  silver  coins  is- 
sued before  1875  are  legal  tender.  The  value  of 
the  coins  has  for  years  been  invariable.  The 
princi]ial  coins  are  the  guilder  or  florin  of  100 
cents,  worth  40'/-,  cents  in  our  currency,  and  the 
gold  piece  of  10  florins.  Jletric  weights  and 
measures  are  used. 

P<u'ri.ATioN.  The  population  is  most  dense 
in  the  provinces  of  North  and  South  Holland  and 
Utrecht,  which  contain  almost  half  of  it,  al- 
though embracing  less  than  one-fourth  of  the 
total  area.  In  these  provinces  are  the  three 
largest  cities  of  the  country.  The  annual  in- 
crease of  population  averages  considerably  over 


NETHERLANDS. 


399 


NETHERLANDS. 


1  [UT  cent,  (in  ISSIS,  1.41  \H-r  cent.;  1899,  1.28; 
ill  I'JOO,  1.47).  Th«  iiieitasi'  is  clue  aliiiust  wholly 
to  the  e.xeess  of  births  over  deaths.  The  peojile 
nuiiihereil  hy  tile  eeiisiis  of  1899  5.103,979.  Uf 
the  total  poimlation  in  1900  2,500,239  were  males 
and  2.(;18.807  were  females.  There  were  in  1899 
52,025  persons  of  foreign  birth  livinj;  in  the 
Netherlands,  of  whom  31,805  were  (Jermans,  14,- 
903  liel^rians,  1307  Englisli.  and  4550  of  other 
nationalities.  The  emigration  is  very  small, 
aiiiounliiif,'  in  1900  to  1S!)9  persons,  nearly  all  of 
wliom  went  to  the  United  States. 

The  table  of  provinces,  with  areas  and  poimla- 
tioiis,  is  as  follows: 


PROVINCES 

.\rea 

sq.  miles 

Population 
Dee.  31, 1899 

Noi'th  Urabant 

1,980 
1,965 
I.IGG 
1,070 

690 

634 
1,^82 
1,291 

790 
1,030 

850 

653.842 

566.549 

Sniitli   Ho 

Inlirt _ _.. 

1,144.448 

Ncirtli  UullaiKi   - 

96S.131 

Zi-i-laiid... 

216,295 

rti'.''-ht . 

251,034 

340,262 

3:)3,338 

Gri.uiiigen 

290.602 

148„544 

JLimburg 

281,934 

Total 

12,648 

5,103,979 

EorciTlox,  Attendance  at  school  is  not  com- 
pulsory, and  many  of  the  people  are  illiterate, 
14  per  cent,  of  the  adults  in  North  Holland  being 
uhable  to  read.  No  religious  instruction  is 
given  in  the  public  schools,  and  a  very  large 
number  of  the  youth  attend  denominational  pri- 
vate schools.  In  1900  there  were  3108  public 
elementary  schools,  with  1(5.039  teachers  and 
,508.270     pu))ils,    and     1401     private    elementary 

•schools,  with  7083   teachers  and  231,534   pupils; 

1140  public  infant  schools,  with  20,448  pupils,  and 

|910  jirivate  infant  schools,  with  91,033  pupils. 
The  ]Jolyteclinic  school  (Delft)  had  32  teachers 
and  714  pupils;  75  middle  class  schools,  1024 
eachers  and  10,299  pupils;  11  navigation  schools, 
ri  teachers  and  1504  pupils;  137  day  and  even- 
ing schools  for  working  people,  1225  teachers  and 
18.478  jiupils ;  29  classical  schools,  426  teachers 
and  2500  |>upils.  The  four  public  universities  at 
Leyden,  Utreclit   (qq.v. ),  Groningen.  and  Amster- 

'd!im  have  107  teachers  and  about  3000  pupils. 
The  Free  University  of  Amsterdam  charges  no 
tuition.  A  number  of  art  schools,  museums,  and 
military,  music,  normal,  deaf  mute,  and  technical 
schools  are  supported  by  the  Government.  Since 
1889  ]iublic  instruction  has  been  diminishing  and 
a  larger  number  of  school  children  have  entered 
the  private  scliools,  which  are  now  supported  to 
a  great  extent  by  the  State.  The  cost  of  public 
primary  instruction  is  borne  jointly  by  the 
State  and  the  Coninnmes. 

Religion.  There  are  numerous  creeds  and 
sects,  and  complete  religious  freedom.  !Most  of 
the  Protestants  belong  to  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church,  and  many  other  sects  are  represented. 
The  Synod  is  the  source  of  authority  in  most  of 
the  Protestant  churches.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  is  under  an  archbishop  in  Utrecht  with 
the  bishojirics  of  Breda,  Haarlem,  Bois-lc-Duc. 
anil  Roermond ;  and  the  Old  Catholics  or  .Tanscn- 
ists  under  an  arcliliishop  in  Utrecht,  and  two 
bishops  in  Devcnter  and  Haarlem.  The  .Tews  f.-ill 
into  two  religious  societies,  the  Dutch  Israelites 
and  the  Portuguese  Israelites.     The  adherents  of 


the  dill'erent  churches  in  1899  numbered;  Dutch 
Kcfornied,  2,471,021;  other  Protestant,  598,111; 
Roman  Catholic,  1,790,101;  .Jausenists,  8754; 
Jews,  103,988;  other  creeds,  132,102.  The  larger 
part  of  the  Catholics  live  south  of  the  Rhine, 
and  most  of  the  .Jews  in  North  and  South  Hol- 
land. 

Cll.\liiT.\[iLK  Lx.STlTlTlo.N.s.  About  live  per 
cent,  of  the  pi>pnlation  are  wholly  or  in  part  pro- 
vided for  by  charities — about  half  by  Church  in- 
stitutions, and  most  of  the  remainder  by  munici- 
pal organizations. 

Ktii.nology.  Of  the  early  peoples  of  the  Nether- 
lands little  is  known,  except  that  portions  of  the 
country  were  inhabited  successively  by  tribes  of 
the  Stone,  Bronze,  and  Iron  ages.  In  the  time  of 
Ctesar  the  tribes  of  the  swampy  lowlands  of  the 
south  were  of  Celtic  stock,  as  the  Nervii  and 
Menapii.  In  the  north  were  the  Frisians  and  in 
tl\e  central  portion  were  the  Batavians  and  C'a- 
ninefates,  of  Teutonic  stock,  speaking  Low  Dutch. 
The  Batavians  belonged  to  the  Chatti,  who  had 
moved  in  from  the  east,  pushing  the  Celts  into 
the  outskirts.  During  the  Roman  occupation 
the  Celts  of  the  south  were  crushed,  the  Frisians 
were  compelled  to  pay  tribute,  and  the  Batavians 
were  conciliated  and  later  supplied  the  best  of 
soldiers  for  the  Roman  armies.  In  the  fifth  cen- 
tury tlie  Roman  power  was  broken  by  the  Ger- 
mans, and  in  this  period  of  the  swarming  of  na- 
tions those  westward-moving  tribes  overflowed 
the  Netherlands.  The  Saxons  amid  these  changes 
occupied  the  country  and  crossed  over  to  Eng- 
land. The  ethnical  components  have  remained 
constant  in  the  centuries  that  have  intervened. 
The  home  of  the  Frisians,  who  in  the  early  part 
of  the  Middle  Ages  dwelt  along  the  coast  as  far 
south  as  the  Scheldt,  has  been  contracted  to  a 
small  area.  The  anthropological  survey  of  the 
country  shows  a  preponderance  of  the  long- 
headed, blond,  tall,  Teutonic  type  in  the  north 
and  east,  with  cephalic  index  of  from  79  to  80. 
In  North  and  South  Holland  there  is  a  large  ele- 
ment having  Alpine  affinity,  with  cephalic  index 
from  83  to  84.  In  Zeeland  the  pure  Alpine  or 
Celtic  head-form  is  found  with  measures  of  from 
85  to  88,  dark  hair  and  skin  and  medium  stature, 
which  is  1.055  meters,  while  that  of  the  Teutonic 
element,  as  in  Overyssel,  is  1.701  meters. 

Government.  The  basis  of  the  present  Consti- 
tution of  the  Netherlands  is  the  fundamental  law 
of  1815,  as  successively  revised  in  1840,  1848, 
and  1887,  According  to  this  Constitution  the 
State  is  an  hereditary  monarchy,  having  the  sys- 
tem of  parliamentary  or  responsible  government. 
The  law  of  succession  is  lineal  primogenial,  with 
preference  for  males.  In  default  of  all  legal 
heirs,  the  successor  is  determined  by  a  .joint  meet- 
ing of  the  two  chambers  of  Parliament  (each  con- 
taining twice  the  usual  numl)er  of  members). 
The  sovereign  attains  his  or  her  majority  at  the 
age  of  eighteen. 

The  legislative  power  of  the  Netherlands  is 
vested  conjointly  in  the  sovereign  and  Parliament, 
or  States -General.  The  Parliament  consists  of 
two  chambers  with  considerable  inequality  of 
powers  in  legislation.  The  Upper  Chamber  is 
composed  of  50  members  elected  by  the  legisla- 
tures (provincial  councils)  of  the  several  prov- 
inces into  which  the  kingdom  is  divided,  and 
from  among  the  hishest  taxpayers  and  cer- 
tain high  officials  designated  bv  law.  Their 
term  is  nine  years,  one-third  retiring  every  three 


NETHEKLANDS. 


400 


NETHERLANDS. 


years.  Those  imiulai-.  not  residing  at  The 
Hague,  the  seat  of  govpriiment,  are  allowed  a 
compensatiou  of  ahout  $4.75  per  day  diiriii;,'  the 
session  of  the  Parliament.  The  J,o\ver  ('haniher 
is  composed  of  100  members,  cho.sen  hy  districts 
and  by  direct  suffrage.  Those  qualihed  to  vote 
for  members  of  the  Lower  Chamber  include  all 
male  citizens  t«eiity-tive  years  of  age,  who  are 
owners  or  tenants  of  houses  or  boats,  or  who 
possess  certain  evidences  of  capacity  and  busi- 
ness ability.  At  present,  but  little  more  than 
1 1  per  cent,  of  the  population  is  (jualiiied  to 
vote  under  these  provisions. 

The  members  of  the  Lower  Chamber  .serve  for  a 
term  of  four  years,  one-half  retiring  every  sec- 
ond year.  Any  Netherlander  who  has  attained 
the  age  of  thirty  years  and  who  is  in  the  full 
enjoyment  of  his  civil  and  political  rights  is 
eligible  to  membership  in  the  Lower  Chamber. 
The  members  receive  an  annual  salary  of  $850, 
besides  traveling  e.\i)enses.  The  sessions  of  the 
ehanibers  are  ])ul)lic,  although  each  by  a  ma- 
jority vote  may  hold  .secret  sessions.  Either 
may  be  dissolved  by  the  Crown  without  the  sitting 
of  the  other  chamber  being  disturbed,  but  in  case 
of  dissolution  new  elections  must  be  held  witliin 
forty  days  and  the  chambers  convoked  within  two 
months.  Ordinarily  both  chambers  meet  at 
least  once  a  year,  and  may  be  sunnncmed  in 
extraordinary  session  by  the  Crown.  The  presid- 
ing otiicer  of  each  chamber  is  appointed  1)V  the 
Crown,  but  minor  ollicers  are  elected  by  the 
chambers  respectively.  The  Upper  Cliamber  has 
no  power  of  initiating  legislative  measures,  its 
authority  being  confined  to  the  simjilc  a])proval 
or  rejection  in  toto  of  bills  sent  to  it  from  the 
Lower  Chamber.  The  Lower  Chamber  has  the 
special  power  of  apjiointing  commissions  of  in- 
quiry: it  shares  with  the  Crown  the  right  of 
initiating  legislative  measures  and  may  amend 
the  bills  ])resented  by  the  Government:  to  it  the 
Government  mu-t  submit  the  annual  budget; 
and  it  alone  has  the  right  to  impeach  the  min- 
isters iK'fore  tlie  High  Court  at  The  Ilagiie. 

The  sovereign,  who  is  declared  to  be  inviolable 
and  irresponsible,  is  required  to  take  an  oath  to 
maintain  the  Constitution,  the  independence  of 
the  co\intry.  and  the  liberties  and  rights  of  the 
citizens,  and  to  execute  the  laws.  The  powers 
of  the  Crown  include  the  dissolution  of 
the  chambers,  either  jointly  or  separately; 
the  declaration  of  war;  the  superior  direc- 
tion of  foreign  afTairs;  the  negotiation  of 
treaties  with  foreign  powers  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  cliambers,  when  the  cession 
or  exchange  of  territory  is  involved,  or 
when  rights  established  by  law  are  afl'ected;  the 
command  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  military  ollicers;  the  superior  direction 
of  the  colonies;  the  general  administration  of  the 
finances;  the  granting  of  pardons  (but  not 
amnesties)  ;  the  fixing  of  salaries  of  public  of- 
ficers except  in  case  of  the  judges;  and  the  de- 
cision of  admini-itrative  conflicts  between  the 
provinces.  The  executive  powers  of  the  Crown 
arc  exercised  through  ministers,  one  of  whom 
must  countersign  every  olTicial  act  of  the  sover- 
eign, and  who  thereby  assumes  the  responsibility 
for  it.  The  political  responsibility  of  the  min- 
isters is  to  the  Parliament,  to  each  house  of 
which  they  are  entitled  to  have  access  whether 
members  or  not,  and  to  speak,  although  not  to 
vote  unless  they  be  members.    Each  minister  pre- 


sides over  a  department  of  administration,  of 
which  there  are  at  jiresent  eight.  They  are  the 
Ministries  of  Foreign  AHairs;  Interior;  Finance; 
Justice;  Colonies;  Marine;  War;  and  Public 
Works  and  Commerce.  Kaeh  minister  receives 
an  annual  salary  of  $5000.  Besides  the  Cabinet 
there  is  a  Council  of  State,  presided  over  by  the 
sovereign,  and  consulted  by  the  Crown  on  a 
variety  of  important  matters  of  State  adminis- 
tration. 

For  the  purpo.se  of  local  government  the 
Xetherlands  are  divided  into  11  provinces,  and 
these  are  again  sul)dividcd  into  112;f  comnunies. 
The  chief  executive  authority  in  each  jjrovince  is 
a  commissioner  of  the  .sovereign.  In  each  prov- 
ince is  also  a  representative  assembly  consisting 
of  members  elected  for  a  term  of  six  years,  one- 
half  of  the  members  retiring  every  second  year. 
The  number  of  members  constituting  an  assem- 
bly varies  from  35  to  80,  according  to  the  popu- 
hition  of  the  jirovince.  The  ])Owers  of  the  ])ro- 
vincial  assemblies  are  in  general  those  of  a  local 
legislative  body,  and  include  such  duties  as  the 
enactment  of  ordinances  and  the  levy  of  taxes. 
All  ordinances  to  be  valid  must  be  approved  by 
the  Crown.  The  assemblies  exercise  a  supervisory 
control  over  the  municipalities  and  elect  the 
members  of  the  ri)i)er  Chamber  of  the  national 
Parliament.  Ordinarily  they  hold  sessions  twice 
a  year  and  are  presided  over  by  the  commissioner 
of  the  sovereign.  For  the  coniluct  of  the  pro- 
vincial administration  a  deputation  of  six  mem- 
bers is  chosen  from  the  body  of  the  provincial  as- 
.send)ly  and  is  known  as  the  ■neinited  States.' 
In  each  commune  is  a  local  council  elected  for 
a  term  of  six  years  by  the  same  electorate  as  that 
which  chooses  the  members  of  the  provincial  as- 
sembly. The  number  of  members  varies  from  7 
to  41,  according  to  the  population  of  the  com- 
nuine,  and  one-third  of  the  members  retire  every 
two  years.  The  jiowcrs  and  duties  of  the  com- 
numal  council  include  the  enactment  of  by-laws 
and  ordinances  relating  to  matters  of  purely  local 
concern.  These  are  all  subject  to  the  veto  of  the 
sovereign,  while  the  budget  ai\d  ordinances  for 
the  alienation  of  munici|)al  ])roperty  require  the 
approval  of  the  Deputed  States  of  the  province. 
The  council  is  presided  over  by  a  mayor  or  burgo- 
master appointed  by  the  sovereign  for  a  term  of 
six  years.  He  is  the  chief  exec\itive  ollicer  in 
the  commune,  and  is  assisted  by  from  one  to  four 
aldermen  (the  number  depending  iipcui  the  popu- 
lation of  the  conunune)  elected  by  the  council 
from  its  own  membership.  The  mayor  exercises 
a  sujiervisory  power  over  the  actions  of  the 
council  and  may  suspend  its  resolutions  for  a 
period  of  thirty  days.  He  also  has  charge  of 
the  municijial  ])oliec. 

The  judicial  system  of  the  Xetherlands  con- 
sists of  one  High  Court  of  Cassation,  which  sits 
at  The  Hagiu'.  five  Courts  of  Appeal,  i.^i  District 
Courts,  and  lOli  cantonal  tribimals.  The  High 
Court  of  The  Hague  has  original  jurisdiction  in 
matters  concerning  the  State,  the  royal  family, 
and  the  imiieachmcnt  of  ministers  and  misilenican- 
ors  committed  by  the  higher  ollieials.  It  has  ap- 
pellate jurisdiction  in  cases  appealed  froni  the 
))rovincial  courts  and  the  courts  in  the  colonies. 
All  judges  are  appointed  by  the  Crown  for  life, 
excc]it  the  cantonal  judges,  whose  tenure  is  lim- 
iteil  to  five  years,  and  they  are  irremovable  ex- 
cept by  resolution  of  the  Hich  Court.  Trial  by 
jtiry  does  not  exist  in  the  Netherlands.    Consult: 


NETHERLANDS. 


401 


NETHERLANDS. 


De  Morabynes,  Consliliilions  ctiropi'ennes  (2  vols., 
Paris,  ISSl).  For  aiiiiy  and  navy,  see  under 
Armies  and  Naviks. 

Defense.  Tliere  are  few  fortresses  ]ui)tecting 
till'  national  honndaries.  The  eliief,  most  etlettive 
defense  lies  in  the  ahility  to  open  the  dikes  and 
flood  the  region  between  the  Lck  and  the  Zuy- 
<ier  Zee. 

Colonies.  The  Netherlands  are  one  of  the  im- 
portant colonial  powers.  The  Dutch  colonics 
form  two  groups:  the  Dutch  Ea.st  Indies  (q.v. ) 
and  the  Dutch  West  Indies.  The  statistics — to- 
tals— are  ai)proximatcly :  Area  in  square  miles, 
Dutch  Kast  Indies,  73(i,400;  Dutch  West  Indies, 
f)0,2:!0;  total,  7S0.(i;?0;  population  in  1807,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  34,090.000;  Dutch  West  Indies,  1:33,- 
300;  total,  34,223,300.  The  Dutch  West  Indies 
comprise  the  colony  of  Dutch  Guiana,  or  Surinam 
(see  under  Guian.a.),  area  49,800  square  miles, 
population  82,000:  and  the  colony  of  Curacao 
(q.v.),  including  the  adjacent  islands  of  Aruba 
(q.v.),  Buen  Ay  re  (q.v.),  Eustatius  (q.v.),  Saba 
(q.v.),  and  half  of  Saint  Martin  (q.v.),  total 
area  430  square  miles,  population  51.000. 

History.  The  name  Xetherlands  or  Low 
Countries  originally  covered  the  territory  in- 
cluded in  the  present  kingdoms  of  the  Nether- 
lands and  Belgium,  with  Luxemburg.  This  re- 
gion \vas  inhabited  in  Roman  times  by  the  Frisii 
in  the  north,  the  Batavi  in  the  central  portion, 
and  the  Eelgte  in  the  south.  These  tribes  ■were 
successively  subjugated  by  the  Roman.s — the  Bel- 
ga"  by  Caesar;  the  Batavi  after  Claudius  Civilis,  a 
Batavian  leader,  whose  native  name  is  unknown, 
had  broken  the  Roman  alliance  and  attempted  to 
form  a  luiited  Batavian  kingdom  (a.d.  09-70); 
and  the  Frisii  still  later  after  an  obstinate  resist- 
ance. The  Low  Countries  were  incorporated  in  the 
Empire  of  Charles  the  Great  and  Christianized. 
Upon  the  breaking  up  of  the  Carolingian  Empire 
the  new  Frankish  kingdom  acquired  the  south- 
ei'n  portion,  Lotharingia  (Lorraine)  tlie  central, 
and  the  new  Ciermany  the  northern  part.  Coinci- 
dentally  with  tliis  division  came  the  rise  of  feu- 
dalism, and  duchies  like  Brabant  (originally 
Lower  Lorraine),  counties  like  Artois.  Flanders, 
Holland,  and  Hainault,  and  bishoprics  like 
Ltrecht  and  Li&ge,  developed  a  semi-independent 
authority  in  this  remote  district,  where  the  weak- 
ened royal  authority  of  the  period  reached  with 
difliculty.  (See  Belgium.)  It  resulted  also  from 
the  division  of  the  country  that,  -while  the  people 
as  a  whole  retained  certain  traits  due  to  their  en- 
vironment, the  Dutch  or  northern  provinces  were 
distinctly  Germanic  in  language  and  customs,  the 
Flemings  or  Central  Xetherlands  showed  in  both 
respects  a  mingling  of  French  and  German  ele- 
ments, while  the  Walloons  on  the  south  were  as 
markedly  French  as  the  Dutch  were  German.  In 
the  latter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  cities  of 
the  Netherlands  ro.se  through  their  conuncrce  and 
manufactures  to  an  extraordinary  state  of  pros- 
perity, and  some  of  them  were  for  a  time  vir- 
tually independent  repul)lics.  Next  to  the  Italian 
States  they  figured  most  prominently  in  the  re- 
vival of  art.  The  cities  of  Flanders  and  Brabant 
were  especially  flourishing.  Bruges,  Ghent,  and 
Antwerp  had  the  largest  share  in  this  prosperity 
— .\ntwerp,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  eclipsing  all  other  cities  of  Europe  in 
the  volume  of  its  trade  and  its  financial  trans- 
actions. A  marriage  alliance  between  the  House 
of  Flanders  and  that  of  Burgvuidy   (1300)    gave 


the  Burgundian  dukes,  with  their  unbridled  am- 
bition for  empire,  a  foothold  in  the  Netherlands 
which  they  used  to  such  purposqi  as  to  bring 
the  whole  country  under  their  sway.  (See 
Burgundy;  Fl,\ni)Ers.)  The  Hapsburg-Burgun- 
dian  alliance  (the  marriage  of  JIaximilian 
of  .Austria  and  Mary  of  Burgundy  |  in  1477 
made  the  Low  Countries  an  appanage  of  the 
House  of  IIapsl)urg.  Charles  V.,  the  grandson 
of  Maximilian,  in  1.549  formally  united  this  rich 
inheritance  with  the  Spanish  crown.  In  1555 
he  resigned  the  sovereignty  over  the  Netherlands 
to  his  son  Philip  II,  At  this  time  they  com- 
prised the  four  duchies  of  Brabant,  Gelderland, 
Liiuburg,  and  Luxenil)Urg:  the  seven  comities  of 
Artois,  Flanders,  Hainault,  Holland,  Namur, 
Zutplien,  and  Zeeland :  the  nuirgraviate  of  Ant- 
werp, and  the  seigniories  of  Friesland,  Groningen. 
Jlechlin,  Overyssel,  and  Utrecht.  These  provinces 
were  very  largely  inde])cndent  of  each  other  and 
prized  this  independence.  The  States-General,  to 
which  each  sent  deputies,  served  to  unify  them  to 
some  extent,  and  a  supreme  tribunal  had  jurisilic- 
tion  over  all ;  but  tlie  States-General  was,  like 
similar  bodies  in  that  age,  ]iolitically  weak,  with- 
out power  of  legislation  or  taxation.  The  acquisi- 
tion of  the  country  by  Spain  brought  into  close 
l)olitical  conjunction  two  bitterly  antagonistic 
forces,  for  all  save  the  Flemish  or  Southern 
Netherlands  was  becoming  strongly  Protestant, 
while  Spain  was  the  most  Catholic  cmuiti'y  in 
Europe.  Under  Charles  V.  the  Netherlands, 
which  were  included  in  the  Burgundian  Circle  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  had  been  declared 
indivisible,  and  not  subject  to  the  Imperial 
courts.  He  had  subjected  the  Protestants  to 
severe  persecution  and  had  established  the 
Inquisition,  but  it  was  reserved  for  Philip  II. 
to  show  to  what  lengths  bigotry,  cruelty,  and  bad 
faith  could  be  carried  in  the  oppression  of  a 
people.  The  Cjovernment  during  the  regency  of 
jiargaret  of  Parma  was  carried  on  by  Cardinal 
Granvella  (q.v.),  who  began  at  once  to  break 
the  royal  pledges  and  to  trample  upon  the  lib- 
erties of  tile  people.  Spanisli  troops  were  kept 
in  the  country  and  time-honoreil  privileges  aiui 
rights  were  ignored.  Protest  and  resistance  soon 
began  under  the  leadership  of  William  of  Orange, 
Stadtholder  of  Holland,  Zeeland,  and  L'trecht, 
Count  Egmont,  and  the  Count  of  Hoorne.  which 
brought  about  the  dismis.sal  of  the  hated  Min- 
ister (1504),  but  effected  no  change  in  Philip's 
jiolicy  toward  the  Netherlands.  The  league 
of  the  Beggars  (see  Gueux)  arose  in  1566, 
and  field  preaching  by  proscribed  Protestant 
ministers  was  carried  on  under  the  protection 
of  armed  multitudes.  Jlob  violence  broke  out  in 
manj-  parts  of  the  country  and  the  resentment  of 
the  people  showed  it.self  in  the  plundering  and 
desecration  of  churches  and  the  destruction  of 
images  and  relics.  Philip  II.  proceeded  to  sum- 
mary measures,  strengthened  by  the  support  of 
a  large  peaceful  element  among  the  popu- 
lation who  viewe<l  with  alarm  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  Beggars.  In  August, •1567,  the  Duke 
of  Alva  (().v. )  arrived  with  an  army  of  Spanish 
veterans  and  authority  to  deal  with  the  country 
as  rebellious  and  conquered  territory.  Alva's 
Bloody  Council,  an  irresponsible  tribiuial,  con- 
demned by  wholesale  Netherlanders  guilty  of  no 
offense  save  their  religion  and  love  of  country, 
and  in  February,  1568,  the  Holy  Office  of  the 
Inqiiisition  pronounce<l  a  death  sentence  against 


NETHEBLANDS. 


402 


NETHERLANDS. 


all  the  inhabitants  of  the  Netherlands  as  heretics, 
with  a  few  iianied  exceptions.  Among  the  notable 
victims  of  tlic  trilmnal  were  Counts  Eguioiit  and 
Hoorne.  In  the  spring  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
wlio  hail  dcil  the  country,  raised  a  small  army 
and  with  his  brother,  Count  Louis  of  Nassau, 
took  the  fieUl  for  the  liberties  of  the  Netlierhinds, 
thus  opening  a  desperate  struggle  lasting  for 
forty  years,  during  wliich  most  of  tlie  principal 
towns  endured  sieges  by  tlie  Spaniards  and  suf- 
fered wholesale  massacres  wlien  taken.  In  ilay 
I.,ouis  of  Nassau  defeated  Count  Aremberg,  tlie 
[Spanish  Governor  of  (ironingen,  but  he  was 
driven  from  the  field  by  Alva  and  lied  totlermany 
with  only  a  remnant  of  his  troups.  The  lirst  de- 
cisive triumph  for  the  national  cause  was  the  cap- 
ture of  the  fortified  seaport  of  liriel  by  tlie  "Beg- 
gars of  the  Sea'  luider  the  Count  de  la  Jlarck  in 
April,  1572.  This  was  followed  by  the  revolt  of 
the  principal  cities  of  Holland,  Zeeland,  and 
Friesland.  and  many  cities  in  Gelderland  and 
Overysscl.  The  Prince  of  Orange  was  proclaimed 
as  lawful  Stadtholder  of  the  King  of  Sjiain. 
The  fortress  of  ilons.  in  the  south,  was  taken 
by  Count  Louis  of  Nassau,  but  the  expected 
reenforeements  from  France  did  not  arrive 
and  the  Massacre  of  Saint  liartholomevv  was 
a  severe  blow  to  the  Protestant  cause  in  the 
Netherlands,  ilons  was  retaken  by  the  Span- 
iards in  Se|)tendx^r,  and  in  rapid  succession  other 
places  (Mechlin,  Zutphen,  and  Naardcn)  fell  into 
their  hands,  their  course  everywliere  being 
marked  by  ruthless  cruelty.  Haarlem  was  de- 
fended by  a  garrison  of  4000  men  again.st  an 
army  of  ;J0,000  men  under  Don  Frederick,  a  son 
of  the  Duke  of  Alva,  and  after  enduring  a  siege 
of  seven  months  surrendered  only  when  red\ice<l 
to  the  very  verge  of  starvation.  The  little  town 
of  .Mkmaar  re])elled  all  assaults  by  the  Spanish 
soldiery,  and  drove  oil'  an  army  of  10,000  men  by 
cutting  the  dikes  and  llooiling  the  country.  In 
1573  Alva  was  recalled  by  Philip  II.  and  suc- 
ceeded by  Iier|uescns. 

On  sea  tne  Dutch  repeatedly  defeated  the 
Spanish  fleets,  hut  on  land  they  suffered  a  severe 
reverse  in  the  battle  on  the  moor  of  Mook.  near 
Nimegnen  (April  15,  1574),  in  which  Louis  of 
Nassau  and  his  brother  Henry  wore  slain  and  tlieir 
entire  army  destroyed.  Leyden.  besieged  by  an 
army  of  HOOd  Spaniards  undcT  Valdcz.  held  out 
for  five  moiitbs.  and  was  saved  by  the  cutting  of 
tlie  dikes,  which  enabled  the  vessels  of  the  (lueux 
to  bring  relief  to  the  town.  The  death  of  Keqiie- 
sens  ill  .March,  157<>,  was  followed  by  a  mutiny  of 
the  Spanish  troo])S  (the  so-called  .Spanish  Fury). 
Freed  from  all  discipline  and  clamorous  for  their 
pay.  which  had  long  been  withheld,  they  brmiglit 
a  reign  of  terror  on  the  country.  CJhent.  Itreclit, 
Valenciennes,  Maestrieht.and  Antwerp  wtye  taken 
and  pliindereil.  and  in  the  last-named  city  .SOOO 
cilize.is  are  reported  to  have  been  put  to  deafli. 
The  sdiitliern  provinces  turned  in  termr  to  Wil- 
liam of  Orange  for  aid.  and.  with  the  exception 
of  Luxemburg,  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the 
northern  pnivinces.  known  as  tlie  Pacification  of 
fJhent  ( Novi'inber  S.  1570).  Tile  authority  of 
Philip  was  still  nominally  recognized.  The  paci- 
fication was  completed  by  the  t'nion  of  Brussels, 
.laniniry.  1577.  the  object  of  which  was  primarily 
the  expulsion  of  the  mutinous  Spanish  soldiers. 
The  new  viceroy.  Don  .John  of  ,\nstria.  the  half 
brother  of  Philip  II..  in  order  to  gain  time,  was 
compelled  on   bis  arrival   to  grant  the  demands 


of  the  estates,  and  issued  the  Perpetual  Edict, 
cimtirming  the  terms  of  the  Pacification  of  Ohcnt. 
He  won  a  great  victory  at  Oembloux  on  January 
31,  1578.  but  died  in  the  same  year,  aiul  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Alexander  Farncsc,  Duke  of  Parma, 
one  of  the  ablest  men  of  his  day  as  well  as  one  of 
the  most  unscrupulous,  who  administered  affairs 
with  energy  until  1592.  A  shrewd  judge  of  men, he 
used  bribery  as  well  as  force  to  divitlc  and  weaken 
the  resistance,  and  he  succeeded  in  fomenting 
dissensions  between  the  northern  and  southern 
provinces,  which  had  little  sym]iatliy  save 
that  arising  from  resistance  to  coiiiiiion  o])pres- 
sion.  The  southern  provinces  were  in  great  part 
won  back  for  Spain,  but  at  Utrecht  in  .January, 
157!),  the  seven  northern  ]irovinces,  Holland,  Zee- 
land,  Gelderland.  Utrecht,  (ironingen,  (Jveryssel, 
and  Friesland,  entered  into  a  union  that  was  vir- 
tually the  founding  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  and  on 
duly  20,  1581,  at  The  Hague,  the  seven  provinces 
constituting  the  modern  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands declared  their  independence.  William  of 
Orange  became  the  ruler  of  Holland  and  Zccland, 
while  the  sovereignty  over  the  other  provinces 
was  offered  to  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  brother  of 
Henry  III.  of  France.  The  latter,  however, 
aroused  the  enmity  of  the  people  by  his  attempt 
to  seize  Antwerp,  and  left  the  country  in  1583. 
(hi  .luly  10.  1584,  William  of  Orange  was  assassi- 
nated at  Delft  by  an  emissary  of  the  Duke  of 
Parma :  but  the  United  Provinces  were  saved 
from  the  full  effects  of  the  blow  by  aflfairs 
in  France,  where  the  struggle  between  the  mon- 
archy and  the  Catholic  League  diverted  the  at- 
tention of  the  Spanish  King  and  led  for  a  time 
to  the  withdrawal  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
Spanish  troops  from  the  Low  Countries.  In  1585 
Antwerp,  after  a  memorable  siege  of  14  months, 
was  forced  to  surrender  to  the  Duke  of  Parma. 
In  1585  an  English  army  under  the  Earl  of  Leices- 
ter was  sent  by  Elizabeth  to  the  aid  of  the 
Dutch,  but  the  incapacity  of  their  commander 
made  their  assistance  of  little  use,  and  in  1587 
Leicester  returned  to  England.  The  United  Prov- 
inces nevertheless  continued  the  struggle,  guided 
by  the  statesmanship  of  Barneveldt  (q.v. ),  and 
under  the  leadership  of  Maurice  of  Nassau,  the 
elilest  son  of  William  of  Orange.  Maurice  con- 
cluded a  series  of  triumphant  campaigns  with  the 
decisive  victorv  of  Nieuport,  over  the  Archduke 
Albert  of  Auitria,  July  2,  1000.  On  sea  the 
Dutch  navies  overwlielnied  the  Spanish  forces 
and  made  theni-selvcs  masters  of  the  Spanish- 
Portuguese  pos.sessions  in  the  East  Indies.  The.se 
years  of  warfare  completed  the  desolation  of  the 
Spanish  Netherlands.  A  respite  came  in  1009 
with  a  twelve  years'  truce,  which  was  a  virtual 
acknowledgment  of  the  independence  of  the 
Dulch  l{e])ublic.  For  additional  details  of  the 
s( niggle  with  .Spain  up  to  the  truce  of  1000.  see 
articles  on  Al.v.v ;  Eo.mont:  F.vunksk;  CiKfx; 
Joii.x  OF  Ar.sTRiA;  Philip  II. ;  William  I.; 
Maukice   (of  Nassau). 

Political  and  religious  dissensions  now  aro-e 
in  the  Republic.  The  .Arminian  controversy  in 
the  Chiireh  mingled  itself  unhappily  with  the 
political  diU'erenees  between  Prince  Maurice,  of 
Nassau,  and  Harneveldt.  Finally  Barneveldt  was 
seized,  condemned  without  fair  trial,  and  executed 
May  13,1010.  See  DoRT.  Synod  OF;  Basneveldt; 
(JnoTits. 

In  the  course  of  the  struggle  with  Spain  the 
foreign  trade  of   the   provinces  had  undergone  a 


NETHERLANDS. 


403 


NETHERLANDS. 


rapid  expansion.  Tlic  Dutili  Knst  Inciia  Company 
was  organized  in  l(iU2.  Following  tlie  discovery 
of  tile  Hudson  Itiver  l)y  Henry  iludson.  sailing 
for  tile  Uutcli  East  India  t'onipaiiy  in  KiO',).  the 
Duteli  estalilislied  liy  dejjrees  a  trading  colony  in 
New  Xetherlaiid,  (lie  later  New  York.  The  Xew 
Xetherland  foniijany  was  given  a  trading  charter 
in  lOld,  and  in  11121  the  Dntch  West  India  Coin- 
jiany  came  into  existence  and  liegan  to  people  the 
new  colony,  which  remained  a  Dutch  possession 
until  Hiti4,  when  it  was  taken  bj'  the  English, 
to  he  recovered  in  1G73  for  fifteen  months,  and 
then   finally   lost  to   the  Republic. 

In  1021,  the  twelve  years'  truce  having  expired 
and  the  Dutch  refusing  to  acknowledge  allegiance 
to  Spain,  the  war  was  renewed  by  Philip  IV.    The 
Dutch,  led  by  Prince  JIaurice  until  his  death  in 
162.5,  and  then  by  his  brother   Frederick   Henry, 
with  the  French  as  allies,  carried  on  a  struggle 
for  the  possession  of  Flanders,  the  incidents  of 
which  served  to  increase  the  hostile  feeling  be- 
tween the  Catholic  and  Protestant  parts  of  the 
country.     In  the  meantime  the  religious  dissen- 
sions  in  the   United   Provinces  themselves   died 
out  and  a  spirit  of  toleration  arose  which  made 
the  country  the  asylum  for  European  Protestant 
refugees.     In   1040   iSpain  began  negotiations  for 
peace  with  the  Republic,  and  the  Dutch,  already 
sus|iicious  of  the  growing  French   influence,  and 
themselves  wearyof  the  long  struggle. made  terms 
which  became  a  part  of  the  general  Peace  of  West- 
jdialia  in  1648.     The  United  Provinces  were  now 
fully  recognized  as  free  and  sovereign  States.   The 
Scheldt  was   closed   to   commerce^   and   the   right 
of   the   Dutch   to   a    share   in   the   trade   of   the 
Indies    was    acknowledged.      William    II.,    who 
succeeded  Frederick  Henry  as  Stadtholder  of  the 
Republic,  attempted  to  become  a  sovereign  with 
the  aid  of  France,  but  died  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
four,  and  the  danger  his  ill-advised  attempt  had 
shown  led  the  States  to  hold  the  stadtholdership 
in    abeyance.      Holland,    the    wealthiest    of    the 
provinces,  now  became  the  real  controlling  force, 
and  the  executive  power  in  Holland  was  vested 
in  the  Grand  Pensionary,  an  office  which  from 
1050  to    1672   was   held  "by  Jan  de   Witt    (q.v.). 
This  was  the  golden  age  of  the  Republic,  when 
its  fleets  fought  successfully  against  the  English 
(1652-54  and  1665-67),  anil  made  it  the  leading 
sea   power  of  Europe.     The   prosperity,  wealth, 
and  power  of   the  Republic  brought  it   new  enemies 
]in  the  place  of  decadent  Spain.    Having  united  in 
[1608   with    England   and   Sweden   to   hold   Louis 
(XIV.  in  check,  the  Republic  found  itself,  in  1672, 
Ifacing  both  France  and  England,  the  former  at- 
Itacking    by    land,    the    latter    by    sea.      In    this 
Istruggle    William     III.,    the    young    Prince    of 
•Orange,  posthumous  son  of  William   II..  by  his 
■generalship  and  patriotism  won  the  approval  of 
la  large  party  of  tlie  nobles  and  common  people, 
Iwho  demanded  the  restoration  of  the  stadtholder- 
Iship.      France   had   demanded   the   restoration   of 
Ithe  House  of  Orange  to  its  authority,  but   Wil- 
lliam  had  declined  to  receive  a  gift  forced  by  tlie 
lenemies   of   his   country.      .Ian   and   Cornelius   de 
[Witt,   who   opposed    vesting  anj'   further   powers 
Jin    the    House    of   Orange,    were   murdered    by   a 
Imob    (1672).  and  the  Prince  of  Orange  became 
loncc  more  Stadtholder  and  the  central   figure  in 
Ithe  United   Netherlands.      In  the  shifting  Euro- 
Ipean  policies  of  the  succeeding  years,  the  Repuh- 
llic  found  itself  sometimes  with  one  ally,  soine- 
ftimes  with  another,  sometimes  single-handed,  but 


with  the  calling  of  the  Stadtholder  \\  illiani  to 
the  English  throne  (1688)  it  was  brought  into 
the  large  scheme  of  the  Grand  Alliance  against 
Louis  XIV.  William  of  Orange  and  Heinsius 
Iq.v. ),  the  Grand  Pensionary  of  Holland,  were 
the  soul  of  the  resistance  to  the  schemes  of  the 
French  King.  (See  Loris  XIV.)  By  the  Peace 
of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  closing  the  War  of  the  Span- 
ish Succession  ( see  Slccessio.n  Wars),  the  .Span- 
ish Xcthcrlands  were  handeil  over  to  Austria. 
By  the  Barrier  Treaty,  concluded  with  England 
and  Austria  in  1715,  the  Dutch  acquired  the 
right  of  maintaining  garrisons  in  the  fortified 
towns  of  the  Austrian   (Belgium)   Xcthcrlands. 

There  was  a  de(dine  in  the  prosperity  of  Hol- 
land in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  stadtholdership  had  been  again  set  aside,  but 
it  was  restored  in  1747  and  made  hereditary  in 
William  IV.  of  Nassau-Dietz.  There  were  forty 
years  of  peace  with  the  exception  of  a  brief  naval 
war  with  England,  which  broke  out  at  the  close 
of  1780.  In  1782  the  States-General  formally  rec- 
ognized the  United  States  of  America  as  a  sover- 
eign and  independent  nation,  being  the  second 
Government  in  Europe  so  to  do.  The  Stadthold- 
er's  Government  was  essentially  aristoci"atic,  and 
in  1786  the  rising  democratic  tide  drove  out  Wil- 
liam v.,  who,  however,  was  restored  in  the  follow- 
ing year  through  the  intervention  of  Prussia.  The 
revolutionary  movement  in  France  found  an  echo 
in  the  United  Provinces,  where  the  democratic 
party  welcomed  the  conquests  of  Pichegru  (q.v.). 
The  stadtholdership  was  again  overthrown,  and 
the  Batavian  Republic  was  organized  under  French 
sympathizers  and  in  close  alliance  with  France  in 
I7!15.  Napoleon  made  the  Batavian  Piepublic 
into  the  Kingdom  of  Holland,  with  his  brother 
Louis  as  King  (1806),  but  the  latter  was  too 
faithful  to  the  country  to  suit  his  Imperial 
brother  and  master,  and  he  was  compelled  to 
abdicate  (1810),  and  the  country  was  annexed 
to  the  French  Empire.  In  1813  the  French  were 
expelled  and  the  House  of  Orange  was  restored, 
and  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1815)  annexed  Bel- 
gium to  Holland  and  created  the  new  kingdom  of 
the  Xcthcrlands  under  the  sovereigntv'  of  William 
I.,  the  son  of  the  last  Stadtholder.  Luxemburg 
(q.v.)  was  at  the  same  time  erected  into  a  grand 
duchy  for  the  King  of  the  Xetherlands.  In  the 
course  of  the  Xajiolconic  wars  England  seized  the 
Dutch  colonial  possessions,  and  at  their  close  was 
allowed  to  retain  Cape  Colony,  Ceylon,  and  a 
great  part  of  Surinam.  The  Catholics  of  the 
Belgian  provinces  were  not  content  with  the 
union  with  Holland,  and  revolted  in  1830,  and 
after  fruitless  attempts  by  the  King  to  suppress 
the  revolt,  the  Powers  intervened  and  created  the 
independent  Kingdom  of  Belgium,  under  a  guar- 
antee of  neutrality.  (See  BELGir.M.)  A  final 
settlement  with  Belgium  was  not  effected  until 
1830,  when  Limburg  and  Luxeinburg  were  divided 
between  the  countries.  William  I.  abdicated,  in 
1840  in  favor  of  his  son,  William  II.,  who  was 
better  able  to  enter  upon  harmonious  relations 
with   Belgium. 

William  II.  was  succeeded  by  William  III.  in 
1840.  The  country  for  more  than  half  a  century 
has  enjoyed  a  peaceful  and  prosperous  develop- 
ment, untroubled  by  other  problems  than  those 
of  national  finance,  internal  politics,  and  colo- 
nial administration.  The  last  is  a  question  of 
much  magnitude,  as  the  Dutch  control  over  35,- 
000.000   more   or   less   barbarous   subjects,   their 


NETHERLANDS. 


404 


NETHERLANDS  SCHOOLS. 


coli)iii:il  |i(i->c^>ii)M-.  fiijliiiiciiif'  in  the  Western 
Heiiiisplu'ie,  Uiitcli  Cuiniiii  and  C'uriK.ao.  and  in 
the  Kastern,  .Java,  part  of  Hoineo,  Sumatra, 
Timor,  the  Moluccas,  Celebes,  and  the  west- 
ern half  of  New  Guinea.  These  are  run  as  com- 
mereial  vcnt\ires  and  are  kept  under  rijjid  Gov- 
ernment control.  Slavery  existed  in  the  Western 
Dutch  colonies  until  18(i2  and  a  system  of  ob- 
li^iatory  lalior  under  ollicial  supervision  still 
obtains  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  The  Consti- 
tution, which  had  been  much  liberalized  under 
the  revolutionary  inlluence  of  1848,  was  further 
modified  in  1887.  when  the  suffrage  was  ex- 
tended, the  Upper  House  of  the  States-General, 
elected  by  the  jirovineial  estates,  was  enlarged  to 
fiftv.  and  the  succession  to  the  throne  defined. 
Kiiig  William  111.  died  Xoveniber  23.  ISnO. 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  daughter,  Wil- 
helmina  Ilelcnc  Pauline"  Maria  (q.v.).  who  was 
born  August  HI,  ISSO,  and  was  enthroned  on  her 
eighteciitli  birthday.  She  married  I'rince  Henry 
of  Mccklcnljcrg-Scbwerin.  February  7.  1!U)1.  In 
1898  the  International  Peace  Conference,  called  at 
the  suggestion  of  the  C/.ar  of  Kussia,  was  held  at 
The  Hague,  which  was  made  the  .seat  of  the  inter- 
nntionai  arbitration  tribunal  established  by  the 
conference.  (See  ll.voLK  Pk.vce  Conkekexce.) 
See  Political  Parties,  section  Xethcrlunds. 

Bibliography.  General.  Craandijk  and 
Schipperus,  Wandcrlhuicn  door  \cdcrla)id  met 
pen  en  jMtlood  (Haarlem,  1875-88);  Wood, 
Through  HoUnnd  (London,  1877);  Havard,  In 
the  Heart  of  Uolland  ( ib.,  1880)  ;  Hare,  tiketehes 
in  Holland  and  Henndinaria  (ib.,  188.5)  ;  Aniicis, 
Holland  (Xew  York,  18U.3):  Meldrum.  Holland 
and  the  Hollanders  (ib..  1898):  Griffis,  The 
Ameriean  in  Holland  (Boston.  1899);  Bernard 
and  others.  La  Hollande  geofjraphique,  ethnolo- 
gif/ue.  etc.  (Paris,  1900). 

History.  The  most  thorough  and  scholarly 
history  of  the  Netherlands  is  that  of  Blok, 
Oesehiedeni.i  ran  het  i\'ederland.iehe  Yolk,  four 
volumes  of  which  appeare<l  by  1901.  bringing  the 
account  up  to  1(548.  There  is  an  English  transla- 
tion, bv  Bierstadt  and  Putnam,  Hintorti  of  the 
People'of  the  Setherlands  (New  York,  1898-99). 
Consult  also  Rijsens.  drxthicdenis  drs  Vnder- 
land.i  (Groningen.  1890)  :  Kemi)er.  (lexchiedenis 
ran  Xrlhrrlaml  na  IS.lll  ( .\instcrdam,  1873-7.t)  ; 
■Wenzelburger,  (lesehichte  der  Siederlandr  (Gotha, 
1879-8(i)  :  (;raltan,77i<>  Historij  of  the  Setherlands 
(Philadelphia,  lS:in)  :  Davies.  Histori/  of  Holland 
(London.  18.il )  ;  Motley.  Hise  of  the  Diilrh  h'rpiib- 
lie  (Xew  York.  18.'j8)  ;"id..  HiMonj  of  the  I'niled 
Ketherlandu  (London,  18ti9)  ;  Rogers,  The  Utorji 
of  Holland.  "Htory  of  the  Nations  Series"  (Xew 
York.  1890)  :  •Seignobos.  Hixtoirr  imlitirjue  dc 
VEnrope  eontempurainf  (Paris,  1897):  and  for 
bibliography,  XijhotT.  liihliofirnphia  historiro- 
fieor/raphiea  Seerlandiea  (Tlie  Hague.  189())  ; 
Thorne.  "Reading  List  on  the  Xetherlands."  in 
A'eic  Yorl-  Htate  Librani  Itulleiin,  Bihlioqraphy 
A'o.  fl    (Albany,  1S9S).  ' 

NETHERLANDS  SCHOOLS  OF  PAINT- 
ING, liidrr  tbi^  till.'  iii^iy  Kr^l  be  gn.upcd 
Flemish  and  Dutch  schools,  which  possess  in 
common  certain  distinctive  qualities  and  have 
had  n  similar  development.  The  riemish  school 
may  lie  said  to  begin  with  Huybecht  and  .Ian  van 
Eyek  (died  1440).  whose  remarkable  improve- 
ment of  oil  |iainting  revolutionized  the  art.  The 
chief  characteristics  of  the  early  Flemish  school 
are  a  pronounced  realism,  highly  detailed  finish, 


and  the  use  of  landscape  background;  its  best 
painters  had  a  good  sense  of  color,  perspective, 
atmosphere,  light  and  shade.  Jan  van  Eyck 
founded  the  school  of  Bruges,  the  chief  centre  in 
Flanders;  and  his  follower  or  rival.  Roger  van 
der  Weyden  (died  14G4),  founded  the  school  of 
Brabant,  with  a  centre  at  Brus.sels,  which  was 
more  emotional  and  dramatic  in  character.  In 
the  sixtecntli  century  the  chief  scat  of  the  Flem- 
ish school  was  at  Antwerp,  where  Quentin  Massys 
(died  1530)  founded  a  school,  which  in  the 
seventeenth  century  found  its  oilmination  in 
Rubens  (1577-1040)  and  bis  pupils.  Van  Dyck 
and  .Jordaens.  The  productions  of  the  later  Flem- 
ish school  are  characterized  by  brilliant  line  and 
color,  though  they  are  materialistic  and  lack 
beauty  of  face  and  tenderness  of  feeling.  Al- 
though Flemish  as  regards  its  characteristic 
realisnf.  it  was  nuich  intluenced  by  Italian  paint- 
ing, especially  in  color.  Contemporary  with 
Rubens  and  his  followers  were  a  number  of  im- 
portant genre  painters,  who  were  thoroughly 
Flemish,  untouched  by  Italian  infiuence.  The 
chief  representatives  were  Teniers  the  Yoiuiger, 
Brouwer,  and  (Jonzales  Coques.  In  the  eigh- 
teenth century  Flemish  painting  declined,  and 
was  of  little  importance. 

The  painting  of  the  early  Dutch  school  re- 
sembles that  of  the  Flemisli.  and  was  much  inlbi- 
enced  by  the  Van  Eycks.  Haarlem  is  recorded  as 
being  the  chief  centre,  but  none  of  the  works  of 
the  reputed  founder  of  the  school,  Aclbert  Ouwater 
(fifteenth  century),  survive.  Its  chief  nuisters 
were  Dierick  Bouts  (died  1475)  and  Lucas  van 
Leyden  (1494-1533).  The  sixteenth  century  was 
a  period  of  Italian  influence  and  unimportant 
productions,  but  the  seventeenth  was  the  golden 
age  of  Dutch  painting.  Haarlem  remained  the 
chief  centre,  and  there  was  an  important  school 
at  AmstcTdam.  With  an  entire  absence  of  Ital- 
ian infiuence.  there  arose  an  art  more  realistic, 
more  distinctly  national  than  the  Flemish.  The 
overthrow  of  Spain  and  Catholicism  did  away 
with  the  demand  for  religious  paintings,  which 
were  superseded  by  portrait,  genre,  land-cape, 
and  animal  subjects.  In  these  the  Dutch 
achieved  perfection  alike  in  color  and  design, 
but  they  seldom  attenii)ted  larger  compositions, 
in  which  they  were  indilTerently  successful. 
Among  the  Dutch  artists  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, the  chief  masters  in  portraiture  are  Frans 
Hais  and  Rembrandt;  the  latter  was  equally 
great  in  landscape,  and  introduced  light  effects, 
which  have  not  yet  ceased  to  infiuence  painting. 
In  genre  painting  the  most  important  were 
Adriaen  van  Ostade  for  peasant  scenes,  and 
Gerard  Terburg  for  more  rcfine<i  subjects,  besides 
Gerard  Dou.  .Ian  Stcen,  Pieter  dc  Ilooghe.  and 
Jan  van  der  Meer.  The  Dutch  were  the  first  to 
practice  landscape  and  animal  painting  for  its 
own  sake;  their  greatest  landscajiists  were  Ruys- 
dael  and  Hobbema,  while  in  aniuial  painting 
Wouverman.  Paul  Potter,  Adriaen  van  de  Veldc, 
and  .\elbert  Cnyp  are  preeminent.  In  murines 
the  greatest  names  are  Willem  van  de  Vcblc  the 
Younger  and  Backhuisen:  and  in  all  the  branches 
of  still-life  jiainting  the  Dutch  excelled  prcileces- 
sors  and  contemporaries.  In  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury a  new  school,  distinctly  Dutch,  arose,  includ- 
ing important  artists  like  Israels,  the  jieasant 
painter,  the  brothers  Maris  in  landscape.  Me.sdag 
in  nmrines,  and  Mauve  in  animal  subjects. 

Bibliography.     The  chief  source  for  the  lives 


NETHERLANDS  SCHOOLS. 


405 


NETS. 


of  tile  paiuteiN.  the  \';i^;iri  of  llio  Xi-tliPrlaiuls, 
is  \'an  M.-nuliT.  Ilrt  siliildi:r-bocck  ( Alkniaar, 
1604)  ;  also,  Hoiilimkcii,  Of  (jruote  achuuburg 
der  nederlnndschc  Icuiintscltildersi  (Ainsterdaiii, 
1718).  Of  niodeni  works,  tlie  best  are:  van  Kyn- 
den  and  van  der  \\illif;en.  (leschiedeni.i  der  vader- 
laiidschc  scliihlcriidi.'it,  sedert  de  helft  des  JSde 
eeuw  (Haarlem,  ISlili);  Immerzcel,  Dc  Icvcits 
en  trcrhrns  der  llolliind'iclic  en  Miiamsrlie  kunst- 
schilders  (Amsterdam,  lS42-4;i);  Blane,  Uis- 
toirf  lies  jicintris  liolldiKldis  et  fliimands  (Paris, 
1852-57);  Froiiientin,  Lfs  maUrcn  d'nutrefois: 
Bclyiquc  ef  Hiillandc  (Paris,  1870;  English  trans- 
lation. Boston,  1882)  ;  Riepel,  licitriipc  zur  nie- 
dcrliindiHrhcn  Kiinstr/cschicliie  (Berlin,  1882); 
Kuglcr,  lliindbook  of  I'aintinff — (Icrman,  Flem- 
ish, and  Dutch  Schooli  (Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1808)  :  Van  Dyke,  Old  Dutch  and  Flemish  Mas- 
ters (Xew  York,  1896)  ;  Pliilippi,  Die  Bliithe  der 
Malerei  in  Belgien  und  Holland  (Leipzig,  1900- 
01). 

For  the  Flemish  school,  consult:  Michiels,  His- 
toire  de  la  peintiirc  /lamande  (Brussels,  1865-74)  ; 
Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  Early  Flemish  Painters 
(London,  1872)  ;  Rooses,  Geschichte  der  Maler- 
schule  Antirerpms,  trans,  by  Reber  (Munich, 
1880)  ;  Van  den  Branden,  Geschicdenis  der  Ant- 
werpsche  Schildcrscliool  (Antwerp,  1883)  ;  and 
especially  W'auters,  La  pei)iturc  /lamande  (Paris, 
1884).  For  contemporary  Belgian  painting,  con- 
sult: Lenionnier,  Histoire  des  beaux-arts  en  Bel- 
ijifjue  (Brussels,  1881);  De  Mont,  Die  graplii- 
sch<-n  Kiinstc  im  heutigen  Belgien  (Vienna,  1902). 
For  the  Dutch  school,  consult:  Bode,  Studien  zur 
Geschichte  der  holUindischen  Malerei  (Bruns- 
wick, 1883)  ;  Wurzbaeh,  Geschichte  der  hollUn- 
dischcn  Malerei  (Leipzig,  1885)  ;  Havard,  La 
peinture  hollandaise  (Paris;  English  trans..  New 
York,  1885)  ;  van  der  Willigen,  Les  artistes  de 
Haarlem  (The  Hague,  1780)  ;  Vosmaer,  Onze  he 
dcndaagsche  schilders   (Amsterdam,  1883-85). 

NETH'EESOLE,  Olga  (1870—).  An  Eng- 
lish actress,  liorn  in  London,  .January  18,  1870. 
She  appeared  on  the  London  stage  in  1888  at  the 
Royal  Adelphi  Tlieatre,  having  begun  her  career 
at  Brighton  the  year  before.  She  was  soon  a 
member  of  .John  Hare's  company  at  the  Garriek, 
where  one  of  her  early  successes  was  in  The 
Profligate.  In  1890  she  made  a  tour  to  Aus- 
tralia. Late  in  1894  she  first  came  to  America, 
where  she  soon  became  well  known  in  Camille, 
Carmen.  Hapho.  and  other  characters,  one  of  her 
best  being  Paula  in  A.  W.  Pinero's  The  Second 
Mrs.  Tamineray.  in  which  she  appeared  in  New 
Y'ork  in  1899.  Consult  Strang.  Famous  Actresses 
of  the  Dag  in  America  (Boston,  1899). 

NETHINIM,    ne'the-nem'    (Heb.,    given    fto 

God],  from  nOthnn,  to  give).  The  lowest  order 
of  ministers  of  the  Temple  at  .Jerusalciii,  men- 
tioned only  in  Chronicles  and  Ezra-Nehemiah. 
They  are  distinguished  from  the  Levites,  but 
were  of  suilieient  importance  to  make  Ezra 
solicitous  for  a  large  following  of  them  with 
his  mission  to  Jerusalem  (Ezra  viii.  17-20). 
They  enjoyed  the  immunities  of  the  priesthood 
(ill.  vii.  24).  possessed  a  distinct  quarter  on  the 
Temple  hill,  along  with  allotments  in  the  towns 
(Xeh.  iii.  31;  Ezra  ii.  70),  and  shared  in  the 
civic  life  of  Israel  (Neh.  x.  28).  Their  name, 
along  with  their  subordinate  position,  shows  that 
the  caste  originally  consisted  of  slaves  piously 
devoted  to  the  sanctuary,  like  the  Greek  hiero- 


<lulcs,  to  perform  its  menial  dulies.  The  tradi- 
tion is  preserved  that  David  and  his  princes 
■gave'  these  servants  (Ezra  viii.  20).  one  division 
of  them  being  associated  with  Solomon  (ib.  ii. 
55).  The  large  nund)er  of  foreign  names  among 
the  Xethinim  suggests  that  they  were  largely 
drafted  from  prisoners  of  war  (cf.  Joshua  ix. 
23).  But  time  broke  down  the  raeial  distinction, 
and  their  voUuitarv  return  after  the  Exile  seems 
to  have  oljliteruted  all  degradation.  The  Talnuid, 
with  its  often  abstract  view  of  history,  outlaws 
them  as  heathen,  but  this  view  is  contradicted  by 
the  Bible.  Consult;  Baudissin,  Die  Geschichte  des 
alttestamentlichcn  Priesterthums  untersucht,  p. 
142  (Leipzig,  1880)  ;  Rylc,  '-Xehemiah,"  in  the 
Cambridge  Bible  for  Schools  and  Colleges  (Cam- 
bridge. 1893)  ;  Joseph  .Jacobs,  Studies  in  Biblical 
Archwologg    (London,   1894). 

NETHOU,  na'too',  Pic  DE.  The  highest  peak 
of  tlie  Pyrenees.  It  is  situated  in  the  S])anish 
Province  of  Htiesca.  immediately  south  of  the 
French  boundary,  40  miles  west  of  Andorra.  Its 
height  is  11,109  feet,  and  it  forms  with  the  neigh- 
boring Pic  de  la  Maladetta  (  10.807  feet)  and  Pic 
du  Milieu  (11,010  feet)  the  Maladetta  group, 
a  steep  and  jagged  granite  mass.  On  its  north- 
ern slope  lies  an  extensive  glacier.  The  summit 
is  often  ascended  for  the  splendid  view  which  it 
affords. 

NETS  (AS.  net,  Goth.  nati.  OHG.  nezzi,  Ger. 
Xetz.  net,  of  doubtful  etymology :  possibl}'  con- 
nected with  Lat.  nassa,  weel ) .  0])en  fabrics  of 
cotton,  linen,  hemp,  silk,  or  other  material,  whose 
threads  tisually  cross  each  other  at  right  angles, 
leaving  a  comparatively  large  open  space  between 
them.  The  open  spaces  in  nets  are  called  meshes. 
The  threads  may  be  tied  at  their  intersection, 
thus  constituting  a  true  netting,  or  they  may  be 
simply  crossed  by  the  process  of  weaving.  The 
art  of  net-making  has  been  practiced  from  tlie 
earliest  times.  Even  where  the  art  of  weaving 
was  quite  unknown,  as  in  some  of  the  South  Sea 
Islands  when  first  discovered,  that  of  netting  was 
well  tinderiftood ;  hence  we  find  among  savage 
tribes,  almost  universally,  nets  are  used  not 
only  for  fishing,  but  also  for  entrapping  land 
animals.  N^umerous  illustrations  of  the  use  of 
nets  for  both  purposes  are  foimd  in  the  bas-reliefs 
of  Assyria,  Greece,  and  Rome,  and  in  the  mural 
paintings  of  Egypt. 

A  great  variety  of  nets  are  in  use  among 
fishermen,  but  the  principal  are  the  seine  and 
the  trawl.  The  seine  is  a  very  long  but  not  very 
wide  net,  one  side  of  which  is  loaded  with  pieces 
of  lead,  and  consequently  sinks;  the  other,  or 
upper  side,  is  buoyed  with  pieces  of  cork,  and 
consequently  is  kept  up  to  the  surface.  When 
stretched  out  they  constitute  walls  of  net-work 
in  the  water,  and  are  made  to  inclose  schools  of 
fish.  The  trawl  is  dracged  along  the  bottom 
by  the  fishing-boat.  It  is  a  large  net.  often  50 
feet  wide  and  100  feet  deep,  narrowing  into  a 
fine-meshed  purse  at  the  extremity,  with  pockets 
at  the  sides  to  retain  the  entangled  fish.  Some- 
times the  mouth  is  stretched  apart  by  an  iron 
beam,  which  rests  upon  supports  shaped  like 
rimners,  holding  the  distended  net  up  about  three 
feet  from  the  sea  bottom,  while  the  belly  of  the 
net.  held  in  front  by  the  ground  rope,  drags  along 
the  bottom.  Such  nets,  called  beam-trauls.  are 
operated  in  deep  water  by  large  fishing  smacks. 

Various  kinds  of  nets  are  used  in  bird-eatehing, 
and  also  in  catching  quadrupeds,  chiefly  for  the 


NETS. 


406 


NETTLE. 


purpose  of  inclosing  spaeus  within  wliiuli  tlii-y 
iirir,  but  sometimes  also  lor  throwinj;  upon  them 
to  eonl'usc  and  entangle  them.  Nets  are  used  by 
gardeners  to  protect  crops  from  birds;  also  to 
protect  the  blossoms  of  trees  from  frost. 

Other  fabrics  for  various  uses,  with  wide,  open 
meshes  are  also  called  nets,  as  liair-iivls.  mosquito 
nets,  etc.  See  also  L.\CE;  Bobbixet;  Brussels 
Xet;  K.nittixg. 

NETSCHER,  net'sher,  Iv-vspAR  (U;30-S4).  A 
Dutch  ;;c'nre  and  portrait  painter,  burn  at  Heidel- 
berg. He  was  the  pujjil  of  K(i>Ier  at  Arnheini, 
but  belongs  to  the  school  of  Tcrburg  and  Mctsu. 
On  a  proposed  journey  to  Italy  he  got  as  far  as 
]!ordeau.\,  and  although  he  paid  a  second  visit 
to  France,  he  afterwards  lived  at  The  Hague, 
and  was  free  of  the  guild  in  lGt)3.  His  best  work 
is  in  portraiture  on  a  small  scale,  and  in  small 
genre  subjects.  His  earlier  and  middle  works 
are  superior  to  his  later  jjainting.  in  which  his 
colors  are  often  liarsh  and  un|)leasing.  In  his 
best  period,  Xetscher  is  disiinguishcd  for  the 
elegance  and  grace  of  his  tigures.  especially  of 
children — his  nielhiw.  golden  tone,  and  his  fond- 
ness for  and  skill  in  treating  draperies  and  ac- 
cessories. The  Dresden  Gallery  is  rich  in  good 
pictures  by  him.  They  include:  "(Jentlcman  with 
Guitar"  (IGOS)  ,  "Lady  with  a  Sjianicl,"  "Lady 
at  the  Piano."  and  "Woman  Singing,"  and  two 
portraits  of  Madame  de  ilontespan.  The  Na- 
tional (iallery.  London,  has  his  "Lady  at  a  Spin- 
ning Wheel""  and  "Children  Blowing  Bubiiles;" 
the  Louvre,  his  "Singing  Lesson"  and  "\'iolon- 
cello  Lesson:"  the  Jletropolitan  Museum.  New 
York  City,  the  "Portrait  of  a  Dutch  Lady:"  and 
the  Historical  Society.  "Madame  de  Montespan 
as  Saint  Cecilia."  Several  of  his  best  works  are 
in  private  collections  in  England.  He  also 
painted  historical  subjects,  but  with  less  success. 
His  son  and  pupil  Co.xst.\xtyx  (1G6S1722), 
born  at  The  Hague,  was  a  genre  and  portrait 
painter  in  the  same  style.  Another  son.  TiiEo- 
Douis  (  lfiril-173-2) ,  born  at  Bordeaiix.  also  a 
portrait  and  genre  painter,  lived  in  Kngland  for 
some  tinic.  and  was  esteemed  there  for  his  por- 
traits. 

NETSTJKE,  ni't's'-ka'  (from  .Ta]!.  ?!<•.  wood, 
root  +  Isiihr,  to  suspend).  A  button  of  wood, 
crystal,  or  ])orcelain.  but  usually  of  ivorj-,  by 
wliieli  the  .Japanese  smoker  suspends  his  outfit 
of  tobacco.  Hint  and  steel,  pipe.  etc..  from  his 
girdle.  Often  the  netsukO  is  elaborately  carved, 
and  is  among  the  most  characteristic  products  of 
native  skill.  The  best  specimens,  which  have  en- 
graved on  them  the  mark  of  the  carver,  are  very 
costly,  and  are  valued  by  both  native  and  foreign 
collectors,  as  objects  of  art. 

NETTEMENT,  net'miiN',  .\i.FREn  FRANrois 
Mf'O.'i-iiiM.  A  French  journalist  and  historian, 
burn  in  Paris.  He  early  began  to  contribute  to 
the  m.igazincs,  and  was  a  consistent  Catholic  in 
religion  and  legitimist  in  politics.  In  IS48 
he  founded  the  review  h'Ophiion  PiiMiiiur.  and  in 
it  expressed  his  own  opinions  so  forcibly  that, 
after  the  coup  ilY-tat  of  1S51.  the  paper  was  sup- 
pressed and  Xettement  imprisoned.  .Vmong  his 
works  are:  llistoirr  ilr  In  f'rriiliilinii  ilr  jiiHIrt 
(  18.1.T)  ;  llistoirr  (1r  In  lilti'riilurr  fraii^aisr  sous 
la  livstnurntirin  (18.^21;  llistoirr  <lr  la  litt/rn- 
turr  frnut^nisr  sous  la  roiiaut^  dr  juillrt  (18.T4)  ; 
llistoirr  <lr  In  ttcstnuration  (ISfiOtiS);  Eluflrs 
critiques  sur  le  feuilletan  romnn  (1845-46)  ;  and 


FiV  lie  madame  hi  nuirquisc  dc  la  ItwhcjacqucUn 
(ISoS). 

NET'TEB,  Thom.\s,  also  called  Waldexsis, 
frcim  his  birthplace.  Sallron  Waldcn,  Kssex 
(c.1375-1430) .  An  English  Carmelite  monk. 
He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  rose  to  eminence  as 
a  man  of  learning  and  business  capacity.  He 
was  elected  provincial  prior  of  the  English  Car- 
melites in  1414.  and  was  confessor  to  Henry  V. 
and  to  Henry  VL  He  died  at  Kouen.  France, 
Xovember  2,  1430.  He  threw  himself  with  great 
ardor  into  the  lists  against  the  Lollards,  and  so 
won  the  sobriciuct  of  'Prince  of  Controversial- 
ists.' His  chief  writings  against  them  are  Doc- 
triniile  Fidei  Ecclesiw  Vatholirw  contra  Wiclevis- 
tas  rt  Hussitas,  and.  especially  valuable  for  its 
document.s.  Fasciculi  Zizaniorum  Jolmnnis  Wyclif 
(ed.  by  Shirley,  London,   1858). 

NETTLE  (AS.  netele,  netle,  OHG.  nezxila, 
iiczila,  diminutive  of  nnzza,  nettle,  Ger.  yrssel, 
Ir.  Heiiairf,  nettle,  probahly  connected  with  OPrus. 
noatis,  Lith.  iiotrrr.  Lett,  mitres.  Gk.  dSfxi;.  adikC; 
nettle).  A  common  name  of  Urtica,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Urticacea;  having 
unisexual  Hnwers.  The  species  are  annual  or 
peremiial  herbs  with  occasionally  shrubby  bases, 
many  of  them  covered  with  stinging  hairs,  which 
emit  an  acid  juice  and  pierce  the  skin  when 
touched,  often  causing  nuicli  inllammation  and 
pain:  when  grasped  in  such  a  way  as  to  press  the 
hairs  to  the  stem,  no  stinging  ensues.  The 'spe- 
cies of  a  number  of  distinct  genera  were  formerly 
included  in  the  genus,  especially  those  having 
stinging  hairs,as  Laportea.Pipturus,  and  Pouzol- 
zia.  Some  of  these  are  shrubs  or  even  trees,  the 
giant  nettle  tree  of  Australia  attaining  great 
size.  The  sting  of  East  Indian  species  is  nuich 
more  severe  than  that  of  European  and  American 
si>ecies.  i'rtira  crenuhita  or  Lufiorlca  crruulata 
is  said  to  produce  a  sensation  similar  to  the  con- 
tinual application  of  a  hot  iron,  and  even  after 
the  lapse  of  several  days  this  may  return  upon 
the  application  of  cold  water,  a  .sensation  more 
or  less  pronounced  with  other  species.  The 
roots  of  nettles,  boiled  in  alum,  afford 
a  yellow  dye:  and  the  juice  of  the  stalk 
and  leaves  has  been  used  to  dye  woolen 
stufi's  a  beautiful  and  permanent  green.  The 
small  nettle  (Z'rtica  ureus)  and  the  great  nettle 
I  I'rtica  dioica),  introduced  EurojH'an  species,  are 
abundant  in  America.  Whatever  gives  nettles 
flieir  stinging  power  is  dissipated  by  boiling. 
The  high  value  of  nettles  as  food  for  swine,  poul- 
try, and  particularly  for  turkeys,  is  well  known 
to  the  peasantry  of  many  countries:  the  great 
nettle  is  cultivated  in  Sweden  for  fodder.  The 
seeds  are  nutritious  to  poultry,  and  it  is  claimed 
are  given  to  horses  by  jockeys,  in  order  to  make 
them  lively  when  they  are  to  be  olTcred  for  sale. 
The  stalks  and  leaves  of  nettles  are  empliiyed  in 
some  parts  of  England  for  the  manufacture  of  a 
light  kind  of  beer,  called  nettle  beer.  The  bast 
lilire  if  nettles  is  used  for  textile  purposes.  Yarn 
and  cloth,  both  of  the  coarsest  and  linest  de- 
scriptions, can  he  made  of  it.  The  (ilue  of 
I'rtica  dioirn.  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  is 
still  employed  in  Piedmont  and  other  cmmtries. 
When  wanted  for  tilirc.  the  plant  is  cut  in  mid- 
summer, and  treated  like  hemp.  The  names  nettle 
yarn  and  nettle  cloth  are,  lunvevi^r.  now  coin- 
miinly  given  in  most  parts  of  Europe  to  particular 
linen    and   cotton    fabrics.      The    fibre   of    Vrlira 


NETTLE. 


407 


NEUBRANDENBURG. 


cunnahimi,  a  native  of  Uie  south  of  Siljtria  and 
other  middle  parts  of  Asia,  is  much  used ;  and 
from  other  speeies  both  line  lace  and  strong  ropes 
can  be  manufactured.  The  fibre  of  Lrlica  japo- 
nica,  or  I'ouzohki  viiiiiiwa,  is  much  used  in  Ja- 
pan, and  also  that  of  Urtica  argcnlea  (or  Plptii- 
rus  urgnttvus)  in  the  fSouth  Sea  Islands,  and 
of  Urtica  yrucilis  in  Canada.  Urtica  tube- 
roan,  or  I'ouzolzia  tiiherosa,  produces  nutri- 
tious tubers,  which  are  eaten  in  India  raw, 
boiled,  or  roasted.  Australia  produces  a 
nuignificent  tree-nettle,  Laportca  (litius,  abun- 
dant in  some  parts  of  Xew  South  Wales,  which 
sometimes  reaches  a  height  of  140  feet  with  a 
trunk  of  great  thickness,  and  very  large  green 
leaves,  which,  wlien  young,  sting  violently.  In 
some  places  it  forms  scrub  forests,  and  its  sting- 
ing leaves  form  a  great  impediment  to  the 
traveler.  The  common  nettle  tree  of  the  United 
States  is  a  species  of  C'eltis  (see  H.\ckberky)  ; 
the  name  dead  nettle  is  given  to  certain  species 
of  Lamium,  a  genus  of  the  order  Labiatae.  Brrh- 
nin'id  nirea,  often  called  false  nettle,  supplies 
China   gru'is  or   ramie    (q.v. ). 

NETTLE-BUTTERFLY.  Any  of  several 
species  of  butterllies,  whose  eggs  are  laid  upon 
the  leaves  of  nettles,  namely  Pyranicis  Atulanta, 
Pijrnmcis  carihii,  and  Vanessa  vrticcF,  the  last, 
as  its  scientific  name  shows,  being  an  especial 
freciuenter  of  those  plants.  The  two  former  are 
co--inopiililan.  while  the  Vanessa  is  European. 

NETTLE  FAMILY.  A  natural  order  of 
plants.     See  Urticace.e. 

NETTLE  RASH.  An  affection  of  the  skin  of 
nervous  origin,  due  to  the  poison  of  the  nettle, 
and  consisting  of  wheals  of  red  color,  extremely 
tender  and  also  itching.  The  slightest  contact 
with  the  hair  or  spine  of  the  nettle  will  cause 
an  efflorescence  of  the  eruption,  which  first  ap- 
l)ears  as  white  elevations,  but  rapidly  turns  red. 
The  true  primary  cause  of  the  erujition  is  the 
special  susceptibility  of  the  vaso-niotor  nervous 
system.  Hence  for  a  few  people  the  saying  is 
true:  "Grasp  the  nettle  and  it  will  not  sting 
yon."    See  I'rticaria. 

NET'TLESHIP,  Hexrt  (1839-93).  An  Eng- 
lish classical  scliolar.  born  in  Kettering,  Xorth- 
aniptonshire,  England,  ilay  .5.  IS.'ill.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Cathedral  School,  Durham. 
Charterliouse,  and  Oxford,  where  lie  w-as  elected 
Fellow  of  Lincoln,  and  gained  the  Chancellor's 
Latin  Essay  Prize.  From  1S68  to  1873  he  was 
assistant  master  at  Harrow.  In  1870  he  mar- 
ried the  eldest  daughter  of  Rev.  T.  H.  Steel,  his 
colleague  at  Harrow.  In  1873  he  was  appointed 
fellow  and  tutor  of  Corpus  Christi  College  anil 
classical  lecturer  at  Christ  Church.  Oxford,  which 
appointments  he  resigned  on  being  made  Corpus 
professor  of  Latin  literature  in  the  University 
of  Oxford.  1878.  He  published  and  edited  many 
classical  works,  among  them  a  commentary  on 
JEncid  X.  and  xii.;  a  revised  edition  of  Coning- 
ton's  Vergil  (London.  1883)  ;  Lectures  and  Es- 
sags  on  f^ulijccts  Connreted  irith  Latin  Literature 
and  i^elwlarsliip  (Oxford,  188.5;  second  series, 
edited  by  Haverfield,  Oxford,  1893)  ;  and  Coh- 
trih)itio)ts  to  Latin  Lexicographg  (Oxford.  1889). 

NETTLESHIP,  JonN  Trivett  (1841-1902). 
.\n  English  animal  painter  and  author,  born  at 
Kettering.  He  was  a  pupil  at  Heatherlcy's  and  at 
the  Slade  School,  imder  Poynter.  and  studied 
animal  life  at  the  Zoological  Gardens.     His  fa- 


vorite subjects  were  lions,  l)cars,  and  tigers.  His 
drawing  is  accurate,  and  his  treatment  broad  and 
masculine.  He  began  to  exhibit  in  1874.  His 
pictures  include:  "The  Destrover"  (1S89);  "A 
Death  Grip"  (1892);  '■Kich  Spoil"  (1893);  "A 
Big  Drink"  (1893)  ;  "The  ISlood  Trail"  (1895)  ; 
"The  Honey  Stealer"  (189(i);  "Into  the  Silent 
Sea"  (1900);  "Wandering"  (1902).  He  also 
wrote  liuhert  lirownimj:  Essags  and  Thoughts 
(1890),  a  valuable  and  illuminative  work,  and 
George  ilorland,  and  the  Evolution  from  Jliin  of 
Some  Later  Painters  (1898). 

NETTLETON,  Alfred  E.^takd  (1838—). 
An  American  soldier  and  journalist,  born  at 
Berlin,  Delaware  County,  Oliio.  He  .studied  at 
Oberlin  College,  but  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  Federal  army, 
and  before  the  conclusion  of  peace  rose  to  the 
rank  of  colonel  of  the  Second  Ohio  Cavalry  and 
brevet  brigadier-general.  He  then  studied  law, 
but  afterwards  did  news])aper  work  in  Sandusky, 
Ohio,  Chicago,  Pliiladelphia.  and  iiinneapolis. 
From  1870  to  1875  he  was  actively  interested  in 
the  construction  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad, 
and  for  the  next  five  years  in  various  mining  and 
manufacturing  enterprises.  He  was  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  United  States  Treasurj'  from 
1890  to"lS93.  and  for  a  short  time  after  Secre- 
tary Windom's  death  served  as  Secretary. 

NETTLE  TREE,  ^'arious  American  orna- 
mental trees  and  shrubs  of  the  natural  order 
Urticace.T.  known  by  siuidry  jiopular  names,  as 
hackberry    (q.v.). 

NEUBAUER,  noiliou-er.  Adolf  (1832—). 
An  English  Semitic  scholar,  born  in  Hungary, 
and  educated  at  Prague.  JIunich,-and  Paris.  He 
was  sub-librarian  of  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Ox- 
ford in  1873-99,  and  reader  of  Rabbinical  litei'a- 
ture  to  the  university  in  1886-1900.  Neu- 
bauer  published  Medieeval  Jewish  Chronicles 
and  Chronological  yotes  in  the  Semitic  Series  of 
the  "Anecdota  Oxoniensia;"  Histoire  de  la  lexi- 
coqraphie  hchraique  (1801-62);  (Icographie  du 
Talmud  (1868);  The  Pook  of  Hebrew  Roots 
(1875)  :  The  Book  of  Tobit  ( 1878)  ;  Catalogue  of 
JJebreio  Manuscripts  in  the  Bodleian  Lihra>-y 
(1886)  ;  and  On  the  Dialects  l^poken  in  Palestine 
al    the  Time  of  Christ    (1888). 

NEUBER,  noi'ber,  FRiEnERiKE  Karoline 
(1097-1760).  A  CJerman  actress.  She  was  born 
in  Reichenbach.  and  her  maiden  name  was 
Weissenborn.  From  the  undue  restraint  of  her 
father's  house,  she  fled  in  1718  with  ber  lover, 
Xeuber,  to  Weissenfels,  where  the.y  joined  some 
strolling  comedians.  Seven  years  afterwards, 
with  another  company  which  she  had  entirely 
reorganized,  she  appe:uvd  at  Leipzig.  Meeting 
Gottsched,  she  became  a  convert  to  his  gos])el  of 
French  classical  methods.  In  1737  she  presented 
the  play  Verlreibung  und  Tod  des  Hanswurst. 
A  short  tour  to  Saint  Peter.sburg  ( 1740)  seems  to 
have  been  the  turning  point  in  ber  career.  She 
quarreled  with  Gottsched  on  her  return,  lost  her 
company  twice,  and  she  failed  in  her  attempt  to 
rehabilitate  ber  fortunes  as  an  actress.  Consult 
the  biography  by  Von  Reden-Esbeek  (Leipzig, 
1881). 

NEUBRANDENBURG.  noi-briin'drnbnrrrK. 
.V  town  in  the  Granil  Duchy  of  Mecklenbnrg- 
Strelitz.  Germany,  near  Lake  Tollense,  about  18 
miles  northeast  of  Xeiistrelitz  (ilap:  Germany, 
E  2).     Its  old  walls,  still  standing,  and  its  four 


NETJBKANDENBUEG. 


408 


NEUENDOBFF. 


liandsoiiie  Gothic  jjatcs  give  llic  towu  a  mediicval 
ap|iearaiiee.  Tlie  Uotliic  -Marieiikiixhe  dates  from 
tlie  tliirteenth  century.  Near  by  is  the  grand 
ducal  pleasure  pahice  of  Belvedere.  There  are 
manufactures  of  machines,  pianos,  paper,  and 
brandy.  Population,  in  1000,  10..5()0.  Xeubran- 
denburg  .was  founded  in   1248. 

NEUCHATEL,  ne'sha'ti-l',  or  NETJFCHA- 
TEL.  The  capital  of  tlie  c;tnton  of  the  same  name 
in  Switzerland,  situated  on  the  Lake  of  Xeu- 
chatel,  about  25  miles  west  of  Bern  (Map: 
Switzerland,  A  2).  it  is  a  well-built  town,  with 
a  picturesque  location  and  fine  public  buildings. 
A  beautiful  avenue  extends  along  the  water- 
front, and  one  of  the  squares  is  adorned  with  a 
statue  of  the  XcucliAtel  merchant,  David  de 
l^iirry,  to  whose  generosity  the  town  owes  many 
of  its  institutions,  Tlie  twelfth  century  abbey 
church  contains  a  line  monument,  erected  in  1372, 
to  the  counts  of  Xcuchatel.  The  old  chateau  is 
now  the  seat  of  the  lautonal  government.  Xeu- 
chatcl  is  well  provided  with  educational  insti- 
tutions, which  include  a  Latin  college  with  a 
valua!)le  natural  historv-  collection,  an  academy 
with  four  faculties,  a  <^'mnasium,  a  museum  of 
natural  history,  an  historical  and  ethnographical 
museum,  a  museum  of  fine  arts,  and  a  library  of 
100,000  volumes.  Tliere  are  a  number  of  pri- 
vate boarding-schools,  attended  mostly  by  for- 
eigners. Near  the  town  is  the  cantonal  observa- 
tory. The  industries  of  X'euehfilcl  include  the 
manufacturing  of  watches,  electrical  apparatus, 
and  jcwclrv.  The  trade  is  of  some  impurtance. 
Population',  in  1000,  20,843,  chiefly  French  Prot- 
estants. For  history,  see  the  article  on  the 
Canton  of  XeuchAtel.  Consult  Bachelin,  Neucn- 
hi'ffi  Viiil  i' nif/'  fntufj    fZuricli.  1883  1. 

NEUCHATEL,  or  NET7FCHATEL,  ne'sha'- 
tel'  (Ger.  yruenhiirg).  A  western  canton  of 
Switzerland,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Canton 
of  Bern,  on  the  east  by  the  Canton  of  Bern  and 
the  Lake  of  XeuchAtel,  on  the  south  by  the  Can- 
ton of  \'aud,  and  on  the  west  by  the  French  De- 
partment of  Doubs.  Area,  312  square  miles 
(Map:  Switzerland,  A  2).  The  whole  country 
belongs  to  the  region  of  the  .Tura,  and  is  gencralU- 
divided  into  three  parts:  the  region  nhmg  the 
lake,  ranging  in  altitude  from  about  1400  to  over 
2000  feet,  and  famous  for  its  wine;  the  central 
portion,  with  an  average  altitude  of  over  2700 
feet  and  producing  principally  cereals;  and  the 
forest  region  of  the  west,  devoted  chielly  to  pas- 
toral purposes,  Hy<lrographicalIy  the  canton 
belongs  ])artly  to  the  Aare  and  partly  to  the 
Doubs.  The  principal  minerals  are  asphalt,  ce- 
ment, and  building  stones.  Besides  agriculture, 
viticulture,  and  stock-raising,  the  fundamental 
industries  of  the  canton,  the  inhabitants  are  en- 
gaged in  watch-making,  distilling,  and  in  manti- 
facturing  cables,  electrical  apjiaratns,  paper,  and 
chocolate.  The  Constitution  of  the  canton,  origi- 
nally adopted  in  IS'jS.  jirovides  for  a  grand  coun- 
cil electeil  directly  for  three  years  at  the  rate  of 
one  member  to  every  1000  inhabitants.  The  five 
members  of  the  executive  council  are  appointed 
by  the  grand  ccuincil  for  three  years.  The  refer- 
endum was  adopted  in  1870.  and  the  initiative  in 
1882.  For  the  administration  of  justice  there 
are  a  number  of  justices  <if  the  peace,  several 
industrial  arbitration  courts,  and  a  court  of  ap- 
peals at  XeuchAtel,  The  canton  is  represented  by 
five  members  in  the  National  Council.     For  ad- 


ministrative purposes  XeuchAtel  is  divided  into 
six  districts.  Population,  in  1800,  10S,lo3;  in 
1000,  120,279.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Prot- 
estants and  speak  French.  Capital.  XeuchAtel 
(q.v.). 

The  mediaeval  countship  of  XeuchAtel  passed  in 
lo04  to  the  House  of  UrlOans-Longueville.  In 
1707,  on  the  extinction  of  the  XeuchAtel  branch 
of  the  latter  family,  1.5  claimants  came  forward, 
amimg  them  Frederick  L,  of  Prussia,  whose 
mother  was  a  princess  of  the  House  of  Orange, 
which  was  connected  by  descent  with  tlie  House 
of  ChAlons,  to  whose  ovcrlordship  Kudolph  of 
Hapsburg  had  subjected  X'eucliAtel  in  1288.  Fred- 
erick I.  was  the  successful  candidate;  and  from 
his  time  XeuchAtel  contintied  associated  with 
Prussia  till  ISOCi.  when  Xapoleon  bestowed  it 
upon  General  Bertliier.  In  1814  it  was  restored 
to  the  House  of  Brandenburg,  and  in  the  saniG 
year  became  a  member  of  the  Swiss  Confederacy, 
it  became  a  republic  in  1848.  Its  connection 
with  the  Prussian  monarchy  has  been  dissolved 
since  1857. 

Consult:  Grandpierre,  Histoire  du  canton  de 
yeuchatel  sous  Ics  rois  de  Frusse  (Leipzig, 
1880);  Quartier-la-Tente,  Le  canton  de  Xcu- 
chiitrl.  lienie  histurique  et  monographique 
(XeuchAtel,  1807). 

NEUCHATEL,  Lake  of  (Ger.  yeuenhur;icr 
Src).  A  lake  in  the  western  part  of  Switzerland 
lying  along  the  eastern  base  of  the  .Jura  range, 
10  miles  north  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva  (Map: 
Switzerland,  A  2).  It  is  24  miles  long  and  from 
2  to  5  miles  wide,  being  the  tliird  largest  lake 
of  Switzerland,  Its  shores,  which  are  very  little 
indented,  are  partly  low  and  marshy,  partly 
hilly,  and  covered  with  forests  or  vineyards. 
The  lake  may  be  considered  as  an  expansion  of 
the  River  ThiSle,  which  enters  at  the  southern 
end,  and  leaves  it  at  the  north  on  its  way  to  the 
Aare.  It  was  an  important  commercial  route 
until  railroads  were  built  along  its  banks,  and  is 
traversed  by  regular  lines  of  steamers  between 
the  towns  (if  XeuchAtel  and  Estavayer. 

NEUDORFEE,  noi'der-fer.  JoirAXX  (1407- 
15li3).  A  (iernian  writing-master  and  ealli- 
graplier,  born  at  X'urcmbcrg.  He  became  the 
foremost  representative  of  his  profession,  which, 
despite  the  invention  of  printing,  was  .still  widely 
and  skillfully  practiced,  and  highly  esteemed. 
His  mnnnscrii)ts  were  beautifully  decorated  with 
gold  and  other  colors,  but  his  chief  attention  wa.s 
directed  toward  an  elegant  formation  of  the 
letters  of  the  German  alphabet.  He  thus  de- 
veloped the  German  Gothic  characters  to  their 
perfection,  and  secured  their  general  use.  Of  his 
autographs  there  are  known  to  exist  only  the  sig- 
natures to  the  Ciiirtner  copies  of  Diirer's  two 
paintings,  "The  Tem))eraments"  (in  the  Ger- 
manic Museum,  Xuremberg),  and  a  letter  of 
.luiie  7,  1556  (in  the  municipial  archives  of 
Xuremberg,)  He  also  wrote  in  1547  the  yarh- 
rirhirn  ton  niirnhrrp!''rliin  KiinxtJrin  und 
M'rrl;lcuten,  whose  70  brief  notices  are  important 
sources  regarding  the  history  of  X'urcmbcrg  of 
the  early  sixteenth  century. 

NEUENDORFF,  noiVn-dMrf.  Anoi.r  (1R4.'5- 
07).  .\  (Jennan-.Vmerican  musician,  conductor, 
and  operatic  impresario.  He  was  born  in  Ham- 
burg, (Jermany,  but  nt  the  age  of  twelve  years 
came  to  America,  where  he  completed  his  mu- 
sical education.     He  first  came  before  the  public 


NEUENDORFF. 


409 


NEUMANN. 


in  1859  as  a  conceit  pianist,  and  in  18G0  became 
tlie  solo  violin  in  tlie  Stadt  Theater  orelieslra  of 
New  Voik.  The  following  year  he  toured  Brazil, 
and  on  his  return  was  appointed  nnisieal  director 
of  the  tiernian  Theatre  in  -Milwaukee,  Wis.  To 
him  is  due  the  credit  of  introducing  Wagner's 
Lohengrin  into  the  United  States,  at  the  Stadt 
Theater,  New  York,  lie  also  introduced  Wachtel 
(the  famous  tenor),  and  the  following  year 
I  (187'2)  conducted  the  season  of  grand  opera  at 
j  the  Academy  of  JIusio  (Xew  York).  Die  Wal- 
Iciirc  also  received  its  first  presentation  in  this 
country  at  his  hands  (1877),  and  in  1878  he 
was  appointed  conductor  of  the  New  Y'ork  Phil- 
!  harmonic  Society.  From  1884  to  1880  he  was  a 
I  concert  director  in  Boston,  after  which  he  be- 
came associated  with  the  management  of  several 
successful  opera  companies.  His  wife,  Georgine 
von  .Januschowsky,  was  prima  donna  of  the  Impe- 
rial Ojicra,  Vienna,  in  which  city  he  spent  two 
years(  lS!)3-n.5) ,  returning  in  ISOO  to  become  mu- 
sical director  of  the  Hebrew  Temple  Emanu-El. 
In  1897  he  conducted  the  Metropolitan  Orchestra. 
He  was  the  composer  of  operas,  symphonies,  over- 
tures, and  many  songs,  which  enjoyed  consider- 
able success.     lie  died  in  New  Y'ork. 

NEUENKIRCHEN,  noiVn-kerK'en.  A  town 
of  Austria.     See  Xei-,\kircuex. 

NETJFCHATEATJ,  nS'sha't6',  FEANgois  de. 
See  FRA.xrois   de  Neufcii.vteau. 

NETJFCHATEL,  ne'sha'tel'.  A  canton  and  a 
city  of  Switzerland.    See  Neucii.vtel. 

NEUHAUS.  noi'hous.  A  town  of  Bohemia 
situated  70  miles  southeast  of  Prague  (Map: 
Austria,  D  2).  It  contains  a  niedi.'eval  castle 
and  a  college,  and  manufactures  cloth  and  woolen 
goods.     Population,  in  1900.  931G. 

NEUHAUSEL,  noilioi-zcl  (Hung.  Ersehit- 
jcur).  A  town  of  Hungary,  situated  on  the  Neu- 
tra,  55  miles  northwest  of  Budapest  (ilap:  Hun- 
gary, F  3).  It  has  a  fine  church,  a  Franciscan 
monastery,  and  a  gymnasium.  Prior  to  1724  it 
was  a  strong  fortress  and  played  a  prominent 
part  in  the  Turkish  wars.  Population,  in  1900, 
13,385,  mostly  Catholic  Magyars. 

NETJHOF,  noi'hof,  Theodor  Steph.^n  vox. 
Baron  (c.lOS(i-17of!) .  A  German  adventurer  and 
King  of  Corsica.  He  was  born  in  !Metz,  tlie  son 
of  a  Westphalian  nobleman  in  the  French  service, 
and  became  page  to  the  Uucliess  of  Orleans.  He 
then  enlisted  in  the  French  army  and  later  in  the 
army  of  Sweden,  where  the  Minister  Goertz  dis- 
covered liim.  and  emplo3'ed  him  on  secret  diplo- 
matic missions.  In  1719  Neuhof  was  in  Spain, 
enjoying  the  protection  of  Ripperda.  There  l)e 
marriecl  a  daugliter  of  Lord  Kilmallock  and  ran 
away  with  her  diamonds  to  France.  Beggared  by 
Law.  he  lived  in  misery  till  1732,  when  the  Em- 
peror Charles  VI.  made  him  charge  d'alfaires  at 
Florence.  In  Florence  Neuhof  rendered  some  ser- 
vice to  several  Corsican  patriots,  who  in  return 
invited  him  to  become  King  of  Corsica  and  fight 
its  battles  against  (Jenoa.  He  landed  in  Corsica 
in  -Marcli,  173(i,  was  proclaimed  King  as  Theodore 
I., and  with  Iielp  olilained  from  the  Dey  of  Algiers 
defeated  the  Genoese.  He  left  the  island  soon  to 
seek  assistance  abroad,  and  came  hack  in  1738 
with  reenforcements  from  Holland.  But  the 
French  had  come  to  the  aid  of  the  Genoese  and 
Neuhof  fled.  He  made  one  more  attempt  on 
Corsica  in  1743,  when  the  islanders  displayed  re- 


markable devotion  to  liis  cause,  but  failed,  and 
after  long  wandering  went  to  England  in  1749. 
There  he  was  thrown  into  prison  by  his  creditors 
and  was  released  through  the  intercessions  of  Hor- 
ace Walpole  (inly  a  few  months  before  his  death. 
Neuhof's  son  published  his  life  in  Meiiiuii-cs  pour 
.•iirrir  a  lliisloirr  ilc  Corse  (  17081 .  Consult  Fitz- 
gerald. Kiiii/  Theodore  of  Corsica  (London,  1890). 
NEXJILLY,  ne'ye'.  A  .suburban  municipality 
of  Paris,  in  the  Department  of  Seine,  on  the  riglit 
bank  of  the  river  Seine,  and  bordering  on  the  city- 
wall  to  the  north  of  the  Bois  de  Boulogne  (Map: 
Paris  and  vicinity).  It  is  a  favorite  residential 
section  of  Parisian  merchants,  and  has  sana- 
t<niuins,  hospitals,  and  five  parks,  and  in  con- 
nection witli  Parisian  houses,  establishments 
manufacturing  patent  leather,  chemicals,  and 
starch,  and  ])reserving  meat.  In  a  large  and 
beautiful  park  along  the  Seine  formerly  stood 
the  Chateau  de  Xeuilly,  built  by  Louis  XV.,  and 
the  favorite  residence  of  Louis  Philippe,  who 
after  his  deposition  assumed  the  title  of  Count 
of  Nenilly.  The  chateau  was  destroyed  in  the 
Revolution  of  1848;  and  the  park,  afterwards 
divided  into  lots  for  sale,  became  an  elegant 
residential  quarter.     Population,  in  1900,  37,493. 

NETIKOMM,  noi'kum,  Sigismvxd  von  ( 1778- 
1858).  An  Austrian  composer  and  orchestra 
leader,  born  at  Salzburg.  He  studied  under 
Weissauer  the  organist,  and  Michael  and  Joseph 
Haydn,  the  latter  of  whom  was  devoted  to  his 
protege's  interests,  and  was  mainly  instrumental 
(in  1804)  in  securing  for  Ncukomin  the  leader- 
ship of  tlie  German  opera  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
In  Is09  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  gained  the 
friendship  of  Gretry.  Cherubini,  and  Talleyrand, 
and  in  1815  received  the  Cross  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  In  1816  he  went  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  and 
was  appointed  music  teaclier  to  the  Crown  Prince 
Doin  Pedro.  He  returned  in  1821,  and  lived  at 
Talleyrand's  house  in  Paris.  He  was  a  prolific 
composer  and  has  nearly  300  compositions  to  his 
credit,  ranging  from  opera  to  simple  ballad.  His 
sacred  music  alone  survives,  the  oratorios  Mount 
Sinai  (1831)  anA  David  (1834)  being  still  popu- 
lar in  England  and  Germany.     He  died  in  Paris. 

NEtJMANN,  noi'man,  Fr.^xz  Erxst  (1798- 
1805).  A  German  phvsicist,  born  at  .Toachims- 
thal,  near  Berlin.  He  took  part  in  tlic  War  of 
1815,  and  afterwards  stvidied  at  tlie  universities 
of  .Jena  and  Berlin.  He  received  his  doctor's 
degree  in  1826.  and  in  1828  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  physics  and  mineralogy-  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Kijnigsberg.  His  researches  were  chiefly 
along  the  line  of  mathematical  physics,  and  he 
contributed  to  the  theories  of  the  reflec- 
tion and  refraction  of  light,  and  of  double 
refraction,  to  the  study  of  crystals  of 
double  axes,  and  to  the  methods  of  determining 
the  specific  heat  of  bodies.  His  chief  publica- 
tions (published  by  his  pupils)  are:  yorlesungeii 
ither  die  Theorie  des  Magnetismns  (1881)  ;  Ein- 
Icitung  in  die  theoretische  Phi/sih  (1883)  ;  Vor- 
lesungen  iibcr  elektrische  Strome  (1884);  Yor- 
lesiingen  ither  theoretische  Optik  (1885);  Vor- 
lesungen  ither  Theorie  des  Potentials  (1887); 
Veber  ein  aJlgemeines<  Prineip  der  mathema- 
tischen  Theorie  indneirter  eleklriseher  HtrUme 
(1892).  About  a  hundred  of  his  memoirs  ap- 
peared in  the  Annalcn,  Crelle's  Journal,  and  the 
Astronomische  Xachrichten.  Consult  Volkmann, 
Franz  Xeuniann  (Leipzig,  1896). 


NEUMANN. 


410 


NEUMEISTEB. 


NETTMANN,  Johax.n  Ualtuasak  ( 1C87- 
1753).  A  German  aicliitect,  born  at  Eger,  13o- 
hemin.  In  1711  lie  entoreil  the  artillery  service 
at  Wiirzbiirg,  and  tlirough  the  patronage  of 
Prince-bishop  .loliann  I'liilipp  von  Sehiinborn,  was 
enabled  to  travel  in  Italy,  France,  and  the  Neth- 
erlands, as  a  result  of  which  he  developed  into 
one  of  the  foremost  architects  of  the  Kococo 
style  of  his  time.  He  built  the  magnificent  epis- 
copal palace  at  Wiirzliurg  (1720-4-2),  whose  im- 
imsing  staircase  is  its  most  notable  feature.  Even 
more  original,  though  on  a  smaller  scale,  is  the 
palace  at  Bruclisal.'  Regarding  other  structures 
by  him,  consult  Keller,  liallhasar  yeumami 
('Wiirzburg.  18ilG). 

NEUMANN,  Kakl  Friedrich  (1793-1870). 
A  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Reichmannsdorf, 
Bavaria.  lie  was  educated  at  the  universities  of 
Heidelberg,  M\niich,  and  (Jiittingen,  in  1821-25 
was  an  instructor  in  the  gymnasium  at  fSpeyer: 
and  later,  at  the  Mechitarist  cloister  and 
academy  on  the  island  of  San  Lazzaro,  Venice, 
made  a"  study  of  the  Armenian  language  and  lit- 
erature, some  results  of  which  appeared  in  his 
dcschichtc  der  ormcnisrheii  Littcratnr  (1830). 
He  also  made  several  translations  into  English  of 
Armenian  chronicles  for  the  Oriental  Translation 
Fund  of  London.  During  a  visit  to  Chin.a  he 
acquired  an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  Chinese 
tongue  and  a  library  of  12.000  printed  books, 
which  he  presented  to  the  Bavarian  (iovcrnmont. 
In  1833  he  was  appointed  at  Munich  professor  of 
the  Armenian  and  Chinese  languages,  but  in 
1852  was  retired  because  of  liis  expression  of 
lilioral  political  views.  He  further  wrote  a  (7c- 
schichtc  fics  oiplischen  Reichs  in  Asien  (18.57), 
and  a  Oeiichiciilc  der  Vereinigten  Staaten  von 
Amcrika   (1863-00). 

NEUMANN,  Karl  Gottfried  (1832—).  A 
(ierman  innthematician,  son  of  Franz  Ernst  Neu- 
mann, the  physicist.  He  was  born  and  educated 
in  Ki'inigsberg.  was  professor  at  Halle.  Basel, 
and  Tiibingen.  and  in  1808  became  profes- 
sor at  Leipzig,  founding  in  the  same  ye.ir  the 
Mdlhi'mntischc  .inwilrn.  He  devoted  himself 
niainlv  to  the  theory  of  functions,  and  to  mathe- 
matical physics,  and  may  be  considered  the 
founder  of  the  theory  of  logarithmic  potential. 
Neumann  edited  various  papers  written  by  his 
father  and  published:  Thmric  der  lirsxelschcn 
I'linktionen  ( 1S07)  :  Vcher  die  clelctrinchen  Kriifle 
(1873  and  1808)  ;  Vorlesiinfien  iiber  die  mecha- 
visehe  Tlieorie  der  Wiirme  (1875);  Uiiter- 
miehungen  iiher  da.i  lofinritliniixebe  iind  yeir- 
loiiiclw  Potenlifil  (1877)  :  Ihidrodiniaminrhe  Vn- 
trrsurlnnigen  (1883):  Vnrirmiiifien  iiber  Rie- 
mnnnn  Tlieorie  der  Ahrlsrhrn  Inlegrale  (1884); 
and  Mlfiemeitie  I'lilersurlniiirien  iiher  dnx  y'eir- 
totisriir  {'riiiriji  ilrr  I'l  rinii  rl.iiinjen    (ISOfi). 

NEUMANN-SPALLART,  spal'liirt.  Franz 
Xaver  von  (1837-88).  .\n  Austrian  political 
economist,  born  and  educated  in  Vienna.  He  was 
professor  of  economics  there  in  the  Commercial 
Ai'ademv  (1804-08),  at  the  Military  .Xcailcmy 
(1808-71).  and  at  the  university  and  the  AL'ricul- 
tural  College.  With  Bodio  he  was  one  of  those 
most  influential  in  forming  the  International  Sta- 
ti«tical  In-titiitc;  ami  he  was  long  connected 
with  the  Austrian  Central  Commission  on  Sta- 
tistics, .^s  an  economist  he  was  a  zealous  worker 
in  the  interest  of  free  trade  in  Austria,  and 
founded  the  Association  for  Economic  Progress. 


Neumann  published:  Ocsterreichs  IlandeUpolitik 
(1864);  VulLsuirtschaitt-'lehre  mil  besoiidcrcr 
Aiiirendung  atif  Heernesen  und MiUl-iiriennillting 
(1873)  ;  and  the  valuable  year-book  Vebcrsichtin 
in  der  ]\'elticirtschaft  (1878-89),  continued  by 
.Juraschek. 

NEUMAEK,  noi'miirk,  Geohg  (1021-81).  A 
tiernian  poet.  He  was  born  at  Langeiisalza  and 
studied  at  Kiinigsberg.  At  Kiel,  where  he  was 
engaged  as  a  tutor,  he  wrote  his  famous  song 
••Wer  nur  den  lichen  Gott  llisst  waltcn."  Ncu- 
mark  was  a  member  of  the  jioetical  guild  called 
the  I'nlmenorden,  and  he  wrote  its  history.  Der 
tieusiirossenden  deulscheti  J'almbaiim  (1668). 
Consult  Knauth,  Ocorg  yeinncirl:  nueh  Leben 
und   Diehten    (Langensiilza,    1881). 

NEUMAYEB,  noi'ml-er.  Georg  (1826—),  A 
GernKin  iiictcorologist  and  hydrographer.  He 
was  born  at  Kirchheimbolanilen.  Bavaria,  was 
educated  at  the  Polytechnic  and  the  I'niversity  of 
Munich,  and  in  1857  was  sent  by  Maximilian  II. 
to  Australia  to  make  magnetic  observations.  At 
Melbourne  Neumayer  foundeil  FlagstalT  Observa- 
tory. He  returned  to  (ierniany  in  1S04,  interested 
hiiiiself  in  the  formation  of  expediticms  to  the 
Nortli  and  South  Pole-i.  and  in  founding  the  Ger- 
man African  Company. and. after  a  long  connection 
with  the  hydrographic  bureau  at  Berlin,  in  1870 
became  director  of  tlieGcrnian  ilarinc  Observatory 
at  Hamburg.  He  was  jirominent  in  behalf  of  the 
international  polar  expedition  planned  in  1882. 
and  in  arranging  for  the  German  .\nlarctic  expe- 
dition of  1001.  Neumayer  wrote:  Results  of  the 
Ohseniitions  <it  the  Flagstaff  Observatory  (1858- 
03)  and  Results  of  the  Magnet ie  Survey  of  Vie- 
toria.i  1809)  :  Beobaehtungsergebnissc  der  deutsch- 
en  Stationen  im  t<iis.teme  drr  internatinnalen  Po- 
larforschung  (with  BOrgen.  1880)  :  Die  deutsche 
Expedition  vnd  ihre  Krgebnisse  (1890-91)  ;  Atlas 
desErdmagnctismusi  1891 )  ;  Anemometer-Studien 
(189T>;   :iMrl  Anf  :um  Siidpol!    (1901). 

NEUMAYR,  noi'nilr.  Melciiior  (184.5-90). 
An  Austrian  geologist.  He  was  born  in  Munich, 
studied  there  and  at  Heidelberg,  where,  after  four 
years  in  the  Imperial  Geological  Institute  at 
Vienna,  he  became  docent  in  1872.  He  soon  re- 
turned to  Vienna  and  became  full  professor 
of  geology  and  jialeontology  in  18S0.  Ncumayr 
traveled  widely  in  Southern  Europe,  making  an 
es])ceial  study  of  the  life  and  coiiniination  of 
the  .Jurassic  formations,  the  results  of  which  ap- 
peared in  the  German  geological  magazines.  He 
coiiperated  on  fleologisehe  Studicn  in  den  K listen- 
Uindern  des  grieehischen  Arehi/iels  (1880)  ;  and 
wrote  Die  Sliimme  des  Tierreiehs.  VTirbellose 
Tierc  (1890).  and  a  general  work  on  geolog>-  en- 
titled Erdgesehirhte  (1885-87;  2d  ed.  1895). 
The  last-niimed  work,  while  written  in  a  popu- 
lar style,  may  be  coniniendeil  for  its  comprehen- 
siveness and  scientific  accuracy. 

NEUMEISTER,  noi'mls-ter,  Erdmann  (1671- 
1756).  A  German  hymn-writer,  born  at  T'echte- 
ritz,  near  Weissenfcls.  and  educated  at  the  I'ni- 
versity of  Leipzig.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  for 
his  liynins,  some  of  which  ari'  of  great  merit  and 
are  still  in  use,  such  as  ••.Tesiis  nimnit  die  Siind- 
er  an."  "Will  ieh  sagen."  and  "Lass  irilische  Ge- 
schiifte  stehn."  which  have  been  translated  into 
English.  He  also  pnblisheil  a  Spi'eimen  Dissrr- 
iationis  llistorien-eritietr  de  Pnetis  Oermnnicis 
(1095).     His  poetical  works  include  Fartgesetzte 


NEUMEISTER. 


411 


NEURASTHENIA. 


Fiinffachc  Kirchoiatidachtcn    (1710-17)    and  Zii- 
(jiinij  :uiii  (J nadfiiKl uhle  (1705). 

NEUMES,  niiiiiz  (OF.  ncuiiic,  from  ML.  veu- 
niu.  piieuma,  .song,  musical  sign,  from  Gk.  itwOmo, 
piiiuma,  breath,  from  nvelv,  piwin,  to  brcatlie). 
In  (irogorian  music,  melodic  ornamcnls,  es])C- 
ri.Tlly  series  of  notes  sung  to  one  syllable.  Also 
ilianK'ters  in  a  pec\iliar  system  of  musical  nota- 
tion wliicli  was  in  use  from  tlic  eighth  or  niiitli 
to  tile  eleventh  century.  The  oldest  preserved 
manuserijit  written  in  this  notation  is  the  Anti- 
phonary  of  Saint  (Jail  (ninth  century).  Xo  staff 
\\as  used.  The  notes  were  rejiresented  by  a  sys- 
tem of  dots  and  hooks  and  their  respective  pitch 
liy  the  lieight  at  which  they  were  placed  above  the 
syllables  of  the  te.\t.  A  single  long  note  was  indi- 
<ated  by  the  virga  (  ) ),  two  notes  on  one  syllable 
\iy  t\w  hivirga  ())),  three  by  the  /ririrjra  ()))), 
etc.  A  shorter  note  was  indicated  by  the  ptinc- 
ttis  {•).  two  by  tlie  hiptindu^  (  ••  )>  ^t''-  T'>'' 
rising  and  falling  of  the  voice  was  marked  by  a 
corresponding  higher  or  lower  position  of  the 
signs.  In  order  to  obviate  the  difficulty  of 
determining  the  exact  pitch  of  the  various  tones, 
a  red  line  was  drawn  horizontally  across  the 
parchment  (tenth  century),  and  the  signs  were 
written  above  and  below  this  line.  Any  sign 
ujion  the  line  denoted  F.  Before  another 
century  a  second  line  was  drawn  above  the 
red  one.  This  was  yellow  and  the  note  uixin  it 
was  C.  But  in  the  plainer  manuscripts  the  dis- 
tinction of  color  was  soon  abandoned,  and  two 
black  lines  were  drawn  with  the  letters  F  and 
< '  placed  at  the  beginning.  In  the  course  of  time 
these  letters  underwent  a  series  of  conventional 
moditicaf  ions,  until  they  finally  assumed  the 
shape  in  which  they  are  used  to-day  as  clef-sig- 
natures (^,  lyi  ).      The  G  clef,  which  was  added 


later,   underwent    a    similar   change 


8ee 


]\Iexsi'b.\bi^  Music  ;  Musical  Notation  ;  PLAiisr 
Chant. 

NEUMTJNSTER,  noi'mun-ster.  A  manufac- 
tuiiiig  tnwn  in  the  Province  of  Schlcswig-Hol- 
stein,  Prussia,  on  the  Schwale,  3G  miles  north  of 
Hamburg  (Map:  Prussia,  D  1).  The  principal 
industrial  establishments  are  woolen  and  linen 
mills,  tanneries.  pa]jer-mills,  dye-works,  machine 
and  railwav  shops.  Population,  in  1890,  17,539; 
in  Ifion.  •27'.33.o. 

NEXJNKIRCHEN,  noinlifrK-rn.  or  NEU- 
ENKIRCHEN.  A  town  in  the  Austrian  Crown- 
land  uf  l.ouur  Austria,  on  a  branch  of  the  Danube, 
Mil  miles  south-southwest  of  Vienna.  It  has  a 
large  iron  foundry,  metal  and  textile  industries, 
boiler  works,  and  soap  factories,  and  lies  in  an 
important  coal-mining  district.  Population,  in 
HHin.  in.S31. 

NETJQUEN,  na'uo-k."in'.  A  territory  of  Ar- 
gentina, situated  (m  the  western  frontier  of  the 
Republic,  and  bounded  by  Chile  on  the  west,  the 
Province  of  ilendoza  on  the  north,  and  the  Ter- 
ritory of  Rio  Negro  on  the  east  and  south  (Map: 
.\r2e11tina.  D  11).  Its  area  is  about  42.000 
scjvuire  miles.  The  greater  part  of  the  territory 
is  covered  by  the  ramifications  of  the  Andes, 
which  are  drained  by  tlie  headwaters  of  the  Rio 
Negro.  On  the  southern  boundary  is  Lake 
Nahuel-Huapi  (q.v.).  The  population  in  1895 
was  14.517,  mostly  Indians,  though  many 
Chileans  have  settled  in  the  territory  since  the 
Vol.  XIV.— 27. 


Inilians  were  -.ubjugated  in  1SS4.     The  capital  is 
the  village  of  Chosmalal. 

NEURALGIA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  veOpoi/, 
neuron,  nerve  +  iXyos,  ulyoa.  pain).  A  sensory 
neurosis  classed  as  functional  and  characterized 
by  pain  in  the  course  of  a  nerve  or  of  nerves. 
Neuralgias  are  divided  into  (1)  symptomatic, 
as  when  they  are  due  to  a  toxin  or  a  rellex  irri- 
tation, and  (2)  idiopathic,  when  developing  from 
organic  disease  of  the  nerve  at  the  site  of  the 
pain.  But  the  latter  are  cases  ot  neuritis  in 
reality,  and  should  not  be  classed  with  the  neu- 
ralgias. Neuralgias  are  also  divided  into  classes 
named  from  their  causes,  as  gouty,  traumatic, 
hysterical,  etc.,  as  well  as  from  their  anatomical 
location,  as  trigeminal,  lumbar,  crural,  sciatic, 
gastric,  renal,  visceral,  ccrvico-occipital,  brachial, 
and  intercostal.  The  trigeminal,  or  facial,  neu- 
ralgia is  the  most  freijuent,  and  the  sciatic  ranks 
next  in  frequency. 

Among  the  causes  are  ana'mia.  gout,  rheu- 
matism, diabetes,  carious  teeth,  toxic  agents,  in- 
fections, exposure  to  cold,  malaria,  fatigtie,  men- 
tal shock,  and  injuries.  Children  never  suffer 
from  neuralgia.  It  is  most  frequent  between 
the  ages  of  fifteen  and  twenty-five.  It  is  rare  in 
old  age.  Women  are  ofteiu-r  victims  of  neu- 
ralgia than  men,  in  the  proportion  of  five  to 
three. 

The  most  prominent  symptom  is  pain,  which  is 
of  a  sharp,  lancinating  character,  or  of  a  dull 
aching  variety.  (Jenerally  it  appears  in  twinges 
of  short  duration,  though  of  great  intensity. 
Though  princii>ally  following  the  course  of  the 
nerves,  neuralgic  ])ain  jjervades  adjacent  struc- 
tures. Heat  as  well  as  cold  generally  increases  it, 
as  well  as  a  light  touch.  Firm  pressure  some- 
times relieves.  In  many  cases  jiainful  point*, 
generally  corresponding  to  the  places  of  exit  of 
nerves  from  a  bony  structure,  are  foimd  l)y  test- 
ing with  pressure.  Numbness  may  accompany  the 
|iain.  as  well  as  muscular  spasm  in  rare  cases. 
The  pain  of  neuralgia  is  usually  increased  at 
night.  It  may  return  at  regular  intervals  dur- 
ing the  day,  especially  if  dependent  upon  neu- 
ritis. 

The  treatment  of  neuralgia  includes  the  use  of 
rest,  catharsis,  the  analgesics,  hypodermic  ex- 
hibition of  morphia,  the  use  of  cocaine  by  the  gal- 
vanic cathode,  as  well  as  the  local  use  of  menthol, 
camphor,  nnistard.  chloride  of  ethyl,  cliloroform. 
etc.  Excision  of  a  part  of  the  aflected  nerve  or 
removal  of  a  ganglion  of  the  svTiipathetic  may 
efTect  a  cure.  In  all  cases  hygiene,  diet,  regimen, 
and  tissue-building  are  necessary,  as  well  as  the 
discovery  and  removal  of  any  jxripheral  irritant, 
lliereby  stopping  all  nerve  leaks.     See  NEfRlTIs. 

NEURASTHETSflA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
wC/>oc,  neuron,  nerve  -+-  iaBiveia,  asthcneia, 
weakness),  ner^'e  weakness.  Perhaps  the  most  fre- 
quent of  the  acquired  neuroses.  The  symptom 
group  making  up  this  clinical  entity  was  first 
familiarized  by  Beard  of  New  York  in  1S09.  and 
it  is  sometimes  called  the  American  disease, 
though  now  recognized  as  a  world-wide  malady. 
As  a  rule  all  forms  of  nervous  energy'  are  reduced 
and  fatigue  (piickly  appears  upon  the  exercise  of 
any  motor,  nu'ntal.  or  organic  activity.  It  is  es- 
sentially a  disorder  of  the  productive  period  of 
life,  but  does  oeoir  in  neurotic  children  and  in 
nervous  adults  of  advanced  years.  The  sexes  are 
about  equally  affected.    Hebrews,  Scandinavians, 


NEUBASTHENIA. 


412 


NEtTKASTHENIA. 


and  Slavs  sliow  a  speeial  .susofplibility,  and 
those  of  neuiopatliic  lieredily  and  the  otl'spring 
of  the  physically  defective  are  prone  to  devel- 
op it. 

High  altitudes,  extremes  of  eliinatic  conditions, 
wasting  diseases,  vicious  habits,  physical  illness, 
injury,  shock,  and  fright,  or  protracted  anxiety, 
grief,  worry,  and  excitement  are  comiKtcut 
causes.  Excesses  of  all  varieties,  and  finally  and 
most  important  of  all,  overwork,  must  he  added 
to  the  list.  The  only  essential  element  in  the 
causation  of  neurasthenia  is  overstrain,  anil  this 
is  a  quantity  relative  to  the  inherent  capacities 
of  the  individual  and  often  correlated  with  hered- 
itary tendencies  or  defects. 

Tile  major  .-iymptoms  of  the  disorder  are  head- 
ache, backache,  gastro-intestinal  disturbances, 
neuromuscular  weakness,  mental  depression,  ir- 
ritability, and  insonuiia.  To  these  in  varying 
number  and  of  inconstant  appearance  are  added 
tremor,  twitchings,  startings,  sensations  of  gen- 
eral fatigue,  pressure  headaches,  drawing  feelings 
in  the  back  of  the  neck  and  s)iine,  tenderness  at 
various  points  along  the  spine,  particularly  at 
its  two  extremities  and  at  the  waist,  neuralgic 
pains,  and  various  i)ariesthesi;e  described  as 
prickling,  tightness,  burning,  numbness,  stitTness, 
heat,  cold,  heaviness,  soreness,  and  vague  discom- 
forts referred  to  the  body  visgera.  Use  of  the 
eyes  commonly  intcnsiiics  the  headache,  and 
causes  prompt  fatigue  with  increase  in  all  the 
subjective  complaints.  Sometimes  patients  sliun 
the  light  ccmtinuously.  Nervous  indigestion, 
gaseous  fermentation,  alternating  diarrha-a  and 
constipation,  cardiac  palpitation,  feebleness  of  the 
circulation,  and  vascular  storms  are  connnonly 
presented.  The  activity  of  the  functions  of  the 
genitourinary  tract  is  reduced.  On  the  mental 
side  there  is  loss  of  concentration  and  conse- 
quently memon*  is  enfeebled.  Continuous  appli- 
cation is  impossible.  Courage  fails,  introspec- 
tion becomes  habitual,  and  many  ap])rchensions 
and  distinct  phobias  of  a  hypochondiiacnl  cast 
add  to  the  patient's  misery.  The  natural  af- 
fections are  diminished  and  depressed  emotiims 
are  continuous.  The  sleep,  disturbed  by  troiibled 
dreams,  is  broken  and  unrefreshing.  The  early 
morning  hours  are  particularly  gloomy.  The  pa- 
tient's general  boilily  condition  is  unsatisfac- 
tory. .\n:emia  and  loss  of  llesh  are  commonly  en- 
countered.! bough  ex<ei>tionally  the  general  nutri- 
tion is  excellent.  The  great  majority  of  these 
sym])toms  it  will  be  noticed  are  subjective,  not 
demonstrable  physically  and  ca])able  of  nnsrep- 
rcscntation.  For  this  reason  such  patients  are 
misunderstood  by  their  friends,  who  either  foster 
the  condition  by  mi.sguided  solicitude  or  give  it 
scant  sympathy.  A  careful  examination  proves 
that  the  nerve  force  is  actually  diminished  and 
strength  exhausted  with  undue  ease.  This  is 
demonstrated  by  the  Cfmtraction  of  the  visual 
fields  under  ajijircqiriate  tests,  the  inilial  exag- 
geration and  progressive  reiluclion  of  the  teiuhm 
reflexes,  the  inability  to  maintain  dynamographic 
records,  the  tendency  to  rapid  heart,  the  diges- 
tive inailequacy,  etc.  .\ny  one  or  even  very  many 
of  the  enumerated  symptoms  may  be  found  in 
other  ailments,  hut  it  is  their  systematic  group- 
ing and  the  exclusion  of  other  competent  morbid 
states  that  enables  a  diagnosis  of  neurasthenia 
to  be  made. 

When  the  brain  functions  are  principally  dis- 
ordered the  term  cerebral  neurasthenia  is  some- 


times employed.  In  the  same  way  spinal  and 
sexual  neurasthenia  are  mentioned,  luit  in  neiuas- 
thenia  no  function  escapes,  though  there  may  be 
a  vaiying  preponderance  of  certain  classes  of 
symptoms.  All  functions  are  marked  by  an  irri- 
table weakness.  Often  this  nervims  disorder  is  as- 
sociated with  hysteria,  particularly  in  the  trau- 
matic cases.  Not  seldom  it  is  secondary  to  an 
initial  bodily  disease,  which  nuxy  or  may  n(it  be 
present  at  the  same  time. 

Neurasthenia  is  essentially  chronic.  Its  causa- 
tion is  connnonly  of  long  standing,  its  onset  in- 
sidious, its  course  protracted,  its  recession  halt- 
ing and  uuirked  by  relapses,  its  tendency  to  re- 
currence |u-onounced.  It  is  often  associated  m  ith 
organic  and  inorganic  diseases,  and  is  encnun- 
tered  as  an  initial  stage  in  the  development  of 
hypochondriasis,  melancholia,  mania,  and  gen- 
eral |)aresis.  When  iuvc(mi])lieated  by  organic 
diseases  its  ))rognosis  is  usually  fairly  gooii.  pro- 
vided the  causal  conditions  can  be  removed  and 
sullieient  adequate  rest  and  upbuilding  secured. 
-Vs  it  often  arises  out  of  the  necessities  of  human 
existence  and  social  conditions,  its  proper  treat- 
ment is  frequently  impossible.  The  keynote  is 
rest,  and  in  proportion  as  this  can  be  made  com- 
plete both  mentally  and  physically  success  re- 
.sults.  The  full  rest  cure  plan  of  Mitchell,  espe- 
cially with  women,  often  secures  brilliant  re- 
sults. In  a  modified  form  in  mild  eases  it  is 
also  ellicient.  It  implies  the  expenditure  of  nuicli 
time  and  money.  When  this  is  not  possible, 
change  of  scene,  of  occupation,  of  preexisting  in- 
lluences  nuist  otherwise  be  obtaineil.  The  burden 
of  work,  the  fretting,  and  earking  cares  nmsl  be 
minimized,  and  llu'  physical  health  and  stamina 
raised  to  the  highest  ])ossible  level.  If  sucli  pa- 
tients can  be  fattened  success  is  almost  assured. 
Drugs  play  an  entirely  secondary  part  in  the 
treatment  of  neurasthenia,  merely  meeting  inci- 
dental physical  requirements.  .\ny  umlerlying 
physical  disease  of  whirii  ni'uraslhcnia  may  he 
the  superficial  manifestation  nuist  of  course  re- 
ceive major  care.  To  the  mental  perturbation, 
however,  constant  attention  nuist  be  ilirecled. 
The  patient's  fears  n\ust  be  allayed,  his  hopeful- 
ness encouraged,  his  introspection  diverted,  and 
refreshing  sleep  .secured.  In  proportion  as  the 
physician  grasps  the  mental  siile  of  the  disease, 
secures  the  patient's  confidence,  and  meets  the 
requirements  of  his  biased  views,  in  that  ratio 
is  he  successful  and  heli)ful  in  managing  the 
neiuosis. 

A  number  of  more  or  less  .speculative  theorie.s 
regarding  the  essence  of  neurasthenia  are  cur- 
rent. Ilodge  and  others  have  ])roven  by  interest- 
ing lab(u-atory  experiments  that  under  conditions 
of  ordinary  use  the  protoplasm  of  the  motor  cells 
is  nuirphologieally  mmlified  and  probably  more  or 
less  exhausted  funet  i<inally :  that  during  rest  and 
repose  it  regains  its  fdrmer  appearance  and  po- 
tential force.  Some  enneeive  that  in  neuraslbe- 
nia  the  rest  periods  have  been  so  inadequate  that 
the  recuperative  powers  are  belittled,  and  there  is 
reason  to  suppose  that  in  some  instances  this 
may  reach  an  irrejiarable  degenerative  degree. 
Certain  allegeil  peculiarities  of  the  blood  and  the 
freneral  disturbance  of  assimilation  are  looked 
upnn  by  others  as  arguing  a  general  toxic  stale 
which  gives  rise  to  the  neurasthenie  manifesta- 
tions. These  findings  are  as  likely  to  be  efTeet 
as  cause,  but  doubtless  might  operate  in  a  vicious 
circle  to  protract  the  nervous  disorder. 


NETJBEUTHER. 


413 


NEUROLOGY. 


NETJKEUTHEB,  noi'roi  tOr,  Euge.n  Nai>o- 
LEON  (18Uli-S2).  A  Clerniaii  painter,  etclicr,  ami 
iilustralor,  burn  in  Jlunii'li,  son  of  the  painter 
Ludwig  Neureutlier  (1775-1830),  l)y  whom  he 
was  first  instructed  at  i!anil)er<,',  before  studying 
at  the  Muuieli  Academy  under  Willielm  von 
Kobell.  His  talent  developed,  liowever,  chiefly 
under  the  intluence  of  Cornelius,  who  employed 
him  on  tlie  frescoes  in  tlie  Glyptotliek  and  in 
the  Arcades  of  the  Royal  Garden.  His  success  in 
tliis  work  of  ornaiuenlal  character  suggested  to 
him  the  idea  of  illustrating  (ioethe's  romances 
and  baUads  with  marginal  drawings.  Pub- 
lislied  in  1829-.39,  the  drawings  were  univer.sally 
admire  ,  and  made  the  artist's  reputation.  In 
18.30  Xeureuther  visited  Paris,  wliere  his  illus- 
trations of  the  scenes  of  the  .July  Revolut  ion  ap- 
pcared  \mder  the  title  "Souvenir  du  27.  28.  20 
juillel"  (1831).  After  his  return,  he  published 
"Marginal  Drawings  to  German  Poets"  (1832- 
.3o).  and  in  1838  completed  his  illustrations  to 
Herder's  Cid.  From  a  visit  to  Rome  in  the  same 
year  he  returned  with  a  rich  collection  of  studies, 
utilized  subsetpiently  in  various  works.  In  1835 
he  had  first  tried  his  hand  at  etching,  in  which 
line  he  produced  his  most  pleasing  and  valuable 
compositions,  notably  the  large  plate  of  "Dorn- 
riischen"  (1830),  his  best  efTort  with  the  needle. 
As  a  painter  he  may  be  judged  by  tlie  fine  speci- 
mens in  the  Schack  Gallery  at  Jlunich,  which 
contains  "Cornelius  Among  His  Pujjils  and  Fellow 
Artists,"  "The  Dying  Nun,"  and  others. 

NEtJRETJTHEK,  Gottfried  von    (1811-87). 
A  (iernian  architect,  bom  at  jMannheim.  brother 
of   Eugen   Neureuther.      First   instructed   by   his 
fatlier,  he  studied  afterwards  in  Munich  at  the 
[university  and  academy,  and  extended  his  knowl- 
[  edge    by    traveling    througli    Germany,    France, 
[Italy  (which  he  visited  four  times),  Greece,  and 
[Turkey.     He  became  most  widely  known  througli 
the  Polytechnicum    (1866-70)   and  the  new  Acad- 
emy   of    Arts     (1873-85)     in    ilunich,    handsome 
edifices  in  the  Italian  Renaissance  style,  of  which 
I  he  was  a  prominent  exponent. 

NEURFTIS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.    veOpoy,    neu- 
ron, nerve).     A  disease  of  a  nerve  or  of  nerves, 
,  accompanied  by  inHammation.     Neuritis  is  either 
[single  or  multiple;   interstitial  or  diffuse;   toxic 
or  infective.     It  is  caused  by  injury  to  the  nerve 
involved,  or  infection  such  as  from  typhoid  fever, 
'  or  tuberculosis  or  leprosy;  or  by  toxic  action  of 
alcohol,  arsenic,  lead.  etc. 

The  symptoms  of  localized  neuritis  are  severe 
I  pain,  somewhat  relieved  when  the  jiart  is  at  rest 
[and  kept  w\arm,  some  numbness,  reduction  of  the 
Isense  of  touch,  loss  of  power  in  the  muscles,  and 
•eventual  atrophy.  There  may  be  some  contracting 
of  the  muscles,  with  rosy  color  of  the  skin,  and  a 
:  peculiar  glossiness. 

Multiple  neuritis  is  vei-y  frequent.    It  is  caused 
bv   the   toxins   of   several   infectious   diseases,   as 
L  diphtheria,  typhoid   fever,  smallpox,  and  scarlet 
rfcver,  as  well  as  those  of  alcohol,  mercury,  lead, 
Igout,  diabetes,  cancer,  and  tuberculosis.     In  this 
Ijorm  of  neuritis  the  invasiim  is  usually  acute. 
Iwith  fever,  pain  in  head,  back,  and  legs,  loss  of 
fpower  in  arms  and  legs  so  that  the  patient  can 
I  scarcely  climb  the  stairs,  drop-wrist   and   drop- 
foot,   muscular   wasting,   tenderness   in   the  mus- 
cles, tremor,  and  sensory  dlslurlinnres  .   Fever  is 
rare,   and    the   invasion    of   the   disease    is    slow. 
When  alcohol  is  the  cause,  delirium  and  con\^il- 


sions  may  occur,  with  hallucinaticms,  somewhat 
resembling  ilcliiiuin  Ireinviix.  Multiitle  neuritis  is 
very  frequent  in  other  countries,  under  various 
names.  It  is  called  beri-beri  or  kukkv  in  Japan, 
China,  New  Zealand,  India,  Brazil,  and  the 
West  Indies,  in  which  countries  it  is  endemic.  Its 
course  is  similar  to  that  of  alcoholic  muUi])le 
neuritis.  Its  mortality  varies  from  3  to  ,50  per 
cent.  The  mortality  of  alcoholic  neuritis  is  not 
much  smaller.  Of  those  who  continue  the  use  of 
alcohol,  50  per  cent,  die  of  alcoholism,  pneu- 
monia, or  tuberculosis.  The  treatment  of  nml- 
tiple  neuritis  cimsists  of  elimination  of  the  cause, 
rest  in  bed.  phenacetin,  sodium  salicylate,  .strych- 
nia, nitrate  of  silver,  and  chloride  of  ammonium 
under  a  jdiysieian's  directions. 

NEUROL'OGY  (from  Gk.  veupov,  neuron, 
nerve  -j-  -\oyla,  -lof/ia,  account,  from  X^yai/,  le- 
gem, to  say).  The  branch  of  science  concerned 
with  the  anatomy,  physiologj',  disorders,  and  dis- 
eases of  the  nervous  system.  Brain  functions 
associated  with  mentality  are  somewhat  arbitra- 
rily [jlaced  in  the  field  of  psychologj',  and  their 
disorders  furnish  the  topics  grouped  under  the 
head  of  psychiatry.  Neurological  conditions  are 
also  studied  in  the  lower  animals,  giving  a  sub- 
division of  the  subject,  comparative  neui'ologj', 
which  with  embryology'  furnishes  important 
facts  which  aid  in  understanding  the  human  nerv- 
ous apparatus.  In  the  more  limited  medical 
sense,  neurology  embraces  a  study  of  the  human 
nervous  system,  its  diseases  (except  insanities) 
and  their  treatment. 

Nervous  diseases  are:  first,  morbid  manifesta- 
tions of  demonstrably  disturbed  nerve  elements, 
and.  second,  so-called  functional  disorders  in 
which  actual  changes  in  the  physical  properties 
of  the  nervous  system  have  not  yet  been  discov- 
ered. The  latter  are  commonly  called  neuroses 
and  are  steadily  tending  to  enter  the  former  cate- 
gory under  improved  methods  of  research.  In 
many  nervous  diseases  heredity  is  a  marked 
feat\ire  and  in  the  acquired  diseases  of  the  nerv- 
ous sj'stem  heredity  may  play  a  predisposing 
part. 

There  is  a  general  and  probably  well-founded 
belief  that  nervous  diseases  are  increasing  in 
frequency.  Absolute  statements,  however,  are 
impossible,  as  many  causative  con<litions  are 
changing  and  other  newly  recognized  nervous  dis- 
eases are  being  added  to  the  known  list.  For  in- 
stance, the  infectious  diseases,  such  as  small- 
pox, typhoid,  diphtheria,  and  malaria,  are  all 
capable  of  producing  organic  and  functional  nerv- 
ous diseases.  Their  control  by  jireventive  medi- 
cine and  hygiene  correspondingly  reduces  that 
liability.  Civilization,  on  the  other  hand,  by 
conserving  the  unfit  and  [U'olonging  the  life  of 
the  fechle  and  neurotic. entails  additional  nervous 
disturbances  and  susccptiliilitics.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  modern  urban  conditions  favor  the 
development  of  nervous  instability  and  at  the 
same  time  bring  to  bear  the  additional  highly 
competent  noxious  influences  of  vice,  particularly 
through  alcoholic  and  drug  haliits  and  venereal 
diseases.  The  monotony  and  hardships  of  farm 
life,  however,  are  also  a  factor  of  nmrbidity  and 
are  particularly  active  among  the  women  so  situ- 
ated. Some  occupations  bear  cither  a  direct  or 
predisposing  relation  to  nervous  ailments. 
Writer's  cramp  and  the  entire  group  of  oceup.a- 
tiou   neuroses  of  which   it   is  a   type  show  this 


NEtmOLOGY. 


414 


NEUROSIS. 


feature.  Workers  iu  iiieUil,  espucially  lead,  phos- 
phorus, mercury,  arsenic,  those  subjected  to  in- 
hahition  of  various  gases, aud  those  whose  occupa- 
tion tempts  them  to  indulge  in  liquors,  are  liable 
to  nervous  disorders.  Work  entailing  exposure 
to  cold  or  wet  or  increased  atmospheric  pressure, 
aud  that  attended  by  great  mental  strain  or 
monotony,  furnishes  predisposing  factors. 

The  question  of  heredity  in  relation  to  nervous 
diseases  is  one  of  decided  importance.  The  neu- 
rologist is  not  content  to  trace  the  identical 
nervous  disorder  in  successive  generations,  or  to 
note  its  appearance  in  blood  relations.  He  prop- 
erly concerns  himself  with  all  the  facts  which 
tend  to  furnish  a  neuropathic  liability.  This  is  in- 
dicated with  more  or  less  force  by  the  occurrence 
of  any  sort  of  nervous  and  mental  disease  in  the 
antecedents  of  a  given  individual.  An  hysterical 
mother  may  have  an  epiUqitic  child  and  an 
idiotic  grandchild.  Even  a  very  higlily  wrought 
nervous  organization  in  mother  and  father  may 
eventuate  in  unstable  children.  The  transmission 
of  nervous  disea.se  may  be  direct,  the  identical 
malady  reappearing,  or,  what  is  more  common, 
the  defect  may  show  itself  by  transformation 
into  some  allied  malady.  Atavistic  tendencies, 
through  which  an  intermediate  generation  es- 
capes, are  also  frequently  noted.  Tuberculosis, 
rheumatism,  gout,  diatietes,  and  Hright's  disease 
are  so  commonly  found  in  neurotic  families  that 
the  association  is  morbidly  significant.  All  de- 
bilitating diseases  and  exhausting  conditions  in 
parents  may  be  rellected  in  nervously  unstable 
ollspring.  Consanguinity  in  the  parents  does 
not  operate  detrimentally  as  far  as  nervous  dis- 
eases are  concerned,  unless,  as  is  often  the  case, 
it  brings  together  indiviilunls  of  neurotic  tenden- 
cies, which  are  naturally  intensified  in  the  chil- 
dren. 

NEUROP'TEBA  (Xco-I.at.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Gk.  vevpoi',  neuron,  nerve  +  imphv,  pteron, 
wing).  A  Linna-an  order  of  insects  which  has 
recently  been  restricted  by  separating  out  the 
orders  Mecoptera.  Corrodentia,  Isoptera,  Odonata, 
Ephemerida.  Plecoptera,  and  Tricho])tera.  which 
together  for  a  time  were  known  as  the  Pseudo- 
neuroptera.  At  present  the  Xeuro]itcra  includes 
those  forms  belonging  to  the  old  group  of  net- 
■winged  insects  which  possess  a  complete  meta- 
morphosis. The  mouth-parts  are  formed  for 
biting;  the  wings  are  four  in  number,  mem- 
branous, and  furnished  with  numerous  veins, 
usually  with  many  cross  veins.  Practically  all 
forms  are  carnivorous,  and  feed  upon  other  in- 
sects. Some  of  them  are  aquatic,  but  the  major- 
ity live  on  land  and  wherever  their  prey  aboiuids. 
The  order  is  divided  into  seven  large  families: 

(1)  The  Sialida'.  including  the  dobson  or  hell- 
grammite  fly  (see  CoRYn.vi-is) .  the  alder-flies 
(Sialis).  and  the  fish-flies  (Chatiliodes). 

(2)  The   Raphidiid:r,  or  snake  flies    (q.v.). 

(3)  The  'Mnnti^iiid.r,  including  the  false  rear- 
liorses.  or  mantis-like  Xeuroptera.  These  in- 
sects, rare  in  the  I'nited  States,  have  a  long 
neck  and  grasping  front  legs,  and  are  predatory 
in  habits:  their  transformations  are  especially 
interesting. 

(4)  The  Conropterj-pidte,  including  the  dusty- 
wings,  which  are  the  smallest  of  the  Xenrnptera 
and  have  wines  loveri^d  with  whili-'h  powder. 
They  are  very  few  in  niunber,  and  prey,  in  the 
larval  stage,  upon  scale  insects,  plant-lice,  and 
red  spiders. 


(5)    The  ^lyrmekunida',  ur  ant-lions   (q.v.). 
(U)   The  Hemerobiida",  or  aphis-lions   (q.v.). 
(7)     The    ChrysopidiB,    or    golden-eyed    lace- 
winged  flies.     See  Lacewing. 

Xearly  all  the  families  of  Neuroptcran  insects 
are  represented  by  fossil  remains  in  the  Tertiary 
rocks;  and  some,  such  as  the  dragon-Hies,  cad- 
dice-ilies,  ilay-llies,  and  white  ants,  appear  in 
the  still  earlier  ilcsozoic  formations. 

Consult:  Conistock,  Maniiiil  for  Die  Htudy  of 
Insects  (Ithaca,  1895)  ;  Sharp,  Vamhridtje  Satu- 
nil  Histonj.  vol.  v.  (London,  18!)5)  ;  lloward, 
The  liistct'Bool:  (\ew  York,  1902), 

NEtTROP'TEBIS  (Xeo-Lat.,  from  Gk,  veSpov, 
neuron,  nerve  -|-  irrepls,  picris,  fern).  An  im- 
portant genus  of  fossil  ferns  common  in  the 
coal  measure  shales  and  sandstones  of  Car- 
boniferous age  in  Xorth  America  and  Europe. 
See  Fek.n  :  and  Carhoxifkboi's  System. 

NEURO'SIS  (Xeo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  veOpov,  neu- 
1011,  nerve).  A  morbid  nervous  stale,  either 
functional  (due  to  rellex  disturbance  from  a 
lesion  or  a  condition  in  another  part  of  the'body) 
or  organic  (due  to  local  conditions).  Xcuroses 
are  classed  as  Icincsio-neiiroses,  or  disorders  of 
motion;  a-sthesio-nciiroses,  or  sensoxy  disorders; 
troiihoiuuroses,  or  disorders  of  nutrition; 
fhermo-neuroses,  or  disorders  of  heat  perception; 
vasomotor  neuroses  or  amjlo-neuroses,  or  dis- 
orders of  circulation;  sccretonj  neuroses:  and 
mixed  neuroses^  Among  the  latter  are  the  aero- 
neuroses,  certain  disorders  aliocting  the  ex- 
tremities, such  as  acro-par:esthesia  and  erythro- 
melalgia;  sexual  neuroses,  atTecting  the  functions 
of  the  sexual  organs;  and  psycho-neuroses,  in 
which  there  is  a  combination  '  of  mental  and 
physical  symptoms  due  to  a  complex  condition. 
Dana  classifies  conveniently  the  functional  ner- 
vous diseases  that  are  termed  neuroses  as  fol- 
lows: (1)  Degenerative  neuroses,  including  epi- 
lepsy, hysteria,  the  spasmodic  tics,  paramyoclo- 
nus, Tiiomsen's  disease,  paramyotonia,  and 
akinesia  algera.  (2)  Acquired  neuroses,  in- 
cluding chorea,  tetanus,  tetany,  neurasthenia, 
sexual  neuroses,  traumatic  neuroses,  exophthal- 
mic goitre,  and  the  occupation  neuroses.  (.3) 
Late  degenerative  neuroses,  including  paralysis 
agitans.  (4)  Trophic  and  vasomotor  neuroses, 
including  facial  hemiatrophy,  acromegaly,  and 
angioneurotic  (pdema,  ^Many  of  these  functional 
neuroses  are  considered  under  their  projier  titles. 
The  occupation  neuroses  are  functional  dis- 
orders consisting  of  numbness,  tingling,  partial 
loss  of  nuLscular  power,  involuntary  contractions 
or  spasms,  tremor  and  disability,  which  combine 
to  ])revent  the  \ise  of  certain  groups  of  nuisdes 
which  have  been  u.sed  habitually  by  the  patient 
in  his  occupation  or  professional  labors.  An 
occupation  neurosis  is  re.tlly  a  condition  of 
muscle-fatigue  occurring  in  a  neurasthenic,  with 
subsequent  neuritis  in  a  few  cases.  The  most 
common  neurosis  of  this  class  is  writers'  cramp, 
or  scriveners'  palsy.  This  disease  has  been 
known  since  abo\it  1820.  when  the  steel  pen 
superseded  the  quill.  Men.  aged  about  twenty- 
five  to  forty  years,  are  the  most  numerous  vic- 
tims. Worry,  intemperance,  and  other  under- 
mining influences  arc  predi-jposing  catises,  as  well 
as  preexisting  neura-^thenia,  as  already  noted. 
K\cc»~ive  writing,  iimlcr  mental  pressure,  is  the 
exciting  caiise.  eiiiecially  if  the  writing  is  done 
with  the  hand  in  a  cramped  position.  Tt  is 
a    chronic    disease.      Manv    sufferers    learn    to 


NEUROSIS. 


415 


NEUSTADT. 


write  with  the  left  hand,  but  this  also  soon 
hecouies  atlected.  The  use  of  gold  pens  has 
brought  some  relief,  and  has  eontiolled  the  in- 
crease of  tlie  alfeetion  among  writers.  But  the 
great  refuge  and  preventive  is  the  typeuritex. 
All  «ho  use  the  pen  tft  a  great  extent  should  use 
large  cork  penholders  and  gold  pens.  Writing 
under  ceretiral  strain  should  be  avoided. 

Tclcyniplurs'  cramp  is  freciuent  among  the 
manipulators  of  the  Morse  instrument.  About 
one  in  200  operators  sutler  froxn  "loss  of  the 
grip.'  The  symptoms  are  nnieh  tlie  same  as  in 
writers'  cramp.  Among  the  other  occupation 
neuroses  are  rinisicitiiifi'  cramp,  among  pianists, 
violinists,  llulists,  and  others;  sewing  spnxm, 
amiirig  tailors,  seamstresses,  and  shoemakers; 
millccrs'  spasm,  whieli  is  very  rare;  ballet- 
dancers'  cramp,  and  many  others. 

In  the  treatment  of  occupation  neuroses,  rest 
or  change  of  occui)ation,  massage  of  nerve  and 
muscle,  electricity,  douches,  and  the  cautery  have 
proved  useful.  Drugs  are  generally  useless,  ex- 
cept such  as  relieve  the  neurasthenia  of  the  pa- 
tient. Consult  Dana.  Text-book  of  Nervous  Dis- 
eases   (Xew  York,   1802). 

NEUROT'IC  (Xeo-Lat.  neurotirum.  from 
neurosis  \ .  A  word  formerly  used  in  medicine  to 
s|)ecifv  such  a  drug  as  tends  to  afTect  principally 
and  specifically  the  brain  centres  that  govern  in- 
tellect, sensibility,  and  motor  activity.  Alcohol, 
ether,  chloral,  opium,  potassium  bromide,  amyl- 
nilrite.  strychnine,  quinine,  aconite,  and  digitalis 
are  examples  of  drugs  to  which  this  name  may  be 
applied. 

The  term  neurotics  is  more  often  used  to  de- 
note individuals  who  suffer  from  nervous  disease, 
such  as  neurasthenia  or  hysteria,  or  wlio  are  of 
pronounced  nervous  temperament. 

NETJRUPPIN,  noi'nip-pen'.  A  town  of  the 
Province  of  BrandenburL'.  Prussia,  on  the  small 
lake  of  Ruppin,  connected  with  the  Elbe,  38 
miles  northwest  of  Berlin  (ilap:  Prussia,  E  2). 
It  has  a  gymnasium  and  a  seminary  for  teachers. 
Its  industries  are  brewing,  spinning,  and  the 
manufacture  of  linen  and  woolen  cloths,  starch, 
brushes,  machinery,  and  trimmed  lumber.  There 
is  also  considerable  trade  in  cattle  ami  cereals. 
Neuruppin  became  a  town  in  12.50.  Population, 
in  IS'.H).  14..384;  in  1900,  17,100. 

NETJSALZ,  noi'zalts.  A  town  in  the  Province 
of  Silesia,  Prussia,  on  the  Oder,  75  miles  north- 
west of  Breslau  (Map:  Prussia,  F  3),  The 
principal  industries  are  flax-spinning,  iron- 
working,  shipbuilding,  and  the  manufacture  of 
linen  thread,  cartridges,  and  enamel.  Popula- 
tion,  in    I'.too.    12..")86. 

NETJ-SANDEC,  noi-zan'dets.  A  town  of  the 
C'rownland  of  Galieia,  Austria,  situated  on  the 
Dunajee,  about  45  miles  southeast  of  Cracow 
(Map:  Austria,  G  2).  It  has  a  Roman  Catholic 
church  of  the  fifteenth  century,  an  Evangelical 
church  of  the  seventeenth  century,  an  old  castle, 
a  gynuKisium,  a  .Jesuit  college,  and  a  hospital. 
The  chief  industrial  establishments  are  the  ex- 
tensive railway  shops,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
town  are  petrnlenm  wells.  Population,  in  1890, 
12.722:   in   1900,  15.724,  mostly  Poles  and  .lews. 

NEUSATZ,  noi'zats  (Hung.  Ujvidck).  A 
royal  free  town  of  Hungary,  situated  on  the  left 
hank  of  the  Danube  opposite  the  town  of  Peter- 
wardcin  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Franz-.Tosefs 
Canal    (Map:   Hungary,  F  4).     It  is  a  town  of 


recent  origin,  having  been  practically  rebuilt 
since  its  destruction  in  1849.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  Greek  Oriental  Bishop  of  Bacs,  and  has  a 
higher  gymnasium  and  a  connncrcial  school.  Its 
products  are  chiefly  agricultural,  and  the  river 
trade  is  important.  Neu-satz  is  the  seat  of  the 
ilatiru  tirpska,  the  chief  literary  and  scientific 
organization  of  the  Serbs  in  Southern  Hungary. 
Population,  in  1900,  29,296,  mostly  Serbs  and 
Magyars. 

NEXJSE,  nus.  A  river  of  North  Carolina,  ris- 
ing in  Person  County  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
State,  and  flowing  southeast  into  Pamlico  Sound 
(Map:  North  Carolina,  F  3).  It  is  about  300 
miles  long,  and  navigable  by  steamers  for  over 
100  miles.  At  Xewbern,  30  miles  from  its  mouth, 
it  widens  into  a  broad  estuary. 

NEUSIEDLER  SEE^  noi'zed-ler  za  (Hung. 
Fertij-Tava) .  A  lake  in  Northwestern  Hungary", 
30  miles  southeast  of  Vienna  (Map:  Hungary, 
E  3 ) .  It  is  about  23  miles  long,  from  4  to  9 
miles  wide,  and  covers  an  area  of  126  square 
miles.  On  the  eastern  shore  is  the  large  swamp 
of  Hansag,  but  the  land  on  the  west  shore  con- 
sists of  vine-clad  hills,  with  several  thriving 
towns.  The  water  is  salty,  and  iintit  to  drink. 
The  lake  has  dried  up  on  several  occasions, 
notably  in  1865,  when  farms  were  laid  out  in  its 
bed;  but  in  1870  it  filled  up  again,  destroying 
all  improvements.  It  is  now  connected  with  the 
Rabnitz  Piiver  by  a  canal  which,  in  case  of  a 
flood,  drains  off  "the  surplus  water. 

NEUSOHI,,  noi'z&l  (Hung.  Bcsztcrczehanya) . 
The  capital  of  the  Province  of  Snhl.  Hungary,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Gran  and  Bistritz.  13^2 
miles  by  rail  north  of  Altsohl  (Map:  Austria- 
Hungary,  F  2).  It  has  a  cathedral  noted  for  its 
fine  fourteenth-century  altar,  besides  other  in- 
teresting ecclesiastical  structures.  The  old  castle 
is  used  as  a  garrison  station.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  hardware,  firearms,  and  a  silver 
foundry.  Four  and  a  half  miles  to  the  north 
are  the  Herrensrund  silver  and  copper  mines. 
Population,   in   1900,   92G4. 

NETJSS,  nois.  A  town  in  the  Rhine  Province, 
Prussia,  near  the  Rhine,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  a  canal,  4  miles  west  of  Diissehlorf  I  ^lap  :  Prus- 
sia, B  3) .  The  Catholic  Church  of  Saint  Quirinus,a 
beautiful  edifice,  and  a  noble  specimen  of  the  tran- 
sition from  the  round  to  the  pointed  style,  was  be- 
gun in  1209.  The  late  Gothic  Rathaus  is  interesting 
for  its  collection  of  paintings  by  .Janssen.  Neuss 
prodiices  a  large  amount  of  raiie  oil.  There  are 
manufactures  of  paper,  machinery,  ii'onware, 
leather,  and  woolens;  there  is  a  trade  in  grain, 
cattle,  and  coal.  Population,  in  1890.  22.035;  in 
1900,  28.484.  The  town  is  supposed  to  be  the 
Noresiiim  of  the  Romans.  It  came  under  the 
Archbishop  of  Colosne  in  1074.  In  1474  it  suf- 
fered a  long  siege  by  Charles  the  Bold,  and  a 
century  later  was  almost  totally  destroyed  by- 
Alexander  of  Parma. 

NETJSTADT,  noi'stat.  A  city  in  X'jqier  Sile- 
sia, Prussia,  29  miles  southwest  of  Oppeln  (Map: 
Prussia,  G  3).  It  has  two  monasteries,  a  gym- 
nasium, and  several  trade  schools.  There  are 
manufactures  of  woolen  and  linen  fabrics,  car- 
pets, shoes,  dves.  and  veast.  Population,  in  1890, 
17,577;  in  1900,  20,l'39. 

NETJSTADT,  Wiener.  A  tow^n  of  Austria. 
See  Wiener-Neustapt. 


NEUSTADT-ON-THE-HARDT. 


416 


NEXTTRATITY. 


NEUSTADT-ON-THE-HARDT,  liiirt.  A 
town  ill  tile  Kliiin'  I'alaliuatf,  Jiavaria,  situated 
in  the  llarilt  Mountains,  aljinit  15  miles  west- 
iiortliwest  of  .Speyer  (Jlap:  Bavaria,  C  4).  The 
alihey  ehureli  (  l.'i.")U)  eontains  a  iiunilier  ol'  tombs 
•of  the  Counts  Palatine.  The  edueational  insti- 
tutions include  a  gymnasium,  a  Kcalschiilc,  and  a 
Latin  schcxjl  founded  in  157!).  Xeustadt  manu- 
factures cloth,  paper,  tobacco,  etc.  In  the  vicin- 
ity are  extensive  vinevards.  Population,  in  1890, 
15.010:  in  1900.  17.800.  chielly  Protestants. 

NETTSTETTIN,  noi'stet-ten'.  The  capital  of 
a  circle  in  the  Province  of  Ponierania.  Prussia. 
92  miles  southwest  of  Danzif;  (Map:  Prussia, 
G  2).  There  arc  manufactures  of  iiiadiiiiery, 
ironware,  and  dyes.     Population,  in  1900,  10,020. 

NEUSTRELITZ,  noi-stia'lits.  The  capital 
of  the  (irand  Duchy  of  Mecklenbuifj-Strelitz, 
(Jermany.  situated  02  miles  by  rail  north  by  west 
of  Berlin  (Alap:  (Jermany.  E  2).  11  is  laid  out 
with  remarkable  rc<;u!arity.  its  wide,  stiai{;lit 
streets  radiatiiii;  in  eifrht  directions  from  the 
marketplace,  which  is  adorned  with  a  statue  of 
the  Grand  Duke  (icor<;c.  The  principal  buildings 
are  the  grand  duc:il  palace. situated  in  a  beautiful 
jiark  and  containing  a  fine  library  of  80.00(1  vol- 
umes and  collections,  the  theatre,  and  the 
Kathaus.  There  are  also  a  gymnasium,  a  Real- 
sriiiite,  and  a  tine  hospital.  The  jirincipal  manu- 
factures are  machinery,  woolens,  triiiimed  lumber, 
doth,  vinegar.  Hour,  etc.  The  trade  is  mostly  in 
agricultural  (iiddiicts  and  Hour.  Neustrelitz  was 
built  in  1720  on  the  site  of  an  old  fiu  tress. 
Popiibitioii,   in   1900,   11,344. 

NEUSTRIA,  nus'trl-a  (I,at.  Fniucia  occi- 
dentalis.  West  France).  The  name  given  in  the 
times  of  the  Merovingians  to  the  western  portion 
of  the  Frankish  Kinpire,  in  contrast  to  .\ustrasia 

(q.v.).  Later  it  was  used  for  various  icrritorial 
divisions:  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  later,  it 
was  often  used  as  s\-nonynious  with  Normandy. 
Consult  T.ongnon.  Alliix  hixloriqtie  dr  lit  France 

(Paris.  18S9).     See  Franks. 

NETJTITSCHEIN,  noi'tit-shin.  A  town  in 
the  Crownlaiid  of  Moravia.  Austria,  on  the  Titsch, 
70  miles  northeast  of  Briinn  (Map;  .\iistria, 
F  2).  It  has  a  By/ant ine  cliurr'h  and  an  old 
ea!>tle.  a  higher  /{riilsiliiilr.  and  schools  of 
agriculture  and  forestry.  There  arc  manufac- 
tures of  tobacco,  carriages,  hats,  and  cloth.  Pop- 
ulation, in  1000,  11. SOI.  chiefly  of  Ocrman 
descent. 

NEUTRAL  AXIS  ( Lat  neutrnlis.  from  »icm- 
Irr.  iiiiitcr.  fmm  nr-,  not  -+-  liter,  either).  An 
imaginary  line  of  a  body  which  is  subjected  to  a 
transverse  strain,  and  is  so  situated  as  to  .'sep- 
arate the  forces  of  extension  from  those  of  eom- 
jiression.  If  the  ratio  of  the  resistance  to  exten- 
sion and  compression  were  the  same  for  all  sub- 
stances, and  depended  merely  upon  the  form  of 
the  body,  then  in  all  bodies  of  the  same  shape  the 
neutral  axis  would  have  a  definite  geometric 
pfisition.  But  this  ratio  has  a  separate  value  for 
every  substance.  In  a  rectangular  wooden  beam 
Kupportcil  nt  both  ends,  the  neutral  axis  passes 
longitudinally  through  the  centre  of  the  beam, 
while  in  cast  iron,  in  which  the  resistance  to  com- 
]iression  is  greater  than  that  to  extension,  it  is 
n  little  above  the  centre,  and  in  wrought  iron, 
in  which  the  contrary  is  the  case,  it  is  a -little 
below  the  centre. 


NEUTRALITY  (in  International  Law).  The 
completi'  abstention  of  a  State  fiom  giving  ma- 
terial aid  or  eucouragcnicnt  to  either  belligerent 
in  an  existing  war.  Legally  a  neutral  State  is  a 
friend  to  both  belligerents  and  endeavors  to 
maintain  peaceful  relations  with  each.  The  doc- 
trine of  neutrality  as  now  understootl  is  of  com- 
paratively recent  growth,  it  having  had  almost 
no  place  in  the  rules  of  ancient  warfare.  As  a 
result  of  the  imperfect  notions  of  neutral  duty, 
several  grades  of  neutrality  were  formerly  recog- 
nized. Thus,  the  obligation  of  neutrality  might 
be  (jiiiiIifiFtI  by  a  previous  agreement  witli  one  of 
the  belligerents  by  which  the  neutral  stipulated 
to  furnish  troops  or  ships  of  war  or  other  ma- 
terial upon  the  outbreak  of  hostilities.  Such  a 
position  would  be  regarded  as  an  act  of  war  ac- 
cording to  modern  international  law,  which  recog- 
nizes only'  strict  neutrality — that  is,  total  absti- 
nence from  partici])ation  in  the  war  either  by  as- 
sistance or  countenance.  The  status  of  permanent 
iiculridity  may  be  created  by  the  agreenient  of  a 
State  to  obserA'c  perpetual  neutrality  tow;ird  cer- 
tain other  States  in  consideration  of  having  its 
own  neutrality  respected,  or  the  neutrality  of  a 
State  may  lie  guaranteed  by  the  collective  action 
of  other  nations.  Such  is  the  position  of  Switzer- 
land and  Belgium.  The  stjitus  of  armed  neutrality 
arises  from  the  alliance  of  several  neutral  powers 
for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  ccTtain  views  of 
neutral  duty  or  for  preventing  the  armed  aggres- 
sion of  a  belligerent  upon  neutral  coiiimcrec.  Such 
were  the  armed  neutralities  of  the  Baltic  Powers 
formed  in  1780  (see  Armfd  Xki  tr.vi.itv.  The) 
and  1800  for  enforcing  the  doctrine  that  "free 
ships  make  free  goods"  which  the  Powers  con- 
cerned had  adopted  by  treaties  among  them- 
selves. It  is  the  usual  custom  upon  the  outbreak 
of  war  for  neutral  governments  to  issue  procla- 
mations of  neutrality,  announcing  the  course 
which  they  purpose  to  follow  in  their  intercourse 
with  belligerents  during  the  continuance  of  hos- 
tilities, simietimcs  giving  notice  to  belligerents 
of  what  will  be  permitted  ;ind  what  forbidden  in 
neutral  waters,  and  formally  notifying  their  own 
subjects  or  citizens  of  the  existence  of  war  and 
warning  them  of  the  penaltius  imposed  for  the 
violation  of  its  neutrality  laws.  As  the  doctrine 
of  neutrality  is  now  understood  it  is  the  duty 
of  neutrals  to  treat  both  belligerents  as  friends, 
neither  granting  nor  withholding  any  ]irivilegc 
from  one  which  is  not  granted  or  withheld 
ei|iially  from  the  other.  Any  deviation  from  this 
rule  which  results  in  an  injury  to  ope  of  the 
belligerents  is  a  clear  vi(dalion  of  neutr:il  obliga- 
tions and  may  be  a  justification  for  reprisal  on 
the  ]>art  of  tlie  injured  iM'lligerent.  Among  the 
positive  obligations  of  a  neutral  may  he  men- 
tioned the  duty  of  tr«ating  the  soldiers  of  each 
litdligcrent  humanely,  as  where  a  ship  of  war  in 
distress  seeks  to  enter  :i  neutral  pcut  or  fugitive 
troops  ask  for  a.sylum  from  the  pursuit  of  a 
victorious  army,  .\niong  the  obligations  of  a 
negative  eli:ira<ter  resting  upon  neutrals  may  be 
mentioned  the  duty  of  abstaining  from  furnisliing 
money,  ships,  troops,  or  munitions  to  either  bel- 
ligerent. However,  it  is  legitimate  for  luutrals 
in  their  own  country  to  sell  to  belligerents  what- 
ever they  may  wish  to  buy  so  long  as  both  are 
treated  equally.  So.  too,  they  may  transport  any 
article  of  cominerce.  except  contraband  of  war, 
to  belligerent  ports  for  the  purpo.se  of  sale  unless 
with  the  intention  of  violating  a  blockade.    But 


NEUTRALITY. 


417 


NEtrVILLE. 


it  is  forbidden  to  neutrals  to  allow  their  ports 
or  territorial  waters  to  l)e  used  by  either  bel- 
ligerent as  a  base  of  hostile  ojjerations  against 
the  (jtlier. 

Not  only  are  neutrals  subject  to  certain  duties, 
but  international  law  clothes  them  with  certain 
rights  and  immunities  which  belligerents  are 
l>ound  to  respect.  Thus  a  neutral  State  has  a 
right  to  insist  that  its  territory  shall  be  in- 
violable from  acts  of  war  committed  by  either 
liclli^'erent.  An  armed  vessel,  therefore,  lias  no 
right  to  pursue  an  enemy  into  neutral  waters  or 
to  etl'eet  a  capture  tliere.  Xor  has  a  belligerent 
any  right  to  move  troops  through  the  territory 
nf  a  neutral  State  or  conunit  acts  of  belligerency 
therein.  These  are  violations  of  the  sovereignty 
of  the  neutral  and  may  be  resisted  l)y  force.  The 
act  of  a  public  vessel,  however,  in  passing 
through  the  territorial  waters  of  a  neutral  State 
is  not  a  violation  of  its  neutrality. 

As  a  means  of  enforcing  the  obligations  of 
neutrality  it  is  customary  for  States  to  pass 
statutes  defining  the  duty  of  their  subjects  in 
relation  to  other  nations  at  war  and  imposing 
penalties  for  their  violation.  These  statutes  are 
|popular!y  known  as  iieiitralili/  hiirs.  They  do  not 
ali'eet  the  international  responsibility  of  the 
State,  however,  and  their  inefficiency  cannot  be 
pleaded  in  extenuation  of  a  failure  to  fulfill 
neutral  obligations. 

The  neutrality  laws  of  the  United  States  are 
contained  chiefly  in  the  acts  of  1794,  1818,  and 
18.38.  They  declare  it  to  be  a  misdemeanor  for 
any  citizen  to  accept  or  exercise  a  commission 
for  the  purpose  of  serving  a  foreign  Power  in 
war  with  a  State  at  peace  with  the  T'nited  States, 
or  to  enlist  or  induce  another  |ierson  to  enlist  or 
eiigaye  him  to  go  abroad  to  enlist  in  the  foreign 
service  of  such  a  State;  or  to  fix  out,  arm,  equip, 
or  augment  the  force  of  any  armed  vessel  with 
the  intent  that  it  shall  be  employed  in  the 
service  of  a  Power  at  war  with  a  friendly  State; 
or  to  institute  within  the  territory  of  the  United 
States  any  military  expedition  against  any  such 
Power.  The  President  of  the  United  States  is 
em])owered  to  compel  any  foreign  vessel  which 
ought  not  to  remain  in  the  territorial  waters  of 
the  United  States  to  depart  therefrom  and  to 
enforce  the  observance  of  the  neutrality  laws  in 
general.  One  of  the  chief  purposes  of  this  legis- 
lation is  to  prevent  organized  efforts  to  secure 
the  enlistment  of  troops  by  belligerents  in  neutral 
teri'itory.  Neutral  governments,  however,  can- 
not be  held  responsible  for  the  unorganized  and 
unauthorized  departure  of  individual  citizens  for 
the  purpose  of  enlisting  in  a  foreign  army.  The 
manufacture  and  sale  of  contraband  of  war  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  ships  fitted  for  warfare  is  not 
expressly  prohibited  by  the  neutrality  laws  of 
either  Great  Britain  or  the  United  States.  See 
Intern ATiON.\L  Law,  and  the  authorities  there 
cited:  also  .\i,.\bama  Claims;  CoNTRABAxn  of 
Waii:  Deci.ahatiox  of  Paris;  War. 

NEUTRAL  NATION.  An  Iroquoian  tribe 
formerly  holding  the  territory  along  the  north 
shore  of  Take  Erie  in  the  Province  of  Ontario, 
land  extending  eastward  as  far  as  the  Genesee 
•River  in  New  York.  Their  proper  name  is  un- 
Iknown.  They  were  kiio«Ti  to  the  Huron  (see 
IWtandot)  as  Ati)peii()nron,  implying  a  people 
•speaking  a  language  slightly  different  (from 
■Huron),  and  to  the  Seneca  as  Gagwage-ono.   The 


French  called  them  the  'Neutral  Nation,'  on  ac- 
count of  their  taking  a  neutral  stand  during  the 
long  wars  between  the  Iroquois  and  the  Huron. 
This  did  not  save  them,  however,  for  on  the  final 
conquest  and  dispersion  of  the  Huron  people 
the  Iroquois  invaded  the  Neutral  country  with 
the  result  that  in  1(1.51  the  tril)e  was  utterly  de- 
stroyed, the  remnant  being  incorporated  with 
the  conquerors  or  dispersed  in  small  parties 
among  the  Western  or  S(nithern  tribes.  The  war 
was  carried  on  chiefly  by  the  Seneca,  according 
to  whose  tradition  the  immediate  cause  of  dispute 
was  a  ball-play  contest  in  which  the  Seneca 
were  the  victors.  The  final  battle  occurred  at  a 
fortified  Neutral  town  about  six  miles  south  of 
the  present  Buffalo.  The  majority  of  the  cap- 
tives were  incorporated  by  the  Seneca,  who  also 
took  possession  of  the  conquered  territory  as  far 
west  as  Lake  Erie. 

NEUVILLE,  ne'vel',  Alphonse  de  ( 1836-85) . 
A  French  military  painter  and  illustrator.  He 
was  born  at  Saint-Omer  (Pas-de-Calais).  May 
31,  1836.  His  father,  who  was  wealthy,  wished 
his  son  to  prepare  for  an  ollicial  position,  but 
the  boy  preferred  a  military  life  and  attended 
the  naval  school  at  Lorient,  where  he  spent 
much  time  sketching.  To  please  his  family,  he 
studied  law  for  three  years,  but  then  determined 
to  become  a  painter.  He  took  a  studio  of  his 
own,  studj'ing  a  short  time  with  Picot,  but 
was  more  influenced  by  the  art  and  advice  of 
Delacroix.  His  first  exhibited  picture,  "Bat- 
terie  Gervais,  Malalcoff,"  an  episode  from  the 
Crimean  War,  achieved  some  success.  Not  being 
equally  successful  with  later  works,  as  a  means 
of  livelihood,  De  Neuville  designed  a  large  num- 
ber of  illustrations  for  periodicals  and  books. 
His  great  success  came  after  tlie  Franco-Prussian 
war  of  1870-71,  in  which  he  served  as  an  officer 
of  engineers.  He  became  the  most  popular  paint- 
er of  that  war,  his  pictures  being  gi-eeted  with 
great  applause.  From  a  purely  arti.stic  point  of 
view  they  are  open  to  criticism.  His  colors 
are  often  dull,  and  sometimes  ill-chosen,  where- 
fore his  drawings  in  black  and  white  are  con- 
sidered better  than  his  paintings.  He  excels  in 
portraying  vividly  and  vigorously  an  intensely 
dramatic  incident,  and  ch'piets  soldiers  in  the 
thick  of  the  fight  with  accuracy  and  sentiment 
that  make  the  pictures  national  in  spirit. 

His  earlv  paintings  include:  "Capture  of  Naples 
bv  Garibaldi"  (1860)  ;  "Chasseurs  of  the  Guard" 
('l861)  ;  and  "Attack  in  the  Streets  at  Magenta" 
(1864)— all  in  the  SaintOmer  Jfuseum;  "Chas- 
seurs Crossing  the  Tchernaia"  (1868),  Lille  Mu- 
seum. Among  his  later  and  more  famous  pic- 
tures, many  of  which  are  in  the  United  States, 
are:  "Bivouac  Before  Le  Bourget"  (1S72).  Dijon 
Mu.seum ;  "The  Last  Carlri<lge"  (1873);  "De- 
fense of  Le  Bourget"  (1870),  and  "Surprise  in 
Environs  of  Metz  in  1870"  (1877),  in  the  W.  H. 
Vanderbilt  collection.  New  York;  "The  Adieu." 
.Tohn  .Jacob  Astor.  New  York:  ".attack  at  Dawn." 
.John  G.  .Johnson.  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  "The  De- 
struction of  the  Telegraph  Line"  (1884).  David 
C.  I.,yall,  New  York.  Jn  1881  he.  in  company 
with  Detaille.  painted  the  celebrated  circular 
panorama.  "The  Battle  of  Champignv."  He  died 
in  Paris.  Mav  20.  188.5.  Consult  De  T^ostalot.  in 
Gazette  des  Beaux-Arts,  xxiv.    (188.5). 

NEUVILLE,  Jean  Guiixavme,  Raron  Hyde 
de    (1776-1857).     A  French   statesman,  bom  at 


NETTVILLE. 


418 


NEVADA. 


La  ChariW-sur-Loire.  lli'  di-playwl  great  loyalty 
to  Louis  X\  1.  and  -Marie  Antoinette,  was  one  of 
the  most  active  agents  in  the  emigration'  trom 
l-'ranee,  took  part  in  tile  Koyalist  uprising  of 
171>0,  and  after  the  ISth  Bruniaire  attempted  to 
persuade  Bonaparte  to  recall  the  Hourbons.  Be- 
ing accused  of  having  taken  a  part  in  the  plot  of 
the  ■infernal  machine,'  he  Hed  to  Switzerland, 
and  later  went  to  the  Liiitetl  States.  Upon  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  he  returned  to 
France,  was  Minister  to  the  Lulled  States  from 
1816  to  1821,  and  wa.s  then  .Minister  to  Portugal. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Chaiiiher  of  Dejiuties 
from  1822  to  IS.'JO,  and  held  tlie  portfolio  of  the 
Marine  in  the  -Ministry  of  Martignac.  After  the 
Revolution  of  .July,  1830,  he  withdrew  into  pri- 
vate life,     ?lis  -Ift-moiVcs  were  published  in  1888. 

NETJWIED,  noi'vet.  The  capital  of  a  circle 
in  the  Khine  Province,  Prussia,  on  the  Rhine, 
seven  miles  northwest  of  Coblenz  (Map:  Prussia, 
B  3).  The  castle,  residence  of  the  Prince  of 
Wied,  stands  in  a  beautiful  park,  and  has  col- 
lections of  Roman  antiipiities.  The  town  has 
many  educational  institutions,  including  a  gym- 
nasium and  two  seminaries  fur  teachers.  Wool 
and  ctittnn  goods,  soap,  tnliaoco.  staicli.  cliicory. 
and  ironware  are  manufactured.  Population,  in 
1900.  11,003.  Neuwied  was  founded  in  10.53  by 
the  Prince  of  Wied,  as  a  refuge  for  religious 
exiles,  and  many  religious  denominations  are 
represented  by  its  present  inhabitants. 

NE'V^A,  ne'va,  Russ.  pron.  nye-vji'.  The  outlet 
of  Lake  Ladoga  (q.v. )  in  Northwestern  Russia 
(Map:  Russia,  D  2).  It  leaves  the  lake  at  its 
southwestern  end  and  Hows  westward  for  45 
miles,  emptying  through  several  moutlis  into  the 
Gulf  of  Finland.  The  city  of  Saint  Petersburg 
is  built  on  the  islands  of  its  delta.  It  is  the 
last  link  in  tlie  great  waterway  which  tlirough 
the  Volga  River  and  the  Ladoga  Canal  system 
connects  the  Caspian  Sea  with  the  Baltic.  Though 
the  volume  of  water  (lowing  through  the  Xeva 
is  very  great,  and  the  river  is  in  places  more  than 
half  a  mile  wide,  its  navigation  has  been  made 
possible  only  by  extensive  engineering  works, 
and  an  artificial  channel,  running  through  the 
shallow  Bay  of  Xeva.  connects  its  mouth  with 
the  harbor  of  Kronstadt.  During  continued  west 
winds  the  waters  of  the  bay  are  piled  up  in  the 
delta  of  the  river,  causing  destructive  inunda- 
tions. 

NEVADA,  nAvilMa.  popularly  the  'Sage- 
brush .'state.'  A  Western  State  of  the  United 
States.  The42d  parallel  of  north  latitude  separates 
it  from  Oregim  and  Idaho  on  I  lie  north,  the  114th 
meridian  west  of  Greenwich  from  Utah  and  Ari- 
zona on  the  ea-st,  the  .Vrizona  boundary  being 
continued  on  the  southeast  by  the  Colorado  River 
as  far  as  the  Siith  parallel,  while  a  straight  line 
running  from  the  latter  point  northwest  to  Lake 
Tahoe  in  latitude  3!)°  X..  and  thence  along  the 
120th  meriilian.  separates  Xevada  from  Cali- 
fornia on  tlie  siiiitbwest  and  west.  Xevada  ranks 
fourth  in  size  among  the  States  of  the  Union.  It 
has  an  extreme  length  from  north  to  south  of  483 
miles,  and  an  extreme  breadth  of  320  miles.  Its 
area  is  1 10.700  square  miles,  rif  which  OliO  square 
milpH  consist  of  water. 

Toi-miR.M'liY.  The  greater  part  of  Xevada  lies 
in  the  Great  .\meriean  Basin  inoliuled  between 
the  Sierra  Xevada  on  the  west  and  the  Wahsateh 
>Iountains   on   the   east,   and   bounded   by   cross 


ranges  on  the  soullnve-^t  and,  less  detinitely,  on 
the  north.  Xeillier  of  the  main  boundary  ranges 
conies  within  this  State,  the  crest  of  the  Sierra 
lying  wholly  in  California,  and  the  Wahsateh 
running  through  the  centre  of  Utah.  This  great 
basin  forms  a  plateau  whose  lloor  lies  40dO  to 
tiOOO  feet  above  the  sea,  though  in  the  extreme 
southwest  it  is  somewhat  lower.  From  this  floor 
rise    a    uniform    series   of    parallel    ranges    from 

10  to  25  miles  apart,  and  running  north  and 
south  througll  the  length  of  the  Stale,  but  broken 
here  and  there  liy  passes  and  liranch  valleys.  In 
the  southwestern  portion  they  are  almost  worn 
away,  leaving  isolated  knobs  scattered  oyer  the 
plain.  Some  of  the.se  ranges  rise  above  9000  feet, 
while  most  of  tliem  are  over  7000  feet  high.  The 
highest  point  in  the  State  is  Wheeler  Peak,  near 
the  centre  of  tlie  eastern  boundary,  with  an  alti- 
tude  of    13.058   feet. 

llYmtooK.vriiv.  Since  the  surface  of  Xevada  is 
a  basin  surrounded  by  mountains,  a  very  small 
part  of  it  drains  into  the  ocean.  In  the  extreme 
north  rises  tlie  Uuyhee,  a  tributary  of  the 
Columliia  River  system,  and  the  extreme  south- 
eastern portion  drains  into  the  Colorado,  which 
Hows  ou  the  southea.stern  lioundary.  A  large 
part  of  the  State,  especially  the  south-central 
and  southwestern  portion,  is  witliout  any  rivers 
at  all.  the  small  streams  running  down  the 
mountain  slopes  during  the  wet  season  being 
lost  in  the  plains  wliere  the  water  evaporates. 
Tlie  principal  river  is  the  Humboldt,  which  ri.ses 
in  the  northeastern  corner  and  Hows  across  the 
State  to  Humboldt  Lake  or  Sink.  Several  rivers 
rise  in  the  Sierra  Xevada  and  How  into  lakes 
and  rsink-s  in  the  west-central  part  of  the  State. 
Among  these  are  Walker  River,  flowing  into 
Walker  Lake,  Carson  River,  disappearing  in  Car- 
son Sink,  and  the  Truckee  River,  (lowing  from 
Lake  Tahoe  into  Pyramid  Lake.  The  last  is 
the  largest  lake  in  the  State  and  measures  35 
miles  in  length  by  10  miles  iu  width.  Lake 
Tahoe  lies  on  the  western  boundaiy  at  an  alti- 
tude of  over  0000  feet.     It  is  21  miles  long  and 

11  miles  wide  and  of  great  depth.  In  the  rainy 
season  some  of  the  level  plains  are  covered  for 
hundreds  of  square  miles  with  water  from  a  few 
inches  to  two  feet  deep.  leaving  in  the  dry  sea- 
son hardened  mud  llats  sometimes  covered  with 
a  coating  of  alkaline  salts. 

Clim.^ie.  The  climate  is  very  dry  and  in  gen- 
eral pleasant  and  healthful.  The  winters  are  not 
severe,  and  snow  is  conlined  chietly  to  the  moun- 
tains, where  in  some  jilaces  it  remains  through- 
out the  year.  The  mean  temperature  for  .lanuary 
is  28°,  "and  for  .Inly  71°.  The  niaximuin  may 
rise  above  110°  and  the  minimum  is  about  .30° 
below  zero,  though  in  tlie  valleys  it  seldom  falls 
more  than  10°  below.  The  winters  are  generally 
calm:  violent  winds  are  rare  at  any  season.  The 
average  annual  rainfall  is  about  ten  inches.  This 
is  very  unevenly  (li>tribuled  both  in  regard  to 
season    and    locality.       Five-sixths    of    the    total 

precipitation    falls   from    D iiiber   to   Abiy.   and 

the  greater  part  of  it  falls  in  high  altitiiiles.  the 
mountainous  parts  of  Washoe  County  receiving 
23  inchi's.  while  some  valley  districts  are  abso- 
lutely rainless. 

I'or  Flora  and  Fauna,  see  paragraphs  on  these 
topirs  under  Rocky  JIoixtains  and  T'nited 
SrATF:.s. 

Gfoi.oot.  The  mountains  of  N'evada  are  orig- 
inally due  to  extensive  foldings  and  faultings  of 


AREA  AND  POPULATION   OF   CALIFORNIA   BY  COUNTIES. 


County. 

Map 
Index. 

County  Seat. 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Population. 

1890. 

1900. 

C  3 
D8 
0  8 

C  8 
C  8 

B  a 

B  3 
B  1 
C  8 
C  3 

B  2 
B  1 

E  3 
D  4 
D  3 

B  2 
C  1 
D  4 
D  3 
B  2 

C  3 
B  2 
C  3 
C  1 
D  3 

C  3 
B  8 
C  8 

D  5 
C  2 
C  1 
E  5 
B  2 

C  3 
E  4 
F  5 
B  3 
C  3 

C  4 
B  3 
(•  4 
(■  3 
B  3 

B  1 
C  1 
B  1 
C  8 
B  2 

C  3 
('  2 
B  1 
B  1 
D  3 

C  2 
I)  4 
C  2 
C  2 

Oakland 

7fH 
710 
638 

1,660 
1,080 

1,088 

728 

992 

1,796 

6,158 

1.270 
3,496 

93,864 

667 

10,320 

17.939 

8,882 

14,640 
1.3.515 
2,598 
9,338 
33,086 

23',469 
.3,.544 

9,808 

7,101 

4,239 

101,454 

"13,072 

3,787 
17,612 

8,oa5 

4,986 
2,008 

18,637 
16,411 
17,:i69 

13,589 
1.5,101 
4,9*) 

40,  .3.39 

0,413 

25,497' 

:M,987 

298,!K,I7 

28,629 

16,072 
10,087 
15,754 
48,005 
19,270 

12,1-33 
5,051 
18,163 
30.916 
32.731 

lO.WO 
5.169 
9,916 
3,719 

24,574 

6,088 
10,071 
13.6K4 

9,636 

130,19? 

Markleeville - 

509 

11,116 

17,117 

11,200 

Colusa 

7,364 

18,046 

2,408 

8,986 

37,862 

Willow 

5.150 

27,104 

Independence 

10,294 

8,0.50 

984 

1.328 
4,520 
4,202 
2,062 
549 

1..510 
3  626 

4,.377 

Kern   

Bakersfield 

Hanford 

16,480 

9,871 

Lake                       

Lakoport 

6,017 

4..511 

Lob  Angeles 

170,298 

6,364 

San  Bafael 

15,708 

Mariposa 

Ukiah 

4,720 

80,465 

Merced 

1,932 
3.741 
3,020 

3,-340 
780 
972 

750 
1,365 
2.694 
7,323 
1,000 

1,.388 

19,947 

8,478 

47 

1,-396 

3,310 
434 

2,6;b 

1,286 
424 

3,876 
960 

5,991 
900 

1,620 

1,456 
622 
3,008 
3,283 
4,952 

2,308 

1,721 

900 

636 

9,215 

Modoc 

Alturas 

Bridgeport 

5,076 

2,167 

Monti-Tcy 

Napa  

Salinas 

19,380 

Napa 

Nevada  City 

16,451 
17,789 

19,696 

Placer 

Auburn 

15,786 

4,657 

Riverside 

17,897 

45,915 

Ilollister 

6,633 

San  Bernardino 

San  Bernardino    

27,929 
35,090 

San  Francisco 

34«,7S2 

San  Joaquin 

San  Luis  Obispo 

Stockton 

San  Luis  Obii^jio 

Redwood  City .'. 

35,453 

16,ia7 
12,094 

18,9:34 

60,216 

Santa  Cruz 

31,512 

Shasta ....              .... 

Redding 

17,318 

4,017 

Yreka 

10,962 

Solano 

Fairfield 

24,143 

38,180 

Modesto  .     . .        

9,-5-50 

6,886 

Tehama 

Trinity 

liedblufE 

Weaverville 

Visalia 

10,996 
4,;i83 
18,375 

11,166 

14,367 

Yolo 

Woodlaiui 

Marysville  

13,618 

Yuha 

8,()20 

CALIFORNIA 


JSTETADA 

StALt  OF  MlLtB 

Oouat"  ToKiu  •  Eailroade 


fojBBltinle-  020  "W. 


eOP*H'0HT,  MBI  AHD  t»(Xt.  ai  DQOO,  MEAO  «  OOWPAJtr. 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  NEVADA  BY  COUNTIES. 


Cminty. 


Churchill  .. 
Douglas .   . 

Elko 

K^ini-ralilil . 
Kurcka 

Hiimlinliit. 
Lander  , . 
Lincoln.. . . 

Lyou 

Nye 

Ornisby . . . 

Storey 

Washoe,   .. 
White  Pine 


Map 
Index. 


D2 
1)  a 

F  1 
D  2 

F  7 

D  1 

E  a 

F  3 
D  2 
F  2 

I)  2 
1)  2 
1)  1 
F  2 


County  Seat. 


Stillwater 

Genoa 

KIko 

Hawthorne 

Knrcka 

Winneniucca.. 

AuBtin 

Pioclie 

Dayton 

Helniont . .   . . 

rari*on  City. . . 
Virginia  Cily.. 
Keno 

Ely 


Area  in 
yquarc 
miles. 


4,816 
8r« 
18,9.39 
8,776 
4,111 

16.126 
5,307 

19,4,S7 
1,2B7 

17,376 

120 

268 

.5,612 

8,712 


Population. 


708 
1,551 
4,794 
2,148 
3,275 


1900. 


8:M 

5,688 
1.9?2 
1,951 


8,434 

4,463 

2.266 

1,5.S4 

2,466 

3,284 

1,987 

2,268 

1,290 

1,140 

4,883 

2,893 

8,806 

3,673 

6, '37 

9,141 

i,;  !i 

1,961 

NEVADA. 


419 


NEVADA. 


the  hliata  duriiij;  the  Jurassic  Age,  which 
brought  to  the  surface  rocks  ranging  from  tile 
Jurassic  ilowu  to  the  Areluean  system.  Some 
are  composed  of  granite,  syenite,  porpliyry,  and 
.slate,  while  in  otiiers  limestone  and  calcareous 
spar  predominate.  Although  some  recent  uplifts 
in  the  northwest  are  still  almost  unmodified,  the 
topography  of  the  majority  of  the  ranges  is  ])rob- 
ably  due  more  to  erosion  than  to  the  original 
fractures  and  folds.  The  vallovs  are  filled  with 
deep  layers  of  (Quaternary  detritus.  Volcanic 
rocUs  occur  as  intrusions  in  various  places,  and 
in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State  there  are 
e.\lensive  lava  fields,  while  other  evidences  of 
volcanic  action,  such  as  hot  springs  and  sulphur 
deposits,  also  exist. 

Besides  silver  and  gold  (see  paragraph  llin- 
inff)  the  minerals  found  within  the  State  in- 
clude antimony,  lead,  copper,  mercury,  and 
nickel,  as  well  as  sulphur,  gypsum,  and  exten- 
sive dejiosits  of  salt  and  borax,  the  last  found 
on  the  alkali  flats  and  in  beds  of  dry  lakes. 

ill.NiNG.  Nevada  owed  her  early  development 
to  mining.  Immensely  ridi  lodes  of  silver  and 
gold  were  disco\('red.  one  of  which- — the  Comstock 
lode  (q.v.)— produced  as  high  as  .$38,000,000 
worth  of  bullion  in  one  year.  With  the  apparent 
exhaustion  of  the  Comstock  lode,  the  industry 
decreased  considerably.  The  output  of  silver  con- 
tinued to  ileerease  until  ISOO.  when  the  product 
was  valued  at  .$1.01)0.457.  Gold,  however,  revived 
during  the  last  decade,  the  output  for  1.S9!)  being 
valued  at  $2.219.000— more  than  double  that  of 
1.S0.3.  Cojjper.  lead,  and  iron  ore  are  also  mined. 
Xo  coal  has  been  mineil  since  1804.  The  rich 
mineral  resources  of  the  State  aiTord  a  valuable 
field  for  future  development. 

.\(;IUCILTI'KE.  Agriculture  is  less  developed 
in  Nevada  than  in  any  other  State.  It  is  the 
most  arid  of  the  States  and  at  the  .same  time 
contains  the  most  meagre  sources  for  an  artificial 
water  supply.  The  lack  of  transportation  facili- 
ties and  of  local  markets  retards  the  development 
of  such  possibilities  as  exist.  In  18110,  504.108 
acres,  or  SS  per  cent,  of  the  total  improved  area, 
were  irrigated.  The  most  extensive  irrigated 
areas  are  along  the  Humboldt  River  and  in  the 
Avest-eentral  part  of  the  State.  There  are  alto- 
gether 2.5ti5,647  acres,  or  3.7  per  cent,  of  the 
State's  area,  included  in  farms.  The  industry 
centres  about  stock -grazing,  the  tilling  of  the 
soil  being  a  mere  adjunct  to  it.  The  animal 
products,  together  with  the  hay  and  forage  and 
other  products  fed  to  live  stock,  comprise  80.fi  per 
cent,  of  tlie  total  value  of  farm  products.  During 
the  last  decade  of  the  century  tlu-re  was  a  large 
increase  in  all  varieties  of  domestic  animals.  Cat- 
tle and  slice])  are  of  the  greatest  importance. 
Stock-raising  being  so  prominent,  hay  and  forage 
are  naturally  the  most  important  of  the  crops 
grown.  In  1800  there  were  202,134  acres  devoted 
to  them,  or  71.fi  per  cent,  of  the  total  crop  area. 
Alfalfa  constituted  about  one-third  of  this  acre- 
age. In  the  same  year  there  were  18.537  acres 
devoted  to  wheat.  7043  to  barley,  4786  to  oats, 
and  2235  to  potatoes.  The  wheat  area  increased 
five  fold  during  the  decade. 

The  soil  is  of  great  fertility  and  produces 
.ilumdantly  when  sufficiently  watered.  The  fol- 
lowing table  sliows  the  relative  importance  and 
increase  of  the  dilTerent  varieties  of  domestic 
animals  for  the  decade   1890-1000: 


Dairy  cows 

Neat  cattle 

Horses 

Mutes  aud  asses. 

Sheep 

Swiue 


1900 


13,6U8 
371.586 

8U,295 

3,048 

668,251 

15,111 


1890 

'J.Ti'i 

201,627 

66,788 

1.T23 

273.469 

7,373 

AIaklfactlbing.  The  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments are  chieUy  of  a  domestic  nature,  pro- 
ducing and  repairing  articles  for  local  con- 
sumption. Car  repair  shops  and  Hour  aud  grist 
milling  employ  the  greatest  capital.  The  total 
capital  of  all  manufacturing  industries  is  less 
than  $1.. 500.000. 

Tr.v.\.sportatio.x.  There  has  been  little  in- 
ducement to  railroad  construction  in  Nevada. 
For  several  years  the  mileage  has  been  about 
020  miles.  In  proportion  to  the  area  of  the 
State  the  mileage  is  less  than  that  of  any  other 
State.  The  principal  line  is  the  Southern  Pacific, 
running  from  east  to  west  through  the  .State. 
There  are  no  navigable  streams. 

Banks.  A  national  bank  was  organized  in 
18(jfi,  but  soon  closed.  The  First  National  Bank 
of  Winnemucca,  organized  in  188fi,  is  the  only 
national  bank  in  the  State  at  present.  In  1902 
its  capital  was  $82,000;  surplus.  $10,000;  deposits 
aggregated  .$511,000  and  loans  $378,000.  In 
1902  there  were  two  State  banks.  The  State 
banking  law  of  1891  is  verv  lax.  The  two  State 
banks  had  a  capital  of  $300,000;  surplus.  $100,- 
000;  cash,  $127,000;  deposits,  $1,579,000;  and 
loans,  $1,007,000.  Most  of  the  banking  is  done 
by  agencies  of  California  banks. 

Finances.  On  admission  to  Statehood,  in 
18G4,  Nevada  had  a  public  debt  of  $400,000, 
which  in  the  following  ilecade  grew  to  $738,528. 
This  debt  was  in  9  and  even  10  per  cent,  bonds, 
and  was  caused  by  the  extravagant  salaries  paid 
to  officials.  The  income  of  the  State  was  derived 
partly  from  a  tax  on  ])roperty,  partly  from  a 
special  ta.x  on  the  proceeds  of  the  silver  mines. 
The  income  from  this  special  tax  gi'ew  rapidly 
with  the  output  of  the  mines;  in  1874  it. amount- 
ed to  28  per  cent,  of  the  total  receipts  of  the 
State  treasury,  and  in  1878  to  50  per  cent.,  or 
about  $250,000.  The  output  of  the  mines  rapidly 
declined  in  the  eighties,  and  with  it  tlie  income 
of  tlie  treasury.  The  total  debt  in  1900  was 
$076,709,  out  oi'  which  .$380,000  are  irredeemable, 
and  only  the  pa.vinent  of  interest  obligatory. 
The  State  held  in  trust  for  the  educational  fumls 
$1,529,652,  which  cannot  be  applied  to  payment 
of  debts.  The  receipts  in  1900  were  $510,608, 
half  of  which  came  from  a  general  propert.v  tax. 
and  30  ])er  cent,  from  payments  on  land  and 
interest  on  land  payment.  The  expenditures  were 
$533,402,  25  per  cent,  of  which  was  for  school 
purposes,  and  25  jier  cent,  for  purchase  of  bonds 
for  the  school  fund. 

Population.  The  falling  ofT  in  the  mining 
industry  of  the  State,  and  failure  to  develop  in 
other  directions,  have  resulted  in  a  diminution 
of  the  population.  It  now  has  the  fewest  in- 
habitants of  any  State,  and  is  the  only  one  in 
which  a  decrease  is  taking  place.  The  following 
are  tlie  figures  bv  decades:  ISfiO.  6857;  1870. 
42.491;  1880.  62.266;  l.'^OO,  45,761;  1900.  42.335. 
The  largest  towns  are:  Reno,  population,  in  1890, 
3563;  in  1900,  4500;  Virginia  City,  pojiulation, 
in  1890,  8511;  in  I'.IOO.  2695;  Carson  Citv,  the 
capital,  population,  in  1890,  3950;  in  iyoO,"2IOO. 


NEVADA. 


420 


NEVADA. 


The  State  has  one  representative  in  the  National 
House  of  Kepre.-sentatives. 

Keligiox.  Tile  ehurdies  do  not  show  a  strong 
numerical  representation  iu  Nevada.  Tlie  Catho- 
lics, with  a  membership  of  about  4000,  outnumber 
all  the  other  churclies  combined.  The  Protestant 
Kpiseopal.  Jlormon,  Methodist  Episcopal,  and 
Tresbyterian  churches  are  represented. 

EuLCATiON.  The  State  expends  a  large  per 
capita  sum  for  educational  purposes,  and  main- 
tains a  school  term  of  more  than  seven  months 
in  length.  The  total  expenditure  for  1000  was 
.'i;'i2-t.ti22.  The  number  of  cliililren  of  school  age 
I  live  to  eighteen  years)  was  !>iUO ;  number  en- 
rolled, GOTO;  average  daily  attendance,  4098. 
Education  is  compulsory,  but  the  law  is  not 
strictly  enforced.  There  are  about  400  pui)ils  in 
the  high  schools  of  the  State  and  over  .300  in  the 
State  University — a  coeducational  in.stitution  lo- 
cated at  Reno,  in  connection  with  which  the 
Eederal  Government  has  established  an  agricul- 
tural experiment  station.  There  are  no  normal 
schools.  The  na1i<inal  Government  maintains  a 
boarding  school  for  Indian  children. 

CnARiT-\RLE  AND  Pknal.  The  State  supports 
an  orphan's  home,  at  Carson ;  a  hospital  for  men- 
tal diseases,  at  Reno:  and  a  State  prison  at 
Carson. 

(iovERXsrENT.  Nevada  has  had  but  one  con- 
stitution, which  was  adopted  by  popular  vote  in 
1804.  A  |)roposed  amendment  may  originate  in 
either  House  and  must  receive  the  approval  of  a 
nuijority  of  the  members  elected  to  each  House 
at  two  consecutively  elected  legislatures,  after 
which  it  must  receive  a  majority  vote  of  the 
people.  A  constitutional  convention  may  be 
called  if  approved  by  two-thirds  of  the  members 
elected  to  each  House  and  a  majority  of  the 
popular  vote.  SufTrage  is  restricted  to  sane  male 
citizens,  twenty-one  years  of  age.  who  have  re- 
sided in  the  State  six  months  and  the  district  or 
county  thirty  days;  the  Legislature,  however, 
has  the  power  to  make  the  jiayraent  of  a  poll 
tax  a  conditional  right  for  voting.  Carson  City 
is  the  ctpital. 

liEGiSLATiVE.  The  aggregate  number  of  mem- 
bers of  both  branches  of  the  Legislature  cannot 
exceed  7.5,  and  the  Senators  must  not  number  less 
than  one-third  or  more  than  one-half  the  Assem- 
blymen. Assemblymen  serve  two  years  and  Sen- 
ators four  years.  Both  are  elected  on  the  Tues- 
day after  the  first  Monday  in  November  of  even 
years,  and  the  sessions  of  the  Legislature  convene 
on  the  third  Monday  of  .Tanuary  of  odd  years 
and  cannot  exceed  fiO  days  in  length. 

ExEci'TiVE.  The  Governor.  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor, Secretary,  Treasurer.  Controller.  Survey- 
or-General, and  Attorney-General  are  elected  at 
the  same  time  as  are  the  members  of  the  Legis- 
lature, and  serve  for  four  years. 

.IiDlciAl..  There  are  a  supreme  court,  district 
courts,  and  justices  of  the  pea<'e  and  such  city 
and  town  courts  as  the  Legislature  may  e-tablish. 

Local  Government.  .\  uniform  sy.stem  of 
county  and  township  goverr.ment  is  established 
by  the  legislature,  which  system  must  provide 
for  a  hoard  of  eoimty  commissioners  in  each 
county. 

Mii.iTiA.     The  militia  numbers  138  men. 

History.  The  territory  from  which  Nevada 
was  formed  was  acquired  from  Mexico  by  the 
Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo.  February  2.1848, 
and  later  formed  part  of  t''tah  Territory.     The 


first  European  known  certainly  to  have  entered 
the  region  was  Francisco  Garcos,  a  Franciscan 
friar,  on  his  way  to  Calilornia  from  Sonora  in 
1775.  Other  friars  followed  liim,  but  no  settle- 
ments were  made.  In  IS'io  Peter  S.  Ogden, 
iu  the  employ  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
worked  inland  with  a  small  party  and  came  upon 
the  Humboldt  River,  sometimes  called  the  Ogden 
River  after  himself,  or  the  Mary  River,  after 
his  Indian  wife.  Other  trappers  came  within 
the  next  five  years,  though  they  siiffered  from 
the  attacks  of  the  Blackfeet  and  Shoshone  In- 
dians. In  ISiO  .Jeilediah  S.  Smith  cros.sed  the 
entire  breadth  of  the  present  Stale  from  west  to 
east.  Frf-mont  passed  through  in  1843-45,  and 
])Ossibly  (K'Casional  emigrants  liound  for  Oregon 
(U-  California  settled  here  and  there.  In  1849 
the  .Mormons  founded  a  trading  post  in  the  valley 
of  the  Carson  River,  near  the  present  town  of 
(ienoa,  to  supply  gold-seekers  on  their  way  to 
California.  When  Itah  Territory  was  formed, 
September  0,  I8.")0,  the  western  bo\mdary  was 
lixed  as  tile  summit  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains and  so  included  much  of  the  jjresent  State, 
but  the  Territorial  organization  did  not  extend 
at  once  to  the  extreme  west,  and  the  inhabitants 
organized  a  government  of  their  own.  In  1853, 
and  again  in  1850,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Carson 
^■alley  petitioned  to  be  annexed  to  California, 
claiming  that  the  (iovernment  of  Utah  did  not 
])rotcet  them,  and  had  even  withdrawn  the  county 
government,  so  tarilily  given  A  petition  for 
Territorial  governiiu'iit  was  sent  to  Congress  in 
August,  1857,  and  in  1858  a  provisional  govern- 
ment was  formed  at  Carson  City  with  Isaac  Roop 
as  Governor.  In  1800  another  jietition  was  sent 
to  Congress  and  the  Territorial  Delegate  applied 
for  admission,  ileanwhile  the  Comstock  Lode 
had  been  discovered  in  .luiie,  1850.  and  miners 
(locked  thither  from  every  direction.  The  new 
Territory  was  separated  from  Utah,  March  2, 
1801.  being  bounded  on  the  east,  however,  by  the 
IKith  meridian.  Another  degree  was  cut  from 
Utah.  .Tuly  14.  1802.  and  on  May  5,  ISC.O.  the 
eastern  boundary  was  extended  to  the  114th 
meridian  and  that  part  of  the  State  lying  below 
37°  was  taken  fnmi  Arizona.  In  Septeml)er, 
1803.  an  election  was  hclil  for  delegates  to  form 
a  State  constitution,  but  the  instrument  sub- 
mitted was  defeated  in  January,  1804.  However, 
the  political  situation  made  two  additional  Re- 
publican votes  in  the  United  States  Senate  ex- 
ceedingly desirable,  and  Congress  in  March.  1804. 
again  passed  an  enabling  act;  in  .Tuly  the  Consti- 
tution was  accepted,  and  the  State  was  admitted 
October  3Ist.  Politically  the  State  is  swayed 
largely  by  local  interests.  It  was  Republican  in 
national  elections  until  1892,  when  it  was  carried 
by  the  People's  Party.  In  1890  and  1900  it  voted 
for  the  free-silver  candidate.  William  .Jennings 
Bryan. 

The  Governors  of  Nevada  have  been  as  follows: 

TKRRITOSUI/ 

James  W.  Nye IRfil  i  < 

HT,ITE 

Hcnrv  (!.  TUnsrtHl Ki'imlill'-nn lBM-70 

I.iMils  It.  liniillov IipiiiiMTnt 1870-79 

.Ii.lin  H    KinkPdil Ilepulilli-fin imV-M 

.Ti'w.'lt  W.  Ad.iTiis IVniocrnt ]Rra.«7 

f'hrixtiiplii''"''-  st«vennon..Roi)ulillcon 1887-90 

Fmiik  Bell "  1890  91 

Itiww.'ll   K.  Colcoril ■•  1891-95 

.lolin  F,   .InneB Silver 1895-90 

Ri'lnliolrt  Sadler "     1890-1903 

.lolin  Sjinrks SIlTer-Democrat 1903  — 


NEVADA. 


421 


NEVILLE. 


Consult:  Angel,  History  of  Xcvada  (Oakland, 
1S81);  Bancroft,  .Vm«(/(j,  Colorado,  and  Wyo- 
miiir/  (San  Francisco,  18!I0)  ;  Nevada  and  llcr 
Itcsuurces   (Carson  City,  18'J4). 

NEVADA.  A  city  and  the  county-scat  of 
Story  (nunty,  Iowa,  'ii  miles  nortli  by  east  of 
Dcs  iloines:  on  the  Chicago  and  Xorthwestern 
and  other  railroads  (Map:  Iowa,  D  3).  it  is 
the  centre  of  a  farming  and  cattle-raising  dis- 
trict, and  has  a  large  cold  storage  plant  for 
liultcr  and  eggs,  and  some  manufactures,  tlie 
cliief  products  being  tile  and  Hour.  Tliere  is  a 
pulilie  library  of  5000  volumes.  Population,  in 
18IIII,  1(;U2:  in  1000,  2472. 

NEVADA.  A  city  and  tlie  county-seat  of 
Vernon  County.  Jlo.,  100  miles  south  of  Kansas 
City;  on  the  ilissouri  Pacific  and  the  Missouri, 
Kansas  and  Texas  railroads  (Map:  Missouri, 
B  4 ) .  It  has  a  Koman  Catholic  convent  school, 
and  is  tlie  seat  of  a  State  lunatic  asylum  and  of 
Cottey  College  for  Young  Ladies  (Methodist 
Episcopal.  South),  opened  in  1884.  A  prominent 
feature  of  tlic  city  is  l^ake  Park,  named  from  a 
beautiful  lake  within  the  municipal  limits.  Ne- 
vada controls  considerable  trade  in  the  products 
of  tlie  agricultural  and  stock-raising  district  of 
which  it  is  the  centre,  and  has  large  zinc  smelt- 
ers, a  foundry  and  iron  works,  and  saw,  planing, 
flour,  and  feed  mills.  Nevada  became  the  county- 
seat  in  1858,  and  was  incorporated  in  1870.  It 
is  governed,  under  a  charter  of  1880.  by  a  mayor, 
elected  everv  two  years,  and  a  unicameral  coun- 
cil.    Population,  in  1890,  7262;  in  1900,  7461. 

NEVADA,  Emma  (Emma  Wixom)  (18GI— ). 
An  American  dramatic  soprano,  born  in  Austin, 
Nov.  She  studied  under  ilarchesi  in  Vienna  and 
afterwards  in  Italy.  She  first  appeared  in  opera 
in  London  (1880)  with  ilarie  Van  Zandt  and 
subsequently  sustained  leading  parts  in  Triest, 
Pesth,  Prague,  Milan,  Rome,  Naples,  and  Paris, 
making  her  first  ])rofessional  tour  of  the  United 
States  in  18S4-S5.  Slie  had  a  wide  repertoire, 
but  perhaps  her  most  successful  rfde  was  Jlignon, 
which  piirt  she  sang  for  an  entire  year  in  Paris. 

NEVADA  CITY.  A  town  and  the  county- 
sea  of  Nevada  County,  C'al..  166  miles  northeast 
of  San  Francisco;  the  terminus  of  the  Nevada 
County  N;urow  Gauge  Railroad  (Map:  Cali- 
fornia, C  2).  It  is  a  popular  health  and  sum- 
mer resort,  being  esteemed  for  its  equable  climate 
and  for  its  fine  site,  at  an  elevation  of  2500  feet 
in  a  mountainous  region.  There  are  valuable 
gold  mines  near  by, which  supply  the  city's  quartz 
mills.  The  leading  occupations  are  mining,  the 
cultivation  of  fniit  and  vines,  and  wine-making. 
I'nder  a  charter  of  1885.  the  government  is  vested 
in  a  president  and  board  of  trustees  elected  on  a 
general  ticket.  The  town  owns  and  operates  the 
water-works.  Nevada  City  was  first  settled  in 
1S49.  and  in  18.50-51  was  the  most  important 
milling  town  in  the  State.  It  was  incorporated  in 
1875.  Disastrous  fires  occurred  in  1851,  1856, 
1858,  and  1803.  Population,  in  1890.  2.524;  in 
1900,  32.50. 

NEVADA  STATE  tJNIVEKSITY.  Tlie 
head  of  the  edueational  system  of  the  State  of 
Nevada  and  the  only  institution  of  collegiate 
grade  within  the  State.  It  w^as  founded  at  Elko 
in  1873  and  was  removed  to  Reno  in  1885  and 
formally  reopened  in  1886.  The  university  com- 
prises  the   college  of  agriculture,   including  de- 


partments of  dairying  and  domestic  arts  and 
sciences,  the  college  of  arts  and  science,  the 
college  of  applied  science,  with  departments  of 
mining  and  metallurgy  and  mechanical  and  civil 
engineering,  a  normal  ile|>arliiient.  and  the 
Iniversity  High  Sciiook  jlilitary  instruction 
forms  part  of  the  curriculum  and  a  uniform  is 
w  orn  by  tlie  students.  The  degrees  conferred  arc 
those  of  B..\.,  B.S.,  M.A.,  M.S.,  and  mining,  me- 
chanical, and  civil  engineer.  In  1902  the  faculty 
numbered  18  and  tlie  attendance  was  310,  in- 
cluding 90  preparatory  students.  The  library 
contained  4000  volumes.  The  university  campus 
covers  about  40  acres  and  with  its  buildings  was 
valued  at  .'i!200,000.  The  value  of  the  college 
property  was  $225,000,  and  the  income  $62,000. 

NEVE,  na'vii'.     See  GL.vciEit. 

NEVERS,  ne-var'.  The  capital  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Ni&vre.  France,  and  formerly  of  the 
Province  of  Nivernais,  situated  on  a  hill  in 
the  midst  of  fertile  ])lains  at  the  confivience  of 
the  Loire  and  the  Nifevre,  140  miles  southeast  of 
Paris  ( Ma]) :  France,  K  5 ) .  It  is  an  important 
railway  junction.  The  old  portion  of  the  town 
is  ill-built,  with  narrow,  crooked  streets,  but  the 
modern  portion  has  w'ide  street.s  and  a  fine  park. 
A  gateway  containing  a  Gallo-Roman  museum, 
and  two  towers,  are  preserved  remains  of  the 
mediaeval  fortifications.  The  feudal  ducal  castle 
is  utilized  for  the  Palace  of  .Justice  and  also  eon- 
tains  a  museum.  The  chief  ecclesiastical  build- 
ings are  the  Romanesque  eleventh  century  Church 
of  Saint  Etienne,  and  the  recently  restored  Cathe- 
dral of  Saint  Cyr,  built  in  the  thirteenth  century 
on  the  site  of  a  prior  church,  the  west  portion 
of  which  is  incorporated  in  the  present  building; 
the  cathedral  is  noted  for  its  double  apse  and 
fine  sculptures  and  paintings.  T!ie  town  pos- 
sesses a  public  librarv.  and  numerous  edueation- 
al. scientific,  and  benevolent  institutions.  It  has 
manufactures  of  iron  and  copper  ware,  chemicals, 
porcelain  and  cloth,  an  engine-fitting  factory, 
fonnerly  a  famous  naval  cannon  foundry,  and  oil 
mills.  Nevers  is  the  ancient  Noviodunum,  an 
important  town  of  the  ^Edui.  It  has  been  an 
episcojjal  see  since  the  sixth  century,  when  it  was 
called  Nivernum.  The  town  became  the  seat  of 
the  counts  of  Nevers  in  the  tenth  century  and  was 
created  a  dukedom  by  Francis  I.  in  1538.  The 
dukedom  of  Nevers  passed  by  marriage  to  a 
member  of  the  family  of  Gonzaga.  the  ducal  house 
of  ilantua.  On  the  extinction  of  the  Gonzaga 
line  in  Mantua  in  1027.  Charles.  Duke  of  Nevers. 
claimed  the  duchv.  He  was  svip|)orted  by  France, 
and  opposed  by  Spain  and  .Austria.  The  War  of 
the  Mantuan  Succession  which  ensued  ended  in 
the  recognition  of  the  claim  of  Charles  of  Nevers 
in  1630.  The  population  of  Nevers  in  1900  was 
27.673. 

NEVERSINK  HIGHLANDS,  A  range  of 
hills  in  Now  .Jersey.     See  Nave.sixiv  Higiii.a?jd.S. 

NEVIANSKII-ZAVOD,  nev-y-in'sk?  za-vfid'. 
A  mining  settlement  in  the  Government  of  Perm, 
Russia,  situated  on  the  Neiva.  in  (he  I'ral  Jloun- 
tains.  62  miles  north  of  Ekaterinburg  (Map: 
Russia,  K  3).  It  is  the  centre  of  an  important 
mining  district  and  contains  extensive  iron 
works,  steel  mills,  and  gold  washeries.  The  set- 
tlement was  founded  in  1699.  Populatinn.  in 
1897.   10.066. 

NEVILLE,  RrcnARn.  Earl  of  Warwick.  An 
English     political    leader     known    as    the    'king- 


NEVILLE.  i23 

See  Wabwick,  IUciiabd  Neville,  Earl 


NEW  ARCHANGEL. 


maker, 
of. 

NEVILLE'S  CROSS,  Battle  of.  A  battle 
between  the  Siolcli  anil  the  English,  fought  on 
Uituber  17,  l.'J4l).  Uuring  the  Hundred  Years' 
War  (q.v.)  the  Seoteh  were  the  firm  allies  of  the 
Freneh,  and  when  Edward  111.  invaded  France, 
Kin"  David  II.  of  Scotland  prepared  to  harass 
England.  lie  was  met,  however,  at  Neville's 
Cross,  near  Durham,  by  the  English  under  Henry 


good  roadstead  and  a  population  (I'JOl)  of  1383. 
The  island  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498. 
It  was  colonized  by  the  English  in  1628.  In  1S99 
it  sull'ered  from  a  disastrous  hurricane. 

NEVIS,  liE.M.     See  Be.\  Nevis. 

NEVOME,  neviVma.  A  Mexican  Indian  tribe 
I'f  I'iiiian  stotU.  numbering  aljout  SUOO. 

NEVSKI  (nyef'skO)  PROSPEKT'.   The  chief 

street  of  Saint   Petersburg,   extending   for  about 


Percv  and  Ralph  Neville.  The  English,  owin<'  to  *'"''"  ""'^^  '°  *''  str'Ug'it  line,  and  faced  by  some 
their  archers,  were  completely  victorious,  and  "f^  the  ^hnest  ^.sjiops  ,T.nd  public  buildings  of  the 
David  himself  was  captured.     See  Bbuce,  D.\vid.      "  '         *    '"    '   "   '""''    '*' 


NEVIN,  Etiielhert  (1^*02-1901).  An  Ameri- 
can composer,  born  at  Edgeworth,  Pa.  .After 
thorough  preparation  under  local  music  teachers, 
he  went  to  Ucilin  (  1.S84I  and  became  a  pupil  of 
Von  Biilow  and  Karl  Klindworth,  the  former  of 
whom  particularly  encouraged  his  natural 
gift  for  composition.  He  returned  to  Bos- 
ton in  1887  and  settled  there,  devoting 
himself  largely  to  composition,  but  after 
1893  he  spent  much  of  his  time  in  Europe, 
mostly  in  Paris,  the  south  of  France,  Italy, 
and  Algiers.  He  returned  to  America  in 
1900,  and  became  associated  with  H.  N. 
Parker  in  the  department  of  music  at  Yale 
University.  Of  his  compositions,  which  are 
almost  entirelj-  in  the  smaller  forms,  Xunissiis, 
a  piano  numlier,  published  in  a  group  entitled 
ir«(er  Sketches,  and  the  song  The  liosury,  were 
perhaps  the  most  popular.  He  was  the  composer 
of  many  songs,  instrumental  pieces  and  waltzes. 


city.  It  is  150  feet  in  width,  and  in  winter 
presents  a  scene  of  great  animation. 

NEW,  Jon.\  CiiAU-ANT  ( IS.'?  1  — ) .  An  Ameri- 
can politician,  born  at  A'ernon,  Ind.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Bethany  College,  (West)  Virginia,  in 
1S.")1,  and  settled  in  Indianapolis,  where  lie  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  18.52.  In  18(il  he  was 
appointed  quartermaster-general  of  Indiana,  a 
post  which  he  held  throughout  the  Civil  War. 
In  1862  he  was  a  member  of  the  Indiana  State 
Senate.  After  the  war  he  engaged  for  several 
years  in  hanking,  and  in  1875  was  appointed  by 
President  Grant,  Treasurer  of  the  United  States. 
In  1882  President  .Arthur  appointed  him  .Assist- 
ant Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  He  was  active  in 
securing  the  nomination  and  election  of  Benja- 
min Harrison  in  1888  to  the  Presidency,  and  as 
a  reward  for  his  services  was  appointed  United 
States  Consul-(!eneral  at  London,  England,  which 
position  he  held  until   1892. 

NEW  ACADEMY.     A  school  of  Greek  phi- 


almost  all  of  which  are  marked  by  the  delicate  losophers,  the  successors  and  expositors  of  Plato, 
daintiness  and  originality  which  was  character-  The  various  schools  classed  under  the  name  of  the 
istic  of  his  work.     He  died  at  New  Haven,  Conn.     Academy  arc  dilfercntlv  divided  bv  modern  his- 


NEVIN,  .John  W^illiamson  (180.3-86).  An 
American  clergyman.  He  was  born  in  Franklin 
County,  Pa.,  graduated  from  Union  College  in 
1821,  stuilied  theology  at  Princeton,  and  taught 
Hebrew  there  from  1826  to  1828.  Frnm  1.S29  to 
1840  he  was  professor  of  Hebrew  and  biblical  lit- 
erature in  the  Western  Theological  Seminary  at 
Allegheny,  Pa.  From  here  he  went  to  the  theo- 
logical   seminary    of    the    Reformed     (German; 


torians.  The  third  school,  headed  by  Carneades 
(q.v. ),  is  sometimes  refiMred  to  as  the  New 
-Academy,  thougli  it  is  perhaps  more  often  classed, 
with  the  second,  under  the  name  of  lliddle,  the 
New  beginning  a  little  later  with  Philo  of  Laris- 
sa,  who  founded  the  fourth  school. 

NEW  ALBANY.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Floyd  County,.  Ind. ;  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Ohio  River,  two  miles  below  the  falls,  and 


Church  at  Mercersburg,  where  he  taught  theology  opposite  Louisville,  Ky.,  with  which  it  is  con- 
until  1851.  He  was  president  of  :Marsliall  Col- 
lege. Mercersburg,  from  1841  to  1853.  After  this 
institution  had  united  with  Franklin  College  at 
Lancaster  under  the  name  of  Franklin  and 
Marshall,  he  served  as  president  from  1866  to 
1876.     He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  'Mer- 


nected  by  a  long  railroad  bridge,  and  on  the 
Louisville,  Evansville  an<l  Saint  L<mis.  the  Louis- 
ville. New  Albany  and  Chicago,  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Southwestern,  and  the  Pittsburg.  Cincin- 
nati. Chicago  and  Saint  l.ouis  railroads  (Map: 
Indiana.  D  4).     It  has  a  fine  citv  hall  and  court 


cersbnr;;  theolog^''  (q.v.).  He  was  the  editor  of  house,  post  olTice  and  custom  house,  large  fair 
and  principal  contributor  to  The  Mercer.ihiirfi  Re-  groimds,  De  Pauw  College  for  women,  and  a  pub- 
viiir  from   1849  to  1853.     He  published:  liihlical     I'c  library.     In  the  suburbs  there  is  a   national 


Antiquities  (2  vols.,  1828:  revised  ed.  1849 
Thr  Anxious  Bench  (1842)  ;  The  Mi/slical  Prcs- 
enrr  (1846)  :  Uinton)  and  Genius  nf  the  Tlcidel- 
brrfl  Cnfechism  (1847);  Antichrist;  or,  the 
f'/iirit  nf  Sect  and  Schi.<tm  (1848).  Consult  his 
bingniphy  by  .Appel   (Philadelphia,  1889). 

NEVIS,  nf'vls.  One  of  the  Leeward  Islands 
in  the  West  Indies,  belonging  to  Great  Britain. 
II  lies  two  miles  southeast  of  Saint  Christopher, 
with  which  it  is  administratively  connected 
(Map:  West  Indies.  Q  6).  .Area.  50  square 
mills.  It  consists  largely  of  nn  extinct  volcano, 
3596  feet  high  and  wooded  at  the  summit.  The 
lower  slopes  are  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  pro- 
ducing sugar-cane  and  some  limes  and  oranges. 
The  population  in  1891  was  13.087.  and  in  1901, 
12,774.     The  chief  town  is  Charlcstown,  with  a 


cemetery  which  contains  2908  graves,  676  of  un- 
known dead.  The  city  controls  large  conuuereial 
interests,  and  is  an  important  manufacturing 
centre,  having  tanneries,  woolen  mills,  furniture 
factories,  engine  and  boiler  works,  rolling,  plan- 
ing, and  flour  mills,  iron  foundries.  ]ilale  glass 
works,  and  pork-packing  establishments.  New 
.Albany  was  laid  out  in  1813  and  incorporated  as 
a  city  in  1839,  the  charter  of  that  year  being  still 
in  operation  and  providing  for  a  mayor,  chosen 
everv  four  years,  and  a  unicameral  council,  which 
eU'cts  subordinate  nuinicipal  officers.  Population, 
in  1890.  21.059:  in  1900.  20.628. 

NEW    AMSTERDAM.      The   name   of   New 
York  City   (i|.v.l    inider  the  Dutch. 

NEW  ARCHAN'GEL.     The  former  name  of 
Sitka    (q.v.). 


NEWARK. 


423 


NEWARK. 


NEWARK,  nii'eik.  or  NEWARK-TJPON- 
TRENT.  A  inunieipal  l)Oiinij;li  :iii(l  nuirkrt- 
town  of  Xottiiifilirtnisliiro.  Kn<;laiul.  on  a  naviga- 
ble biancli  of  tlic  Trent,  I(i  miles  southwest  of 
Lincoln  (Map:  Enffland,  K  .'! ) .  Newark  is  one 
of  tlie  most  important  maltiiif;  towns  in  ICnfjlanil. 
and  lias  Hour  mills,  breweries,  manufaetnres  of 
agricultural  implements  ami  boilers,  gjpsuni  and 
limestone  c|vnnries,  and  a  trade  in  corn,  malt, 
and  Hour.  Tlie  corn  market  is  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  kingdom.  The  parish  elnireh,  a  large  and 
elegant  edifice,  though  often  rebuilt,  still  shows 
traces  of  its  original  Ncninan  eharaeter.  The 
grammar  and  song  school  was  founded  in  l.")"2!1. 
Newark  was  incorporated  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
\l.  and  received  further  charters  from  Charles 
1.  and  Charles  II.  The  town  owns  the  water- 
works and  markets,  and  maintains  a  free  library 
and  public  baths.  It  dates  from  the  Roman  occu- 
pation. The  castle,  now  in  rtiins,  was  built 
earl}-  in  the  twelfth  century.  King  John  died 
in  it  in  12I(i.  From  its  position  and  great 
strength  it  was  called  'the  Key  of  the  North,' 
and  during  the  Civil  War  sustained  three  sieges 
for  Charles  1.,  finally  surrendering  at  his  request 
to  the  Scots  in  Ili4(j.'  Population,  in  I80I,  14,450: 
in  1901.  1.1,000.  Consult  Cornelius  Brown,  Annals 
of  yeicurlc-npon-Trent   (London,  1879). 

NEWARK,  nu'Lirk.  A  town  in  Newcastle 
County.  Del..  \i  miles  west  by  south  of  Wilming- 
ton; on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  and  the  Phila- 
delphia, Baltimore  and  Washington  railroads 
(Map:  Delaware,  0  2).  It  is  the  seat  of  Dela- 
ware (State)  College  (q.v. ),  and  of  Newark 
Academy.  There  are  extensive  paper  manufac- 
tures, also  wall-paper  mills,  fibre  works,  machine 
.slio])s,  etc.  The  water-works  and  electric  light 
plant  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  municipal- 
ity.    Population,  in  1890,  1191;  in  1900,  1213. 

NEWARK,  nti'erk.  The  largest  city  of  New 
.Icrsc},  a  port  of  entry,  and  the  county-seat  of 
Kssex  County,  eight  miles  west  of  New  York;  on 
the  west  bank  of  tlic  Passaic  River,  which  emp- 
ties into  Newark  Bay  three  miles  below  the  city 
proper,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Lehigh 
Valley,  the  Lackawanna,  the  Erie,  and  the  Cen- 
tral of  New  Jersey  railroads  (Map:  New  Jersey, 
D2). 

The  city  occupies  an  area  of  aboijt  18  Vi  square 
miles  on  a  generally  level  plain.  Toward  the 
west,  however,  the  ground  rises,  affording  the 
beautiful  sites  of  a  popular  residential  district. 
Though  Newark  contains  the  homes  of  many 
Imsiness  men  of  New  York,  it  has  distinct  in- 
dividuality as  a  manufacturing  city,  and  many 
members  of  its  industrial  and  commercial  com- 
munity find  homes  in  the  beautifttl  surrounding 
suburbs  of  the  Oranges,  Montclair.  Caldwell.  Ir- 
vington.  and  other  places  with  which  the  city  is 
conneoted  by  a  network  of  electric  railways.  The 
streets  are  regularly  laid  out,  and  the  main 
avenues  are  broad  and  well  paved  with  granite 
or  asphalt,  1.37  miles  of  the  total  street  mileage 
(2.31  )  being  paved.  Broad  Street,  the  principal 
thoroughfare  and  business  street,  having  a  width 
which  justifies  its  name,  presents  a  handsome  ap- 
pearance, enhanced  by  the  stately  elm-trees  in  the 
parks  that  border  it  for  a  considerable  distance. 
There  are  many  public  parks — Branch  Brook.  Mil- 
itary (formerly  the  old  training  ground).  Wash- 
ington, Lincoln.  East  Side,  and  West  Side:  and 
statues  of  General  Philip  Kearny,  Frederick  T. 


Erelinghuysen,  and  Seth  Boyden,  the  inventor,  a 
bronze  bust  of  Abraham  Coles,  and  a  bronze  In- 
dian group.  Tlic  finest  edifices  include  the  Keder- 
al  building,  accumniodatiiig  the  custom  house  and 
post  ollice  ;  the  Public  Library,  which  cost  $350,- 
000;  the  Prudential  Life  Insurance  building,  the 
high  schoid,  and  the  I'eddie  Memorial  Church. 
The  City  Hospital,  the  German.  Saint  Jliehael's, 
Saint  Barnabas,  and  Saint  James  hospitals,  and 
the  Essex  County  Hosjiital  for  the  Insane  are 
among  the  more  prominent  charitable  institutions. 
There  are  in  the  city  nine  iniblic  hospitals,  four- 
teen public  homes,  and  four  orphan  asylums. 
Newark  has  the  Newark  Academy,  a  well-known 
classical  school  of  long  standing.  Saint  Benedict's 
College,  and  the  Newark  Technical  School,  a  city 
institution.  The  Public  Library  contains  80,000 
volumes.  Other  libraries  are  the  Board  of 
Trade,  Y'oung  Men's  Catholic  Association, 
Count}'  Law,  High  School,  and  State  Historical 
Society.  The  last-named  institution  has  also 
an  interesting  collection  of  relics. 

Newark  is  essentially  an  industrial  centre, 
having  long  been  noted  for  the  extent  and  variety 
of  its  products,  which,  according  to  the  census 
of  1900,  were  valued  at  .5;12(),954,000.  The  more 
important  manufactures  include  leather,  ma- 
chinery, fotindry  and  machine-shop  products,  jew- 
elry, saddlery,  hardware,  celluloid,  spool  cotton, 
boots  and  shoes,  carriages,  hats  and  caps,  cloth- 
ing, trunks,  paper,  varnish,  chemicals,  rubber, 
beer,  and  ale.  The  water  frontage  of  the  city  ex- 
tends along  the  Passaic  River  and  Newark  Bay 
for  a  distance  of  10i<>  miles,  and  there  is  a  large 
trade  by  river,  as  well  as  by  rail. 

The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected 
every  two  years,  a  unicameral  council,  and  sub- 
ordinate administrative  officials  appointed  or 
elected  as  follows :  By  the  mayor — city  counsel, 
attorney  and  assistant,  excise  and  assessment 
commissioners,  trustees  of  the  public  library,  and 
police  justices;  by  the  mayor  with  the  consent  of 
the  council — police,  fire,  and  health  commissioners, 
city  comptroller,  auditor,  and  tax  commisioners; 
by  the  council — treasurer,  tax  receiver,  city  clerk, 
and  building  inspector,  and  assistants;  by  popu- 
lar vote — board  of  education,  and  board  of  street 
and  water  con  missioncrs.  The  annual  expendi- 
tures for  maintenance  and  operation  are  about 
$4,875,000,  the  principal  items  being  $900,000  for 
schools,  $425,000  for  the  police  department  (in- 
cluding amounts  for  police  courts,  jails,  reforma- 
tories, etc.),  $410,000  for  interest  on  debt.  $340.- 
000  for  the  water-works,  $300,000  for  the  fire 
department,  ,$215,000  for  municipal  lighting. 
$205,000  for  charitable  institutions,  and  $125,000 
for  street  expenditures.  The  water-works,  built 
at  a  cost  of  $0,000,000,  are  ov\nied  and  operated 
by  the  municipality,  the  entire  system  now  com- 
prising about  300  miles  of  mains.  There  are 
nearly  180  miles  of  sewers.  Newark  has  (1902) 
a  bonded  debt  of  $17,585,000.  and  an  assessed 
property  valuation  (real  and  personal)  of  about 
$100,000,000. 

Population,  in  1810.  8008:  1830.  10.053;  18.50, 
38.894:  1860.  71.941;  1870,  105.059;  1880.  1.36,- 
,508;  1890.  181.830;  1900,  240,070,  including  71,- 
400  persons  of  foreign  birth  and  6700  of  negro 
descent. 

Newark  was  settled  in  1666  by  a  party  of 
thirty  from  Milford.  Conn..  led  by  Robert  Treat. 
In  1667  a  company  from  Guilford  and  Branford, 
dissatisfied   with  the   union   of  New   Haven  and 


NEWARK. 


424 


NEW  BEDFORD. 


Connecticut,  came  lien-  uiuler  Uie  leadership  of 
Abruliiiiu  I'ierson.  The  settlement  was  strictly 
religious,  the  rights  of  full  citizenship  being  re- 
stricted to  members  of  the  Congregational 
Church.  At  first  called  Jlilford,  it  was  renamed 
in  ItitiT  after  Pierson's  English  home,  Newark- 
upon-Trent.  it  originally  included  a  large  i)art  of 
the  present  Esse.x  County,  in  which  the  towns 
of  Belleville,  Bloomfield,  Clinton,  ihmtclair,  and 
the  Oranges  later  grew  up.  In  1745-40  the  Eng- 
lish grantees  of  East  Jersey  attempted  to  invali- 
date the  Indian  titles  of  the  settlers,  claiming 
that  tliey  alone  euuld  grant  land.  Riots  ensued 
which  were  repressed  with  dilliculty.  Newark 
was  chartered  as  a  town  in  1712;  in  1777  it  was 
occupied  lirst  by  Washington,  and  then,  along 
with  all  that  section  of  New  .Jersey,  by  the  Brit- 
ish, who  ])lundered  the  inhabitants  and  destroyed 
much  property.  The  College  of  New  .lersey,  later 
Princeton  I'niversity  (q.v. ),  was  located  here 
from  1748  to  175ti.  In  1798  Newark  received  a 
second  town  charter,  and  in  18.'5()  was  incor- 
porated as  a  city.  In  183(i  occuired  the  most  de- 
structive fire  in  the  city's  history,  and  in  1837 
the  widespread  business  panic  caused  much  dis- 
tress. Consult:  Atkinson,  The  History  of  yew- 
ark,  A'.  ./.  (Newark,  1878)  ;  and  Hecords.  of  the 
Toirn  of  Xewark,  ItiGG-lS36  (Newark,  1864). 

NEWARK.  A  village  in  Wayne  County.  N. 
Y.,  32  miles  cast  by  .south  of  Rochester:  on  the 
Erie  Canal,  and  on  the  New  York  Central,  the 
West  Shore,  and  the  Northern  Central  railroads 
(Map:  New  York,  C  2).  It  has  a  public  library 
of  .3000  volumes  and  is  the  seat  of  the  State 
Custodial  Asylum  for  Fecblc-Minded  Women. 
The  surrounding  country  is  a  ])roductive  agricul- 
tural section:  iind  the  chief  industries  of  the  vil- 
lage include  the  distillation  of  peppermint  oil, 
fruit-preserving,  the  growing  of  rose-  and  nurs- 
ery stock,  and  the  manufacture  of  cut  glass,  tin- 
ware, boxes.  Hour,  fonndrv  products,  etc.  Popu- 
lation, in   18(10,  3()08:   in   I'.tOO.  4:578. 

NEWARK.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Licking  County,  Ohio,  33  miles  east  of  the  State 
capital,  Columbus;  at  the  junction  of  the  forks 
of  the  Licking  River,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania 
and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  n-i'roads  (Map: 
Ohio,  F  5).  It  has  also  good  interurban  electric 
railway  service.  Situated  in  a  plain  surrounded 
by  hills.  Newark  is  attractively  laid  out.  twelve 
miles  of  its  .streets  being  paved  with  vitrified 
brick.  The  Auditorium.  ;i  memorial  to  the  sol- 
diers and  sailors  who  died  in  the  Civil  War,  is 
one  of  the  linest  theatres  in  the  State.  Two  of 
the  most  extensive  earthworks  of  the  mound- 
builders  are  here,  comprising  a  circvdar  embank- 
ment, one  mile  in  eircumfcrcnce.  and  a  larger 
.series  of  fortifications,  called  the  Octagon  Fort. 
Tributary  to  the  city  are  fertile  agricultural 
sections,  and  areas  of  natural  gas.  coal,  and  sand- 
stone. The  manufiicturing  interests  are  very  im- 
portant, the  establishments  including  electric  car 
works,  table  glasswiire  and  bottle  works,  locomo- 
tive shops  of  the  I!;iltjmore  and  Ohio,  stove 
foundries,  bent-wood  works,  rope-halter  factory, 
hardwood  sawmill,  cigar  factf)rv.  engine  and  ma- 
chine works,  and  iron  foundry,  agricultural  im- 
plement works,  flouring  mills,  carriage  factory, 
chemical  laboratory,  etc,  Newark  was  settled  in 
1801.  and  was  laid  out  as  a  town  in  the  follow- 
ing vear.  Population,  in  1890,  14,270;  in  1900, 
18.1.57. 


NEWARK  SERIES.  The  name  given  to  the 
Triassic  sy>lciu  in  the  eastern  part  of  North 
America.  Along  llie  Atlantic  coast  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  South  Carolina  there  are  many  isolated 
areas  of  thick  bedded  rcil  sandstones,  conglomer- 
ates, and  breccias,  which  throughout  their  extent 
exhibit  marked  uniformity  of  characteristics. 
The  sedimentary  rocks  are  accompanied  by  dikes 
and  sheets  of  l)asalt  indicating  intense  volcanic 
activity  at  the  time  of  their  formation.  Fossils 
are  rare  and  mostly  of  fresh-water  or  land  types, 
the  commonest  being  land  plants  and  foot-prints 
of  animals.  The  micaceous  aud  fcldspathic  na- 
ture of  the  sandstone  shows  that  it  was  derived 
from  the  waste  of  crystalline  rocks.  In  North 
Carolina  and  Virginia  the  series  contains  work- 
able coal  scams;  it  also  yields  a  good  quality  of 
building  st<me — the  brown  sandstime  of  Connecti- 
cut :ind  New  .lersey.     See  TlilA.ssic  SYSTEM. 

NEW  ATLAN'TIS,  The.  The  name  given  by 
Lord  Bacon,  in  his  allegory  bearing  the  same 
title,  to  an  island  supposed  to  lie  in  the  Southern 
.\tlantic.  on  which  the  author  is  shipwrecked. 
There  he  tinds  an  organized  association  for  nat- 
ural science  and  the  arts.     See  Atlantis. 

NEWAYGO,  ne-wa'go.  A  village  and  the 
couiitysc;il  of  Newaygo  County.  Mich..  37  miles 
north  of  (;ran<l  Rapiils;  on  tlie  .Muskegon  River, 
and  on  the  Pcrc  Maniuette  Railroad  (Map:  Mich- 
igan. H  r>) .  It  is  situated  in  a  region  that  has 
attained  considerable  popularity  as  a  place  of 
resort,  being  noted  particularly  for  its  hunting 
and  fishing.  The  village,  especially  known  for 
its  cement  works,  is  engaged  in  manufacturing 
also  furniture,  flour,  and  lumber  products.  Popu- 
lation, ill  ISilO.  1330;  in  1900,  1172. 

NEW  BEDTORD.  A  port  of  entry  and  one 
of  the  county  seats  of  Bristol  County,  Mass..  56 
miles  south  of  Bo.ston ;  the  terminus  of  a  division 
of  the  New  York.  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Rail- 
road (Map:  Jlassachusett^.  K  4).  It  is  situated 
near  the  mouth  of  the  .\cnshnet  River,  which  ex- 
pands into  a  fine,  spacious  harbor  leading  into 
Buzzard's  Bay.  Fort  Rodman,  on  Clark  Point, 
with  a  garri.son  of  120  men.  defends  the  harbor's 
entrance.  .\  drive,  over  four  miles  in  length,  ex- 
tends around  the  point  and  to  the  city,  com- 
manding sjilendid  marine  views.  New  Bedford, 
in  area  about  lO',;',  sipiare  miles,  is  regularly  laid 
out,  and  its  streets  are  paved  chielly  with 
gravel  and  macadam.  Among  the  prominent 
structures  are  the  eily  hall,  the  county  court 
house,  the  post  ofiicc,  the  Public  Library,  ilasonic 
and  Odd  Fellows'  buildings.  Saint  Luke's  and 
Saint  .Joseph's  hospitals.  Saint  Mary's  Home, 
the  Textile  School,  and  the  Merchants'  National 
Bank.  A  State  armory  is  (1903)  in  course  of 
construction.  The  Public  Libra rv-  (73.000  vol- 
umes) is  one  of  the  oldest  free  public  libraries 
in  the  United  States,  having  been  opened  in 
1853.  The  library  was  founded,  however,  some 
fifty  years  before  it  became  a  municipal  institu- 
tion. The  corner-stone  of  the  present  buildinc 
was  laid  in  1856.  The  public  parks,  aggregating 
255  acres,  are:  the  Common.  Brooklawn.  Button- 
wood,  llazelwood.  and  Orove.  The  New  Bedford 
and  Fairhaven  bridge,  which  spans  the  harbor, 
cost  .$1.. 500.000.  and  is  one  of  the  features  of  the 
city. 

New  Bedford,  once  noted  for  its  extensive  whal- 
ing interests,  is  now  distinctively  a  manufactur- 
ing centre,  known  particularly  for  the  production 


NEW  BEDFORD. 


425 


NEWBERR-i. 


k 


of  fine  cotton  goods  and  cotton  yarns.  Accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  lilOO,  capital  to  the  amount 
of  $2!),073,000  was  invested  in  the  various  indus- 
tries, which  liad  an  annual  output  valued  at 
,'?2j,lJS2,000,  .>t;l(),740,000  representing  the  value 
of  cotton  goods  alone.  The  cotton  mills  in  1900 
contained  1,309,380  spindles;  the  cotton  cloth 
mills  had  23,3.51  looms.  There  are  also  foundries 
and  machine  shops,  oil  manufactories,  cordage 
works,  carriage  and  wagon  shops,  paint  works, 
lumher  mills,  etc.  The  trade  of  the  city  is  con- 
siderable, the  leading  conunodities  being  coal,  of 
which  560,000  tons  are  received  annually,  cotton, 
lumber,  fish,  and  general  merchandise. 

Under  the  revised  charter  of  1896,  the  govern- 
ment is  \-ested  in  a  maj-or,  chosen  annually ;  a 
bicameral  council,  the  aldermen  bein"  elected  on 
a  general  ticket;  and  administrative  officers 
chosen  as  follows:  Board  of  health,  license  com- 
mission, and  park  commission,  appointed  by  the 
mayiu'  and  confirmed  l)y  the  board  of  aldermen; 
water  board,  fire  department,  and  overseers  of 
the  poor,  elected  by  the  city  council ;  school  com- 
mittee, chosen  by  popular  vote.  The  water- 
works are  owned  and  operated  bv  the  numicipal- 
ity.  The  system,  •which  cost  about  $3,100,000, 
comprises  two  sources  of  supply,  the  first  works 
having  been  built  in  1865-69  and  the  new  works 
in  1895-99.  The  original  supply  is  held  wholly 
for  emergency  purposes.  There  are  now  ninety- 
nine  miles  of  mains.  New  Bedford  spends  an- 
nually in  maintenance  and  operation  over  $1,000,- 
000,  the  principal  e.xpenditures  being:  for 
schools,  .$235,000;  for  interest  on  debt,  $155,000; 
for  the  police  department,  $115,000;  for  the  fire 
department,  $80,000;  for  streets,  $70,000;  for 
liospitals.  asylums,  and  other  charitable  insti- 
tutions, $70,000;  for  lighting,  $50,000.  The  as- 
sessed valuation  of  property  ( real  and  personal ) 
was  (1902)  $05,000,000;  the  bonded  debt, 
.$3,903,000.  Population,  1790.  .3313;  18.50.  16,443: 
1880,  26,845;  1890.  40.733;  1900,  62.442,  includ- 
ing 25,529  per.sons  of  foreign  birth  and  1685 
of  negro  descent. 

New  Bedford  formed  part  of  Dartmouth  until 
1787  and  was  not  incorporated  as  a  city  until 
1847.  For  many  years,  and  especially  between 
ISIS  and  1857.  it  was  a  centre  of  the  American 
whale-fishing  industry.  During  the  Revolution 
New  Bedford  sent  out  many  privateers,  and, 
from  its  convenient  location,  became  the  store- 
liouse  of  captured  prizes.  On  September  5,  1778, 
an  English  fleet  of  thirty-two  vessels  and  an 
army  under  General  Gray  attacked  the  town, 
captured  it,  and  reduced  the  greater  part  of  it 
to  ashes,  the  damage  amounting  to  about  $450,- 
000.  Consult:  Ricketson,  Hixtnnj  of  Xrw  lird- 
fnrd  (New  Bedford.  1858);  Centennial  in  New 
Bedford   (New  Bedford,  1876). 

NEWBERN.  A  city,  port  of  entry  of  the 
Pamlico  district,  and  the  county-seat  of  Craven 
County,  N.  C,  107  miles  southeast  of  Raleigh; 
on  the  Neuse  River  at  its  confluence  with  the 
Trent,  and  on  the  Atlantic  and  North  Carolina 
:ind  the  .\tlantic  Coast  Line  railroads  (Jlap: 
North  Carolina.  E  2).  It  is  connected  by  steam- 
ships with  New  York.  Baltimore,  and  Norfolk, 
passing  through  inland  water  routes,  and  exports 
fish,  cotton,  lumber,  and  vegetables.  It  has 
hosiery  and  knitting  mills,  cottonseed  oil  and 
lumber  mills,  machine  shops,  canning,  barrel,  car- 
riage, fertilizer,  and  cigar  factories,  and  exten- 


sive fish  and  oyster  and  truck-gardening  inter- 
ests. The  most  prominent  architectural  features 
of  the  city  are  the  Government  building,  the 
county  court  house,  and  two  bridges  over  the 
Neuse  and  Trent  rivers,  botli  allording  line  views 
of  river  scenery.  The  government,  under  a  char- 
ter of  1899,  is  administerec-l  by  a  mayor,  elected 
every  two  years,  and  a  unicameral  council.  The 
water-«'orks  and  electric  light  plant  are  owned 
and  operated  by  the  municipality.  Newbern 
was  settled  by  Swiss  in  1710,  was  for  a  time  the 
capital  of  the  Province  of  North  Carolina,  and 
for  many  years  was  its  most  important  seaport. 
It  was  strongly  fortified  during  the  Civil  War, 
but  was  captured  by  tieneral  Burnside.  ilarch  14, 
1862.  after  a  severe  engagement  three  miles  from 
the  city,  the  Union  loss  being  about  100  killed 
and  500  wounded.  Population,  in  1890,  7843 ;  in 
1900,   9090. 

NEWBERRY.  A  town  and  the  county-seat 
of  Newberry  County,  S.  C,  43  miles  west-north- 
west of  Columbia;  on  the  Southern  and  the  At- 
lantic Coast  Line  railroads  (Map:  South  Caro- 
lina, 0  2).  It  has  a  fine  city  hall  and  court 
house,  and  "New  berry  College  (  Lutheran ) .  which 
was  opened  in  1858.  The  centre  of  a  productive 
cotton-growing  section,  Newberry  carries  on  a 
considerable  trade,  and  manufactures  cotton 
goods,  cottonseed  oil,  fertilizers,  coffins,  etc.  The 
government  is  administered,  under  a  charter  of 
1894,  by  an  annually  elected  mayor  and  a  uni- 
cameral council.  The  water-works  and  electric 
light  plant  are  owned  and  ojjcrated  by  the  mu- 
ni"cipalitv.  Population,  in  1890,  3020;  in  1900. 
4607. 

NEWBERRY,  John  Strong  (1822-92).  An 
American  geologist,  born  in  Windsor,  Conn.  He 
spent  most  of  his  early  life  in  the  Western  Re- 
serve of  Ohio,  and  received  his  college  education 
at  the  Western  Reserve  L^niversity,  at  Hudson, 
Ohio,  from  which  he  graduated  in  1846,  and  then 
entered  the  Cleveland  Medical  School,  where  he 
received  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1848.  Going  to 
Europe,  he  spent  two  years  in  Paris  in  post- 
graduate work  in  medicine  and  paleontology. 
On  his  return  to  the  United  States,  in  1851.  he 
took  up  the  practice  of  medicine  in  Cleveland, 
but  in  1855  he  joined  an  exploring  expedition 
under  Lieutenant  Williamson,  sent  out  by  the 
War  Department  to  examine  the  country  between 
San  Francisco  and  the  Columbia  River.  His 
geological  investigations  were  published  as  a 
separate  volume  of  the  I'eporls  of  Ej'i)Ior(ilion.i 
and  Survei/s  to  Axccrlain  the  Most  Priiclieal  and 
Economic  I'outc  for  a  Uailroad  from  the  Missis- 
sippi h'ircr  to  the  Pacific  Coast.  Made  in  1855-56 
(Washington,  1857).  In  1857-58  he  acted  as 
geologist  to  an  expedition  headed  by  Lieutenant 
Ives,  sent  out  to  explore  the  Colorado  River. 
Newberry's  paper  relating  to  the  geology,  physi- 
ography, and  Indian  tribes,  undoubtedly  forms 
tlie  most  valuable  and  interesting  part  of  the 
Ileport  on  the  Colorado  River  of  the  West,  Ex- 
plored in  ]H'>7-5S  (Washington,  1861).  The  next 
year  Newberry  again  went  into  the  field,  this 
time  as  naturalist  of  an  expedition  under  Cap- 
tain ^lacombe.  whicli  explored  southwestern  Colo- 
rado and  ailjacent  parts  of  Utah.  Arizona,  and 
New  Mexico.  The  results  of  this  appeared  in 
187G  under  the  title  of  Reports  of  the  Explwiiifj 
Expedition  from  Santa  /'¥  to  the  Junction  of  the 
Grande  and   Oreen  Rivers    (Washington,   1876.) 


NEWBERRY. 


426 


NEW  BRITAIN. 


During  the  Civil  War  lie  ptTlonncil  tlie  duties  of 
secrctaiv  to  the  Sanitary  Coiiiiiiisi.ioii  for  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  and  after  tiie  administration 
of  this  work  he  became  attached  to  the  Smithso- 
nian Institution,  at  the  same  time  hohling  a  pro- 
fessorship in  tlie  Columbian  University  at  Wash- 
injfton.  to  which  he  liad  been  called  iii  1857.  In 
ISCU  he  was  otlcred  tlie  chair  of  geologj-  and 
paleontology  in  the  School  of  Mines,  Columbia 
College,  wliich  he  accepted,  and  held  for  twenty- 
iour  years.  In  1869,  when  the  Ohio  Ccologieal 
Survey  was  established  he  was  m;i(lo  director  and 
personally  did  nuich  of  the  work  described  in  sev- 
eral of  the  reports,  lie  did  nui<li  work  for  the 
Illinois  Geological  Survey,  and  also  described  the 
e.xtensive  collections  of  fossil  plants  gathered  by 
Hayden's  survey  of  the  West.  In  18(i7  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science,  and  in  the  same 
year  lie  was  chosen  president  of  the  New  York 
Aeailemy  of  Sciences,  wliieh  position  he  held  for 
twenty-four  years.  He  was  also  president  of  the 
Torrey  Botanical  Club  from  1S80  to  ISitO,  and 
assisted  in  tlie  organization  of  the  Geological 
Society  of  America  at  Cleveland  in-  1888,  and 
served  as  a  member  of  the  commission  to  organ- 
ize an  international  geological  congress,  of  which 
he  subsequently  became  president.  During  the 
latter  part  of  liis  life  he  resided  in  Xew  Haven, 
Conn. 

In  addition  to  the  works  above  mentioned.  Dr. 
Newbeiry  also  wrote  the  following:  The  Rock 
Oils  of  Ohio  (1859);  Iron  Ifcsourccs  of  the 
United  folates  (1874)  :  The  HIructure  and  Rela- 
tions: of  Dinichthys  (1875)  ;  Report  on  the  Fossil 
Fishes  CoUeeted  on  the  Illinois  (leoloifieitl  Sur- 
vey (1886)  ;  Fossil  Fishes  and  Fossil  Plants  of 
the  Triass'ic  Rocks  of  \eic  Jersey  and  the  Con- 
necticut Valley  (1888)  :  Paleozoic  Fishe$  of 
Xorth  America  (1889)  ;  and  Later  Extinct  Floras 
(1808). 

NEWBERY,  JoH.v  ( 171.'?-(i7).  A  famous 
English  bookseller  and  publisher,  the  son  of  a 
poor  farmer  of  Waltham  Saint  Lawrence,  in 
Berksliire.  He  attended  the  village  school,  but  he 
educated  himself  mainly  by  reading.  In  17.30,  he 
went  to  Reading,  where  he  entered  the  service  of 
William  Carnaii,  editor  of  the  Mercury.     After 


for  his  martial  poems  in  Admirals  All  (1897) 
and  The  Ishind  Race  (1898,  largely  a  reprint). 
Among  his  otiier  publications  are  a  novel  en- 
titled Taken  from  the  Enemy  (1892);  ilordred, 
a  tragedy;  Utories  from  Froissart  (1899);  and 
Froissart  in  liritain,  witli  illustrations  taken 
from  originals  in  the  British  Museum   (1900). 

NEW  BRAUNFELS,  broun'felz.  A  city  and 
the  county-seat  of  Comal  County.  Texas,  32  miles 
nortlieast  of  San  Antonio;  at  tlie  conlluiMice  of 
the  Guadalupe  and  Comal  rivers,  and  on  the 
International  and  Great  Xorthem  and  the  Mis 
souri,  Kansas  and  Texas  railroads  (Map:  Texas, 
E  5).  The  Comal  River,  though  .short,  is  of  con- 
siderable volume,  having  its  source  in  large 
artesian  springs.  The  city  is  the  distributing 
point  for  an  extensive  farming  and  cattle-raising 
district,  and  is  industrially  imjiortant  because 
of  its  good  water  power,  some  of  the  largest 
floiiring  mills  in  the  State  being  located  here. 
The  principal  manufactured  products  include 
flour,  cottonseed  oil.  leather,  bricks,  and  wagons. 
Population,  in  1890i  1008;  in  1900,  2097  (mostly 
of  German  descent), 

NEW  BRIGHTON,  hri'tcvi.  A  borough  in 
Beaver  (  <iiiii(y.  I'a..  29  miles  northwest  of  Pitts- 
burg: on  the  Beaver  River,  and  on  the  Pitt.sburg, 
Fort  Wayne  ami  Chicago,  the  Pittsburg  and  Lake 
Erie,  and  other  railroads  (Maj):  Pennsylvania, 
A3).  It  has  a  public  art  gallery.  Beaver  Val- 
ley General  Hospital,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  public 
high  school  libraries,  and  a  public  park.  The 
river  furnishes  extensive  water  power,  and  there 
are  deposits  of  coal  and  clay  in  the  vicinity. 
Xew  Brighton  is  an  important  industrial  centre, 
its  manufactures  including  pottery,  bricks,  sewer 
pipe,  glass,  flour,  twine,  lead  kegs,  colTee  mills, 
nails,  rivets,  wire,  etc.  Population,  in  1890, 
5U1G:  in  1900,  G820. 

NEW  BRIT'AIN.  The  former  name  of  the 
Bismarck  .\reliipelago  (q.v.)  :  also  apjilied  to  the 
largest  island  of  tlie  archipelago,  now  called  Xew 
Pomerania    (q.v.). 

NEW  BRITAIN.     A  city  in  Hartford  Coun- 
ty, Conn..  10  miles  southwest  of  Hartford,  on  the 
Xew  York.   Xew   Haven  and  Hartford   Railroad 
(ilap:   Connecticut.  D  .T).     It  has  a   Slate  Xor- 
the  death   of  his  employer,   in    1737,  he  married     nial    School,   a    Roman    Catholic   cathedral.   Xew 
his  widow.     Somewhat  later,  he  opened  in  London     Britain  Institute,  and  a  fine  public  park  of  about 
publishing  house  in  Saint  Paul's     '=>   acres,   besides    several    smaller   areas,      Xew 


a  bookshop  and  pi 
Churchyard  (1745).  He  started  several  news- 
papers. In  The  Unirersal  Chronicle  and  Weekly 
fiazettr  (founded  1758)  a|)peared  Johnson's 
Idlers;  and  in  The  I'nhlic  hrdcier  (founded 
17(i0)  appeared  Goldsmith's  Citizen  of  the 
^Vorld.  N'ewbery  Avas  the  first  publisher  to  issue 
books  especially  for  the  young.  His  Jurcnile 
lAlirary  was  made  up  of  dainty  volumes  bound 
in  flowered  and  gilt  Dutch  paper.  Among  them 
were  (loody  Two  Shoes  (reprinted  with  introduc- 
tion liy  C.  Welsh.  London,  1881)  and  Tommy 
Tri/i  mill  llin  Piiy  (Iroulrr. 

NEW'BOLT,  IlEXRY  .Tniix  (1802—1,  An  Eng- 
lish writer,  born  .Tune  fi.  1862,  at  Bilston.  Staf- 
fordshire, where  his  father  was  vicar  of  Saint 
Mar>-'s  Church.  He  was  educated  nt  Clifton 
College.  Bristol,  and  at  Corpus  Christi.  Oxford, 
where  he  took  first  honors  in  the  classics.  Called 
to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  (1887).  he  practiced 
his  profession  till  1899.  In  1000  he  established 
the  London  iUmihl]/  Review.     He  is  best  known 


Britain  is  noted  for  its  e.xtensive  manufactures, 
which,  according  to  the  census  of  1900.  repre- 
sented an  invested  capital  of  .$14,116,000,  and 
had  a  iiroduction  valued  at  $12,261,000.  The 
most  important  manufactures  are  hardware, 
foundry  and  maehine-sliop  products,  cutlery  and 
edge  tools,  hosiery  and  knit  goods,  stamped 
ware,  saddlery,  hardware,  etc.  The  government 
is  administered,  under  a  revised  charter  of  1890. 
by  a  mayor,  chosen  every  two  years,  and  a  uni- 
cameral council  which  controls  elections  of  the 
majority  of  subordinate  ninnieipal  oflicers.  The 
lity  clerk  and  assistant,  treasurer,  collector, 
auditor,  and  sherilT  are.  however,  chosen  by 
popular  vote.  The  sclionl  boaril  is  independently 
(dected  by  the  town.  There  are  municipal  water- 
works. Population,  in  1890.  lfi.519:  in  1900. 
25.998.  X>Av  Britain  was  settled  in  1687.  and 
was  incorporated  as  a  parish  under  the  name 
'Xew  Britain  Society'  in  1754.  Tt  was  separated 
from  Berlin  ami  incorporated  as  n  township  in 
1850,  and  in   1871  was  chartered  as  a  city.     It 


NEW  BRITAIN. 


427 


NEW  BRUNSWICK. 


■was  the  birthplace  and  liome  of  Elihu  Burritt 
(q.v.).  Consult  Camp,  History  of  Sew  Britain 
(New  Biihiin,   ISS'J). 

NEW  BRUNSWICK,  brunz'wik.  A  province 
of  the  Uumiuion  of  Canada.  It  lies  between 
latitudes  44°  30'  and  48°  6'  N.  and  longitudes  63° 
47'  and  6ft°  .5'  \V.,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Quebec  and  the  Jiay  of  Chaleur,  on  the  east 
by  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  and  Xorthuniber- 
land  Strait,  on  the  south  bj'  Nova  Scotia  and  the 
Bay  of  Fiuidy.  and  on  the  west  by  the  State  of 
Maine  and  Quebec.  It  has  an  area  of  28,200 
square  miles,  including  100  square  miles  of  water 
area. 

Topography.  The  coast  on  the  Gulf  of  Saint 
Lawrence  is  low  and  sandy,  with  numerous  spits 
and  lagoons;  that  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy  is  bold 
and  rocky.  The  latter  is  protected  from  the 
scouring  action  of  the  extraordinarily  high  tides 
by  a  ridge  of  hard  Cambrian  rock  with  small 
areas  of  Silurian  and  Devonian  as  well  as  of  the 
older  Huronian  and  Laurentian  systems.  An- 
other ridge,  composed  of  granite,  traverses  the 
province  from  the  southwestern  to  the  north- 
eastern corner.  It  forms  the  main  divide  between 
the  eastern  and  western  rivers,  and  has  an  aver- 
age height  of  1000  to  1.500  feet,  with  a  number 
of  detached  monadnocks  from  2000  to  2.500  feet 
high.  These  ridges  are  regarded  as  outlying 
branches  of  the  Appalachian  system.  They  in- 
close between  them  a  large,  triangvilar  tract  of 
low.  undulating  plain,  occupying  the  eastern  half 
of  the  province,  and  underlain  by  the  Carbonifer- 
ous system.  West  of  the  dividing  range  is  a 
Silurian  plateau  much  eroded  and  trenched  by  the 
valley  of  the  Saint  John  River.  The  geology  of 
the  province  is  somewhat  confused,  and  not  yet 
definitely  imderstood ;  but  it  is  probably  in  many 
respects  similar  to  that  of  Nova  Scotia   (q.v.). 

Nearly  all  the  western  half  of  New  Brunswick 
is  drained  by  the  River  Saint  .John,  which,  after 
forming  for  a  long  distance  the  boundary  with 
Maine,  flo\\'s  througli  the  province  in  a  southerly 
direction  as  far  as  the  46th  parallel,  then  turns 
to  the  east,  and  discharges  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
through  an  estuary  extending  north  and  south 
for  about  fifty  miles.  The  northeastern  part  of 
the  province  is  drained  into  the  Gulf  of  Saint 
Lawrence  through  a  large  number  of  small 
streams.  There  are  numerous  lakes.  Gritnd 
Lake,  in  the  south  central  portion,  is  the  only  one 
of  considerable  size.  The  coast  line  is  500  miles 
in  extent,  and  is  indented  b}-  spacious  bays,  in- 
lets, and  harbors.  The  chief  are:  Fundy,  Chig- 
necto,  and  Cumberland  bays,  the  last  two  being 
merely  extensions  of  the  first ;  Passamaquoddy 
Bay  in  the  south  ;  Verte.  Shediac,  Cocaigric,  Richi- 
bucto,  and  Jliramichi  bays  on  the  east:  and  the 
Bay  of  Chaleurs,  90  miles  long  by  12  to  25  broad, 
in  the  northeast. 

Clim.vte.  New  Brunswick  is  subject  to  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold.  At  inland  points  the 
extremes  are  greatest,  the  temperature  some- 
times falling  to  30°  below  zero  in  the  winter  and 
rising  to  95°  in  the  sununer.  The  atmosphere, 
however,  is  drier  than  on  the  coast,  and  the  ex- 
tremes do  not  occasion  great  discomfort.  Spring 
opens  later  and  summer  lingers  longer  than  in 
the  provinces  farther  west.  The  rainfall  fiu'  the 
province  averages  above  forty  inches. 

MlNi>rn.  Although  a  larse  part  of  the  province 
is  occupied  by  Carboniferous  strata,  the  mineral 
coal  is  for  the  most  part  impure  or  in  thin  seams. 
Vol.  XIV.— 28 


k 


and  is  but  little  worked.  The  coal-like  mineral 
"albertite,'  formerly  mined  with  great  profit  in 
Albert  County,  has  long  since  been  exhausted. 
Salt  springs  are  numerous.  Nickel  and  iron  ore 
are  found,  as  are  also  antimony  and  manganese. 
Gypsum,  plumbago,  grindstone,  and  limestone 
are  very  abundant,  and  the  freestone  of  the  prov- 
ince, unsurpassed  for  beauty  and  durability,  com- 
mands a  high  ijriee  in  the  States. 

FisilERlKS.  From  an  early  period  fishing  has 
been  one  of  the  leading  industries.  The  waters  on 
l)oth  coasts  rank  anjong  the  best  fishing  grounds 
of  the  world.  For  a  decade  and  a  half  the  annual 
earnings  from  fisheries  have  been  about  .$4,000,- 
000,  Nova  Scotia  alone,  among  the  Maritime 
Provinces,  exceeding  that  amount.  New  Bruns- 
wick thus  nearly  ranks  with  Massachusetts, 
which  is  the  leading  .sea-fishing  State  of  the 
United  States.  The  herring,  smelt,  sardine,  and 
lobster  fislieries  are  of  greatest  importance,  and 
in  the  first  three  New  Biiuiswick  leads  all  the 
other   provinces. 

Agriculture.  The  kind  and  quality  of  soil 
vary  greatly  with  the  underlying  geological  for- 
mation, but  it  is  generally  fertile,  though  much 
of  the  surface  is  too  hilly  to  admit  of  profitable 
cultivation.  In  most  of  the  valleys,  and  in  the 
diked  districts^  for  instance  at  the  head 
of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  the  fertility  is  of 
a  high  grade.  Originally,  the  whole  area 
was  covered  with  forests,  of  which  about 
one-half  has  been  removed.  The  nature  of  the 
forests  is  not  uniform,  but  they  usually  consist 
of  both  hard  and  soft  woods.  On  the  Bay  of 
Fundy  the  species  are  largely  confined  to  spruces 
and  firs,  as  a  consequence  of  the  cold  winds  of 
that  region.  Snruce.  fir.  and  tamarack  also  pre- 
vail in  the  western  part  of  the  province.  But 
farther  eastward  the  hard-wood  varieties,  such  as 
maple,  beech,  ash,  and  birch,  prevail,  interspersed 
with  spruce  and  pine.  The  elm  abounds  in  the 
river  valleys,  and  with  it  are  fotmd  the  birch  and 
red  maple.  In  1002  a  law  was  passed  for  the 
establishment  of  a  large  national  park  and  game 
preserve  at  the  sources  of  the  Tobique.  Nipisiguit, 
and  Jliramichi  rivers.  The  destruction  of  the  for- 
ests in  New  Brunswick,  as  in  the  other  Maritime 
Provinces. seem.sfto  have  had  .a  climatic  effect  quite 
difl'erent  from  that  which  usually  follows,  namely, 
the  rainfall  increases,  resulting  in  the  growth  of 
the  soft  woods — balsam,  spruce,  and  tamarack — in 
the  region  where  the  hard  woods  were  removed. 

Agriculture  is  the  leading  occupation,  but  it 
has  not  reached  extensive  proportions.  The  natu- 
ral growth  of  marsh  hay  in  the  valleys  supplies 
an  abundant  and  valuable  hay  protluct.  About 
180.000  acres  are  devoted  to  oats.  Buckwheat, 
potatoes,  and  wheat  are  next  in  importance  in 
the  order  named.  The  conditions  especially  favor 
the  growth  of  turnips  and  other  root  crops.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  climate  is  rather  too  severe 
for  the  large  fruits,  except  in  certain  regions  like 
the  valley  of  the  Saint  John,  where  the  hardier 
varieties  are  successfully  grown.  The  smaller 
fruits,  however,  are  abundant,  and.  ripening  late, 
are  put  on  the  New  England  market  at  monopoly 
[iriccs.  The  situation  of  the  province  on  the  sea- 
board gives  it  a  marked  advantage  in  marketing 
prod\ice. 

Considerable  attention  is  given  to  the  raising 
of  sheep,  and  more  especially  cattle,  and  in  very 
recent  years  there  has  been  a  decided  growth  in 
the   dairy   industry. 


NEW  BRUNSWICK. 


428 


NEW  BRUNSWICK. 


MAXUFAOTlKINr.  AND  COMMERCE.  Dollliniiin, 
provincial,  aiul  imiiiioipal  aid  has  greatly  facili- 
tated' the  constructiira  of   railways;   the  mileage 


for  all  lines 


irregated  14:i.S  miles  in  I'JUO.     The 


Canadian  Patilie  connects  the  province  with  the 
railroad  systems  west  by  running  west  from 
Saint  .John  and  crossing  the  State  of  Jlaine. 
The  Intercolonial  enters  the  province  from  Que- 
bec on  the  north  and  traverses  the  east  side  of 
the  province,  one  branch  connecting  with  Saint 
.John.  The  position  of  New  lirunswick  on  the 
.\tlantic  coast,  and  the  large  number  of  excellent 
harbors,  greatly  favor  its  comnicrcial  advantage. 
The  foreign  trade  of  the  province  passes  through 
the  port  of  Saint  .John.  Regular  ship  lines  con- 
nect this  port  with  .Vtlantic  coast  points  to  the 
south,  and  with  Kuro|K'an  countries.  In  1!)00  the 
merchant  marine  consisted  of  122  steamers  and 
80.5  sailing  vessels,  the  total  net  tonnage  being 
7S.700.  Lumber  is  the  chief  article  of  export. 
The  manufacture  of  lumber  and  of  lumlx'r  prod- 
ucts lead  the  manufacturing  industries.  Ship- 
building, which  was  formerly  important,  has  been 
all  but  discontinued.  The  manufacture  of  wood- 
pulp,  on  the  other  hand,  is  assuming  large  pro- 
portions, and  the  future  of  the  industry  is 
assured,  because  the  supply  of  spruce — the  wood 
used  for  this  purirase — is  practically  inexhausti- 
ble. In  1000  the  creameries  in  the  province 
numbered  .3.3  and  the  cheese  factories  54. 

In  1900  there  were  4.3  savings  banks,  wit'-  "0(;2 
depositors  and  an  average  deposit  of  $3.53.40.  In 
the  same  year  there  were  five  Oovernment  savings 
banks,  having  15.887  depositors,  with  an  average 
deposit  of  .$396.20. 

Government  and  Finance.  The  administra- 
tion of  the  Government  is  in  the  hands  of  a  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor and  his  council  of  six  paid  mem- 
bers and  from  one  to  four  honorary  members. 
The  legislative  body  is  called  the  House  of 
.\ssembly,  its  forty-six  members  being  elected  for 
a  term  of  four  years.  The  legislative  coun 
eil  was  abolished  in  1S92.  In  striking  contrast 
to  some  other  Canadian  provinces,  there  are  no 
local  municipal  councils,  the  municipal  aflairs 
being  managed  by  a  county  council.  In  this  coun- 
cril  each  parish  has  two  representatives,  who  .serve 
without  emolument  (except  in  the  Coiuity  of 
Carleton).  the  term  of  ollice  being  one  year.  The 
various  parish  oll'icers  receive  their  appointments 
from  the  county  council.  The  net  debt  of  the 
l)rovince  in  1900  was  .$2,751,000.  or  $8.50  per 
head  of  the  population.  The  expenditures  fi>r  the 
same  year  amounted  to  $794,000.  and  the  re- 
ceipts to  $758,000.  Over  half  the  receipts  came 
from  the  Dominion  subsidy,  the  timber  licenses 
being  next  in  importance.  Taxes  are  levied  by 
the  province  upon  telegraph,  telephone,  and 
insurance  companies  and  banks.  There  is  also 
a  siiecession  dutv  upon  estates.  Local  ex|>endi- 
tures  are  met  by  taxes  collected  upon  real  and 
jHTsonal  property,  inecmie,  and  polls.  I'roperty 
is  rated  at  its  full  value.  The  capital  of  Xew 
Hrunswick  is  Fredericton. 

Popci.ATlON.  There  is  a  high  birth-rate  in  the 
province,  but  also  a  rather  larae  emigration. 
The  censuses  for  189]  and  for  1901  gave,  respec- 
tively. 321.203  and  331,120.  There  is  a  small 
French  element.  The  gri'at  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion is  of  British  origin,  the  Irish  especially  being 
well  represented.  Saint  .John  has  a  population  of 
40.700   (inoi),  and  Moncton  9000. 

Religion.     The  Catholics  number  a  little  over 


one-third  of  the  total  religious  membership  of 
New  Brunswick.  Among  the  Protestants  the 
Baptists  are  strongest,  followed  by  the  Anglicans, 
Presljyterians,  and  Methodists,  in  the  order 
named. 

Edication  and  Charities.  Educational  af- 
fairs arc  in  the  hands  of  a  superinten<lenl  of 
education  and  au  educational  council.  Unlike 
(Quebec  and  Ontario,  the  province  does  not  pro- 
vide for  separate  denominational  schools.  There 
is  imiformity  of  methods,  text-books,  etc.. 
throughout  the  province.  One  in  every  5.22  of 
the  population  is  enrolled  in  the  public  schools, 
the  proportion  between  the  grammar  and  the 
elementary  enrollment  being  one  to  sixty.  The 
province  also  maintains  normal  schools  and  pro- 
vides for  higher  education  at  the  University  of 
Fredericton.  The  diflerent  religious  sects  main- 
tain seminaries  and  universities,  of  which  Mount 
Allison  University  (Methodist)  is  the  largest. 
The  expenditure  per  capita  of  the  total  popula- 
tion shows  a  steadv  increase  from  $1.20  in  ISSS 
to  $1.88  in  1900.  Of  this  amount,  67.94  per  cent, 
is  raised  by  local  assessment. 

Of  the  charitable  institutions,  the  asvlums  for 
the  insane  con.stitute  the  greatest  item  of  expendi- 
ture. The  province  supports  also,  in  whole  or 
part,  a  general  hospital  (at  Saint  .John),  a  boys' 
industrial  home,  and  deaf  and  dumb  institutions. 
Private  and  sectarian  interests  are  well  repre- 
sented in  charitable  work.  Convicts  sentenced 
to  penal  life  are  sent  to  tlie  Dominion  peniten- 
tiary   at    Dorchester. 

History.  The  first  European  settlement  was 
made  on  the  Bay  of  Chaleurs  by  Frenchmen  in 
1639,  and  in  1072  further  settlements  were  made 
on  the  Miramichi  River  and  along  the  coast. 
With  Xova  Scotia,  Xew  Brunswick  formed  the 
original  French  colony  of  Acadia  or  New  France, 
which  was  taken  bv  the  English  in  1654.  restored 
to  France  in  1007.  but  receded  to  the  English  in 
1713  bv  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  altbough  dis]mtes 
as  to  the  boundaries  lasted  initil  the  Treaty  of 
Paris  in  1763  finally  settled  the  question  in  favor 
of  tlie  British.  The  first  British  settlements  were 
made  by  .Scotch  agriculturists  and  laborers  along 
the  Miramichi  in  1764.  In  1783  over  .5000  United 
Empire  Loyalists  from  the  United  States  settled 
in  the  colony.  In  1784  Xova  Scotia  and  Xew 
Bnmswick  separated  to  form  distinct  colonies, 
and  in  Tanuarv.  1786.  the  first  legislative  assem- 
lil.v  of  Xew  Brunswick  met  at  Saint  .John.  In 
lSli7  Xew  Brunswick  united  with  Ontario.  Quebec, 
and  Xova  Scotia  and  thus  became  one  of  the  orig- 
inal provinces  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

BlliLlooRAiMiY.  Sdwyn  and  Dawson.  Descrip- 
tive Sketch  of  the  I'hyxical  Oeoijriiphi/  and 
(leoloffii  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  (Montreal. 
lS8t)  :  Bailey  and  .Tack,  M'oods  and  Min<riil.'<  of 
\rir  Briin/itrirK-  (Fredericton.  1876);  Willniott. 
The  Mineral  Wealth  of  Canada  (London.  1898)  ; 
Cooney,  llistoni  of  Xeir  lirunsirieh  (Halifax. 
1832):  Kingsford,  Uixtorii  of  Canada  (London, 
1887-98)  :  Perley.  On  the' EarUi  History  of  Xew 
nriinsirici:    (Saint   .Johns.    1891). 

NEW  BRUNSWICK.  A  city  and  the  coun- 
ty-eat oi  .Mi.ldlcscx  County.  X.  .L.  23  miles 
southwest  of  Xewark;  at  the  head  of  navigation 
on  the  Raritan  River,  about  15  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Raritan 
River  railroads  (Map:  Xew  .Jersey.  D  3).  It  is 
Ihe  terminus  of  the  Delaware  and  Raritan  Canal. 
.\  magnificent  new  railway  bridge  over  the  river 


I 


v^ 


h 


OOPvmaHT,  iwa,  ay  oodd,  mmd  *  companv. 


UEW  BRUNSWICK. 


429 


NEWBURYPORT. 


is  in  course  of  construction.  The  city  has  a 
l)ulilic  library  witli  over  17,300  volumes  and 
the  Gardner  A.  Sage  Library  of  44,500  vol- 
umes, and  is  the  seat  of  Kutgers  College  (q.v. ), 
connected  with  which  is  the  Theological  Serai- 
nary  of  the  Dutch  Ketornicd  Church,  and  of  the 
State  Agricultural  and  -Mechanical  College  with 
the  State  ninilcl  farms.  Xcw  Unmswick  is  ex- 
tensively engagc<l  in  manufacturing  hosiery,  wall 
paper,  rubber  boots  and  shoes,  bicycle  tires, 
chemicals,  fruit  jars,  boilers,  cigars,  foundry 
products,  knitting  needles,  sash  and  blinds,  shoes, 
etc.  Under  a  charter  of  1863,  the  government 
is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  l)iennially,  a  uni- 
cameral ccmncil.  and  in  administrative  boards. 
The  boards  of  library  trustees  and  of  liealth  are 
appointed  by  the  mayor;  tlie  board  of  water  com- 
missioners is  elected  by  the  coiuicil ;  the  board  of 
education  is  cliosen  by  ]icipular  vote.  The  water- 
works are  owned  and  operated  bv  the  municipal- 
ity. Population,  in  18!(0,  18,003;  in  1900,  20.- 
006.  The  tirst  settlement  here  was  made  in  1681. 
The  place  was  first  called  "Prigmore's  Swamp' 
(1681-07),  then  'Inion's  Ferry'  (1691-1714),  and 
finally  New  Brunswick,  in  honor  of  the  House 
of  Brunswick.  New  Bnmsw  ick  was  incorporated 
as  a  town  in  1736,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city 
in  1784.  It  suffered  much  during  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  during  the  winter  of  1776-77  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  British. 

NEWBTJRGH.  A  city  in  Orange  County, 
N.  Y.,  60  miles  north  of  New  York  City;  on 
the  Hudson  Eiver,  about  five  miles  above  the 
picturesque  Highlands,  and  on  the  Erie  and  the 
West  Shore  railroads  (Map:  New  York,  F  4). 
It  is  built  on  a  steep,  terraced  slope,  rising  about 
300  feet  above  the  river  to  an  extended  plateau. 
The  city  has  a  public  library,  a  public  park, Saint 
Luke's  Home  and  Hospital,  Home  for  the  Friend- 
less, and  Home  for  Children.  The  river  here  ex- 
pands into  Newburgh  Bay,  giving  the  city  a  deep 
water  front  and  exceptional  facilities  for  traffic 
by  water.  There  is  a  trade  in  agricultural  and 
dairy  products,  and  large  quantities  of  coal  from 
Pennsylvania  are  here  transferred  to  barges  and 
coasting  vessels.  Newburgh  is  of  considerable 
importance  as  an  industrial  centre,  having  manu- 
factories of  cottons,  woolens,  silks,  paper,  powder, 
tlour.  felt  hats,  and  carpet:  shipyards:  foundries 
and  machine  shops;  tanneries  and  leatherette 
works;  and  ])laster  works.  The  government,  as 
provided  by  the  charter  of  1898,  is  vested  in  a 
mayor,  elected  biennially:  a  common  council;  and 
ailministrative  olhcials.  the  majority  of  whom  are 
appointed  by  the  executive,  either  absolutely 
or  with  the  consent  of  the  council.  The  city 
clerk,  however,  is  elected  by  the  council,  and 
the  water  commissioners,  board  of  education,  and 
almshouse  commissioners  are  chosen  by  popular 
vote.  The  water-works  are  owned  ami  operated 
by  the  municipalitv.  Population,  in  1890.  23.087  ; 
in  1900.  24.943.  'The  first  settlement  at  New- 
burgli  was  made  in  1709  by  Oernian  Lutherans 
from  the  Rhenish  Palatinate,  who  named  it  the 
'Palatine  Parish  by  Quassaic.'  By  17.')0  most 
of  the  Germans  had  been  replaced  by  people  of 
English  and  Scotch  descent,  who  in  17.')2  changed 
the  name  to  the  'Parish  of  Newburgh'  (after 
Newburgh,  Scotland).  Newburgh  was  the  head- 
qu.nrters  of  the  .American  .^rmy  from  March. 
1782,  until  the  latter  part  of  1783,  and  it  was 
here    that    the    Newburgh    Addresses    were    cir- 


culated, that  the  army  was  disbanded,  and  that 
Washington  received  the  famous  Nicola  letter, 
proposing  that  he  become  King.  The  'Hasbrouck 
House,'  then  occupied  by  Washington,  is  now 
owned  by  the  State  and  used  as  a  museum  for 
Revolutionary  relics.  On  the  grounds  is  the 
'Tower  of  Victory.'  an  imposing  stone  structure 
erected  by  the  L'nited  States  and  State  govi'rn- 
ments  to  connnemorate  the  close  of  the  war. 
Newburgh  was  incorporated  as  a  vilhige  in  1800 
anil  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1805.  Consult: 
Ruttenber.  History  of  the  Toan  of  Newburyh 
(Newburgh,  1859);  Powell  (editor),  Hislriric 
Towns  of  the  Middle  t<l<ites  (New  York,  1899)  ; 
Nutt   (coinp. ) ,  .A'cif7)ur;//i   (Newburgh,  1891). 

NEWBURGH  ADDRESSES.  Two  anony- 
mous l<'ttcrs  that  appeared  in  1783,  after  the 
close  of  the  Itevolutionary  War.  They  urged 
some  organized  action  to  ri'dress  the  wrongs  of 
American  soldiers,  especially  the  withholding  of 
tlieir  jiay.  and  were  later  found  to  have  been  writ- 
ten by  General  .John  Armstrong. 

NEW'BURN.  A  town  in  Northumberland, 
England,  on  the  Tyne,  5^2  miles  west  of  New- 
castle. Population,  in  1891,  8000;  in  1901,  12,- 
500. 

NEWBURY.  A  nuinicipal  borough  and  mar- 
ket town  in  Berkshire,  England,  on  the  Kennet, 
17  miles  southwest  of  Reading  (Map:  England, 
E  5).  Trade  in  agricultural  produce  and  malting 
are  the  principal  industries,  and  an  annual  wool 
market  is  held.  The  chief  buildings  are  the 
church,  built  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  and  the 
Corn  Exchange.  The  town  owns  reiil  estate,  mar- 
kets, and  the  gas  works.  It  dates  from  the  Ro- 
man period,  and  was  a  gift  of  the  Conqueror  to 
Ernulf  de  Hesdin.  Newbury  is  best  known  for 
two  hard-fought  but  indecisive  battles  between 
the  Royalists  and  Parliamentarian  forces  in  Sep- 
tember. 1643,  and  in  October,  1644.  On  the 
battlefield  is  a  handsome  memorial  to  Lords 
Falkland,  Sutherland,  and  Carnarvon,  Royalists, 
who  fell  in  1643.  Population,  in  1901.  'l  1.061. 
Consult  Monev.  IJifiton/  of  \etpbiiry  (Oxford. 
1887). 

NEWBURYPORT.  A  city,  including  .sev- 
eral villages,  a  ])ort  of  entry,  and  one  of  the 
county-seats  of  Essex  County.  Mass..  37  miles 
northeast  of  Boston;  on  the  Merrimac  Kiver  and 
on  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad  (Map:  .Massa- 
chusetts, F  2).  Among  the  city's  noteworthy 
buildings  and  objects  of  interest  are  the  public 
library  of  40.000  volumes.  Marine  Museum.  Put- 
nam Free  School,  Anna  Jaques  Hospital,  Old 
Ladies'  Home,  Home  for  Destitute  Children,  the 
Old  South  Church,  containing  the  remains  of 
George  Whitefield,  the  house  in  which  William 
Lloyd  Garrison  was  born,  the  Dexter  House,  a 
statue  of  Washington,  Washington  Park,  and  a 
chain  susjieiishm  bridge.  The  harbor,  opening 
into  the  .Mhintic  Ocean,  is  safe  and  spacious. 
The  principal  manufactured  products  include 
boots  and  shoes,  cotton  cloths,  celluloid  collars 
and  cuffs,  silverware,  electric  car  works,  7na- 
chinery.  hats,  and  condis;  and  there  is  some 
shipbuilding,  formerly  a  very  extensive  and 
important  industry.  Ncwburyport  is  also  a  dis- 
tributing centre  for  coal.  t'nder  the  original 
charter  of  itu-orporatiini  of  1851,  the  government 
is  administered  by  ;i  mayor,  annually  elected, 
and  a  bicameral  council,  of  which  the  TTpper 
House  is  elected  on  a  general  ticket  and  the  Lower 


NEWBURYPORT. 


430 


NEW  CASTILE. 


by  wards.  The  municipality  owns  and  operates 
the  water-works.  Population,  in  IS'JO,  13,947; 
in  1900,  U,47S. 

Ncwburyport  was  settled  about  1635,  w-as  a 
part  of  Xewbury  until  1704,  when  it  was  sepa- 
rately established  and  intorporatod  as  a  town, 
and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1S51.  It  was  the 
home  of  Theophilus  Parsons  and  the  birthplace 
of  Trancis  C.  Lowell,  who  introduced  cotton 
manufacturing  on  a  large  scale  into  the  T"nited 
States.  Consult:  Smith,  History  of  Xewhury- 
port,  Mass.  (Boston,  1854):  and  Hurd.  nislory 
of  Essex  County,  iluss.  (Philadelidiia,  18S8). 

NEW  CALEDONIA,  krd'A-diyni-a.  An  island 
in  the  I'luilic,  Ipclun^ing  to  France,  the  southern- 
mo.st  of  the  ilelanesian  Islands.  It  is  situated 
1200  miles  .southeast  of  Xew  Guinea,  8.50  miles 
from  the  coast  of  Queensland,  and  about  the  same 
distance  from  Xew  Zealand  (Map:  Australasia,  J 
5).  It  is  elongated  in  sha])e. extending  from  north- 
west to  southeast,  with  a  length  of  240  miles,  an 
average  width  of  .'JO  miles,  and  an  area  of  f>584 
scjuare  miles.  It  is  almost  entirely  surrounded 
by  a  coral  reef,  which  is  five  to  fifteen  miles  from 
tile  shores,  and  affords  a  Ijelt  of  well -protected 
navigable  water  inside.  The  coast  it.self  is  in- 
dented with  numerous  bays,  forming,  especially 
on  the  southwestern  side,  many  excellent  har- 
bors. The  interior  is  very  mountainous.  There 
are  two  parallel  ranges  rimning  the  entire  length 
of  the  island  and  inclosing  a  longitudinal  valley 
between  them.  Tbcy  are  of  nearly  uniform 
height,  except  in  the  south,  where  they  are  broken 
by  marshy  lowlands.  The  highest  point  is  an 
unnamed  peak  near  the  northwest  coast,  with 
an  altitude  of  5570  feet.  Mount  Humboldt  in  the 
southeast  is  5300  feet  high.  The  rocks  are  com- 
posed chiefly  of  serpentine,  gneiss,  schists,  and 
limestone.  There  are  no  active  volcanoes,  but 
some  evidences  of  ancient  volcanic  activity,  in- 
cluding thermal  springs.  The  rivers  are  all 
short,  only  one  being  navigable   (25  miles). 

The  proverbially  healthful  climate  is  both  drier 
and  cooler  than  "that  of  the  other  Melanesian 
Islands.  Perpetual  spring  reigns.  The  rainfall 
(70  inches)  is  sulTicient  to  sustain  a  rerj-  rich 
flora,  although  large  areas  arc  semi-arid  pine 
barrens  in  which  the  Araiicnria  Cookii  is  promi- 
nent. True  forests  appear  chiefly  in  the  northern 
part,  and  contain  much  valual)le  timber,  though 
sandal-wood  has  now  practically  disappeared. 
The  fauna.  like  that  of  all  other  Oceanic  islands, 
is  very  poor  in  varieties,  a  single  species  of  bat 
beini;  probably  the  only  inrligenous  mammal. 
while  reptiles  are  also  few.  The  avifauna  is  the 
richest,  and  is  related  to  that  of  the  Australian 
continent  rather  than  to  that  of  N'ew  Zealand.  The 
natives  of  Xew  Caledonia,  whom  the  French  style 
Canaqties  ('Kanakas'),  are  Melanesians.  prolmbly 
of  mixed  (Papuan-Polynesian)  type.  The  coast 
tribes  seem  to  be  better  shaped  and  more  regu- 
larly featured  than  the  rest.  They  are  above 
the  average  in  stature,  with  dolichocephalic  bead- 
form.  The  absence  of  large  animals  on  the 
islan<l  has  maile  them  practically  vegetarians. 
but  it  may  account  in  part  for  the  cannibalism 
which  once  prevailed  in  this  part  of  the  world. 
One  of  their  most  interesting  institutions  is  the 
pilu-pilu.  or  yam-harvest  dance,  with  its  nmek 
fight.  Something  like  the  'duk-duk'  society 
of  Xew  Uritain  exists  among  them.  Among 
other  things  worthy  of  note  are  their  beehive  huts. 


grotesque  carvings  of  heads,  and  sling-stones. 
The  bow  seems  to  be  little  employed,  the  spear 
and  club  being  preferred.  Traces  of  ancient 
aqueducts  are  reported  to  have  been  discovered 
in  some  parts  of  the  island.  Xumeruus  petro- 
gly|)hs  and  rock-carvings  exist,  some  of  wliicli  are 
considered  pre-Kanaka.  Since  Xew  Caledonia 
luis  been  made  a  French  ])enal  colony,  some 
admixture  between  the  Europeans  and  the  na- 
tive women  has  taken  place.  Some  of  the  tri!)es 
of  the  interior  are  still  little  known.  The  Wehias 
of  Central  Xew  Caledonia,  who  still  live  in  a 
state  of  independence,  and  have  not  yet  been 
seriously  influenced  by  the  whites,  are  said  to  Ije 
good-natured  people  and  skillful   fishermen. 

Tlie  natives  are  the  best  agriculturists  of  all 
the  Oceanic  tribes,  and  irrigate  the  soil  by  means 
of  aqueducts.  They  have  even  succeeded  better 
than  the  white  farmers,  as  the  latter  have  been 
embarrassed  for  lack  of  labor,  though  they  have 
imported  Chinese  and  Xew  Helirides  islanders. 
The  natives  live  on  reservations  from  wliich 
whites  are  excluded,  but  tliey  are  rapidly  de- 
creasing in  number — 50  per  cent,  in  the  last  fifty 
years.  Tlie  chief  agricultural  products  are  cof- 
fee, maize,  tobacco,  sugar,  grapes,  and  pine- 
apples. Wheat  and  cotton  have  also  been  intro- 
duced. The  mineral  wealth  is  considerable,  in- 
cluding gold,  silver.  lead,  copper,  nickel,  cobalt, 
chromate  of  iron,  and  coal.  The  last  six  are 
mined,  and  the  nickel  output  is  the  most  valua- 
ble, amounting  in  1809  to  74,G14  tons  of  ore, 
valued  at  about  $800,000.  The  commerce  is 
considerable,  amounting  in  1899  to  about 
.'f4.000.000,  including  imports  and  exports.  Of 
the  latter  the  principal  are  minerals,  canned 
meats,  and  cofTce.  A  railroad  is  imder  construc- 
tion from  Xoumea,  the  capital,  to  Bourail  (90 
miles)'. 

The  island  with  its  dependencies,  the  isles  of 
Pine,  Wallis,  Futinia,  and  Alafi.  and  the  Huon 
and  Loyalty  Islands,  is  administered  by  a  mili- 
tary governor,  who  is  assisted  in  civil  matters 
by  a  privy  council.  The  colony  is  chiefly  used 
as  a  penal  settlement,  and  cimvicts  constitute  the 
majority  of  the  white  inhabitants.  In  1898  the 
total  population  was  52,751),  of  whom  5585  were 
free  colonists.  1702  officials,  1714  soldiers,  7477 
convicts  under  sentence,  2515  liberated  convicts. 
1829  Asiatics,  and  31.874  natives. 

The  island  was  discovered  by  Cook  in  1774. 
In  1843  the  French  flag  was  raised,  but  the  act 
was  disavowed,  owing  to  protests  from  England. 
Ten  vears  later,  however,  the  French  took  formal 
possession  in  onler  to  put  a  stop  to  the  canni- 
balism and  excesses  committed  by  the  natives. 
In  l.S()4  the  penal  settlement  was  fiumdi'd.  and 
after  the  Franco-Prussian  War  thousands  of 
Conununists  were  dcqiorteil  hither,  most  of  whom 
have  now  returned  to  France.  The  natives  have 
always  been  suspicious  of  the  whites,  and  in 
1878  rose  in  revolt,  massacring  many  of  the 
colonists. 

Consult:  Gamier.  7>a  Xoiirelle-CalMonir  (3d 
ed..  I'aris.  1870)  :  Anderson.  Fiji  iitul  \ew  Cnh- 
doiiiii  (London,  1880)  ;  Cordeil.  Origines  et  pro- 
fir^s  dc  la  yoiirrllt-Cdh'driinc  (N'oum^a,  1885)  ; 
Grilfilh.  In  an  Vnlcnoirn  I'risnn  l.nnd;  An  Ac- 
count of  Conrirts  and  Colonists  in  .Ycif  Caledonia 
(il...  1901.) 

NEW  CASTILE,  k.'is-tel'.    The  southern  part 

of  Castile    (q.v.). 


NEWCASTLE. 


431 


NEWCASTLE. 


NEWCASTLE.  A  city  of  New  South  Wales, 
situuU'd  ;it  the  mouth  of  the  Hunter  River,  102 
miles  north-northeast  of  Sydney,  with  wliich  it  is 
eonneeted  by  rail  and  by  steamers  (ilap:  Xew 
South  Wales,  F  3).  It  is  a  well-built  town  with 
jiaved  streets  and  fine  public  buildings.  It  is  the 
principal  port  for  tlie  northern  part  of  Xew  South 
Wales,  and  is  tlie  greatest  coaling  port  in  tlie 
Soutliern  Hemisphere.  There  are  twenty-five  col- 
lieries in  the  district,  employing  about  7000  per- 
sons. The  wool  trade  is  also  large.  Xewcastle  has 
.some  five  miles  of  wharves,  at  which  vessels  of  the 
largest  tonnage  may  load  and  discharge.  The 
area  of  the  harbor,  which  is  protected  by  two 
forts  and  two  breakw'aters,  is  540  acres.  The 
width  of  the  channel  at  the  entrance  of  the 
harbor  is  1200  feet,  and  the  depth  of  water  on 
the  bar  25%  feet,  and  of  the  harlior  27  feet  at 
high  and  23  feet  at  low  water.  The  industries  of 
X'ewcastle  include  a  steam  biscuit  factory,  copper- 
smelting  works,  a  brewery,  shipbuilding  yards, 
foundries,  carriage  factories,  and  a  boot  factory. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul,  and 
owns  its  gas  and  electric  lighting  plants  and 
water-works.  Population,  in  1891,  13,000;  in 
1901,   14.2.50. 

NEW  CASTLE.  A  city  in  Xew  Castle  Coun- 
ty, Del.,  six  miles  south  of  Wilmington;  sit- 
uated on  tlie  Delaware  River,  at  the  head  of 
Delaware  Bay,  and  on  the  Philadelphia,  Bal- 
timore and  Washington  railroad  (Map:  Del- 
aware, P  2).  X'ew  Castle  has  a  good  har- 
bor and  regular  steamship  connection  with 
Philadelphia  and  Baltimore,  is  the  centre  of  an 
agricultural  and  fruit-growing  region,  has  large 
shad-fishing  interests,  and  manufactures  iron 
pipe,  woolen  and  cotton  goods,  shirts,  flour,  and 
bricks.  The  city  possesses  several  biiildings  of 
historic  interest,  a  public  library  of  0000  vol- 
umes, and  two  parks.  Under  the  charter  of 
1875,  the  government  is  administered  by  a  mayor, 
chosen  every  three  years,  and  a  unicameral  coun- 
cil, elected  at  large.  Settled  by  Swedes  in  1640, 
X'ew  Castle  was  held  successively  by  the  Swedes, 
Dutch,  and  English,  and  was  the  landing  place 
of  William  Penn  in  1682.  It  was  incorporated 
first  in  1875.  Population,  in  1890,  4010:  in  1900, 
3380. 

NEW  CASTLE.  A  town  and  the  county-seat 
of  Henry  County,  Ind.,  41  miles  east-northeast 
of  Indianapolis;  on  the  Blue  River,  and  on  the 
Lake  Erie  and  Western,  the  Cleveland,  Cincin- 
nati, Chicago  and  Saint  Louis,  and  the  Pitts- 
burg, Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis  rail- 
roads (ilap:  Indiana,  D  3).  The  town  is 
surrounded  by  a  farming  district  and  has  a 
supply  of  natural  gas,  and  is  an  industrial  centre 
of  importance.  The  leading  manufactures  in- 
clude tin,  sheet  iron  and  steel,  bridge  works, 
iron  and  brass  beds,  pianos,  agricultural  ma- 
chines, furniture,  handles,  shovels,  carriages, 
bricks,  paper  boxes,  flour,  etc.  The  water-works 
and  street  lighting  plant  are  owned  by  the 
municipalitv.  Population,  in  1890,  2697;  in 
1900,  3406.' 

NEW  CASTLE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Lawrence  County.  Pa..  50  miles  northwest  of 
Pittsburg:  at  the  junction  of  the  Shennngo  and 
Xeshannock  rivers,  and  on  the  Erie,  the  Penn- 
sylvania, the  Pittsburg  and  Lake  Erie,  the  Pitts- 
burg and  Western,  and  the  Western  Xew  York 
and  Pennsylvania  railroads  (Map:  Pennsylvania, 


A3).  It  is  the  conunercial  centre  of  a  fertile 
agi'icultural  region,  which  has  also  rich  deposits 
of  bituminous  coal,  limestone  and  sandstone, 
fire  clay,  and  iron  ore,  and  is  noted  for  its 
extensive  manufactures  of  iron,  glass,  fire  brick, 
steel  wire  nails,  boilers,  machinery,  tin  plate, 
sto\es,  plows,  lumber  products,  flour,  ])aper,  etc. 
The  V,  M.  C.  A.  maintains  a  library;  and  the 
city  has  a  beautiful  place  of  resort  in  Cascade 
Park,  owned  by  the  traction  companj'.  Settled 
in  1812,.  Xew  Castle  was  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1869.  The  government,  under  a  charter  of  1889, 
is  vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen  every  three  years, 
and  a  bicameral  council,  of  which  the  Upper 
House  (Select  Council)  confirms  the  executive's 
appointments  of  the  heads  of  administrative 
departments.  Population,  in  1890,  11.600;  in 
1900,  28,339, 

NEWCASTLE,  Henry  Pelh.\m  Fienijes 
Peliiam  Clixtox,  Fifth  Duke  of  (1811-64).  An 
English  statesman.  He  was  educated  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  and  represented  South  Xotts  in 
Parliament  from  1832  to  1846,  when  he  was 
ousted  by  the  influence  of  his  father,  the  fourth 
Duke,  for  supporting  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  his  free- 
trade  measures.  In  the  brief  Conservative  Ad- 
ministration of  1834-35  he  had  been  a  Lord  of 
the  Treasury,  and  First  Commissioner  of  Woods 
and  Forests  in  the  Peel  Administration,  from 
1841  to  1846.  He  was  then  made  Chief  Secretary 
to  the  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  but  went  out 
of  office  w"ith  his  chief  a  few  months  afterwards. 
He  succeeded  to  the  dukedom  in  1851,  and  re- 
turned to  otTice  in  1852,  filling  the  post  of  Secre- 
tary of  State  for  the  Colonies  (which  formerly 
included  the  Department  of  War)  in  the  Aber- 
deen Government.  The  war  with  Russia  broke 
out,  and  in  .June.  1854.  it  was  found  necessary  to 
create  a  Secretary  of  State  for  War.  and  the  new 
office  was  assigned  to  Xewcastle.  The  sutt'erings 
of  the  British  army  before  Sebastopol  in  the 
winter  of  1854  raised  a  storm  of  popular  discon- 
tent, and  when  the  House  of  Commons  determined 
to  inquire  into  the  conduct  of  the  war,  the  Duke 
resigned,  though  the  system,  not  the  Minister, 
was  to  blame.  Xewcastle  was  reappointed 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies  in  the  second 
Administration  of  Lord  Palmerston.  1859.  In 
1860  he  accompanied  the  Prince  of  \Aales  during 
a  tour  in  Canada  and  a  portion  of  the  United 
States,  and  on  his  return  received  the  Order  of 
the  Garter  from  the  Queen.  Though  his  adminis- 
tration was  meeting  Avith  general  approval,  fail- 
ing health  compelled  him  to  resign,  and  he  died 
a  few  months  later  on  October  18,  1864. 

NEWCASTLE,  ilABGAKET,  Duchess  of.  See 
C'.4.\"ExiJisii,  Marg.vret. 

NEWCASTLE,  Thoiias  Pelham-Holles, 
First  Duke  of  (1693-1768).  An  English  states- 
man. He  was  educated  at  \\estminster  School, 
and  for  a  short  time  attended  the  University  of 
Cambridge.  He  gave  considerable  aid  to  the 
House  of  Bnmswick  on  the  death  of  Queen  Anne, 
and  as  a  result  various  honors  were  conferred  on 
him,  and  in  1715  he  was  created  Duke  of  New- 
castle. In  1724  he  became  Secretary  of  State 
for  the  southern  department  in  Walpole's  coali- 
tion Administration,  ;ind  by  aiding  now  one  party 
and  (hen  another,  as  it  best  suited  his  interests, 
he  remained  in  office  almost  continuously  for 
thirty-eight  years.  In  1754  Xewcastle  became 
Prime  Minister.     He  was   in   power  at  the  be- 


NEWCASTLE. 


432 


NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. 


ginning  of  the  hostilities  of  the  Seven  Years' 
War  (q.v.),  but  affairs  were  mismanaged  eom- 
pletely,  and  in  November,  1756,  Newcastle  re- 
sifined.  Pitt  now  took  charge  of  the  war  and 
foreign  affairs.  In  17.57  a  Newcastle-Pitt  Min- 
istrv%vas  formed,  Pitt  being  the  virtual  liead.  In 
17(j2  Newcastle  was  forced  out  of  otiice  b_v  Lord     market   for   the   sale   of   meat   and   vegetables    is 


Grecian  building  overlooking  the  swing-bridge, 
the  town  and  county  assizes  are  held.  The 
spacious  town  hall,  a  modern  building,  stands  on 
a  block  of  ground  facing  Saint  Nicholas  Church; 
associated  with  it  are  a  corn  market  and  offices 
for   the   transaction   of   the   town   business.      The 


Hute.  and  thereafter  was  of  little  importance, 
though  during  the  short  Rockingham  Administra- 
tion, formed  in  1705,  he  filled  the  office  of  Privy 
Seal.  He  died  November  17,  1708.  Newcastle 
.seems  to  have  had  much  of  the  absurd  and  gro- 
tesque in  his  character.  Consult:  Coxe.  I'ellnim 
Administration  (London.  1829)  ;  Cobbett,  I'arlia- 
mvntarii  Uistory  (London.  180t;--20)  ;  Carlyle, 
Frederick  the  Great  (London.  1888)  ;  Stanhope, 
History  of  England  from  lite  Treaty  of  Utrecht 
to  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  1713-83  (London, 
1851-54)  ;  Lecky,  History  of  England  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century  (London,  1878-90). 

NEWCASTLE,  William  Cavendish,  Duke 
ot.  An  Knglish  statesman.  See  Cave.ndish, 
William.  J)uki-  of  Ncwca.~lk'. 

NEWCASTLE-UNDER-LYME,  lim.  A  Par- 


one  of  the  most  spacious  and  commodious  in 
the  kingdom.  All  the  railways  entering  the 
town  terminate  in  a  large  station  near  its  centre. 
The  jail,  a  hea\-j'  and  costly  building,  occupies 
a  low  and  confined  situation.  Tlie  postal  and 
telegraph  office  is  one  of  the  largest  and  finest 
of  the  public  buildings  in  the  town.  There  are 
two  theatres — the  Royal  (the  ornament  of  Grey 
Street"  the  handsomest  street  in  the  town),  and 
the  Tyne  Theatre  in  \\'estgate  Street.  Among 
the  educational  institutions  are  a  natural  history 
nuiseum,  a  public  library,  a  literary  and  phi- 
losophical society,  society  of  antiquaries,  a  nat- 
ural history  society,  mechanics"  institute,  and 
an  institute  of  mining  engineers.  The  colleges 
of  niedl<-ine  and  science  are  both  connected  with 
the  Universitv  of  Durham.  A  column  surmoimted 


bv  a  statue  of  Karl  Grev.  to  commemorate  the 
liamentary  and  municipal  borough  in  Stafford-  parsing  of  the  Reform  Bill,  and  a  bronze  statue 
shire,    England,    15   miles   northwest   of   Stafford     ^^   George    Stei 


(Map:  England,  D  3).  Its  chief  buildings  are 
the  town  hall  and  high  school,  with  which  is 
incorporated  tlie  free  grammar  school,  founded 
in  1002.  The  quaint  red  sandstone  tower  of  the 
restored  parish  church  dates  from  the  twelfth 
century.  The  town  has  greatly  improved  in 
modern  times;  it  owns  remunerative  real  estate, 
gas,  markets,  and  free  library,  and  provides  tech- 
nical instruction,  and  maintains  a  sew-age  farm, 
cemetery,  and  isolation  hospital.  Hats  were  for- 
merly the  princii)al  Inanch  of  manufacture,  but 
the  making  of  army  clothing  is  now  the  chief  in- 
dustry. Xewcastleunderl.yme  is  surrounded  by 
famous  potteries,  and  coal-mines  are  worked  in 
the  vicinity.  Of  Saxon  origin,  the  town  was 
named  after  a  eastle  built  by  Henry  L  near  the 
great  forest  of  Lyme,  The  town  received  its  first 
charter  from  Henry  11.  in  1175.  Population,  in 
1891.   lS,4."iO;    in    I'iol.   l!l.'.il). 

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE,  tin.  An  epis- 
copal city  and  inuni<i|ial  county  of  England, 
capital  of  Northumlierlaml.  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Tyne,  eight  miles  from  its  mouth  (Map; 
England,"  El).  The  tow  n  stands  partly  upon  an 
elevated  plateau  and  partlj"  upon  the  north  bank 
of  the  river.  The  river  is  crossed  by  three 
bridges,  which  connect  N<>wcastle  with  Gateshead 
(q.v.)— the  High  Level  Hridge,  the  Redheiigh 
Bridge,  and  a  swing  bridge  (completed  in  1874 
nt  a  cost  of  nearly  £500.000).  The  High  Level 
Bridge  is  one  of"  the  engineering  triumphs  of 
Robert  Stei)henson.  The  length  of  the  via<luct  is 
i;!.'!7  feet,  and  the  height  of  the  railway  above 
high-water  mark,  112  feet.  11  has  a  broad  car- 
riageway, by  which  the  ordinary  traffic  avoids 
the  precipitous  streets  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
with  passenger  paths  on  each  side,  and  the  rail- 
way ;ibove. 

The  Church  of  Saint  Nicholas  is  a  noble  eillfice. 
chiefly  in  the  Decorated  style.  In  the  Guildhall. 
an  old  and  somewhat  inconvenient  building. 
situated  beside  the  river,  the  town  assizes  are 
opened  and  the  quarter  sessions  held.  I'nder  the 
Guililhnll  proper  there  is  an  exchange  for  the 
merchants,  shipowners,  and  brokers  of  the  qiiny- 
.side.      In   the    Moot    Hall,   a    modem,   handsome 


Stephenson   are   the    principal    monu- 
ments in  the  city. 

Of  benevolent  institutions  there  are  an  in- 
firmary, a  dispensary,  asylums  for  the  blind,  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  and  two  ori)hanagcs.  The  mu- 
nicipal projierty  is  valued  at  .$15,000,000.  and 
consists  of  real  estate,  markets,  street  railways, 
and  quays.  The  municipality  maintains  batlis, 
wash  houses,  free  libraries,  cemeteries,  and  dust 
destructors,  and  indirectly  contributes  to  tech- 
nical education;  important  domestic  utilities  such 
as  gas,  water,  etc..  are  provisionally  monopolized 
by  companies.  Extensive  im|)rovements  have 
modernized  the  older  ])ortions  of  the  town,  and 
the  streets  generally  arc  wide,  well  paved  and 
well  lighted.  The  trade  of  Newcastle  consists 
chiefly  in  coal  from  the  Northumberland  and 
Durham  regions,  of  which  it  is  the  great  centre. 
Large  (juantities  of  lead,  the  produce  of  the  mines 
of  Alston  iloor  and  Ueardale.  are  brought  to 
Newcastle  for  manufacture,  and  a  large  quantity 
of  unrefined  lead  is  also  imported  from  Spain. 

M  Newcastle  the  railway  system  had  its  origin, 
and  its  locomotive  and  engineering  works  are 
among  the  largest  in  Enghmd.  The  ordnance 
works  of  Sir  William  Armstrong  at  Elswick.  the 
western  jiart  of  Xewcastle.  are  well  known.  Iron 
shipbuilding  and  various  branches  of  engineering 
are  extensively  carried  on,  and  since  1882  several 
men-of-war  have  been  constnicted  on  the  Tyne. 
Newcastle  occupies  an  important  position  in  the 
manufacture  of  soda,  blcachingpowiler.  vitriol. 
salt,  and  other  chemical  products.  Earthenware 
is  largely  manufactured,  and  glass-staining  has 
reached  great  i>erfection.  The  firebrick  trade 
has  attained  large  proportions,  and  there  are 
imi)ortant  manufactures  of  gas-retorts  and  sani- 
tary pipes,  which  are  sent  all  over  the  worhl. 
IniMH'iise  numbers  of  grindstones  are  exported. 
I'iMfbinil  and  other  cements  are  manufactured  in 
vast  quantities. 

The  river  Tyne  from  the  sea  to  Xewcastle 
forms  a  natural  dock  for  the  accommodation  of 
shipping,  ami  for  ten  miles  both  banks  are  lined 
with  quays,  docks,  and  factories.  It  has  four 
natural  docks,  the  largest  nearly  a  mile  long,  and 


NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. 


433 


NEWCOMB. 


including  two  piers  at  its  mouth ;  £3.250.000 
luive  been  spent  on  the  improvement  of  the  Tvne. 
llie  entrance  and  many  jjarts  of  tlie  river  have 
liccu  deepened  by  dredging,  and.  though  eight 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne,  the  tidal 
river  is  as  much  a  port  for  Newcastle  as  the 
Thames  is  for  London.  An  average  of  1.5.000 
vessels  annualh'  enter  and  clear  at  the  Tyne 
ports,  which  comprise  Newcastle  and  North  and 
Siiuth  Shields,  with  a  gross  tonnage  of  10.000.000. 
I  he  value  of  exports,  consisting  chielly  of  iron, 
copper,  lead,  alkali,  and  machinery,  averages 
.■<(iO,000,000  annually;  and  imports,  including 
fiuits,  grain,  butter,  sugar,  metals,  and  petro- 
leum, average  .$50,000,000.  The  total  exjjorts 
from  Newcastle  to  the  United  States  amount  to 
about  $20,000,000.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  United 
States  consul. 

Newcastle  dates  from  the  Roman  Pons  ^Elii — 
one  of  the  chain  of  forts  by  which  the  wall  of 
Hadrian  was  fortified.  On  the  withdrawal  of 
the  Romans,  the  deserted  camp  became  the  resi- 
dence of  a  colony  of  monks,  and  the  town  was 
called  ilonkchester.  Robert,  eldest  son  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  commenced  to  built  a  castle  here 
in  1070  or  1080.  Hence  the  modern  name  of  New 
Castle.  William  Rufus  finished  his  brother's 
lastle,  surrounded  the  town  with  a  wall,  and  gave 
the  inhabitants  peculiar  privileges.  The  present 
castle,  which  displays  better  than  any  other  in 
England  the  genius  of  Norman  military  archi- 
tecture, was  erected  by  Henry  II.  between  the 
years  1172  and  1177.  Newcastle  being  made  the 
rendezvous  of  the  vast  armaments  which  the 
first  three  Edwards  led  into  Scotland,  "it  was 
in  their  time  surrounded  with  new  w'alls  of 
unusual  strength  and  magnitude:  portions  of 
them  yet  remain.  D\iring  the  Civil  War  it 
declared  for  the  King,  and  sustained  a  ten 
months'  siege  by  the  Scots.  The  coal  trade 
dates  from  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  In  1G15, 
400  colliers  cleared  the  port,  one-half  to  supply 
London.  Lords  Stowel.  Eldon.  and  Collingwood, 
Mark  Akenside,  and  Hutton,  the  mathematician, 
were  natives  of  Newcastle.  Intimately  connected 
with  it,  though  not  born  in  it,  were  Thomas 
Bewick,  the  engraver;  Robert  Jlorrison.  the 
Chinese  scholar ;  and  George  and  Roliert  Stephen- 
son. Population,  in  1801,  28.400;  in  1851, 
87,800;  in  1891,  186.300;  in  1901.  214,803.  Con- 
sult Rendel,  Xewcastle-on-Tyne :  Its  Municipal 
Origin  and  (Iroirth  (London,  1898). 

NE'W   church:.      See   Swedenborgians. 

NE-W  COLLEGE.  A  college  at  Oxford,  Eng- 
land, originally  known  as  the  College  of  Saint 
JIary  of  Winchester.  It  was  founded  by  William 
of  Wykeham.  Bishop  of  Winchester,  and  some- 
time Lord  Chancellor  of  Enjiland.  in  1379  for  a 
warden,  70  fellows  and  scholars,  10  chaplains,  3 
clerks,  and  16  choristers.  The  college  was  but 
a  part  of  Wykeham's  plan,  which  included  also 
the  establishment  of  the  famous  school  at  Win- 
cliester,  tlie  first  of  the  English  public  schools, 
from  whose  numbers  the  scholars  of  New  College 
were  to  be  chosen.  To  this  new  feature  in  Eng- 
lish eilucation  was  added  also  the  beginning  of 
a  tutorial  system  in  the  college,  by  which  the 
ordinary  university  instruction  was  supplemented 
liy  the  work  of  the  fellows  of  tlie  college  with  the 
younger  scholars.  In  tlie  buildings  of  his  college, 
Wykeham  founded  the  school  of  English  college 
architecture,    and    the    buildings    remain    to-day 


k 


tlie  finest  of  the  early  colleges.  In  every  way, 
this  foundation  was  the  most  splendid  of  its  time, 
but,  owing  chiefly  to  certain  curious  exemptions 
from  university  supervision  in  examinations  (cf. 
King's  College,  Cambridge),  it  did  not  play  the 
part  that  might  have  been  expected  of  it  during 
most  of  its  history.  Here  X'itelli  taught  Grocyn 
Greek,  and  thus  gave  the  college  a  very  real  con- 
nection with  the  new  awakening.  It  is  to-day,  in 
scholarship  and  athletics,  one  of  the  leading  col- 
leges in  Oxford.  The  establishment,  as  fixed  by 
statutes  of  lS55and  1881-82.  consists  of  a  w^ardcn. 
22  fellows,  3  chaplains,  40  scholars,  college  officers, 
a  choir,  with  a  total  of  some  250  undergraduates. 
The  connection  with  Winchester  School  is  still 
maintained  very  closely.  Tlie  bviildings  are  of 
great  beauty,  particularly  tlie  hall  and  the 
chapel,  with  windows  designed  by  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds,  and  an  imposing  tower.  The  gardens, 
wliicii  include  in  their  limits  part  of  the  old  city 
wall  of  Oxford,  are  among  tlie  most  attractive  in 
Oxford.  The  college  presents  to  40  livings. 
Among  the  worthies  of  New  College  have  been 
Archbishop  Chichele,  founder  of  All  Souls'  Col- 
lege, Bishop  Waynflete.  founder  of  Magdalen  Col- 
lege, Bishops  Ken  and  Lowth.  and  Sydney  Smith. 
See  King's  College,  Cambridge;   Wi.nciiesteb; 

OXIOBD    UNrVEKSITT;     WU-LIAM    OF    WYKEHAM. 

NEWCOMB,  nu'kom,  Simon  (1835—).  An 
American  astronomer  and  mathematician,  born 
in  Wallace,  Nova  Scotia,  lie  was  educated  in  his 
father's  school  and  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1853.  A  j-ear  afterwards  he  began  teaching  in 
Maryland,"  and  in  1857  was  appointed  computer 
on  the  Nautical  Almanac  at  Cambridge.  In  1858 
he  graduated  at  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School, 
and  in  1861  was  appointed  professor  of  mathe 
matics  in  the  United  States  Navy.  He  negotiated 
the  contract  for  and  supervised  the  construction 
of  the  26-inch  equatorial  telescope  at  the  Naval 
01)servatory.  He  was  secretary  of  the  Transit 
of  Venus  Commission  in  1871-74,  observed  the 
transit  of  Venus  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in 
1882,  and  directed  several  eclipse  expeditions,  be- 
ginning in  1860.  In  1877  he  became  senior  pro- 
fessor and  director  of  the  \autical  Almamic.  a 
position  which  he  held  till  he  was  retired  on  ac- 
count of  age  in  1897.  He  was  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  1894-1901 
and  editor  of  the  American  Journal  of  Mathe- 
matics. Newcomb  became  a  member  of  nearly  all 
the  Imperial  and  Royal  Societies  of  Europe  and 
of  the  various  scientific  associations  of  this  coun- 
try. He  was  also  made  an  associate  of  the  Insti- 
tute of  France,  and  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor,  being  the  first  American  since  Franklin 
to  be  so  honored.  He  was  ])resident  of  the  Amer- 
ican Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
in  1877.  of  the  Society  for  Psychical  Research  in 
1885-1886,  of  the  Political  Society  of  America  in 
1887,  of  the  American  ilatbematical  Society  in 
1897-1898,  and  of  the  Astronomical  and  Astro- 
physical  Society  of  .\merica.  from  its  foundation 
in  1899;  vice-president  of  the  National  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1883-89.  and  was  chosen  president 
of  the  Saint  Louis  Congress  of  .\rts  ana  Sciences. 
He  received  the  Copley  (1S74).  ihe  Iluygens 
( 1878  ) ,  the  Royal  Society  ( 1890) ,  and  the  Bruce 
medal  (1898);*  and  numerous  other  prizes  and 
honorary  degrees  from  societies  and  universities 
in  this  country  and  Europe.  In  addition  to  sci- 
entific attainments  he  wrote  on   rinanee  and   po- 


NEWCOMB. 


434 


NEW   ENGLAND. 


litical  economy,   and  delivered   a   course  of   lec- 
tures at  Harvard  University  on  kindred  topirs. 

NEWCOMBE  (nu'koni)  MEMORIAL  COL- 
LEGE.     See  Tl  L.V.NK  Univeksitv. 

NEWCOMEN,  nukuniVn.  Thomas  (16G3- 
17211).  .Vu  Knglish  Ijlacksmith,  inventor  of  the 
atniosplitric  steam  engine,  a  prototype  of  the 
modern  machine.  lie  was  born  at  Dartmouth, 
and,  it  would  seem,  had  addressed  himself  to  the 
task  of  devising  a  practical  engine  before  1008, 
when  Savcry  took  out  his  patent.  Possibly  Xew- 
comen  had  forged  the  laiger  parts  of  Savery's 
engine — they  lived  only  fifteen  miles  apart.  But 
it  is  certain  that  8avery  shared  in  the  p.atent 
taken  out  by  Xeweomen  about  1710.  The  part 
played  by  .John  Callcy  is  uncertain;  probably 
he  was  only  a  grazier  who  advanced  Xeweomen 
money.  Xewcomen's  engine  is  described  and 
pictured  in  a  copper  engraving  dated  1719;  it 
was  a  combination  of  preceding  machines  and 
an  improvement  on  all  of  them,  in  that  it  was  a 
complete  change  of  type,  the  various  elements  of 
boiler,  condenser,  and  engine  pump  being  di- 
vided among  so  many  separate  parts,  which,  with 
the  exception  of  the  comlenser  (the  present  form 
of  which  is  due  to  Watt ) ,  are  essentially  the 
same  as  those  of  the  modern  engine.  Xewcomen's 
was  the  first  practical  machine,  and  it  was  suc- 
cessfully   mid    <()!iininnly   used   for   pumping. 

NEWCOMES,  nu'komz.  The.  A  novel  by  W. 
M.  Thackeray  ( 1854-55 ) .  The  character  of  Colonel 
Xewcome  is  one  of  the  finest  delineations  of  a 
simple-minded,  pure-hearted  gentleman  in  fiction, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  drawn  from  the  author's 
stepfather.  Colonel   Sniytli. 

NEW  CONNECTION  METHODISTS.  See 
METiiom.sM. 

NEW  CONNECTION  OF  GENERAL  BAP- 
TISTS.    See  P.Ai-ri.sTs. 

NEW  CTJM'BERLAND.  A  town  and  the 
county  seal  of  flaiieoek  ('(uinty.  \V.  Va.,  33  miles 
north  of  Wheeling:  on  the  Ohio  River,  and  on 
the  Pittsburg.  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint 
Louis  Railroad  (IMap:  West  Virginia,  D  1),  It 
is  chiefly  engaged  in  the  manufaetvire  of  pottery 
(semi-porcelain),  fire  and  paving  brick,  sewer 
pipe,  and  tiling,  the  adjacent  region  having  valu- 
able clay  deposits.  There  are  also  coal  mines,  a 
foundry,  and  mills  for  the  pulverization  of  fire 
ctav  for  use  in  iron  works.  Population,  in  1890, 
23(ir>:   in   1900.  -2198. 

NEW  DECATUR,  de-ka'tur.  A  city  in  Alor- 
gan  Cnunty.  Ala.,  25  miles  west  by  south  of 
Tluntsville:  on  the  Tennessee  River,  just  above 
Decatur,  and  on  the  I.ouisville  and  Xashville  and 
the  Meiii]>his  and  Charleston  railroads  (Map: 
Alaliama.  I!  1 ) .  It  is  developing  rapidly  as  an 
industrial  centre,  being  noteworthy  for  iron 
manufactures.  According  to  the  census  of  1000, 
capital  to  the  amount  of  .SI. 349.000  was  inAcsted 
in  the  variiuis  industries,  which  had  a  production 
valued  at  $2,077,000.  Xew  Decatur  was  settled 
in  18S7,  and  was  incorporated  in  1890.  T'nder 
a  revised  charter  of  1809  the  government  is  vested 
in  a  mayor,  elected  ever>-  two  year^;.  and  a  uni- 
cameral council.  Population,  in  1990,  3505:  in 
1000,  44.57. 

NEW  DONGOLA,  dc'.n'ffft-lft.  A  town  of  the 
Egyptian  Sudan.     See  Ei.-ORnEH. 


NEWELL,  nu'il,  Peteb  i  ISOJ— ).  An  Ameri- 
can illustrator,  born  near  Uu^hnell,  McDonougU 
County,  111.  He  worked  for  a  time  as  photog- 
rapher and  maker  of  crayon  portraits  in  .Jack- 
sonville, 111.,  and  later  studied  at  the  Art  Stu- 
dents' League  in  Xew  York  City.  Afterwards 
he  settled  at  Leonia,  X.  .1.,  and  contributetl  con- 
stantly to  various  current  publications.  His 
work  in  flat  tones  was  a  later  de\elopmcnt  of  his 
oiiginal  talent,  and  became  very  popular  through 
the  ingenious  Topsys  and  Turici/s  (1S93-94); 
.1  ahudow  .Shown  (I89G):  and  )'</<;■  yeinll'x 
l'ictiin>i  mid  lihymoi  (1899)  :  volumes  for  which 
he  furnished  the  text  liimsplf.  He  also  produced 
the  clever  and  grotesque  illustrations  for  .John 
Kcndrick  Bangs's  House-Boat  on  the  Sti/x,  I'lir- 
suit  of  the  Uouse-Boat,  and  Ur.  Munchausen; 
Lee's  Toinmi)  Toddles:  Stockton's  The  Great 
Stone  of  Sardis;  Hark  Twain's  Innocents  Abroad ; 
and  Lewis  Carroll's  .4/ice  in  ^yondcl■land  and 
ThroiKih    the  Looking  (Jlass. 

NEWELL,  Robert  Henry  (1836-1901).  An 
American  humorist,  born  in  Xew  York,  Decem- 
ber 13,  1836.  His  reputation  was  made  during 
the  Civil  War  by  newspaper  sketches  ami  letters 
over  the  name  'Orpheus  C.  Kerr'  ((~)tlice  Seeker). 
These  letters  were  collected  in  four  volumes 
(1862-68).  X'ewell  also  wrote  romances  and  sev- 
eral volumes  of  verse.  His  humor  lightened  the 
toil  of  Lincoln,  and  it  was  genuine  though  not 
excellent. 

NEW  ENGLAND.  The  collective  name  of 
the  States  of  Maine,  Xew  Hampshire,  Vermont, 
Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connect iiiit. 
It  has  an  area  of  G7.384  square  miles,  and  had 
a   pojailation.   in   1900,  of   5,592.017. 

I.eif  Erieson  is  believed  by  many  to  have 
sailed  along  the  coast  of  Xew  England  as  early 
as  1000  A.I).,  and  it  is  in  Xew  England  that  the 
mythical  city,  Xorumbcga  (q.v.),  is  generally 
supposed  to  liave  lieen  located.  The  coast  seems 
to  have  been  visited  by  Verrazano  in  1524.  and 
was  to  a  considerable  extent  ex])liired  by  Sir 
Humphrey  (iilbert  in  1583.  by  Gosnold  in  1602, 
bv  Sir  Martin  Pring  in  1603.  and  bv  George 
\\'eymouth  in  1605.  By  the  charter  of"  1606  the 
Plymoiith  Company  was  empowered  to  make  set- 
tlements in  what  was  then  called  'X'orth  Vir- 
ginia:' but  an  attempt  (1607).  by  a  company 
under  George  Po[)ham,  to  foiuid  a  settlement  on 
what  is  now  the  Maine  coast,  failed.  In  1014 
Capt.  .Tohn  Smith  sailed  along  the  coast,  and 
iiNo  went  for  some  distance  inland  up  several 
of  the  rivers.  He  prepared  a  description  of  his 
voyage  and  a  rough  ma])  of  the  coa>t.  and  sug- 
gested the  name  'Xew  England"  for  the  region. 
Beginning  with  1620.  when  the  Plymouth  colony 
was  established  in  the  present  Massachusetts, 
settlers  gradually  came  into  Xew  EiiL'buid.  and 
in  1643  the  colonies  of  Connecticut.  Xew  Haven, 
Massachusetts  Bay,  ami  Plymouth  united  to  fonn 
a  confederacy  known  as  the  United  Colonies  of 
Xew  England,  the  first  attempt  at  federation 
made  in  .\meriea.  Each  colony  was  to  choose 
two  commissioners,  and  the  eight  commissioners 
thus  chosen  were  to  hold  annvial  sessions  at  Bos- 
ton. Hartford.  Xew  Haven,  and  Plvmouth.  and 
were  to  take  action  Avith  reference  to  various 
matters  of  common  interest  to  the  four  colonies. 
In  1663  the  mcctinffs  became  triennial.  Afeet- 
ines  were  held  as  late  as  1684.  thout'h  in  the 
last  years  little  was  accomplished.     Of  the  pres- 


NEW    ENGLAND. 


435 


NEW   FOREST. 


ent  New  England  States  Connecticut  resulted 
from  the  union  of  the  colonies  of  Connecticut 
and  New  Haven,  and  Jlassaeluisetts  from  the 
union  of  the  colonies  of  Jlassachusetts  Bay  and 
Plymouth,  while  botli  Xew  Hampshiie  and  JIaine 
were  originally  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Massa- 
chusetts, JIaine  not  receiving  a  separate  organ- 
ization until  1820.  See  articles  on  the  various 
States  and  the  historical  section  of  the  article 
U.xiTKu  Statks. 

NEW  ENGLAND  HISTORIC  AND  GEN- 
EALOGICAL SOCIETY,  The.  An  associa- 
tion in<nrpi)ratcd  in  1S45  in  Boston,  Mass.,  for 
historical  research  in  regard  to  the  family  his- 
tories of  the  early  settlers  in  New  England,  and 
the  collection  of  old  records.  The  society  began 
the  collection  of  a  librarj'  which  now  contains 
3(1.000  volumes  and  as  many  pamphlets,  chiefly 
upon  tlie  suliject  of  New  England  history  and 
biography,  and  has  also  a  collection  of  relics  and 
curios,  manuscripts,  and  many  old  portraits  and 
oil  paintings.  It  now  has  a  membership  of  a 
thousand,  and  holds  monthly  meetings.  In  1847 
tlie  society  began  the  publication  of  a  quarterly 
magazine.  The  yeu^  Enyland  Historical  and 
Oencalogical  Register,  and  also  publishes  the 
Jiihiinpolist,  for  circulation  among  its  members, 
giving  the  proceedings  and  necrology  of  the  so- 
ciety. 

NEW  ENGLAND  PRIMER,  The.  One  of 
the  most  famous  school-books  in  the  history  of 
education.  Yet  it  is  uncertain* when  it  first  ap- 
peared, and  of  tlie  2.000,000  copies  that  it  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  were  printed  and  sold  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  less  tlian  50  survive,  rep- 
resenting, however,  some  forty  editions.  ]Much 
has  been  done  to  clear  up  the  bibliography  of 
the  work  by  Paul  Leicester  Ford  in  The  Xew 
Enriland  Primes':  A  History  of  Its  Origin  and 
Dcrclopment,  with  a  Keprint  of  tlie  Unique  Copy 
of  the  Earliest  Known  Edition,  and  Many  Fac- 
simile Illustrations  and  Reproductions  (New 
Yorl<.  1897 ) .  The  compiler  of  the  work  was 
shown  by  Ford  to  have  been  Benjamin  Harris, 
an  English  printer  and  rhymester,  who  during 
tlie  Catholicizing  reign  of  James  II.  came  to 
Boston  and  set  up  a  book,  coffee,  tea,  and  choco- 
late sho])  'by  the  Town  Pump  near  the  'Change.' 
Here  some  time  before  1690  he  first  issued  the 
Primer,  an  abridgment  of  another  compilation, 
The  Protestant  Tutor.  A  fragment  of  this  first 
edition,  or  of  a  second,  soon  after,  was  found 
used  as  waste  in  the  binding  of  a  book  printed 
in  lt)S8,  and  is  known  as  '"The  Bradford  Fr.ag- 
nu'nt."  The  Primer  was  changed  from  time  to 
time  to  suit  not  only  religious,  but  political  feel- 
ing, though  in  general  through  the  eighteenth 
century  tlie  tendency  was  strongly  religious.  The 
most  familiar  quotation  from  tlie  New  England 
Primer  is  doubtless  the  nursery  prayer,  "Now 
I  Lay  Me  Down  to  Sleep."  but  many  couplets 
from  the  rhymed  alphabet  are  still  remembered. 
The  composition  of  the  different  editions  varies 
greatly.  Tlie  earliest  is  thus  made  up  :  Ml  Title; 
(2)  Godly  .'\dnionitions;  (."?)  .^Iph.ibet  and  Syl- 
labary: (4)  Rhymed  Alph.abot :  (H)  The  Dutiful 
riiihl's  Promises:  (6)  An  .Alphabet  of  Lessons. 
Texts  of  Scripture:  (7)  Choice  Sentences:  (ftl 
The  Lord's  Praver,  Creed,  and  Ten  Commnnd- 
ments:  (9)  The  Dutv  of  Children.  Texts;  (10) 
Hortatory  Verses :  (11)  Names  in  Order  of  Bibli- 
cal Books;    (12)    Koman  and  Arabic  Numerals, 


from  1  to  100;  (13)  John  Rogers's  Exhortation 
to  His  Children;  (14)  The  Shorter  Catechism. 
The  more  noteworthy  features  of  other  editions 
are:  John  Cotton's  "Spiritual  Milk  for  American 
Balies,"  a  still  shorter  catechism,  and  a  "Dia- 
logue Between  Christ,  Youth,  and  tlie  Devil." 

NEW  ENGLAND  THEOLOGY.  The  name 
given  to  a  distinct  school  of  Calvinistic  tlieology, 
originating  in  New  England,  and  characterized  by 
mudifications  of  the  older  theology  in  respect 
to  tlie  nature  of  Ciod;  tlie  freedom,  ability,  and 
responsibility  of  man;  the  nature  of  moral  ac- 
tion; and  the  constitutive  principle  of  virtue. 
The  originator  of  the  school  was  .lonathan  Ed- 
wards (q.v. ).  With  Edwards  and  his  immediate 
successors  the  general  aim  was  to  combat  Arniin- 
ianism.  In  1770  John  ilurray  (q.v.)  arrived  in 
New  England  and  began  to  preach  Univcrsalism, 
and  thus  introduced  a  new  element  into  theologi- 
cal thought  and  controversy.  ( See  Uxivers.\j:,- 
ISM.)  The  early  decades  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury were  occupied  with  the  Unitarian  contro- 
versy and  with  discussion  of  the  teachings  of  Dr. 
Taylor  of  New  Haven,  particularly  concerning 
sin,  depravity,  and  regeneration.  The  outcome 
was  the  adoption  of  the  principles  which  have 
since  been  known  as  the  New  England  theologv", 
and  which  may  be  stated  in  the  propositions  that 
all  sin  is  voluntary;  that  through  the  connection 
with  Adam  there  is  in  man  a  sinful  propensity 
which  renders  it  certain  that  every  man  will  sin 
from  the  beginning  of  moral  action;  th.at.  though 
man  has  complete  freedom  of  will,  as  a  fact,  he 
never  turns  to  God  without  tlie  previous  regen- 
erating operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  per- 
suasively turns  him  to  repentance  and  holiness; 
that  holiness  is  disinterested  love;  that  election 
is  the  choice,"  for  reasons  lying  in  the  knowledge 
of  God  alone,  of  certain  persons,  without  regard 
to  their  own  merits,  as  the  recipients  of  such 
gracious  influence  as  shall  certainly  secure  their 
repentance.  During  the  past  lialf  centurj'  the- 
ological thought  ii>  New  England,  as  elsewhere, 
has  been  profoundly  influenced  by  German  phi- 
losophy and  historical  criticism  and  by  the 
tlieory  of  evolution.  As  a  consequence  the  New 
England  theology  as  a  distinct  school  has  be- 
come a  thing  of  the  past,  and  the  unmodified 
doctrines  of  the  older  leaders  are  no  longer 
taught  in  the  Congregational  seminaries.  Among 
those  prominent  in  developing  and  defending  the 
teachings  of  the  school,  after  Edwards  (170.S- 
58),  niav  be  mentioned:  Joseph  Bellamv  (1719- 
90);  Samuel  Hopkins  (1721-180.3);  Jonathan 
Edwards,  the  Y'ounger  (1745-1801):  Stephen 
West  (1735-1819);  Samuel  West  (1730-1807); 
Nathaniel  Emmons  (1745-1801);  Timothy 
Dwight  (1752-1817);  Nathaniel  W.  Taylor 
(1780-1858)  :  Leonard  Woods  ( 1774-1S54)  ;  Moses 
Stuart  (1780-1852):  Edwards  A.  Park  (1808- 
1900)  :  Henrv  B.  Smith  (1815-76)  :  Horace  Bush- 
nell  (1802-70):  Samuel  Harris  (1814-99).  Con- 
sult; Fisher.  History  of  Christian  Doctrine  (New 
York.  1896)  ;  \\'alker.  History  of  the  Congrega- 
tional Churches  in  the  United  fitates  (New  Y'ork. 
1804)  ;  Boardman,  \ew  England  Theology  (New 
York.  1899).  See  also  Coxoreoatton-'VLI.sm;  and 
the  biographical  notices  of  the  leaders. 

NEW  FOREST.  .\  forest  rccrion  in  the  south- 
western part  of  Hampshire.  England,  with  an 
area  of  92.000  acres  (144  square  miles)  (Map: 
England,  E  6).     The  name  dates  from  the  Nor- 


NEW   FOREST. 


436 


NEWFOUNDLAND. 


man  Conquest,  wlieu  the  district  was  afforested 
and  protected  by  severe  laws  by  \\  illiam  the  Con- 
querer.  It  is  a  Crown  possession  managed  by 
tlie  Court  of  Verderers  as  a  public  pleasure 
ground. 

NEWFOUNDLAND,  iiu'fund-land'.  A  Brit- 
ish colouy  in  Niirth  Aiiicrica. comprising  the  island 
of  Newfoundland  and  its  dependency,  Labrador. 
The  island  lies  across  the  entrance  to  the  Ciulf 
of  Saint  Lawrence  between  latitudes  46°  35'  and 
51°  40'  X.,  and  between  longitudes  52°  35'  and 
5'J°  25'  \V.  It  is  separated  from  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  Labrador  in  the  north  by  the  Strait 
of  Belle  Isle,  10  miles  wiile,  while  Cabot  Strait 
separates  it  from  Cape  Breton  Island.  65  miles 
to  the  southwest.  Newfoundland  is  that  part  of 
North  America  which  lies  nearest  to  Rurope,  its 
distance  from  \alentia  in  Ireland  being  1640 
miles.  It  is  roughly  triangular  in  shape,  meas- 
uring .317  miles  from  Cape  Kay.  its  southwestern, 
to  Cape  Norman,  its  northernmost  point,  while 
the  distance  from  Cape  Anguille  in  the  extreme 
west  to  Cape  Spear  in  the  east  is  316  miles.  The 
total  area  of  the  island  is  42.200  square  miles. 
The  coastline  is  extremely  irregular,  being  in- 
dented with  numerous  large  bays  studded  with 
countless  islands,  and  ramifying  into  narrow 
tiords  which  run  far  into  the  interior.  In  the 
southeast  the  Bay  of  IMacentia  and  Trinity  Bay 
run  iu  from  op])Osite  sides  of  the  island,  cutting 
off  the  Avalon  Peninsula,  which  is  connected  with 
the  mainland  by  a  very  narrow  isthmus.  In  the 
northwest  there  is  a  corresponding  jH-ninsula, 
though  less  detached,  known  as  Le  Petit  Nord,  at 
the  head  of  which  the  coast  is  deeply  indented 
by  \\hite  Bay.  Many  of  the  bays  form  com- 
modious and  well-sheltered  harbors  with  deep 
water  close  to  shore. 

Top<)(;bapiiy.  The  coasts  are  nearly  every- 
where bold  and  rugged,  presenting  a  line  of  rocky 
cliffs  from  200  to  400  feet  liigh.  broken  by  the 
tissures  which  form  the  entrances  to  the  fiords. 
In  the  Bay  of  Islands  on  the  west  coast,  the 
small  rocky  islets  are  1000  feet  high,  while  the 
shores  of  "the  bay  rise  in  Blomidon  Cliff  to  a 
sheer  height  of  2125  feet  from  the  water's  edge. 
The  interior  is  an  imdiilating  ])l:iteau  of  mod- 
erate elevation  traversed  by  a  number  of  ridges 
which  terminate  in  the  headlands,  and  which, 
like  all  the  chief  physical  features,  river  valleys, 
headlands,  and  geological  formations,  run  di- 
agonally across  the  island  from  southwest  to 
northeast.  The  principal  ridge  is  the  Long  Range, 
which  runs  along  the  entire  western  coast,  and 
has  numerous  peaks  from  1.500  to  2000  feet 
high.  Avalon  Peninsula  is  rugged  and  hilly, 
and  scattered  over  the  interior  plateau  are  a 
number  of  isolated  peaks  known  as  'tolts.' 

HydR()gr.\piiy.  Newfoundlanil  has  an  abun- 
dance of  lakes,  ponds,  and  streams.  The  prin- 
cii>al  rivers  Mow  toward  the  northeast  coast,  ex- 
cept the  Iliiniber,  which  breaks  through  the  Long 
Kange  and  enters  the  Bay  of  Islands.  The  larg- 
est stream  is  the  Exploits  River,  which  flows 
through  a  chain  of  long  lakes  stretching  almost 
across  the  island,  its  length  being  200  miles.  The 
rivers,  however,  cannot  be  used  a.s  means  of 
communication  except  as  canoe  routes  for  hunt- 
ers. The  largest  lake  is  (inind  Pond,  56  miles 
long,  with  an  area  of  102  scpiare  miles,  and  there 
arc  several  others  almost  injualing  this  in  size. 

Climate.    The  winters  are  not  as  cold,  nor  are 


the  summers  as  uarm  as  iu  Cauada,  the  annual 
extremes  of  temperature  being  7'  and  83°.  The 
Arctic  current,  which  skirts  the  eastern  coast, 
and  the  east  winds,  which  drive  the  lloatiug  ice 
into  the  bays  along  that  coast,  prolong  the  win- 
ter and  spring,  and  render  the  climate  here  raw 
and  chilly  iu  winter  and  cool  in  summer.  The 
moisture-laden  east  winds,  moreover,  bring  fre- 
quent fogs. 

UEOLOCiY  AND  JIiXER-VLS.  The  bulk  of  the  isl- 
and consists  of  Archican  rocks,  among  which 
the  Huronian  system  predominates  in  the  south- 
eastern tliird.  and  the  Laurentian  in  the  re- 
mainder of  tlie  island.  There  are,  however,  beds 
of  Paleozoic  and  Lower  ilesozoic,  reaching  as 
far  as  the  Lower  Carboniferous  .svstem.  These 
are  found  chiefly  in  the  troughs  forming  the  river 
valleys,  the  valley  of  the  Exploits  following  a 
bed  of  Upper  Silurian  rocks,  20  miles  wide.  The 
chief  mineral  is  copper,  while  some  lead  and 
silver  and  a  little  gold  have  been  found.  There 
are  large  beds  of  gypsum  on  the  western  coast, 
and  a  small  coal  field  exists  near  Saint  George's 
Bay. 

Soil  and  Flora.  Large  portions  of  the  inte- 
rior consist  of  marshes,  and  there  are  barren 
areas  of  rock  covered  with  lichens  and  low  shrubs 
of  pine  and  larch.  Some  parts,  however,  are 
heavily  timbered,  especially  at  the  heads  of  the 
bays,  and  along  the  river  valleys.  The  latter  also 
afford  large  tracts  of  good  arable  land.  The  prin- 
cipal trees  are  white  and  yellow  pine,  white, 
black,  and  red  spruce,  fir.  tamarack,  birch,  and 
red  maple.  Among  the  wild  animals  arc  the 
black  bear,  wolf,  and  several  species  of  fox. 

Agriciltire  and  Mining.  Although  there 
are  probably  5.000.000  acres  of  land  on  the  island 
suitable  for  agriculture,  only  64.404  acres  had 
been  improved  in  1801.  Since  that  time  the  Gov- 
ernment has  offered  a  bonus  for  cleared  land,  and 
the  area  under  cultivation  now  amounts  to  about 
100.000  acres,  located  almost  wholly  along  the 
southeast  coast.  The  principal  crops  are  pota- 
toes and  turnips;  hay  and  oats  are  also  raise<l. 
The  naist  imjiortant  mineral  exploited  is  copper, 
the  output  of  which  has  increased  considerably 
in  recent  years.  The  value  of  the  exports  of 
copper  ore  in  1000  was  •'?616.170.  Pyrites  and 
iron  ore  follow  with  a  combined  value  of  .$415,- 
764. 

Fisheries.  Fishery  far  exceeds  all  other  occu- 
pations, and  the  only  manufactures  worthy  of 
mention  are  sulisiiliarv  to  the  fisheries.  s\ich  as 
the  manufacture  of  cordage,  liiseuits.  etc.  More 
than  50.000  inhabitants  of  Newfoundland  are 
engaged  in  the  fisheries,  and  the  fishing  fieet  in 
1000  consisted  of  1440  vessels  and  over  20.000 
boats.  The  fi.sheries  on  the  Grand  Bank  (q.v. ) 
have  ilecllned.  and  are  no  longer  important  for 
Newfoundland,  whose  inhabitants  are  engaged 
chiefly  along  the  coast  and  off  the  coast  of 
Labrador,  .\long  the  west  coast  of  the  island, 
known  as  the  French  Shore  (see  flintnrii  below), 
the  French  still  enjoy  the  exclusive  right  to  fish, 
and  the  I'nitcd  States  enjoy  similar  rights  on  the 
southwestern  coast.  The  eod-fishcries  are  the 
most  important,  the  quantity  caught  annmilly  in 
the  waters  of  Newfoundland  being  valued  at 
.$0,000,000,  about  two-thirds  of  which  are  caught 
by  Newfoundland  fisliormen.  Next  in  importance 
come  the  seal,  lobster,  herring,  and  salmon  fish- 
eries. Seal  fishing  is  conducted  from  steamers 
which  enter  the  solid  drift  ice  upon  which  the 


DODO,  HCJtO  A  COHPANV. 


NEWFOUNDLAND. 


437 


NEWFOUNDLAND    DOG. 


young  seal  are  suckled  hy  their  mothers.  The 
manlier  of  seal  has  lately  deeliiied,  and  the  sea- 
sun  tor  hunting  has  been  restrieteil  by  law  to  one 
month,  from  Mareli  lijth  to  April  16th.  The 
values  uf  the  llshery  products  exported  from 
Xewfuiuidland  in  IIMIO  were  as  follows:  Dried 
cod.  .i;.").4-lt;,01)7 ;  cod  oil,  $;301,0!ll;  seal  skins, 
$lo2,00o:  seal  oil,  .•f;4;i3,011  ;  canned  lobster, 
$441,593;  pickled  herring,  $14(J,Ull. 

ColIMKRCE  AND  COMMUNICATIONS.  Trade  is 
chielly  with  Great  Britain,  Canada,  and  the 
United  States.  In  1901  the  total  imports  were 
valued  at  $7,287,200.  and  the  exports  at  $8,125,- 
920.  The  chief  imports  are  flour  and  other  food 
products,  textiles,  and  luirdware.  Communica- 
tion between  the  coast  settlements  is  still 
etfected  chielly  by  water,  there  being  fe\y  roads, 
and  praclically  none  in  the  interior  except  the 
transinsular  railroad.  The  transinsular  railroad 
Avas  comifleted  in  1897,  and  with  its  branch  lines 
had,  in  1899,  a  length  of  038  miles.  There  were 
also  in  that  3'ear  1314  miles  of  telegraph  lines. 

PopiLATiON.  Tlic  total  population  of  the  col- 
ony in  1901  was  220.249,  of  whom  3()34  resided 
in  Labrador.  In  1891  the  total  population  was 
202,040.  of  whom  4100  were  in  Labrador.  There 
is  practically  no  immigration,  97  per  cent,  of  the 
population  being  native  born,  chielly  of  English, 
Irisli,  and  Scotch  descent.  The  population  is 
almost  wholly  concentrated  on  the  southeast 
coast,  the  interior  being  practically  uninhabited, 
and  the  west  coast  barred  by  the  French  treaty 
rights.  The  capital  and  largest  town  is  Saint 
John's,  with  a  populaticm  of  29.594,  and  only 
four  other  towns,  Ilarljor  Orace,  Carbonear, 
Bonavista,  and  Twill ingate,  have  populations 
exceeding  3000, 

Education  and  Religion,  In  1900  34  per 
cent,  of  the  population  were  Roman  Catholics,  33 
per  cent,  belonged  to  the  Church  of  England,  and 
27  per  cent,  were  Methodists,  The  schools  are 
wholly  denominational.  The  school  funds  are 
proportioned  according  to  the  number  of  pupils 
of  each  denomination,  and  there  are  three 
superintendents  of  public  instruction — one  for 
each  denomination.  Education  is  not  compul- 
sory, but  the  public  schools  are  well  attended; 
there  are  very  few  private  schools.  Higher  edu- 
cation is  given  through  four  colleges  which  pre- 
pare students  for  the  examinations  of  the  London 
University. 

GovERNJiENT.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in 
a  Governor  appointed  by  the  Crown  and  a  Min- 
istrj'  or  executive  council  of  nine  members,  re- 
sponsible to  the  majority  of  the  Lower  House 
of  the  Legislature.  The  latter  consists  of  a 
council  of  not  more  than  fifteen  members,  and  an 
Assembly  whose  members  are  elected  by  man- 
hood franchise.  The  public  revenues  in  1901  were 
$1,953,720,  and  the  expenditures  $1,952,748.  The 
public  debt  was  $10,891,902.  The  colony,  like 
Canada,  has  adopted  the  dollar  as  the  unit  of 
currency. 

Hlstory,  Newfoundland  was  discovered  by 
John  Cabot  in  1497.  but  the  English  did  not  take 
advantage  of  the  discovery  for  nearly  a  century. 
In  the  meantime  the  cod-fisheries  attracted  nu- 
merous Portuguese.  Spanish,  and  Freneli  fisher- 
men. In  15S3  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  took  formal 
possession  of  the  island  for  the  British  Crown, 
but  various  attempts  at  settlement  were  defeated 
by  the  French.  English  fishermen,  however, 
frequented    the    shores    in    increasing    numbers. 


By  the  Treaty  uf  Utrecht  in  1713,  France 
conceded  the  absolute  sovereignty  of  England 
over  tlie  whole  territory  of  the  island.  She  re- 
tained, however,  the  neighboring  islets  of  .Mique- 
lon  and  Saint  Pierre  as  stations  for  her  fishing 
lleets.  and  reserved  the  exclusive  right  to  the 
cod-fisheries  on  the  western  coast,  including  the 
right  to  build  such  temporary  structures  on  land 
as  were  necessary  for  curing  the  fish.  Even  after 
the  English  acquisition,  however,  the  jirosperity 
of  the  island  was  delayed  for  a  century  by  the 
repressive  measures  adopted  by  the  hmne  (iovern- 
ment,  inlluenced  by  the  mercantile  and  fishing 
interests,  which  desired  tlie  island  simply  as  a 
place  for  drving  lisli  during  the  season,  to  be 
left  barren  and  uninhabited  when  the  fishing 
season  was  over.  Settlements  were  practically 
forbidden,  no  titles  to  land  were  granted  until 
1813.  and  until  1820  no  house  could  be  built 
without  a  license,  while  the  govcrnnu'nt  of  the 
island  was  practically  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
fishing  captains.  In  1832  Newfoundland  finally 
received  a  representative  government  giving  the 
control  of  its  affairs  to  its  inhabitants.  In  re- 
cent years  the  question  of  the  French  treaty 
rights  on  the  west  coast  has  reached  an  acute 
stage.  The  French  interpretation  of  the  treaty, 
acquiesced  in  by  the  British  home  Government, 
prevented  the  settlement  and  exploitation  of  the 
west  coast  liy  inhabitants  of  Newfoundland.  Two 
attempts  to  arrange  a  convention  between  the 
French  and  the  British  governments  were  vetoed 
by  the  Newfoundland  Giovernment,  which  further- 
more passed  an  act  cutting  off  the  local  supply 
of  bait  from  the  French  fishermen.  The  French 
Government  retaliated  by  ordering  the  confisca- 
tion of  all  fishing  implements  belonging  to  for- 
eigners found  fishing  on  the  west  coast,  and  it 
later  claimed  the  right  to  confiscate  the  New- 
foundland lobster  factories  which  had  been  estab- 
lished there,  although  the  treaty  referred  only  to 
cod-fishing.  In  1890  a  temporary  settlement  was 
arranged  by  the  Modus  Mvouli  Act,  by  which 
the  French  and  Newfoundland  establishments 
then  c-xisting  on  the  shore  should  be  left  undis- 
turbed, but  no  more  New^foundland  lobster  fac- 
tories could  be  built  until  a  final  settlement  could 
be   reached. 

Bibliography.  Pedley,  History  of  Neiofound- 
land  (London,  1803)  :  Tocque,  Xcwfoundland  as 
If  Was  and  Is  (ib.,  1878)  ;  Shea,  Newfoundland: 
Its  Fishrrics  and  llcnernl  Resources  (ib.,  1883)  ; 
Hatton  and  Harvey,  ycwfoundhnid :  Its  History 
and  Present  Condition  (ib„  1883)  ;  Kennedy, 
Sport  and  Adventure  in  Newfoundland  and  West 
Indies  (ib„  1885)  ;  Prowse.  History  of  New- 
foundland (2d  ed.,  ib..  1897)  ;  Harvev,  Newfound- 
land, Enqland's  Oldest  Colony  (ib„  1897)  ;  Smith, 
The  Ktory  of  Neirfoundlan'd  (i1).,  1901);  "The 
Newfoundland  Question,"  in  Quarterly  Review, 
vol.  cxciv,  (ib,.  1901 )  ;  Willson,  The  Truth  About 
Neu-foundland,  the  Tenth  Island  (2d  ed,,  ib„ 
1901  ), 

NEWFOUNDLAND  DOG,  This,  one  of  the 
largest,  han<lsoniest,  and  most  intelligent  of 
dogs,  named  from  the  island  whence  he  was  first 
introduced  to  European  notice,  offers,  in  his 
present  characteristics,  something  of  a  puzzle 
as  to  his  origin.  He  is  not  an  aboriginal  New- 
foundlander. The  dog  of  the  native  Beothuks. 
was  that  of  the  adjacent  mainland  (Labrador), 
used  mostly  for  hauling  sleds,  and  it  had  a 
double  coat  of  the  warmest  and  thickest  hair,  the 


NEWFOUNDLAND    DOG. 


438 


NEW    GUINEA. 


hairs  protruding  llirough  an  undirco.it  of  short 
and  llutly  fur,  or  "wool.'  From  early  in  the  six- 
teenth century  French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and 
English  tishermen  frequented  the  shores  of  New- 
foundhind  in  ever-increasing  numbers.  The  pres- 
ence of  so  relatively  great  a  foreign  population, 
all  arriving  in  short  periods,  overtaxed  the 
capability  of  the  native  dogs  to  meet  the  demand, 
and,  exactly  as  happened  later  in  Alaska,  the 
first  settlors  took  into  the  island  "outside  dogs,' 
among  which  were  undoubtedly  some  of  the  big 
dogs  of  Spain,  where  the  mastilf.  the  bloodhound, 
and  a  ferocious  variety  of  pointer  were  then  com- 
mon. These  crossed  miscellaneously  with  the 
Indian  dogs,  but  the  pointer  especially  seems  to 
have  introduced  into  the  double-coated  native 
his  color,  size,  intelligence,  and  keen  scent,  all 
qualities  well  marked  in  the  Xewfoundland  dog 
as  he  came  into  European  knowledge  at  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  So  highly  was  he  then 
esteemed  for  his  wonderful  retrieving  powers,  that 
he  was  almost  entirely  exported,  and  his  breed 
in  the  land  of  his  home  almost  eliminated.  In- 
quiries made  in  1890  showed  that,  except  in  one 
or  two  outlying  islands,  none  remained  in  Xew- 
foundland. Fortunately,  the  breed  has  l>ecn  main- 
tained in  Great  Britain  and  in  America,  from 
•  the  original  stock. 

The  Newfoundland  is  a  massive  dog.  27  inches 
high  at  the  shoulder,  and  often  weighing  100 
pounds.  In  color  he  is  almost  always  black  and 
white,  or  all  black,  although  when  first  imported 
many  were  hro\vn  and  white:  and  he  has  a  dense 
coat  of  coarse  texture  and  oily  nature,  al)le  to 
resist  water,  for  which  this  breed  has  a  passion. 
If  the  coat  Ije  brushed  the  wrong  way  it  should 
fall  back  into  its  place  naturally.  His  head  is 
broad  and  massive;  his  fore  legs  perfectly 
straight,  his  hind  legs  very  strong  with  great 
freedom  of  action;  his  feet  large  and  well  shaped; 
his  ears  small,  set  well  back  and  lying  close  to 
the  head.  His  eye  is  small  and  deeply  set.  but 
does  not  show  any  haw.  Consult  authorities 
cited  under  Don. 

NEWGATE.  A  famous  London  prison,  es- 
tablished at  the  'new  gate"  of  the  city,  probably 
near  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century.  The 
earliest  authentic  mention  of  it  dates  from  r218, 
when  it  was  repaired  by  order  of  the  King.  It 
was  repaired  and  enlarged  in  l(i38.  and  wholly 
rebuilt  after  the  great  fire  of  KlOli.  which  had 
partially  destroyed  the  old  building.  In  1770 
work  was  begun  on  the  reconstruction  of  the 
prison.  The  work  was  hardly  finished  when  the 
prison  was  sack?d  during  tlie  'Lord  Oeorge  Gor- 
don riots.'  In  18.57-59  tlie  internal  structure  of 
Newgate  was  changed,  so  as  to  provide  separate 
cells  for  prisoners,  who  had  formerly  been  per- 
mitted to  mingle  with  each  other.  In  I90"2  the 
building  was  demolished. 

In  the  early  centuries  of  its  existence  Newgate 
was  used  for  almost  every  ela.ss  of  prisoners — 
prisoners  of  State.  Jews  charged  with  child  mur- 
der, regrators  and  forestallers,  debtors,  as  well 
as  for  ordinary  criminals.  The  prisoners  endured 
a  most  wretched  existence.  If  they  possessed 
property,  (bey  were  'iubjected  to  the  limitless 
rapacity  of  their  jailers;  if  without  property, 
they  had  to  rely  upon  alms  for  food.  Frequently 
they  were  detained  for  years  before  securing  a 
hearin?  on  the  charges  upon  which  they  had  been 
committed  to  prison.  These  conditions  rem.Tined 
practically  unchanged  in  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 


teenth centuries,  when  the  prison  began  to  be 
crowded  with  a  new  class  of  inmates,  those  who 
adhered  to  proscribed  religious  creeds.  Henry 
VIIL  and  ilary,  and  in  later  years  of  her  reign, 
Elizabeth,  made  use  of  Xewgate  as  a  place  of 
detention  for  those  who  were  to  be  tried  for 
lieresy  or  popery,  as  the  case  might  be.  It  was 
in  Xewgate  that  such  prisoners  were  tortured  in 
the  hope  of  their  recantation,  or  to  force  them 
to  implicate  others.  John  Rogers  and  Hooper 
were  among  the  more  famous  of  the  prisoners  of 
this  class. 

With  the  cessation  of  religious  persecution, 
Xewgate  was  again  occupied  chiefly  by  felons 
awaiting  execution,  of  persons  awaiting  trial  on 
criminal  charges,  and  of  debtors.  The  condition 
of  its  inmates  was  evil  both  from  a  moral  and 
a  sanitary  point  of  view.  Those  who  were  guilty 
of  mere  misdemeanors  were  permitted  to  asso- 
ciate with  the  most  hardened  ciiiiiinals.  with  the 
result  that  many  not  originally  inclined  toward 
professional  crime  became  involved  in  the  plots 
of  the  professional  criminals.  This  evil  was  ag- 
gravated after  1780,  when  Xewgate  became  the 
regular  place  of  detention  of  felons  condenmed 
to  transportation.  After  1815  debtors  were  no 
longer  confined  in  Xewgate.  Sanitary  conditions 
were  even  worse.  From  the  Middle  Ages  Xew- 
gate had  been  noted  for  its  epidemic  diseases — 
the  'jail  distemper,'  probably  a  form  of  typhus 
fever,  being  a  frequent  malady.  In  1414  sixty- 
four  prisoners  had  died  of  this  disease ;  and  its 
ravages  were  common  down  to  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  In  1752  an  attempt  was 
made  to  check  the  evil  by  the  employment  of 
mechanical  ventilation,  but  with  small  success. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  phi- 
lanthropists began  to  interest  themselves  in  the 
moral  and  sanitary  conditions  of  Xewgate.  Ef- 
fective reform  did  not  take  place,  however,  until 
after  1S40.  After  1849  convicted  prisoners  were 
removed  to  a  new  prison  in  HoUoway,  and  Xew- 
gate remained,  until  its  demolition,  almost  ex- 
clusively a  place  of  detention  for  prisoners 
awaiting  trial.  Consult  Griffiths,  Chronicles  of 
Xcngatc   (London.  1SS4). 

NEW  GLASGOW,  glas'k*.  A  manufacturing 
to\vn  of  Pictou  County.  Xova  Scotia,  Canada, 
on  the  East  River  and  on  the  Xova  Scotia  Rail- 
way. 8  miles  southeast  of  Pictou  Landing  on 
Xorthumberland  Strait,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a  branch  line.  It  is  the  centre  of  an 
imp<irtant  coal  and  iron  mining  district  with 
their  supplemental  industries;  there  are  also 
shipbuilding  vards,  glass  factories,  tanneries, 
etc.     Population,  in  1891.  3770;  in  1901.  4447. 

NEW  GKANADA,  gr:'i-na'dA.  The  old  name 
for  tlie  i;.|.ul>lie  of  Colombia    (q.v.). 

NEW  GUINEA,  ginV-.  or  Papv.v.  A  large 
island  noitli  of  Australia,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  Torres  Strait.  It  is  surpassed  in 
size  only  by  Greenland.  Borneo  is  a  little  small- 
er. andM.adagascar  about  three-fourths  as  large. 
Its  area  is  estimated  at  313.183  square  miles,  or 
almost  exactly  that  of  Texas  and  Louisiana  to- 
gether. It  lies  on  the  extreme  western  side  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean  between  latitude  0°  19'  and  10° 
43'  S.  and  longitude  131°  12'  and  1.50°  48^  E. 
Its  length  is  nearly  1.500  miles,  its  greatest  width 
over  400  miles,  and  its  longer  axis  extends  from 
northwest  to  southeast.  The  larger  portion  of 
the  island  west  of  longitude  141°  has  been 
claimed  by  the  Dutch   since   1828;   the  eastern 


NEW  GUINEA. 


439 


NEW  GUINEA. 


portion  is  divided  between  the  British  on  tlie 
south  and  the  Germans  on  the  north,  their  ter- 
ritories having  been  defined  respectively  in  1884 
and  l.SSG. 

TopoGKAPiiv.  The  waters  on  the  south  of  the 
island  are  so  shallow  that  if  the  sea  fioor  were 
elevated  300  feet  New  Guinea  would  form  a 
part  of  Australia  and  the  I^ouisiade  Archipelago 
in  the  southeast  would  be  a  part  of  the  main- 
land. Oceanic  depths  encircle  the  island  on  the 
other  sides.  Around  it  are  scattered  a  consid- 
erable number  of  islands,  some  of  which  were  un- 
doubtedly torn  away  from  the  greater  land  mass. 
In  many  places  the  coast  is  fringed  with  coral 
reefs  and  islands,  most  of  them  covered  with 
vegetation.  The  vastness  of  the  island,  together 
with  the  marshy  eoastlands  and  ilense  forests 
and  jungle,  hindered  exploration  and  white  enter- 
prises till  the  last  decades  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  interior  has  not  been  adequately 
•explored,  and  most  of  the  western  half  of  the 
island,  under  the  Dutch  flag,  is  still  unknown 
except  along  the  coasts.  There  are  a  sufficient 
number  of  indentations  on  the  coasts  to  provide 
excellent  harbors  as  the  country  develops.  Port 
JVIoresby,  with  a  population  of  1000  natives  and 
50  Europeans,  has  wharves  for  shipping,  and  is 
the  seat  of  government  and  the  chief  port  of 
Southeastern  Xew  Guinea  (  British  Xew  Guinea  )  ; 
Samarai  and  Daru,  islands  near  the  mainland, 
provide  the  other  ports  for  this  colony.  Friedrich 
\\  ilhelmshafen  is  the  most  important  port  of  the 
northeast  of  the  island,  or  Kaiser  Wilhelmsland 
((.lerman  Xew  Guinea),  and  vessels  ti'ade  at 
a  few  points  in  Western  Xew  Guinea,  the  half 
of  the  island  which  is  possessed  b.v  the  Nether- 
lands. 

A  large  part  of  the  coasts  are  fronted  by  low 
and  marsliy  plains  suitable  for  rice-growing; 
but  the  interior  is  very  rugged  and  so  densely 
covered  with  tropical  vegetation  that  progress  is 
extremely  difficult,  excepting  along  a  few  rivers. 
Xearly  everywhere  paths  have  to  be  cleared  with 
hatchets,  and  a  mile  of  advance  is  often  a  hard 
day's  work ;  under  such  circumstances  explora- 
tion has  been  very  slow;  but  the  sum  total  of 
the  work  of  many  explorers  has  given  a  fair 
iilea  of  the  interior,  excepting  in  Dutch  Xew 
Guinea. 

Through  the  eastern  half  of  the  island  stretches 
range  after  range  of  mountains  extending  from 
northwest  to  southeast,  the  eastern  ranges  cul- 
minating in  the  Owen  Stanley  Mountains,  whose 
Tiigliest  peaks.  Mount  Victoria  (13.200  feet  I  and 
Mount  Albert  Edward  (13,000).  are  supposed  to 
'be  the  loftiest  elevations  of  British  Xew  Guinea. 
The  eastern  mountains  are  of  igneous  origin,  the 
central  masses  schistose,  and  the  western  ranges 
chiefly  sandstone.  The  parallel  chains  of  the 
Kaiser  Wilhelmsland  ranges  are  also  stupendous 
and  may  be  seen  far  out  at  .sea  long  before  the 
coast  lands  come  into  view.  The  two  lofty  peaks 
■of  the  Bismarck  range  are  supposed  to  be  from 
15,000  to  20.000  feet  high,  probably  the  highest 
sununits  in  Xcav  Guinea.  It  is  thought  that  the 
German  mountains  may  be  the  eastern  prolonga- 
tion of  great  ranges  in  Dutch  Xew  Guinea  still 
Tinexplored.  The  geological  structure  of  the 
German  mountains  has  not  yet  been  studied. 
Tjofty  mountains,  snme  of  them  10.000  feet  high, 
fringe  long  stretches  of  the  north  coast  of  Dutch 
Kew  Guinea  :  and  farther  south  the  long  range 
of    the    Charles    Louis    Mountains    extends    far 


east  with  elevations  of  12,000  to  1G,000  feet,  some 
of  them  said  to  be  covered  with  snow,  tliougli 
this  statement  is  not  authoritatively  reported. 
The  Dutch  coast  mountains  ap])ear  to  be  of  ter- 
tiary limestone  executing  the  Cyclops,  which  are 
of  volcanic  origin;  the  great  mountains  of  the 
interior  are  chiefly  composed  of  slates  and  sand- 
stones. Kvcrj'where  between  the  mountains  ex- 
tend wide  or  narrow  plains  filled  with  high  grass 
or  dense  jungle  and  scrul). 

IIyDiiOGK.\piiY.  The  central  mountain  ranges 
form  the  water  parting  between  rivers  (lowing  to 
the  south  and  the  north.  X'avigation  may  be 
developed  more  extensively  than  on  most  of  the 
great  islands  of  the  world.  The  largest  river  is  ' 
the  Fly,  whieli,  rising  on  the  British-German 
border,  has  a  course  of  020  miles  to  the  Papua 
Gulf  and  may  be  ascended  hv  steam  launches  for 
500  miles.  -The  Purari,  fartlier  east,  is  navigable 
by  steamboats  for  120  miles.  The  Kaiscrin 
Augusta  River  in  Kaiser  Wilhelmsland  has  been 
ascended  by  a  sea-going  steamer  for  ISO  miles. 
The  Ottilia  is  navigable,  and  it  is  believed  the 
Marga  will  be  useful  as  a  means  of  transporta- 
tion. Little  but  the  mouths  of  the  Dutch  rivers 
can  yet  be  laid  down  on  the  maps,  but  the  depth 
and  breadth  of  some  of  the  outlets  indicate  im- 
portant streams. 

Climate.  As  the  island  lies  just  south  of  the 
equator,  the  climate  is  hot  in  the  lower  altitude?, 
with  a  small  annual  range  and  an  average  tem- 
perature of  about  79°  F.  The  climate  is  usu- 
ally agreeable  at  elevations  of  3.500  feet  and 
water  freezes  during  the  night  at  10,000  feet. 
.Bain  falls  nearly  every  week  in  the  year,  but 
the  quantity  is  subject  to  large  variation,  tiie 
precipitation  at  Port  ^loresby,  for  example, 
averaging  37  inches  a  year,  while  that  of  Sam- 
arai, farther  east,  is  126  inches,  and  at  Daru, 
farther  west,  82  inches.  jMalarial  fever  of  a  mild 
tyi)e  is  common  on  the  lower  grounds,  but  the 
climate  away  from  the  swamps  is  not  inimical  to 
the  health  of  white  men.  The  dense  vegetation 
found  ever_\nvhere  shows  the  great  natural  fer- 
tility of  the  soil. 

Flora.  The  rich  flora  is  transitional  between 
that  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  that  of  Aus- 
tralia. It  varies  with  altitude  and  climate. 
Slany  varieties  of  grass  and  flowers  are  found 
even  on  the  tops  of  the  high  mountains.  The 
great  forests  of  the  south  are  chiefly  cypress, 
cedar,  and  ebony.  In  Kaiser  Wilhelmsland  there 
is  a  great  variety  of  cabinet  timber,  banyan 
trees,  tangled  vines,  and  the  rarest  of  orchids. 
The  gutta-percha  tree  has  recently  been  discov- 
ered, and  the  Germans  intend  to  cultivate  this 
valuable  commodity.  The  cultivated  plants  are 
rice,  sugar,  maize,  yams,  bananas,  breadfruit, 
anrf  other  tropical  ])roducts.  The  massoi  tree 
supplies  spices,  medicines,  and  dyes,  an<l  the  pros- 
pects of  the  rubber  industry  are  promising.  The 
natives  make  cloth  from  the  bark  of  the  paper 
nuilberry  and  other  trees,  and  obtain  fibre  from 
the  banana,  eoeoanut.  and  the  ai^rial  roots  of  the 
pandanus.  Some  of  the  aborigines  live  exclu- 
sively on  sago,  others  on  yams  and  taro,  and 
bananas  or  sweet  potatoes  are  the  staple  food 
of  other  tribes.  There  is  no  agricultiire  in  our 
sense  of  the  word,  except  that  the  Germans  have 
introduced  tobacco  and  cotton  farming  with  some 
success.  It  is  expected  that  coffee,  tea,  and 
vanilla  will  ultimately  be  valuable  crops. 

Fauxa.     Wild  swine  are  common,  but  there 


NEW  GUINEA. 


440 


NEW  GUINEA. 


are  no  dangerous  cariiivora.  The  crocodiles  in 
the  rivers  cause  some  loss  of  life,  and  there  are 
many  poisonous  snakes.  On  the  whole,  the  fauna 
is  poor  in  quadrupeds,  which  include  the  pha- 
langer.  echidna,  and  rodents,  and  among  tlie 
marsupials  the  wallahy  and  tree  kangaroo.  The 
hird  of  paradise  is  preeminent  among  tlie  birds, 
including  fourteen  of  the  eighteen  known  varie- 
ties, and  all  those  of  the  most  magnificent 
plumage.  Other  birds  inchule  the  cassowary, 
pigeon,  emeu,  hornbill,  cockatoo,  geese,  ducks, 
i|uail,  snipe,  and  woodcock.  The  capture  of  the 
trcpang  or  bOche-dc-nier,  in  about  twenty  varie- 
tio,  allords  an  important  industry  oU'  the  coasts. 
There  is  consiilerable  trade  in  turtle-shell,  pearls, 
and  pearl-shell. 

Geology.  Although  the  geological  structure  of 
the  island  has  not  yet  been  adequately  investi- 
gated, important  discoveries  of  gold  have  been 
made  in  British  Xew  Guinea — alluvial  gold  on 
the  eastern  islands  and  along  the  Mambare  and 
other  streams,  and  auriferous  reefs  on  ilount 
Scratchley  and  in  other  places.  Prospecting  has 
scarcely  more  tlian  begun,  but  tlie  gold-bearing 
region  seems  to  be  extensive,  and  mining  is  al- 
most the  only  industry  of  the  white  men  in 
British  Xew  Guinea,  the  number  of  miners  vary- 
ing from  100  to  1000  men,  w)io  are  meeting  with 
some  success  and  some  disappointment.  Gold  has 
also  been  found  in  the  Bismarctc  range  of  Kaiser 
Wilhehnsland. 

Commerce.  The  trade  of  the  island  is  still 
very  small.  The  incoming  of  miners  into  British 
New  Guinea  has  increased  the  commerce  of  tliat 
colony,  whiili  now  amounts  to  over  .$500,000  a 
year,  about  ei|ually  divided  between  imports 
(chiefly  foodstuffs,  tobacco,  cloth,  and  hardware) 
and  exports  (co])ra,  jiearl  shell,  gold,  pearls,  and 
sandal  wood).  Nearly  the  entire  trade  of  tliis 
possession  is  with  t,)ucensland  and  New  South 
Wales,  about  400  small  vessels  a  year  entering 
and  clearing  tlie  ports.  The  colony  is  treated 
as  a  postal  district  of  (,)ueensland,  the  postal 
movement  being  about  20,000  letters  and  l:).000 
newspapers  a  year.  The  German  New  Guinea 
Company  has  a  concession  placing  in  its  hands 
the  development  of  Kaiser  \\ilhclmsland  with 
stations  along  the  coast  at  Friedrich  Wilhelms- 
hafen,  Konstantinhafen,  Finselihafen,  and  Ste- 
phansort.  The  few  plantations  yield  export  to- 
bacco and  cotton,  and  tlie  natives  barter  copra, 
trejiang,  and  mother-of-pearl.  Several  steam 
and  sailing  vessels  owned  by  the  company  con- 
nect the  ports  with  Bremen.  Dutch  New  Guinea 
has  very  little  trade  except  along  the  coast,  an 
occasional  Dutch  war  vessel  supplying  the  needs 
of  the  trading  and  missionary  posts. 

Government.  British  New  Guinea  (estimated 
area,  0O..')4O  square  miles;  population,  3.58,080) 
is  a  Grown  colony  with  an  administrator  and  a 
legislative  council.  The  expenses  of  adminis- 
tration, about  .$75,000  a  year,  are  guaranteed 
by  Ihe  Commonwealth  of  .-Uistralia,  which  prac- 
tically monopolizes  the  trade.  The  revenues  are 
from "  .$50,000  to  .$00,000  a  year,  chiefly  from 
customs  duties.  A  company  called  the  British 
New  Guinea  Syndicate  has  a  concession  of  250,- 
000  acres  of  land,  best  suited  for  cultivation,  and 
has  begun  to  develop  systematic  planting.  Land 
is  offered  to  settlers  at  2s.  (id,  an  acre.  Native 
labor  is  in  ample  supply,  and  the  natives  are 
improving  under  the  British  policy  of  gradually 
making    them    more    useful    to    themselves    and 


foreigners   without   depriving  them   of  their  in- 
herited rights  and  social   usages. 

The  German  New  Guinea  Company  maintains 
a  court  of  law  in  each  section  of  the  colony 
of  Kaiser  Wilhehnsland  (estimated  area.  70,843 
s(iuare  miles;  population,  110.000 1.  The  reve- 
nues are  still  very  small,  the  expenditures  being 
about  three  times  as  great ;  the  deficit  is  covered 
by  a  Government  subvention.  Dutch  New  Guinea 
(estimated  area,  151,800  square  miles;  popula- 
tion, 238,000)  belongs  to  the  Kesidency  of  Ter- 
nate,  Molucca  Islands,  and  is  one  of  the  outposts. 
-V  Dutch  olficial  (Cuiilrulciir)  has  chaige  of  the 
Government  interests,  but  very  little  is  done  for 
the  country  excepting  to  |irotect  the  few  white 
stations  and  prevent  intertribal  wars  along  the 
coast. 

Population.  The  total  population,  estimated 
at  706,000,  is  very  thinly  spread  over  the  island. 
The  dense  forests  have  had  the  effect  to  keep' 
the  small  tribes  apart  and  to  make  them  sus- 
picious of  one  another.  Near  the  British  settle- 
ments many  of  them  are  beginning  to  speak 
English,  and  it  is  found  that  Ihey  are  best  con- 
trolled by  native  policemen  in  the  pay  of  the 
Government.  While  they  often  make  war  upon 
one  another,  they  have  offered  no  important  op- 
position to  the  ins'ress  of  the  whites.  Many  of 
them  are  cannibals,  and  a  few  white  men  have 
been  killed  by  members  of  tribes  addicted  to  eat- 
ing human  flesh. 

Ethnology.  The  term  'Papuan,'  which  is  of 
Malay  origin  t ixipiinnh.  frizzled'),  is  apjdieil  by 
modern  ethnologists  to  the  type  of  man  found  in 
its  greatest  purity  in  certain  ])arts  of  New 
Guinea  (often  called  'Papua')  and  some  small 
islands  to  the  east  and  west  of  it.  Some  writers 
use  'Papuan'  and  'Melanesian'  as  equivalent 
terms,  but  most  authorities  divide  the  negro  like 
race  in  question  into  a  Papuan  proper  and  a 
Melanesian  section.  It  would  seem  best  to  re- 
strict the  term  Papuan  to  the  assumed  autoch- 
thones of  the  great  inland  of  New  Guinea  and  the 
peoples  closest  akin  to  these.  Physically,  the 
Papuans  are  of  rather  short  stature,  dolicho- 
cephalic, frizzly-haircil,  dark-skinned.  This  gen- 
eral type  is  not.  however,  without  variations  due 
to  ilalay,  Melanesian,  Negrito,  and  Polynesian 
inllucnces.  The  Papuans  are,  as  a  rule,  scdcnlarv, 
with  pile-dwellings  about  the  coast,  and  may  be 
said  to  1k>  in  the  "Stone  .\ge.'  Tree-dwellings, 
especially  for  purposes  of  refuge,  are  common. 
The  Papuans  generally  arc  good  fishermen,  boat- 
users,  and  boat-builders,  but  not  farcrs  into  the 
open  sea  like  the  Malays  and  Polynesians.  Their 
characteristic  vessel  is  the  one-trunk  canoe.  In 
matters  of  government  they  seem  to  be  less  com- 
munistic than  the  Australians,  for  private  prop- 
erty in  K  number  of  things  (land,  fields,  houses, 
besides  ornaments  and  weapons)  exists,  while  the 
general  tone  is  quite  democratic,  subjection  to 
chiefs  being  rather  a  matter  of  popular  recogni- 
tion than  of  individual  imposition.  Shamanism 
is.  however,  a  jiowerful  failor.  The  position  of 
woman  varies  in  diverse  parts  of  the  Papuan  do- 
main, but  is  generally  not  low.  In  disposit  ion  and 
temperament  the  Papuans  vary  from  the  less 
energetic  and  very  hospitable  peoples  of  fJerman 
New  Guinea  like  the  X'aropu,  to  the  savage  and 
warlike  tribes  of  some  regions  of  the  I?ritish 
territory  and  the  cannibals  of  various  sections. 
The  Papuans  are  an  imaginative  people,  and 
possess  numerous  myths  and  an  abundant   folk- 


NEW    GUINEA. 


441 


NEW   HAMPSHIRE. 


lore;  they  possess  a  remarkable  form-sense, 
and  are  skillful  in  ornamental  work.  Their 
art  has  been  treated  by  Prof.  A.  C.  Haddon,  in 
liis  Evolution  in  Art  (London,  1895).  The  re- 
ligion of  the  Papuans  includes  ancestor-worship, 
shamanism,  'temph'-eults,'  and  spiritism.  Among 
tlieir  customs  are  head-hunting',  vendettas,  secret 
societies,  and  the  diik-iliik  of  Xi'W  liritain.  In 
intellectual  ability  the  Papuans  are  ranked  above 
the  Australians  and  below  the  African  negroes. 
The  chief  Papuan  tribes  of  New  tiuinea  are  the 
peoples  about  Geelvink  Bay  and  its  islands;  the 
Arfaks  of  the  extreme  Avestern  interior — the 
Karons  of  the  Arfak  Hills  are  by  some  said  to  be 
Negritos;  the  Onimes  of  Jlaclure  Inlet,  and  far- 
ther south,  the  Kovai ;  the  Talandjang  of  Ilum- 
biildt  Bay ;  in  German  New'  (Juinea  tlie  peoples 
of  Astrolabe  Bay,  Finschhafen,  the  Bismarck 
Archipelago;  in  British  New  Guinea  the  tribes 
in  the  region  of  tlie  Fly  River  (Daudai,  Kiwai, 
etc.),  and  the  Gulf  of  Papua  (Orokolo,  Toaripi), 
the  tribes  of  the  southeastern  interior  (Koitapu, 
Kupele).  the  Moresby  region  and  the  terminal 
peninsula  (Kerepunu,  Loyalupu,  Aroma,  Mas- 
sim) ,  the  peoples  of  the  Entrccasteaux  and  Louisi- 
ade  archipelagoes  (Samarai,  etc.).  Papuans  are 
also  to  Ijc  found  on  the  Aru  grouj)  and  the  isl- 
ands of  Salawatti,  Waigu,  etc.,  to  the  northwest 
of  New  Guinea,  and  there  are  probably  Papuan 
elements  in  the  population  of  the  Ke  and  Tenim- 
ber  islands,  and  some  slight  traces  elsewhere  in 
.Malaysia. 

History.  The  name  Guinea,  derived  from  the 
name  of  a  large  negro  kingdom,  Ganuya,  was  ap- 
plied by  the  Portuguese  in  the  fifteenth  century 
to  the  territory  of  the  Senegal  in  West  Africa. 
The  Spanish  explorer  Inigo  Ortiz  de  Rez  in  1545 
gave  the  name  New  Guinea  to  the  large  island 
north  of  Australia  on  account  of  the  physical 
rcsenil)lance  of  its  inhabitants,  in  his  opinion,  to 
the  natives  of  West  Africa.  The  island  was  seen 
and  reported  by  Dabreu  in  1511,  but  the  first 
European  to  land  was  Menezes  in  1526,  when  he 
named  it  Papua  after  the  local  designation  of  the 
natives.  During  succeeding  centuries  it  was  vis- 
ited by  most  of  the  Polynesian  explorers  despite 
tlie  efl'orts  of  the  Dutch  to  bar  the  passage  to 
lands  beyond  their  Molucca  Islands.  From  1815 
to  187.3  several  Dutch  and  English  hydrographic 
ex])editions  surveyed  the  coast,  and  Dutch  and 
English  missions  were  established  respectively 
at  (Jeelvink  Bay  and  the  Gulf  of  Papua.  The  in- 
habitants were  divided  into  a  number  of  petty 
independent  tribes,  over  whom  feudatory  rights 
were  claimed  by  the  Moslem  chiefs  of  small 
neighboring  islands.  The  presumed  rights  of 
one  of  these,  the  Sultan  of  Tidore,  were  ac- 
q\iired  by  the  Dutch  and  led  to  their  expedition 
of  annexation  in  1828.  In  188.3  the  Ministry  of 
(,Hieensland,  Australia,  proclaimed  the  annexa- 
tion to  that  colony  of  the  eastern  half  of  New- 
Guinea  :  the  British  Government  promptly  dis- 
avowed the  act,  but  in  1884  established  a  protec- 
torate over  the  south  coast.  A  short  time  after 
the  British  occupation  of  the  south  coast,  the 
German  Government  took  possession  of  the  north- 
east, together  with  the  Bismarck  Archipelago. 

BlBLIOGR.\PJIY.  Gener.\l:  De.scrtptive.  D'Al- 
bertis,  Kew  Guinea  (London,  1880)  ;  Meyners 
d'Estrey,  La  Pnponasie:  ou  NouveUr  Gtiinee  oc- 
citlrntale  (Paris,  1881)  ;  Haga.  Nrflerlnndx-Jfieuin 
Guinea  en  de  Papoesche  eilandcn.  1500-1S83  (The 


Hague,  1885)  ;  Romilly,  The  Western  Pacific 
and  \eiv  Guinea  (London,  188())  ;  Lindt,  Pic- 
turesijue  .Veic  Guinea  (London,  1887);  Macfar- 
lane.  Among  the  Cannibals  of  New  Guinea  (Lon- 
don, 1888)  ;  Thomson,  liritish  .Vc»;  Guinea  (Lon- 
don, 18!t2)  ;  Jlacgregor,  liritish  Sew  Guinea 
(London,  1897);  C'ayley- Webster,  Through  Sew 
Guinea  and  the  Cannibal  Countries  (ib.,  18!)8)  ; 
Krieger,  Xeuguinea  (Berlin,  18911);  Blum,  .Vcm- 
guinea  und  der  liismarek-Arehi]>el{Vivr\m,  1000), 
which  has  an  excellent  bibliography;  Tappenbeck, 
Deutseh  Xeuguinea  (London.  1901);  .\bel,  Hav- 
age  Life  in  Sew  Guinea  {  London,  1902  I . 

Travel  and  Exploration.  Powell,  Wander- 
ings in  a  Wild  Country  (London,  1883)  ;  Strach- 
an.  Explorations  and  Adventures  in  \en:  Guinea 
(ib.,  1888)  ;  Bevan,  Toil,  Travel,  and  Oiscov- 
erg  in  British  Xeiv  Guinea  (ib.,  1890)  ;  ZoUer, 
Deutseh  Xeuguinea  (Stuttgart,  1891);  Nisbet, 
A  Colonial  Tramp:  Travels  in  Australia  and  Neto 
Guinea  (London,  1890)  ;  Chalmers,  Pioneer  Work 
und  Adventures  in  Xew  Guinea,  lS77-'J.'i  (Lon- 
don, 189G)  ;  Hesse- Wartegg,  Samoa,  Uismarck- 
Archipel  und  Xeuguinea  (Leipzig,  1902). 

Etiixology.  Earl.  Papuans  (London,  1853); 
Einscli,  Xeuguinea  und  seine  Bewohner  (Berlin, 
18G9)  ;  id.,  Ethnologische  Erfahrungen  und  Beleg- 
stiicke  aus  der  iSiidser  (Vienna,  1893)  ;  Bastian, 
Der  Papua  des  dunkein  InselreieheS'  ini  Lichtc 
ps'yehologischer  Forschung  (Berlin,  1885);  Rie- 
del,  De  sluiken  proeshanqe  liassen  tusschen  Sele- 
bes  en  Papua  (The  Hague",  1886)  ;  Uhle,  Holz-und 
Bambusgerdthe  aus  Xord-West  Xeuguinea  (Leip- 
zig, 1886)  ;  Codrington,  The  Melanesian  Lan- 
guages (Oxford.  18851  :  id..  The  Melanesians  (Lon- 
don, 1891);  Finsch,  lieisen  in  Kaiser  Wilhelms 
Land  und  Engliseh  Xeu-Guinea  (Leipzig.  1888)  ; 
ileyer  and  Parkinson,  Album  von  Papua-Typen 
(Leipzig,  1894-1901);  Hagen,  Anthropologischer 
Atlas  ostasiatischer  und  melemesischer  VUlker 
(Wiesbaden,  1898)  ;  id.,  Unter  den  Papuas  (ib., 
1899)  ;  Haddon,  Head  Hunters.  Black,  White,  and 
Brown  (London,  1902).  Consult  also:  Lyne, 
Xew  Guinea  (London,  1885)  ;  Gould,  Birds'  of 
.Veic  Guinea  and  Papuan  Islands  (2d  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1887-88)  :  Sclunnann  and  Lauterbach,  Flora 
der  dcutsehen  Hchutzgebiete  in  der  Siidsee  (Lon- 
don, 1900)  ;  and  for  bih\iogra.\ihy.  Supplementary 
Papers  of  the  Poyal  Geographical  Society  (Lon- 
don, 1884). 

NEWHALL,  nn'hal.  Charles  Stedman 
( 1842 — ) .  An  American  naturalist  and  author  of 
juvenile  books.  He  was  born  in  Boston  :  studied 
at  Amherst  (  1869)  and  at  the  Union  Theological 
Seminarv;  soon  left  the  ministry  for  educational 
work;  and  then  became  United  States  assistant 
special  forest  agent  and  superintendent  of  the 
forest  reserves  of  northern  and  central  Califor- 
nia. Newhall  wrote:  A  History  of  Fall  River. 
Mass.  (1802)  ;  various  piveniles.  including:  Har- 
ry's Trip  to  the  Orient  (  1885)  and  liuthie's  Story 
(1888);  and  the  following  works  on  botany: 
Trees  of  Xortheaslern  America  (1892);  Shrttbs 
of  Xortheaslern  America  (1893);  T^eaf  Collec- 
tor's Handbook  and  Herbarium  (1892);  and 
Vines  of  Xorthcastern  America   (1897). 

NEW  HAMP'SHIRE  (popularly  called  the 
'Granite  State').  A  Nru'th  .\tlant'ic  State  of 
the  United  States,  belonging  to  the  New  England 
group.  It  lies  between  latitudes  42°  40'  and  45° 
18'  N..  and  between  longitudes  70°  37'  and  72° 
37'  W.    It  is  bounded  on  the  north  bv  the  Cana- 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 


442 


NEW  HAMPSHIEE. 


dian  Province  of  (Jiulu  r,  on  llie  lasl  by  t lie  State 
of  Jlaiue  and  for  a  distaute  of  18  miles  by  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  south  by  Massachusetts, 
and  ou  the  west  by  \ermont,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Connecticut  River.  Its  general 
shape  is  that  of  a  right  triangle  with  the  right 
angle  at  the  southeastern  corner  and  the  acutcr 
ape.\  pointing  north.  Its  extreme  length  is  178 
miles,  its  e.\treme  width  88  miles,  and  its  area 
11305  .--quare  miles,  of  which  9005  square  miles, 
or  5,7li3,200  acres  are  land  surface.  It  ranks 
fortieth  in  size  among  the  Iniled  States. 

Toi'ouHAi'HV.  Xew  Hampshire  is  relatively 
more  rough  and  mountainous  than  the  average 
State  on  the  Atlantic  slope.  The  easternmost 
extension  of  the  Appalachian  system  traverses 
the  State  lengthwise,  running  first  as  a  ridge 
along  the  western  boundary  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Connecticut  River,  and  culminating  in  the 
rugged  mass  of  monadnocks  known  as  the  White 
Mountains.  These  cover  about  1300  square  miles 
in  the  north-central  jiart  of  the  State,  and  con- 
stitute a  region  of  romantic  scenery.  Among  the 
IH'aks,  whose  naked,  rocky  summits  reach  above 
the  timber-line,  the  highest  is  Mount  Washington, 
with  an  altitude  of  0293  feet.  Several  isolated 
monadnocks,  outlying  members  of  the  grou]i.  ara 
scattered  over  the  southwestern  quarter  of  the 
State,  the  most  prominent  being  Mount  Kear- 
sarge,  2943  feet  high,  and  Mount  Monadnock, 
with  an  altitude  of  3180  feet.  North  of  the 
White  Mountains,  in  Coos  County,  another  eleva- 
tion rises  to  a  height  of  over  2(io0  feet,  and  ex- 
tends indefinitely  into  Maine  and  Canada.  The 
southeastern  part  of  the  State  is  generally  low, 
being  relieved  by  numerous  'drumlins' — rounded 
hills  of  glacial  drift  generally  covered  with  bould- 
ers. Every  l)art  of  the  State  is  well  drained  by 
niunerous  streams,  the  narrow  western  portion 
by  the  Connecticut  River,  the  remainder  by  rivers 
flowing  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  northern 
])art  of  the  State  is  drained  by  the  Androscoggin 
River,  which  issues  from  Lake  I'mbagog.  and 
after  making  an  irregular  detour  to  the  west 
tlows  into  Maine.  The  Saco  also  enters  that 
State  after  draining  the  eastern  group  of  the 
White  Mountains.  The  principal  river  of  the 
State  after  the  Connecticut  is  the  Merriuiac. 
whose  main  fork,  the  Pemigewasset,  rises  in  the 
Franconia  or  western  gnnip  of  the  White  Moun- 
tains. It  Hows  southward  in  a  series  of  falls  and 
rapids,  furnishing  enormous  water  power.  It  has 
been  said  that  the  Merrinuic  turns  more  spindles 
than  any  other  river  in  the  world.  The  lower 
course  of  this  river  is  in  Massachusetts.  Finally, 
the  southeastern  corner  of  the  State  is  drained  by 
the  streams  flowing  into  the  Piscataqua  estuary, 
this  being  the  only  harbor  on  the  coast.  Like  all 
glaciated  areas.  New  Hampshire  abounds  in  lakes 
— irregular,  beautiful  sheets  of  water  studded 
with  woixled  islets.  The  largest  is  Ijike  Winni- 
piseogee.  10  milee  long  and  6  miles  wide.  Other 
notable  lakes  are  CiiiTiagiig,  in  the  niutli  on  the 
Maiiu-  b()un<lar\';  S<juam,  northwi-st  of  Winni- 
piseog<.e:  and  f^unapec  and  Xew  Found  Lake,  in 
the  west. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  strongly  nfTected  by 
the  elevation  of  the  land.  It  is  colder,  on  the 
average,  than  that  of  ^fnine,  and  the  winters 
are  severe,  the  ground  being  usually  snow-covered 
and  the  rivers  frozen  from  autumn  to  spring. 
The  lower  Merrimac  Valley  is  the  warmest  part 
of  the  Kfatc.    Tt  is  of  alight  elevation  and  but  lit- 


tle affected  by  ocean  breeze.-.  Here  the  mean  tem- 
perature for  .January  is  21°,  and  for  .luly  70", 
the  corresponding  figures  for  the  northern  por- 
tion being  10°  and  07°,  and  for  Mount  Washing- 
ton 5°  and  47°.  The  climate  is  quite  humid,  and 
the  precipitation  sullicient  all  over  the  State.  It 
is  e.spccially  abundant  on  the  mountain  summits, 
where  it  reaches  55  inches,  and  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  mountains,  where  it  ranges  from  40 
to  40  inches.  It  is  lea.st  near  the  seashore  and 
on  the  western  slope,  where  there  is  a  fall 
respectively  of  only  35  and  30  inches.  The 
whole  State  is,  as  a  rule,  very  healtliful. 

For  flora  and  fauna,  see  paragraphs  under 
United  States. 

Geology.  Xew  Hampshire  consists  almost  ex- 
clusively of  ancient  crystalline  rocks,  a  fact 
which  has  earned  for  it  the  title  of  '"Granite 
State."  The  main  formations  run  lengthwise 
through  the  State  parallel  with  the  coast  and  the 
Connecticut  River.  The  eastern  or  Xew  Hamp- 
shire bank  of  the  latter  and  a  liroad  ban<l  along 
the  coast  are  composed  of  rocks  mainly  of  the 
Huronian  series.  Between  these,  through  the 
centre  of  the  State,  the  predominant  formation 
consists  of  Montalban  and  other  gneisses  together 
with  calciferous  mica-schists  in  the  north.  The 
structure  is,  however,  complicated  by  extensive 
outcrops  of  still  older  rocks.  A  line  of  granites 
and  diorites  appears  near  the  coast  west  of  the 
Piscataqua.  and  through  the  centre  of  the  State, 
riumiiig  west  of  the  ilcrriniac  \'allev  toward  the 
White  Mountains,  there  are  extensive  outcrops  of 
porphyritic  gneiss.  The  heart  of  the  White 
ilountaius  themselves  is  compo.sed  nuiinly  of 
granite.  Few  regions  exhibit  more  well-marked 
evidences  of  glacial  acticm  than  Xew  Hampshire. 
The  rocks  are  everywhere  striated,  and  boulders 
of  all  sizes  are  scattered  all  over  the  State,  even 
on  the  moimtain  summits.  Moraines  are  also 
well  marked:  but,  though  there  are  deposits  of 
glacial  drift,  and  of  fertile  modified  drift  along 
the  river  valleys,  the  soils  of  the  State  are  in 
general  not  encouraging  to  agriculture. 

.\li.\ERAL  Resoirces.  The  most  valuable  min- 
eral output  of  the  State  is  derived  from  its  non- 
metallic  rocks.  Up  to  1900  Xew  Hampshire 
ranked  first  in  the  production  of  mica,  the  out- 
put in  that  year  being  191.118  tons.  In  1901  it 
fell  to  05.800  tons,  and  was  exceeiled  by  that  of 
X'orth  Carolina.  The  production  of  granite  in 
1901  was  valued  at  .$935,494.  The  ccl(l>rated 
Indian  Pond  aiul  White  Mountain  scytliestoncs 
are  qiuirried  in  great  quantities.  CopiK-r  is 
mined  to  some  extent,  and  ores  of  lead,  zinc,  tin, 
arsenic,  iron,  and  some  gold  ami  silver  are  found, 

Fksiiehie.s,  In  the  fishing  industry  Xew  Hamp- 
shire is  the  least  important  of  the  Xew  F.ngland 
coast  States.  Its  ciuumercial  fisheries  are  con- 
fined to  Rockingham  County,  on  the  .\tlantic. 
The  industrv  showed  a  considerable  decline  from 
18,S9  to  1898.  The  value  of  the  catch  (1.898) 
was  $48,987.  as  compared  with  $SS.5I  1  nine  years 
before.  The  most  important  catches  in  1S9S  were 
haddock,  cod.  and  lobsters.  The  II  hatcheries  of 
the  State  distributed  in  1000  about  3.250.000  fry. 
mainly  salmon,  salmon  trout,  brook  trout,  and 
lake  trout. 

Forests  axd  Forest  PRonrOTR.  The  manufac- 
ture of  lumber  products  is  the  oldest  of  the 
.State's  industries.  It  is  claimed  that  the  first 
sawmill  in  Xew  England  was  established  near 
Portsmouth  in  1035.     In  1900  the  woodland  was 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  NEW  HAMPSHIRE 
BY  COUNTIES. 


liL-lkiiap 

Carroll 

Chcsliire 

Coos 

Grafton 

Ilillsboro 

Merrimack. . . . 
Rockiiigluim.., 

Slnifliinl 

Sullivan 


Map 
Index. 


H  T 

J  6 
FIO 
,1    3' 

(ill) 

(i  8 
KIO 
II  s 
F  9 


County  Scut. 


Area  in 
square 
niilca. 


Laconia... 
Ossipec. . , . 

Kccne 

Lancaster  . 

Wootlsville 

Nashua.... 
Concord. .. 
E.xetcr.... 

IJovur 

Newport. . 


JIO 

939 

734 

l,Kla 

H78 
•Ml 
C93 
304 
538 


Population. 


1890. 


20,3-.>l 
I8,l-J4 

ai.sro 

a3,:!l  1 
37,:!  I  r 
fl3,al7 

40,  m 

49,(i50 
38,41-.J 
17,301 


1900. 


19,53(i 
10,895 
31,321 
29,408 
40,844 
112,640 
52,430 
51,118 
30,337 
18,009 


( 


B>  DOOO,  NUD  *  COMPANV. 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  VERMONT  BY  COUNTIES. 


County. 

Map 
Index. 

Countj  Seat. 

Area  in 
8(iiiiLre 
miles. 

Popnlation. 

1890. 

1900. 

A  .■> 
BIO 
I-'3 
B  4 
G  3 

B  2 

A  2 
C  3 
D  U 
E2 

B  7 
1)4 
1)9 
E8 

Middlebilry 

Heiuiiligtun 

.  ra2 

(1.52 
.MS 
(193 

&I.5 

48(i 
(v«G 
729 

nil 

(iWi 
7N8 
9.30 

22,277 
20,448 
2:1430 
Xi  :iSO 
9,511 

211,755 
3,813 
12,8.31 
19.575 
22,101 

4.'i,3!l7 
2'I,6H« 
2li..)47 
31,700 

21,912 

21,705 

24.:«i 

Chittendt'li  

BurlinKlon 

39,1)00 

Essex 

Gundliall 

Saint  .\lb:infe        

Xortli  IUto 

llydepark 

Chelsea 

Newport 

8,050 

:i0.l9S 

Uniiid  Isle 

Ijimoillc 

4,402 
12,2M9 
19,313 

Orleans       

22,024 

Rutland 

Washington        

Wlndliam        

Wiinieor    

Rntland  

.MontiM'ltcr 

Newfane 

Woodstock 

44,309 

.•iii.tior 
3i;.tiiii) 

33,225 

< 

1 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 


443 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 


estimated  at  5200  square  miles.  Muoli  of  this  is 
cut-over  lauil.  the  primeval  forests  of  wliile  pine 
having  almost  disappeared.  But  there  is  an  ex- 
tensive area  of  seeondgrowth  white  pine,  some 
of  whieh  is  nierehautahle.  It  is  estimated  that 
sinee  1850  1.71)4,00!)  acres  (nearly  one-third)  of 
tlie  farm  land  lias  reverted  to  unimproved  land, 
most  of  wliich  is  growing  up  in  white  pine.  The 
highest  mountain  slopes  are  still  covered  with 
primeval  fcu'ests  of  spruce,  the  variety  of  wood 
most  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  ol  wood- 
pulp.  Tlie  town  of  Berlin,  in  the  Androscoggin 
Valley,  claims  to  be  the  largest  pulp-numufac- 
turing  centre  in  the  country.  The  manufacture  of 
this  product  increased  402  per  cent,  in  the  decade 
1890-1000.  The  value  of  the  lumber  and  timber 
products  increased  ninefold  from  1850  to  1000, 
and  nearly  doubled  in  the  last  decade  of  that 
period.     See  table  below. 

AoRici'LTiUE.  A  large  portion  of  the  surface 
of  the  State  lies  too  broken  for  agriculture.  Only 
along  the  coast  and  in  the  river  valleys  is  the 
soil  rich  and  well  adajited  for  farming.  Latterly  it 
has  been  cheaper  to  import  cereals  than  to  grow 
them  in  Xew  Hampshire.  The  number  of 
farms  and  their  total  acreage  were  but  slightly 
greater  in  1900  than  in  1850,  but  the  area  of  the 
improved  acreage  decreased  over  one-half  during 
the  half-century,  amounting  in  1900  to  only  29.8 
per  cent,  of  tlie  farm  acreage.  The  most  marked 
decline  in  the  improved  area  was  from  1890  to 
1900.  The  average  size  of  farms — 123.1  acres — 
■n-as  about  the  same  in  1900  as  in  1860.  Only  7.5 
per  cent,  of  the  farms  are  rented.  The  cash  .sys- 
tem of  lease  is  ra])idly  supplanting  the  share 
system.  In  the  table  below  will  be  noticed  the 
decided  decrease  in  the  cereal  acreage  from  1890 
to  1900.  Wheat  and  rye,  both  formerly  of  con- 
sideral)le  prominence,  have  practically  ceased  to 
be  cultivated.  A  considerable  area  of  corn  growni 
for  forage  or  ensilage  is  not  included  in  the  table 
figures.  As  the  cereals  have  decreased  in  im- 
portance much  more  attention  has  been  given  to 
vegetables,  garden  products,  and  fruits.  In  1899 
the  potato  crop  was,  after  hay  and  forage, 
the  most  valuable  farm  crop.  Apples  are  the 
chief  orchard  fruit,  the  number  of  trees  in  1900 
being  2.0.34.398.  ilany  of  the  abandoned  farms 
in  Xow  Hampshire  are  being  acquired  for  summer 
homes  by  residents  of  cities. 

Stock-Raising.  With  the  changes  in  the  sys- 
tem of  agriculture  dairying  has  become  an  im- 


1900 

1890 

Corn 

Oats 

25.694 

12,589 

1,596 

1,835 

615,042 

19,422 

23,746 
26  618 

Barlp.v 

Buokwheat 

4,934 

3,117 

6.52,722 

Potatoes 

22,085 

Pair.v  cows.... 
Other  cattle.. 

Horses 

.Sliepp 

Swine 


1900 


115.0.36 

111,756 
54,860 
65,318 
S1,2U 


1890 


109,423 
113,465 

.52,4.-iK 
131 .Oil 

68,685 


portant  industry,  and  the  number  of  dairy  cows 
increased  decidedly  from  1880  to  1900.'  The 
value  of  dairy  products  for  1899  was  .$5,591,272. 
of  which  80.5  per  cent,  was  realized  from  sales. 
The  number  of  other  cattle,  by  contrast,  decreased 
Vol.  XIV.— 29. 


after  1850,  and  the  number  of  sheep  in  1900  was 
only  about  one-si.xth  as  many  as  in  the  former 
year.  The  accompanying  census  figures  are  self- 
explaining. 

Ma.n'l  FAcxi  KE.s.  ilanufacturing  is  the  leading 
industry.  The  percentage  of  wage-earners  en- 
gaged therein  gradually  increased  during  the 
last  half  of  the  ninetfcnth  century,  being  17.1  in 
1900,  or  twice  that  of  1850.  Of  the  70,419  thus 
employed,  21,921  were  women.  The  decade  1890- 
1900  witnessed  the  largest  absolute  gain  in  the 
value  of  products— $118,009,308  in  1900.  The 
southern  part  of  the  State  possesses  the  advan- 
tage of  being  close  to  the  business  centre  of  Xew 
England,  has  a  convenient  harbor  at  Portsmouth, 
and  shares  with  Massachusetts  the  excellent 
water  power  allorded  by  the  Jlerrimac.  The 
manufacturing  interests  accordingly  are  confined 
largelj-  to  this  .section  of  tlie  State.  The  manu- 
facture of  cotton  goods  headed  all  industries 
until  1900.  From  its  establishment  in  1804  its 
growth  has  been  steady.  The  water  power  of 
the  Jlerrimac  was  largely  the  cause  of  the  suc- 
cess of  this  industry,  and  determined  the  loca- 
tion of  the  two  main  cotton  manufacturing  cen- 
tres— JIanchester  and  Nashua.  With  the  de- 
velopment of  this  industry  in  the  Southern 
States  latterly,  the  relative  importance  of  Xew 
Hampshire  is  diminishing.  The  woolen  industry 
was  established  in  the  first  year  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  In  1900  the  product  was  valued  at  a 
little  less  than  half  that  of  the  cotton  products. 
The  woolen  output  decreased  slightly  during 
1890-1900.  Hosiery  and  knit  goods  are  manufac- 
tured at  Laconia,  but  in  less  quantities  than 
formerly.  The  boot  and  shoe  industry  almost 
doubled  the  value  of  its  product  during  1890- 
1900,  and  acquired  first  rank  among  the  indus- 
tries of  the  State.  The  closely  related  tanning 
industry  owes  its  development  to  the  former 
abundance  of  the  local  supply  of  tanning  bark. 
This  branch  reached  its  maximum  in  1880,  since 
when  it  has  declined.  The  manufacture  of  flour- 
ing and  grist-mill  products  is  a  long  established 
industry,  but  the  factory  production  of  butter, 
cheese,  and  condensed  milk  is  of  recent  though 
rapid  growth.  The  table  following  shows  the 
relative  importance  and  condition  of  the  ten 
leading  industries. 

Tran.spoktation.  The  first  railroad  charter 
was  granted  in  1835.  In  1850  the  mileage 
amounted  to  407  miles.  Tliis  was  increased  to 
1142  in  1890,  and  1193  in  1900.  The  numerous 
small  lines  have  been  consolidated  until  in  1900 
the  lines  were  operated  by  three  companies — the 
Boston  and  Maine,  the  Grand  Trunk,  and  the 
Maine  Central.  The  railroad  built  up  Mount 
Washington  in  1808  is  a  remarkable  piece  of 
engineering.  In  its  steepest  part  it  ascends  1980 
feet  to  the  mile.  Portsmouth  is  a  port  of  entry, 
but  its  foreign  trade  is  insignificant. 

Baxks.  The  first  bank  was  the  Xew  Hamp- 
shire Bank,  of  Portsmouth,  chartered  in  1792 
and  until  1800  the  only  hank  in  the  State.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  several 
banks  were  established,  which  called  forth  spe- 
cial legislation,  and  as  early  as  1814  the  State 
passed  a  law  requiring  annual  reports  from 
them.  By  1835  there  were  twenty-five  banks  in 
the  State,  but  in  the  financial  panic  of  1837  many 
suspended  payment.  In  1845  there  were  only 
seventeen  banks,  with  a  small  aggregate  cap- 
ital, and  a  circulation  of  less  than  $1,000,000. 


NEW   HAMPSHIBE. 


444 


NEW   HAMPSHIRE. 


Total  for  selected  Industries  given  below,  for  State j 

Increase.  1890  to  1900 

Per  ceut.  of  increase 

Percent,  o/ total  of  all  industries  in  State j 

Cotton  goods J 

Wool  manufactures j 

Hosiery  and  knit  goods j 

Boots  and  shoes,  faotor.v  product | 

Leather — tanned,  curried,  and  finished -j 

t'louring  and  griHt-mill  products J 

Cheese,  butter,  and  condensed  milk — factory  product j 

Foundry  and  niachine-i*hop  productA | 

Lumber  and  timber  products j 

Paper  and  wood  pulp | 


Number  of 
establish- 

AveraKe 

Value  of  prod- 

Tear 

number 
wage- 

ucts,  including 
custom  work 

earners 

and  repairing 

1900 

1,040 

49.8'28 

$85,488,450 

1890 

1,001 

46,271 

63.855.641 

39 

4,657 

21,(32,809 

3.9 

10.1 

33.9 

1900 

22.3 

70.8 

72.0 

1890 

31.0 

75.3 

74.4 

1900 

23 

20.454 

$22,998,249 

1890 

27 

19.383 

21.958.002 

1900 

45 

5.461 

10.381.05G 

1890 

50 

6,038 

10.7C.9,240 

1900 

22 

2,492 

2.592,829 

1890 

37 

3,121 

3,481.S»22 

1900 

67 

12.007 

23.405.558 

1890 

64 

7.912 

11,986,003 

1900 

12 

552 

2.CC4.942 

1890 

18 

668 

2,988.209 

1900 

149 

leri 

2.505.936 

1890 

121 

174 

2.358,(116 

1900 

53 

119 

1.407  ..103 

1890 

23 

51 

494.466 

1900 

87 

1.979 

3.049,334 

1890 

76 

2.034 

2,895,716 

1900 

553 

4,188 

9,218,310 

1890 

5-0 

5.370 

6,641,445 

1900 

29 

2.391 

7,204,733 

1890 

15 

520 

1,282.022 

i 


In  the  next  decade  the  banks  recovered,  and  by 
18t)3,  when  the  national  banking  system  was 
introduced,  there  were  fifty  two  State  banks  in 
operation,  with  a  capital  of  almost  .$5,000,000. 
By  1870  all  but  three  banks  had  become  national. 
State  banks  have  remained  unimportant  since 
then.  Private  banks  have  been  prohibited  since 
1799. 

Trust  companies  appeared  in  188.5  and  tried 
to  do  the  business  of  both  discount  banks  and 
savings  banks.  Six  of  them  are  in  existence. 
Savings  banks  have  always  been  numerous  and 
popular.  The  two  savings  banks  chartered  in 
182.'5  were  among  the  first  in  the  country.  The 
savings  banks  deposits  grew  with  special  rapidity 
after  the  Civil  War.  About  one-fourth  of  all 
the  savings  banks  went  into  liquidation  in  the 
panic  of  189.3,  and  a  bill  was  passed  for  their 
regulation  in  189.5, .strictly  limiting  their  invest- 
ments. The  act  was  further,  amended  in  1901. 
In  1902  there  were  147.928  depositors  (one  for 
about  every  2.8  of  the  population),  with  an  aver- 
age deposit  of  $407.29.  The  condition  of  tlie 
banks  in  the  State  in  1902  is  shown  in  tlip  follow- 
ing table: 


Number  of  bonks. 

Cnpital 

Surplus 

Cash,  etc 

Loans 

Deposits 


National 
banks 


6« 


$5,355,000 

1.600.000 

1.146.000 

13.410.000 

13.449.000 


.State      i    Savings 
banks  banks 


10 


$610.0(10 

131.000 

80.000 

1.100.000 

1.418.000 


63 


No  rnpltol 

$3,348,000 

l:t8.(KKl 

29.1101.000 

60.249.000 


FiNWNCE.S.  Up  to  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War  the  debt  of  the  State  was  insignificant, 
amounting  to  .$r>0,000  in  18fi0.  The  war  ex- 
penditures made  loans  necessary,  and  their  aggre- 
gate sum  rose  from  less  than  $1,000,000  in  1802 
to  $4,230,000  in  1805.  The  total  expenditures 
of  the  State  treasurv  for  war  purposes  were 
$0,852,078.  only  $897J22  of  which  were  repaid 
by  the  Federal  Oovernment.  The  State  debt  was 
gradually  reduced,  and  by  1872  amounted  only 


to  $2.20.5.095.  In  that  year,  however,  the  com- 
monwealth assumed  the  Civil  War  debt  of  the 
towns  and  cities,  which  increased  the  State  debt 
to  $4,138,124.  The  financial  condition  has  been 
sound  since  then,  and  the  debt  is  being  reduced  at 
the  rate  of  from  $100,000  to  $200,000  a  year.  In 
1878  a  law  was  passed  by  the  Legislature  for 
taxation  of  railroads.  In  1902  the  total  liabilities 
were  .$1,009,071,  out  of  which  the  State  owed 
$813,574  to  trust  funds,  and  $839,200  formed  the 
funded  debt.  The  cash  in  the  treasury  on  .lune  1. 
1902,  was  $575,012.  The  receipts  ioT  the  fiscal 
year  1901  02  were  $1,389,332.  derived  as  follows: 
30  per  cent,  from  a  general  State  tax:  25  per 
cent,  from  a  tax  on  savings  banks  deposits: 
27  yier  ciiit.  from  tax  on  railroads:  and  the  rest 
from  miscellaneous  sources.  The  disbursements 
were  $1,201,014.  of  which  $570,130  was  returned 
to  towns  as  their  share  of  the  railroad  and  sav- 
ings banks  tax. 

Go\'ERN,MENT.  The  present  Constitution  was 
adopted  in  1877.  The  question  of  revising  the 
Constitution  is  submitted  to  the  people  every 
seven  years,  and  if  approved  by  a  niiijority  of 
those  voting,  a  convention  for  revision  must  be 
called.  The  right  of  suflfrage  is  given  to  male 
citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  who  have  resided 
in  one  town  six  memths.  Paupers  and  persons 
excused  from  paying  taxes  are  excepted. 

l.iXiisi.ATivE.  P'very  town  or  place  entitled  to 
town  privileges,  and  wards  of  cities  having  GOO 
inhabitants  may  elect  one  representative  to  the 
Lower  House,  and  one  additional  representative 
for  every  additional  1200  inlialiitants.  Whenever 
the  unit  of  representation  contains  less  than  COO 
inhabitants,  it  is  entitled  to  a  representative 
such  proportionate  part  of  the  time  as  the  num- 
ber of  its  inhabitants  shall  bear  to  000,  The 
State  is  divided  into  twenty-four  districts,  paying 
approximately  equal  portions  of  direct  taxes. 
Kaeh  of  these  districts  is  entitled  to  one  Senator. 
r{epresentativ(>s  and  Senators  are  elected  bien- 
nially in  November  in  open  town  meetings.  The 
Legislature  convenes  on  the  first  Wednesday  of 
January.      Money   bills    must   originate    in    the 


NEW   HAMPSHIRE. 


445 


NEW  HAMFSHIBE. 


Lower   House.     Jlenibers    'seasonably   attending' 
are  paid  .$:iOO,  e.xclusivc  of  mileage. 

KXECITIVE.  The  Governor  anil  the  five  mem- 
bers of  the  Governor's  Council  are  chosen  bien- 
nially in  the  month  of  November.  The  resolu- 
tions and  advice  of  the  Governor's  Council  are 
recorded,  and  may  be  called  for  at  any  time  by 
either  House  of  the  Legislature.  A  two-thirds 
vote  of  each  House  overcomes  the  Governor's 
veto.  The  president  of  the  Senate  and  the 
Speaker  of  the  House  arc  in  the  line  of  suc- 
cession to  tlie  Governorship  in  case  of  vacancy. 
The  pardoning  power  rests  with  tlie  Governor, 
with  the  advice  of  the  Council.  The  Secretary, 
Treasurer,  and  Coinniissarv-Cieueral  are  chosen 
by  joint  ballot  of  the  Senators  and  Representa- 
tives. 

JuDiciABY.  The  Legislature  erects  and  con- 
stitutes judicatures,  courts  of  record,  and  other 
courts.  Most  judicial  officers,  including  the 
Attorney-General,  coroners,  and  registers  of 
probate,  are  appointed  by  the  Governor.  Judi- 
cial officers  serve  during  good  behavior,  except 
justices  of  the  peace,  whose  terms  expire  in 
five  years. 

Local  Government.  The  laws  of  the  State 
provide  for  the  election  in  each  county  of  a 
treasurer,  register  of  probate,  solicitor,  sheriff, 
and  register  of  deeds. 

MiUTiA.  The  poi)ulation  of  militia  age  in 
11)00  was  88,149.  The  militia  in  1001  numbered 
1342. 

Population.  The  growth  of  the  population  is 
sliown  bv  the  following  figures:  1790,  141.885; 
1S20.  244.022:  18.50,  317,976;  1860,  326,073; 
1H70,  318..300:  1880.  346.991;  1890,  376,.530; 
1900.  411,588.  New  Hampshire  ranked  10th 
anumg  the  States  of  the  Union  in  1790,  22d  in 
1S50.  and  36th  in  1900.  The  largest  gain  was 
made  in  the  first  census  decade,  and  the  popula- 
tion actually  decreased  in  the  decade  1800-70. 
The  gain  between  1890  and  1900  amounted  to 
9.3  per  cent.,  as  compared  with  20.7  for  the 
United  States.  Throughout  the  century  the 
State  contributed  largely  to  the  tide  of  Western 
migration,  but  this  outflow  has  been  oft'set 
in  recent  years  by  the  increase  in  the  immigra- 
tion of  foreigners,  particularly  French-Canadians, 
who  constitute  over  half  of  the  88,107  foreign 
born  returned  by  the  census  of  1900.  The  15 
towns  exceeding  each  4000  inhabitants  collectively 
contain  46.7  per  cent,  of  the  total  population. 
The  density  of  population  in  1900  was  45.7  per 
square  mile.  The  State  sends  two  members  to 
the  National   House  of  Representatives. 

Cities.  The  population  of  the  largest  towns 
in  1900  was:  JIanchester.  56.987:  Nashua, 
23.898;  Concord.  19,032;  Dover.  13,207;  Ports- 
mouth. 10,637.    The  capital  is  Concord. 

Religion.  The  Roman  Catholic  element 
amounts  to  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  popula- 
tion of  the  State.  The  principal  Protestant  de- 
nijminations  are  the  Congregational,  with  about 
20  per  cent,  of  all  the  church  members;  the 
Baptist,  with  over  17  per  cent.;  and  the  Metho- 
dist, with  about  12  per  cent. 

Education.  A  number  of  town  schools  were 
established  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  1647. 
Grants  of  land  for  educational  purposes  were 
made  liefore  the  War  of  Independence.  In  1769, 
44.000  acres  were  granted  for  the  establishment 
of  a  college,  and  in  1821  a  law  was  passed  appro- 
priating for  a  literary  fund  the  taxes  from  bank- 


ing corporations.  The  illiterate  population 
amounted  in  1900  to  6.2  per  cent,  of  the  total 
population  of  ten  years  and  over.  Of  the  whole 
school  population  of  71,544  in  1900,  there  were 
enrolled  6.5,688.  The  average  attendance 
amounted  to  47,276,  or  about  72  per  cent,  of  the 
total  enrollment.  The  total  number  of  schools 
fell  ort'  from  2044  in  1882  to  2198  in  1900,  but 
the  number  of  graded  schools  increased  from 
481  to  773  during  the  same  period.  The  length 
of  the  school  term  was  nearly  148  days  in  1900, 
as  compared  with  about  118  days  in  1890.  The 
school  revenue  for  1900  amounted  to  $1,120,219, 
of  which  only  .$15,707  was  derived  from  the  per- 
manent school  fund.  From  the  State  came  $55,- 
519,  and  from  local  ta.xes,  $997,667.  New  Hamp- 
shire has  only  one  State  normal  school  (at  Plj'm- 
outh).  Representing  secondary  education  there 
were,  in  1900,  57  public  high  schools,  with  a 
total  attendance  of  3700,  and  33  private  high 
schools  and  academies,  with  a  total  attendance 
of  2600.  The  institutions  of  higher  education 
are  Dartmouth  College,  at  Hanover,  and  Saint  An- 
sehn's  College  (Roman  Catholic),  at  Manchester. 
Charitable  and  Penal  Institutions.  The 
State  Board  of  Charity  and  Correction  consists 
of  five  members  appointed  by  the  Governor  and 
Council,  and  of  the  secretary  of  the  State  Board 
of  Health.  This  board  inspects  all  State  and 
county  charitable  or  correctional  institutions,  ex- 
cept the  State  prison  and  the  asylum  for  the 
insane  (both  of  which  are  located  at  Concord). 
The  changes  recommended  by  it  nuist  be  made 
by  the  responsible  olTicers.  In  1902  there  were 
1203  children  wholly  or  partiallj'  supported  by 
public  charity,  979  of  them  being  in  orphan 
asylums.  There  are  15  private  orphan  homes — 
7  Protestant  and  8  Catholic — but  in  all  but 
one  of  these,  county  or  city  children  are  boarded 
at  public  charge.  There  is  a  State  industrial 
school  for  boys  and  girls,  located  at  Manchester. 
In  1901  the  State  Legislature  made  appropria- 
tions for  the  erection  of  a  State  school  for  feeble- 
minded. During  the  year  ending  September  30, 
1902,  were  accommodated  in  the  almshouses  of 
the  State  1630  persons,  of  whom  687  were  con- 
fined because  of  insanity,  feeble-mindedness,  or 
epilepsy.  Drunkards  and  petty  criminals  are 
sometimes  committed  to  the  pauper  institution, 
where  they  mingle  freely  with  the  other  inmates. 
.\t  the  State  prison  the  convicts  are  worked 
under  the  contract  system,  a  fixed  sum  being 
paid  per  day  per  convict.  The  State  has  general 
control  of  the  convicts. 

History.  The  first  explorer  of  this  region  was 
probably  Martin  Pring.  who  anchored  in  Pis- 
cataqiui  Harbor  in  l(i03.  It  was  included  in 
the  grant  to  the  Council  for  New  England  in  1620, 
and  this  body  on  August  10.  1622,  granted  to 
.John  ilason  and  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges  all  the 
land  l.ving  between  the  Jlerrimac  and  Kennebec 
for  sixty  miles  inland,  under  the  title  "Province 
of  ilaine.'  Tlie  next  yi'ar  David  Thomson  settled 
at  Little  Harljor.  In'l()27  F.dward  Hilton  settled 
at  Dover  Neck,  and  secured  a  patent  later  in 
1629  or  1630.  The  province  was  divided  Novem- 
ber 7,  1629,  and  that  part  l.ving  between  the 
Merrimac  and  the  Piscataqua  felj  to  Mason.  In 
November,  1631,  Mason  and  Gorges,  together  with 
a  number  of  merchants,  received  from  the  Council 
territory  l.ving  on  both  sides  of  the  Piscataqua 
within  the  territory  already  granted  to  them. 
Several  trading  stations  were  founded,  the  most 


NEW   HAMPSHIRE. 


4-ltJ 


NEW  HARMONY. 


important  of  wliicli  was  Strawberry  Bank 
(Portsmouth).  Many  settlers  came  out.  but  the 
proprietors  derived  little  profit  from  the  colony. 
When  the  Council  dissolved  in  163.'j,  .Mason  was 
eonfirmed  in  all  his  jjrants  and  received  100.000 
acres  more  west  of  the  Kennebec.  The  settle- 
ment of  Exeter  was  fo\nided  by  Rev.  John  Wheel- 
wright in  1038  after  his  expulsion  from  Jlassa- 
chusctts  Cay.  All  these  setllcments  were  prac- 
tically independent  and  with  little  form  of  or- 
ganized government.  Mason  was  a  busy  man 
who  paid  little  attention  to  this  province,  which 
was  named  for  his  native  Hampshire  in  England. 
Massachusetts  Bay  looked  with  disfavor  ujjon 
the  settlements  of  Royalists  and  Cliurchmen.  and 
laid  claim  to  the  territory.  Tn  1041  all  the 
settlements  except  Exeter  were  joined  to  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Exeter  followed  in  1(>43.  Mason's 
grandson.  Robert  Tufton  Mason,  applied  to  the 
King  for  restitution  of  the  territory  granted  to 
his  ancestor.  A  decision  that  Massacliusetts  had 
usurped  possession  was  secured  in  1077.  and  in 
1G79  a  decree  declaring  New  Hampsliire  a  royal 
province  was  issued,  but  Mason  received  little 
satisfaction.  Tt  remained  a  royal  province  until 
the  Revolution,  but  its  existence  was  dependent 
entirely  upon  the  King's  will,  as  no  charter  was 
issued.  The  (Jovernor  of  ilassachusetts  was 
often  commissioned  the  Governor  of  Xcw  Hamp- 
shire as  well.  After  the  expulsion  of  Andros  in 
1689  New  Hampsliire  asked  to  be  incorporated 
with  Massachusetts,  but  was  refu.sed.  The  colony 
suffered  greatly  in  'the  Indian  wars  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  but  nevertheless  gradually 
extended  its  settlements  north  and  west. 
Boundary  disputes  were  frequent.  The  dispute 
over  the  southern  and  eastern  boundaries  was 
settled  in  1740.  but  the  cpiestion  of  the  jio-sscssion 
of  Vermont  was  not  settled  until  1704.  During 
the  Revolution  Xcw  Hampshire  bore  a  con- 
spicuous part.  The  Continental  Congress,  from 
which  counsel  was  asked,  advised  the  formation 
of  a  temporary  State.  A  convention  at  Exeter, 
December-.Janimry.  1773-76,  adopted  a  brief  con- 
stitution. In  1770  a  constitution  was  snl)mitted 
to  the  people,  but  was  rejected.  A  convention. 
June  12.  1781-OctotK'r  31,  1783.  framed  a  new 
con.stitution.  which  was  ratified  and  went  into 
effect  June  2,  1784.  .\nother  convention.  Sep- 
tember 7.  1791-September  5,  1702.  drafted  a 
third  constitution,  which  was  ratified  during 
the  session  of  the  convention.  This  provided 
that  the  question  of  the  expediency  of  revision 
must  1)6  submitted  to  the  people  every  seven 
years.  Accordinglv,  modifications  were  made  in 
"1852,  1877,  1889. 

The  State  was  the  ninth  to  ratify  the  Federal 
Constitution,  June  21.  1788.  thus  making  certain 
the  establishment  of  the  I'nited  States.  The  capi- 
tal of  the  Province  of  Xew  Hampshire  wa-<  Ports- 
mouth. I'ntil  1805  it  was  migratory.  b\it  at  that 
date  Concord  was  chosen.  New  Hamiishire  was 
Federalist  in  national  politics  till  1816.  with  the 
exception  of  1804.  when  it  voted  for  .lefferson. 
From  1816  to  13.i2  it  was  consistently  I>mo- 
crntie.  Since  18.i6  it  has  been  stanchly  Repub- 
lican. The  following  is  a  list  of  the  (Jovernors  of 
the  Colony  and  State  of  New  Hampshire: 

Ab  a  Royai,  Provisce 

presidents 

Johnriitbi \m%fO 

Klchurd  WBlilron 1681 


GOVERNOBS 

Edward  Cranfteld lC.S-2-85 

Walti*r  Barefoote 16rtt; 

Joseiih  Iludli-.v Ilis6 

EdiUDMil  .\iicin)s liiH6-89 

Simon  Hrad-street lHiH>-y2 

Saiiuiel  .\lleii IC'.Vi-'.W 

Richard  Cootc.  Earl  of  BRlloiuont l«91i-17iii 

Joseph  Duillfy 17W-11 

Saniiiei  Shiite 17ir.--ji 

William  lUirUHt 17-JS-'.>'.» 

Jonathan  Beli-her 17:(M-iii 

Henninp  Wentworth 174il-t>7 

Jolni  Wentwortii 17tl7-75 

As  A  State 
Matthew  Thornton,  Prt^sident  Provinrial  Convention..  177.5 
Mesclieeh  Weare,  Fi-esident  o(  tliH  Stat« 177li-.84 

PKESIDE.VT8  UNDER  THE  CONSTITUTIOS  OP  178* 

Mt?.'*<:hecTli  VVpare 17S4 

John  I.angdou 17S4-H.> 

John  .Sullivan : 17si;-87 

Joliu  l.angdon 17SH 

Jcilni  Sullivan .- 17SSI 

Josiah  Itartlett 17%-!>2 

UOVEBN'ORS  OF  THE  STATE 

.Tosiah  Bartlett Federalist 17'.i2-94 

John  T.  (iilnian ••         1794-18113 

John  Lanprdon Democrat- Republican IHi).").!**.* 

Jeremiah  Smith Federalist 18*19-10 

John  Langdon  Democrat-Republicau 1H11)-I'> 

William  PiumiT '•  •■  181M:i 

John  T.  Oilman Federalist isi:t-16 

William  Plumer Democrat-Republican 1810-19 

Samuel  Bel! "" 

Levi  Woodburv.. 
David  L.  .Morrill. 
Benjamin  Pierce.. 


..1819-L>:) 
..ISii-ii 

..lK>l--'7 
..18-27.29 


John  Bell Democrat 18j'.i-3ii 

.Matthew  Harve.v •■         18:liJ-;il 

Joseph  M.  Harper  (acting)         "         1831 

Samuel  Dinsmoor •*         18;U-:u 

William  BadKcr •'•        \ku-m: 

Isaac  Hill "         I8:)i;-:l'.i 

Jolin  Pane "         ls:l'.MJ 

Henr.v  Hubbard "         184'2-U 

John  II.  Steele "         1844-4i; 

.\ntli(inv  Colbv "         lK»i;-47 

Jared  W.  Williams "         1817-19 

Samuel  Dinsmoor '*         1K49-.VJ 

.\oah  .Martin ••         18.VJ-.il 

Nathaniel  1!.  Baker. "         18.-a-.y> 

Ralph  .Met*'al( .American 18,'>.i..i: 

William  Haile Democrat 18-57- ")9 

Ichabod  <ioodwln Republican lS59-rd 

Natlianiel  S.  Berr.v ••  1861-lU 

.loseph  .\.  r.ilmore "         Isia-B.) 

Frederic  Snivth "  I«6.i.ii7 

Walter  Hnrriman ••         18t;7-69 

Onalow  Stearns "  1869-71 

■James  A.  Weston Democrat 1871-7_* 

P^zekiel  Straw Republican 187*2-74 

James  A.  Weston Democrat 1874-7.'i 

Person  C.  Cheney Republican 187.V77 

Benjamin  F.  Prescott *'  1877-79 

-Natt  Head "  1879-81 

Charles  H.  Bell "  la.sl-S.S 

Samuel  W.  Hale "         188:)-8S 

Moody  Currier "  1885J<7 

Charles  H.  Sawyer "         1887-89 

David  H.  (ioodell "  1889-91 

Hiram  A.  Tattle "  1891-9:l 

John  B.  Smith "         189:!-9.'-> 

Charles  A.  Buslel "         189r.-97 

CoorR.'  A.  Ramsdell '•         1897-99 

Frank  W.  Rollins "         1899-19t>l 

Chester  B.  Jordan "  191)l.i« 

N.J.  Bachelder •'  19il» — 

BiHMooKAPiiY.  Belknap.  The  IJistory  of  .Yeir 
llnmpshiir  (  Moston.  1813):  Barstow,  The  nil- 
liir/i  of  \<ir  llamiishirr  (Bo^^ton.  1853);  San- 
born. Iliilory  of  Xfir  Hnmittihirc  (Manchester, 
X.  H..  1875)  ;  McClinlock.  Hislory  of  Xew 
ffiimpshirr  (New  York.  1889):  Xrir  riampshire 
Slate  lAltrarti  Atinuiil  Itrporl  contains  bibliog- 
rapliy    (Concord.  1891  i. 

NEW  HANOVER.  The  northernmost  large 
island  iif  llie   liismank  .Vnhipclago   (q.v.). 

NEW  HARMONY.  A  town  in  Posey  Coun- 
ty. Ind..  15  miles  north  of  Mount  Vernon,  the 
countv-seat.   on    the    Wabash    River   and    on   a 


NEW  HARMONY. 


447 


NEW  HAVEN. 


Lraiioli  of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  (Map: 
Indiana,  B  4).  It  has  the  free  library  of  the 
Workingmcn's  Institute  with  some  13.000  vol- 
umes, founded  in  1838.  There  are  flouring  ami 
planing  mills,  brick  works,  and  minor  industries. 
Population,  in  18110.  1197;   in   1000.  1341. 

New  Harmony  was  settled  in  180.5  by  a  com- 
munity of  Harmonists  (q.v. ),  who,  in  1824,  sold 
<put  to  Robert  Owen  and  moved  to  Economy.  Pa. 
Ill  182.5  Owen  organized  a  Preliminary  Society,' 
and  invited  here  'the  industrious  and  well  dis- 
])osed  of  all  nations.'  There  was  to  be  a  com- 
munity of  goods  according  to  age,  religious  wor- 
ship was  to  be  replaced  by  a  series  of  'moral 
lectures,'  and  children,  when  two  years  of  age, 
were  to  be  taken  from  their  parents  and  educated 
by  trained  teachers.  Within  a  few  months  the 
village  became  a  'scene  of  idleness  and  revelry.' 
but  in  1820  Owen  returned,  and  for  a  time  the 
settlement  prospered.  Later  in  the  year,  dis- 
agreements arising,  the  original  community  sepa- 
rated to  form  three  communities — New  Harmony, 
.Machiria,  and  Feiba  Pevla — and  in  a  short  time 
the  whole  experiment  was  abandoned.  William 
Maclure,  one  of  the  original  leaders,  then  bought 
part  of  the  land  and  founded  a  'school  of  indus- 
try,' wliich  after  a  short  time  was  discontinued. 
Consult  Lockwood.  The  .Ycit)  Harmony  Com- 
munities (Marion,  Ind.,  1902). 

NEWHA'VEN.  A  seaport  town  in  Sussex, 
England,  on  the  English  Channel  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Ouse,  8^'!  miles  east  of  Brighton  (Map: 
England,  G  6).  Its  importance  is  to  be  meas- 
ured by  its  shipping  trade  and  not  by  its  popula- 
tion. It  is  a  bonding  port  with  a  well-equipped 
iiarboi",  a  large  coasting  trade,  and  bi-diurnal 
communication  with  Dieppe,  France,  64  miles  to 
the  .southeast.  The  average  annual  value  of  its 
imports  and  exports  is  .$70.(X)0.000.  The  prin- 
cipal articles  of  export  are  woolen,  cotton,  silk, 
and  hat  manufactures,  leather,  silver  plate,  pic- 
tures, paper,  machinery  and  mill  work,  cycles, 
hardware  and  cutlery,  chemical  products,  etc.: 
the  imports  include  agricultural  produce  and 
jirovisions  of  all  kinds,  cotton,  woolen,  silk,  and 
linen  manufactures,  gloves,  india-rubber  goods, 
glassware,  spirits,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  timber. 
It  is  a  terminus  of  the  London.  Brighton  and 
South  Coast  Railway,  a  coast  guard  station,  and 
is  protected  by  a  large  modern  fort.  Its 
twelfth-centurv  Xorman  church  is  archipologically 
interesting.  Population,  in  1891,  4995:  in  1901, 
6772. 

NEW  HA'VEN.  The  county-seat  of  Xew 
Haven  County.  Conn.,  and  the  largest  city  of  the 
State,  situated  at  the  head  of  New  Haven  Bay, 
four  miles  from  Long  Island  Sound,  and  on  the 
main  line  and  several  leased  lines  of  the  New 
York.  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad,  73 
miles  east  by  north  of  New  York  and  36  miles 
distant  from  Hartford,  the  State  capital  (Map: 
Connecticut.  D  4) . 

New  Haven  is  widely  known  as  the  'City  of 
Elms' — these  famous  trees  bordering  many  of  the 
streets  and  surrounding  'The  Green,'  a  public 
square  in  the  heart  of  the  town  as  originally  laid 
out.  The  city  occupies  about  22V.  square  miles 
on  a  level  plain,  bounded  east  and  west  by  the 
Quinnipiac  and  West  rivers,  and  inclosed  by  hills, 
two  spurs  of  which.  East  Rock  and  West  Rock, 
rise  to  a  height  of  360  and  400  feet,  respectively, 
and  command  fine  views.  East  Rock  is  the  pic- 
turesque point  in  an  attractive  park,  its  summit 


crowned  by  a  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Monument, 
while  on  the  slope  of  West  Rock  is  .Judge's  Cave, 
where  the  two  regicides,  Goffe  and  Whalley,  lay 
in  concealment  for  a  time.  There  are  parks  over- 
looking the  harbor  and  other  smaller  inclosures, 
the  entire  public  park  system  comprising  llOO 
acres.  The  city  has  some  200  miles  of  streets, 
about  70  miles  of  which  are  jiaved.  a  large  pro- 
j)ortion  with  macadam,  and  drained  by  9.5  miles 
of  sewers.  New  Haven  is  the  seat  of  Y'ale  Uni- 
versity (q.v.),  which,  with  its  buildings  and 
its  historical  and  educational  prominence,  is 
the  chief  attraction.  There  are  other  note- 
worthy educational  institutions,  namely,  Hopkins 
Grammar  School  (founded  in  1660) ."  Hillhouse 
High  School,  Boardman  Manual  Training  School, 
and  a  State  normal  school.  The  more  important 
charitable  institutions  include  the  New  Haven 
and  Grace  hospitals,  and  Saint  Francis  (Roman 
Catholic)  and  New  Haven  orphan  asylums.  The 
Public  Library  contains  more  than  .52.000  vol- 
umes, and  there  are  al.so  valuable  collections  be- 
longing to  the  American  Oriental  Society.  New 
Haven  Colony  Historical  Society,  New  Haven 
Orphan  Asylum,  State  Board  of  Health,  and  the 
Young  men's  Institute.  Among  other  features 
are  several  churches  built  in  the  early  years  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  and  the  old  burying- 
ground  in  CJrove  Street,  in  which  are  the  graves 
of  Noah  Webster,  Timothy  Dwight.  B.  Silliman, 
Eli  Whitney.  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  Theodore  Win- 
throp.  Presidents  Day,  Woolsey,  and  Porter, 
James  D.  Dana,  and  W.  D.  Whitney. 

The  commercial  interests  of  the  city  lie  in  a 
distributing  and  coastwise  trade,  the  latter  being 
facilitated  by  an  excellent  natural  harbor,  which 
has  been  greatly  improved.  ;uid  which  was  once 
the  scene  of  extensive  shipbuilding.  New  Haven 
ranks  first  among  the  industrial  centres  of  the 
State.  Its  manufactures,  representing,  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1900,  an  invested  capital  of 
.$30,463,000,  and  having  an  annual  production 
valued  at  .$40,762,000,  include  carriages,  clocks, 
firearms  and  ammunition,  rubber  goods,  cor- 
sets, hardware,  foundry  and  machine-shop  prod- 
ucts, slaughtering  and  meat-packing  products, 
boxes,  etc.  There  are  also  large  railroad  repair 
shops. 

Xew  Haven  is  the  name  borne  by  three  distinct 
administrative  corporations — the  city.  town,  and 
school  district  of  New  Haven — the  town  being 
coextensive  with  the  limits  of  the  city;  thus 
NeAv  Haven  maintains  a  town  and  a  city  gov- 
ernment. The  city  government  is  vested  in  a 
mayor,  elected  every  two  years,  a  bicameral 
council,  and  in  administrative  officers,  the  major- 
ity of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  executive,  but 
with  the  following  excejitions :  assistant  city  clerk, 
elected  by  the  council:  and  city  clerk,  contndler, 
sherifi',  treasurer,  and  collector  of  taxes,  cho.sen 
by  popular  vote.  New  Haven  spends  annually,  in 
maintenance  and  operation,  about  .$1.41.5.000:  the 
principal  items  of  expense  being  .$380,000  for 
schools.  $190,000  for  the  police  department.  .$1.50.- 
000  for  interest  on  debt.  $140,000  for  the  fire 
department.  $90,000  for  street  cleaning  and 
sprinkling,  $80,000  for  municipal  lighting,  and 
$7.5,000  for  charitable  institutions.  The  assessed 
valuation  of  property,  real  and  personal,  is  more 
than  $115,000,000,  including  exemptions,  and  the 
bonded  debt  is  over  $3,750,000. 

Population,  in  1800.  4049:  in  18.50.  20.34.5;  in 
1870,  .50.840;  in  1880,  62,882;  in  1890,  81,298;  in 


NEW  BCAVEN. 


448 


NEW  IBERIA. 


1900,  108,027.  iiuhuliii^'  ;iO.SOO  persons  of  foreign 
birth  and  2;iO0  of  negro  descent. 

In  lti37  a  small  company  of  Puritans  under 
John  Davenport,  their  pastor,  and  Theopliilus 
Eaton,  a  wealthy  London  merchant,  arrived  in 
Boston,  and  in  the  following  year  settled  at  Xew 
Haven,  then  called  by  the  Indians  Quinnipiac. 
Adriaen  Block  had  previously  visited  the  place 
and  named  it  Koodenberg,  [jrohably  from  the  red- 
dish color  of  the  soil.  In  November  the  new  set- 
tlers bought  from  an  Imlian  chief.  Momanguin. 
a  large  tract  of  land,  for  which  they  paid  "twelve 
coats,  twelve  alchymy  spoons,  twelve  hatchets, 
twelve  hoes,  two  dozen  of  knives,  twelve  por- 
ringers, and  four  cases  of  French  knives  and 
scissors."  Momanguin  agreed  that  the  Indians 
should  not  "terrify. disturb, or  injure"  the  whites, 
who,  in  return,  promised  to  protect  the  Indians 
and  extend  hunting  privileges  in  part  of  the 
ceded  territory.  In  December  another  tract 
thirteen  miles  long  and  ten  miles  wide  was 
bought  from  another  Indian  chief,  Jlonto- 
wese.  for  thirteen  English  coats.  Immedi- 
ately after  landing  the  settlers  had  entered  into 
a  'plantjition  covenant.'  but  a  regular  guvern- 
ment  was  not  established  until  the  'Fundamental 
and  Written  Constitution'  was  adopted  in  .lune. 
1639.  The  privileges  of  voting  and  holding  olhce 
were  limited  to  church  members,  and  the  Scrip- 
tures were  solemnly  proclaimed  as  the  supreme 
and  only  law  in  l>oth  civil  ami  ecclesiastical  af- 
fairs. Eaton  was  chosen  as  first  Governor,  and 
by  successive  elections  was  retained  in  this  ollice 
until  his  death  in  l(i58.  In  1040  the  settlement 
received  its  present  name  (from  Newhaven.  Eng- 
land), and  three  years  later  it  formed  with  Mil- 
ford.  (Juilford,  and  Stamford  (Southhold.  L.  I., 
and  Branford.  Conn.,  being  admitted  later)  a 
confederation  known  as  the  "New  Haven  Colony.' 
which,  in  the  same  year,  entered  the  New  Eng- 
land Inlon.  From  lGG0-(i4  the  regicides  (Joffe 
and  W'halley  found  shelter  in  and  near  New 
Haven  (see  above),  and  from  IflTO  to  his  death 
in  11)88.  another  regicide.  Dixwell,  live<l  here 
under  the  name  of  ".lames  Davids.'  In  KiO.i.  after 
a  long  and  bitter  struggle,  the  New  Haven  Colony 
was  united  to  Connecticut  under  the  Connecticut 
charter  of  Kil'ri.  In  1701  New  Haven  was  made 
a  joint  capital  with  Hartford,  and  as  such 
remained  until  I87;i.  In  1717  Yale  College 
was  moved  here  from  Saybrook.  On  .July  .'>. 
1779.  a  British  force  under  Ccnerals  Trvon  and 
Garth  captured  the  (own  after  fighting  sharp 
skirmishes  with  the  inhabitants,  and  remained 
here  imtil  the  7tli.  having  lost  about  70  killed. 
while  of  the  Americans  29  were  killed  and  17 
wounded.  In  1784  part  of  Xew  Haven  wa>  in- 
corporated as  a  city.  I'ntil  its  shipping  traile 
was  crippled  by  the  Embargo  and  the  War  of 
1812.  New  Haven  was  an  important  commercial 
port,  but  since  then  its  energies  have  been  de- 
voted mainly  to  manufacturing.  Steamboat  eimi- 
nuinication  with  New  York  was  opened  in  181.'). 
and  the  first  railroad  was  completed  in  1848.  In 
IS.Ofi  a  com])any  left  New  Haven  to  help  found 
Wabaunsee.  Kan.  Fair  Haven  was  annexed  in 
1870.  Consult:  T,ainl>crt.  flistori/  of  thr  fnlniin 
of  ifcir  Hnmi  (New  Haven.  IS.'?8)  :  Kingsley.  .1 
Hintorirnl  Hinrnurnr  ( ib..  I8."?8)  :  Barber  and 
Punderson.  Ilixlnri/  iiiirl  Anlit/iiitiis  of  \rif  Unrrn 
(ib..  18701  ;  I.evermore.  lirpxihlir  of  Sctr  llaien 
(Baltimore.  1880)  :  Atwater.  flislnrii  of  the  City 
of  yew  Haven    (ib.,   1887);   id..  History  of  the 


Colony  of  Yeif  Harcii,  new  ed.  (ib..  1902)  ;  Bart- 
lett.  Historical  iS'Ac/c/ic.f  of  .Vtic  Hiiven  (ib., 
1897);  and  a  brief  article  in  Powell,  Historic 
Tonus  of  the  yeic  England  Utalcs  (Xew  York. 
1898)  ;  Blake,  Chronicles  of  .Ycic  Haven  Green 
(New  Haven,  1898);  Baldwin,  titories  of  Old 
\eu-  Haven  (ib.,  1902)  ;  Fapcrs  of  the  'Sew 
Haven  Colony  Historical  iSocicty  (t!  vols.,  ib., 
1805-1900). 

NEW  HEBRIDES,  heb'ri-dez.  A  group  of 
i^laM(l>  in  the  I'aiitic  Ocean,  northeast  of  New 
Caledonia,  extending  from  latitude  13°  to  20°  S., 
and  from  longitude  10.5°  to  170°  E.  (Map:  Austra- 
lasia, .1  4).  Its  total  area  is  estimated  at  over 
,iO()()  square  miles.  The  chief  islands  are  Espiritu 
Santo.  Mallicolo,  Pentecost.  Maewo.  .Sandwich, 
and  High  Islands.  Some  of  the  islands  are  com- 
posed of  coral;  others  are  of  volcanic  origin  with 
several  active  volcanoes.  The  soil  is  fertile. 
Considerable  quantities  of  sandalwood  are  e.x- 
[lorted.  The  chief  agricultural  products  are  the 
breadfruit,  sago  palm,  banana,  yam,  pineapple, 
<?range,  etc.  The  climate  is  unhealthful.  Even 
the  natives  are  not  inunune  from  fever,  and 
dysentery  makes  great  ravages  among  them.  The 
])opulation  is  steadily  de<'reasing:  in  1901  it  was 
estimated  at  .50.000.  The  people  of  this  group  of 
islands  are  Melanesians.  They  are  chielly  (loli- 
chocephalic  (cranial  index.  70.4,  but  examples 
as  high  as  85  are  foimd).  very  dark  in  complex- 
ion. Ixdow  the  medium  in  stature  (64  inches  I, 
and  have  abundance  of  woolly  hair.  They  are 
still  in  savagery,  though  under  the  teachings  of 
Christian  missionaries  they  have  abandoned  to  a 
large  extent  hcad-liuiiting  anil  cannibalism. 
Under  discipline  they  become  industrious  and  are 
a  factor  in  the  trade  of  the  Pacific.  The  lan- 
guages of  X^ew  Hebrides  belong  to  the  sub- 
Papuan  family  everywhere  except  in  Fotuna  and 
Aniwa.  and  at  Mel  and  Fel  in  Efat.  which  are 
Jlaori  colonies  from  X'ew  Zealand  still  speaking 
Maori  dialects.  The  best-known  sub- Papuan 
languages  are  Epi.  Pama.  .\mboym.  Vnnmarama. 
and  Sesaki.  On  the  southernmost  island,  .\neity- 
um.  the  inhabitants  arc  Christianized,  can  all 
read  and  write,  and  have  over  forty  schools. 
The  grimp  forms  a  protectorate  administered  by 
a  mixed  commission  of  French  and  English 
officers. 

NEW  HOLLAND.  The  former  name  for 
Australia    (i|.v.l. 

NEW  IBE'RIA.  A  town  and  the  parish  seat 
of  Iberia  Pari>h.  La..  12.5  miles  west  of  Xew 
Orleans,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Bayou 
Tcchc.  and  on  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad 
(Map:  Louisiana.  D  3).  This  section  has 
many  natural  features  of  interest,  and  i-. 
the  scene  of  part  of  Longfellow's  Evaniicline. 
Avery's  Island  is  famous  for  its  deposits  of  rock 
salt.  A  Federal  Government  post-office  is  (1903) 
in  course  of  eonstruition.  and  the  city  has  a 
public  high  school  library.  :i  fine  city  hall,  and  a 
pulilic  market.  Xew  IlM'ria  i-;  the  centre  of  a 
productive  agricultural  section  devoted  to  the 
cultivation  of  sugar-cane,  cotton,  rice,  corn, 
potatoes,  small  fruits,  and  vegetables.  It  is  also 
of  considerable  importance  as  an  inilustrial  cen- 
tre, its  establishments  including  shipyards, 
foundries  and  machine  shops,  a  knitting  mill,  and 
maiMifactories  of  cypress  lumber,  shingles,  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  cypress  cisterns  and  tanks, 
cotton-seed  products,  soap,  tabasco  sauce,  pressed 


NEW  IBEKIA. 


449 


NEW  JERSEY. 


and    common    brick,    wagons,    and    carts.      The     Higlilands.     It  is  bordered  on  the  coasts  by  salt 
waterworks   and   electric-   light   plant   arc   owned      niarslies   Iringed   along   tlie    Atlantic   by   shallow 


and   operated   bv  the   inunicipalilv 
in  1890,  3447:  'in   1900,  (iHl 


Population, 


NEW    INN    HALL 

.SI  TV. 


See   Oxford    Univkr- 


coastlagoons  inclosed  by  outlying  .sand  beaches. 
The  western  slope  of  the  Slate  is  drained  by 
sliort  tril)Utaries  into  the  Delaware  River,  but 
l)y  far  tlie  greater  portion  drains  directly  into 
tile  Allanti<-  Ocean  or  its  inlets.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Passaic  and  Hackensack.  flowing 
into  Newark  Bav;  the  Raritan,  flowing  tlirougli 
NEW  JER'SEY.     A  middle  Atlantic  State  of     Raritan   Bay    into   Lower   Xew   York   Bay;    the 


NEW  IRELAND.     .See  New   Mecklexbubg. 


tlie  I'nilcd  States.  It  lies  between  latitudes  38° 
5ti'  and  41"  21'  N.,  and  between  longitudes  73° 
54'  and  7,5°  33'  VV.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  State  of  New  York,  which  also  bounds  it 
for  some  distance  on  the  east,  lieing  separated 
from  it  by  the  Hudson  River.  Xew  York  Ray,  and 
Staten  Island  Sound.  The  remainder  of  tlie  east- 
ern boundarv   is   formed  bv  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 


Mulfica  and  Great  Kgg,  emptying  into  the  At- 
lantic lagoons;  and  the  Maurice,  into  Delaware 
Bay.  Lakes  are  confined  chielly  to  the  northern 
section.  There  are  several  beautiful  mountain 
lakes  in  the  Highlands,  the  largest  being  Lake 
Hopatcong  and  Greenwood  Lake,  the  latter  lying 
partly  in  Xew  Y'ork  State.  The  most  noted 
natural   features   are   the    Falls   of   the    Passaic 


On  the  south  the  State  is  bounded  by  Delaware     River  at  Paterson,  the  Palisades  of  the  Hudson, 
Bay.     The  whole  western  boundary  is  formed  by     and  the  Delaware  Water  Gap. 


the  Delaware  River,  which  runs  eastward  in  a 
sharp  angle  nearly  to  the  middle  of  the  State, 
and  separates  it  from  Pennsylvania.  X'ew 
Jersey  is  one  of  the  smallest  States  of  the  Union, 
only  three  others.  Rhode  Island.  Delaware,  and 
Connecticut,  having  a  smaller  area.  Its  ex- 
treme length  is  167  miles,  and  its  average  width 


Climate.  The  particular  element  affecting  the 
climate  of  Xew  Jersey  is  the  ocean.  Since  the 
extreme  nortliern  portion  is  also  the  most  ele- 
vated and  the  extreme  southern  portion  is  low 
and  surrounded  by  water,  the  slight  range  in 
temperature  due  to  dlllerence  in  latitude  is 
accentuated,  so  that  there  is  a  variation  of  8 
50  miles..  Its  area  is  7815  square  miles,  of  which  degrees  between  the  mean  annual  temperature  of 
7525  square  miles,  or  4.816.000  acres,  are  land  the  north  and  the  south.  The  former  is  46"  and 
surface.  the  latter  54°.     The  mean  winter   temperature 

TopoGR.\pHT.  The  northern  and  southern  divi-  is  35°  in  the  south  and  25°  in  the  north,  and  the 
sions  of  the  Atlantic  slope  meet  in  Xew  Jersey  mean  summer  temperatures,  respectively,  75°  and 
on  a  line  running  west  from  Xewark  Bay.  The  67°.  The  mean  annual  rainfall  is.  in  general, 
former  division  is  characterized  practically  by  between  44  and  50  inches  in  the  greater  part  of 
the  absence  of  the  coastal  plain  and  by  the  less     the  State.     In  the  extreme  eastern  portion  it   is 


definite  ilemarcation  of  tlie  Piedmont  plain 
(q.v. ).  The  latter  division  is  characterized  by 
the  well-defined  presence  of  both.  Though  the 
State  lies  wholly  within  the  Atlantic  slope,  it  is 
crossed  in  the  northwest  by  several  ranges  of 
the  Appalachian  system.  'There  are  four  dis- 
tinctly marked  topographical  regions  running  in 


over  50  inches,  and  in  the  south  along  Delaware 
Bay  it  is  less  than  42  inches.  As  a  whole,  the 
State  is  quite  healthful,  and  the  sandstone  belt 
is  considered  particularly  favorable  to  persons 
inclined  to  lung  diseases.  There  are  numerous 
summer  and  winter  health  resorts.  Lakewood 
(q.v.).  in  the  heart  of  the  pine  woods,  is  one  of 


parallel  bands  across  the  State  from  southwest     the  most  popular  winter  resorts  in  the  Northern 


to  northeast,  coterminous  with  and  closely  de- 
pendent on  the  outcropping  bands  of  geological 
formations.  (See  paragraph  Oeo/or/iy.l  "The  first, 
beginning  at  the  northwest,  is  the  Kitta- 
timiy  range  and  upland  valley.  This  range  is  an 
extension  of  the  Blue  Jlountains  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  runs  in  a  continuous  ridge  into  Xew 
York,  reaching  in  High  Knob,  near  the  boundary, 
a  height  of  1790  feet.  The  second  region  in- 
cludes the  Highlands,  an  outlying  Appalachian 
range  consisting  of  semi-isolated,  plateau-like 
masses,  rising  to  a  height  of  1200  to  1400  feet. 
The  third  band  is  the  Piedmont  plain,  nearly  as 
wide  as  the  first  two  combined.  It  is.  for  the 
most  part,  an  undulating  plain  ranging  in  ele- 
vation from  the  sea  level  in  the  marshes  of  the 
Hackensack  Valley  in  the  east  to  over  500  feet 
in  the  west.  It  is.  however,  diversified  by  bold 
trap-rock  ridges  extending  in  a  northeast  and 
southwest  direction,  such  as  the  Palisades 
along  the  Hudson  and  the  First  and  Sec- 
ond ilountains.  The  fourth  region  constitutes 
the  coastal  plain  and  includes  tlie  entire  south- 
ern half  of  the  State  south  of  a  line  running 
from  Trenton  to  Newark  Bay.  It  is  a  gently 
undulating  plain,  sloping  south  and  eastward. 
It  is  nowhere  more  than  400  feet,  and  in  large 


States.  Atlantic  City.  Asbury  Park,  and  Cape 
May.  although  essentially  summer  resorts,  are 
also  popular  winter  resorts  for  invalids.  Other 
well-known  summer  seaside  places  are  Long 
Branch,  Elberon.  and  Ocean  Grove. 

For  flora  and  faima,  see  paragraph  under 
United  States. 

Geology.  The  geology  of  New  .Jersey  is  very 
intimately  connected  with  its  topography.  The 
outcrops  of  the  rock  formations  cross  the  State 
from  the  southwest  to  northeast  in  bands  clo.sely 
coincident  with  the  topographical  regions  de- 
scribed above.  Beginning  at  the  northwestern 
corner,  we  find  the  Kittatinny  Jlountain  and 
valley,  consisting  of  Paleozoic  slate,  limestone, 
and  sandstone,  and  these  formations  also  extend 
into  some  of  the  western  valleys  of  the  High- 
lands. The  Highlands  themselves,  however,  con- 
sist of  the  still  older  -Archa-an  gneiss,  granite, 
and  mica-schist.  The  Piedmont  plain  is  also 
called  the  Red  Sandstone  Plain,  as  it  consists 
mainly  of  the  Triassic  red  sandstone,  with  scat- 
tered intrusions  of  trap-rock.  In  the  coastal 
plain  tlie  surface  <leposits  consist  wholly  of  un- 
indurated  materials.  In  the  north  there  is  a 
band  running  from  Staten  Island  Sound  south- 
west to  Camden,  composed  of  Cretaceous  nuarls. 


part  is  less  than  100  feet  above  sea  level.  It  is  sands,  and  clay,  while  the  entire  remaining  por- 
trenched  by  river-valleys,  and  here  and  there  tion  is  covered  with  Tertiary  clays  and  sand 
diversifiedby  isolated  hills  such   as  the  Navesink     finally  fringed  by  the  modern  sand  bars  along  the 


NEW  JERSEY. 


450 


NEW  JERSEY. 


coast.  Each  ni  ilie  main  giuloyical  eras  is  rep- 
resented t.xct'pl  the  Larbouil'trous. 

MlALXu.  The  most  exteusively  utilized  of  the 
State's  diversilied  geological  resources  are  its 
clays.  Xew  Jerse.v  ranks  second  in  the  produc- 
tion of  pottery  and  third  iu  the  total  output  of 
clay  products.  Brick  claj'  is  found  in  most  |iarts 
of  the  State.  The  value  of  the  pottery  products 
and  of  the  combined  output  of  brick  and  tile,  re- 
spectively, ranges  between  $5,000,000  and  $11,000,- 
000  annually.  (fSee  Manul^wtures  below.)  M'orris 
County  furnishes  infusorial  earths  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  dynamite  and  giant  powder,  and 
for  polishing  jjurposes.  Deposits  of  marl  found 
in  the  State  are  utilized  for  fertilizers.  A  va- 
riety of  stone  is  quarried  in  the  northwestern 
counties,  and  constitutes  another  important 
source  of  wealth.  The  production  of  granite  has 
increased  rapidlv  since  18!)(i.  The  output  for 
1900  was  appraised  at  $1,170.5.55,  or  five  times 
the  value  of  the  product  in  the  former  year.  The 
value  of  the  sandstone  quarried  in  1900  was 
$198,234,  but  the  annual  yield  is  usually  worth 
much  more.  Xew  Jersey  ranks  second  in  the 
production  of  Portland  cement.  Iron  was  mined 
in  \yarren  County  early  in  the  history  of  the 
State,  and  has  been  mined  continuously  in  the 
northwestern  part  imtil  the  jiresent  time.  The 
entire  product  in  1900  was  of  the  magnetite 
variety,  estimated  at  344.247  long  tons.  The  iron 
is  mined  with  greater  dilliculty  than  in  the  larger 
iron-producing  regions,  but  the  saving  of  the  cost 
of  transportation  makes  it  profitable.  The  Xew- 
Jersey  ores  have  a  larger  per  ton  value  ($3.18 
in  1899)   than  those  obtained  in  any  other  State. 

Fisheries.  Xew  Jersey,  with  its  long  and  well 
indented  coast  line,  and  bounded  by  the  Hudson 
and  the  Delaware,  is  well  aila|)ted  for  the  de- 
velopment of  an  extensive  fishery  industry,  in 
which  seventeen  out  of  the  twenty-one  c<ivmties 
of  the  State  participate  directly.  There  were 
12.270  persons  so  engaged  in  1898,  as  against 
16.539  in  1891.  The  value  of  the  product  for 
1898  was  $3.5t;3.7(>U.  only  about  $44,000  more 
than  the  product  of  1891.  The  catch  of  oysters 
in  the  same  year  was  valued  at  $1,070,000.  Xext 
to  oysters,  the  princi])al  species  witli  respect  to 
value  are  clams,  shad,  .squeteague,  hlnefish,  and 
cod.  The  value  of  caviar  in  1898  was  $79,093. 
The  menhaden  industry  in  that  year  was  rep- 
resented by  six  factories,  and  yielded  a  product 
of  .$57,995.' 

Agricultibe.  Only  59  per  cent,  of  the  total 
land  area  is  included  in  farms.  The  area  of  im- 
proved land  increased  until  1880.  since  when  it 
has  remained  practi<ally  stationary.  In  1900  the 
percentage  of  farm  land  improved  was  09. (i.  The 
numl)er  of  farms  increased  during  the  half  cen- 
tury nearlv  45  per  cent.,  while  the  average  acreage 
decreased  from  1 15.2  in  18.50  to  82  in  1900.  There 
is  a  gain  in  tlie  per  cent,  of  rented  farms,  espe- 
cially cash-tenant  farms,  which  increased  53.0 
per  cent,  during  the  decade  1890-1900.  so  that 
these  farms  represented  in  1900  15.3  per 
cent,  of  the  total  number  of  farms,  as  against 
14.6  per  cent,  for  the  share  tenants.  The  soil 
is  generally  a  red  sandy  loam,  easily  tilled.  The 
river  valleys  are  very  fertile,  but  in  most  parts 
of  the  State  fertilizers  are  advantageously  used. 
The  cost  of  fertilizers  per  farm  in  1900  was  $02. 
Between  1880  anil  1890  the  area  devoted  to 
cereals  decreased  considerably,  but  the  falling  off 
was  cheeked   in  the  ne.Nt   decade,  when  the  loss 


was  contiucd  to  uats  and  rye,  the  other  crops 
showing  gains.  Accordingly  the  decrease  in  the 
cereals  is  not  so  marked  as  in  some  other  East- 
ern .States.  Corn,  the  jirincipal  cereal,  is  raised 
throughout  the  State;  wheat,  next  in  rank,  is 
grown  in  the  western  counties;  rye,  oats,  and 
buckwheat  are  confined  almost  entirely  to  the 
northwestern  counties.  The  acreage  of  hay  and 
forage  crops  exceeds  that  of  corn  and  wheat 
coml)ined.  and  considerable  areas  of  the  poorer 
lands  are  being  turned  into  permanent  pasture 
lands.  As  above  suggested,  the  proximity  of 
large  cities — notably  Xew  York  and  Philadelphia 
— has  led  to  a  large  gardening  and  fruit-raising 
industry.  Of  tlie  $8,400,000  of  vegetable  produce 
grown  in  the  census  year  1900,  20  per  cent,  and 
14.4  per  cent,  respectively  represented  the  value 
of  the  Irish  and  the  sweet  potatoes.  Xew  Jer- 
sey ranks  next  to  ilaryland  in  the  production  of 
tomatoes;  the  acreage  devoted  to  tlieir  cultiva- 
tion exceeded  that  of  sweet  potatoes.  Sweet 
corn,  melons,  and  cabbages  were  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  other  vegetables.  The  raising  of 
early  vegetables  under  glass  for  the  X'ew  York 
and  Philadelphia  markets  is  a  large  industry. 

Orcliard  fruits  receive  much  attention,  the 
peach-growing  industry  being  very  extensive  in 
the  northwestern  counties.  From  1890  to  1900 
the  number  of  jieacli  trees  decreased  about  38 
per  cent.  There  was  an  equal  percentage  of  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  apple  trees.  In  1900 
32.1  per  cent,  of  all  fruit  trees  in  the  State  were 
apple  trees,  and  48.0  were  peach  trees.  A  great 
variety  of  small  fruits  are  raised,  strawberries 
and  cranberries  being  most  important.  Cran- 
berry culture  is  confined  largely  to  the  marshy 
lands  of  Burlington  and  Ocean  counties.  Xew 
.Jersey  is  surpassed  by  few  States  in  the  extent 
of  its  floriculture.  The  value  of  the  product 
grown  for  the  market  in  1900  was  nearlv  $2,- 
000.000. 

The  following  table  of  acreage  is  self-explana- 
tory: 


CROPS 

1900 

1890 

295,258 
132,571 
76.959 
68,967 
l.i.762 
444,610 
52,896 
20,688 

267,648 

Wheat  

121  570 

121,327 

Rye 

77,245 

13.520 

Hav 

458.267 

Potatfte« 

46.711 

Potatoes  (sireet) 

20,157 

Stock-R.\isixg.  From  1800  to  1900  there 
w-as  a  marked  increase  in  the  number  of  neat 
cattle,  a  decrease  in  sheep  and  swine,  and  a 
noticeable  increase  in  horses.  The  decrease  in 
dairy  cows,  as  shown  lielow.  is  more  apparent 
than  real,  owing  to  the  change  in  the  method  of 
enumeration.  Over  one-half  of  the  total  income 
of  all  animal  products  was  derived  from  the  dairy 
industry.  Of  the  $7,170,000  realized  from  dairy 
produce  sold.  $0,318,000  represented  milk.  The 
value  of  the  poultry  jirodvicts  is  also  quite  large. 

The  following  table  shows  the  leading  live- 
stock holdings: 


1900 

1890 

Datrv  COW8 

157.407 
82.S77 
04.024 
4.931 
26,363 

176,387 

161,676 

Other  cattle          

60  486 

86,925 

8,227 

Sheep     

,15,409 

Swiiie 

324,388 

COPYRIGHT  leel  AND  1903,  BY  "ODD,  MEAD  &.  COMPANr. 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  NEW  JERSEY  BY  COUNTIES. 


County. 

Map 
Index. 

Count)-  Seat. 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Popnliition. 

1890. 

1900. 

Atlantic.        

C  5 
D  1 
C  4 
B  4 

C  » 

B  5 
1)2 
B  4 
D  2 
C  3 

C  3 
I)  3 
D3 
C  2 
D3 

Dl 
B  4 
J  2 
C  1 

Da 

B  2 

Mays  Landing 

.567 
2.36 

Nl^'.l 
222 
256 

611 
127 
326 
43 
437 

220 
312 
479 
475 
583 

198 
;K9 
:)i)5 
5211 
103 
862 

28,8.36 
47,2,'« 
58.5iS 
87,6.S7 
11,2U8 

45.4:i8 
2,56,0118 

28.649 
275,126 

35,:»5 

79,978 
61,754 
69,128 
54,101 
15,974 

10,5,016 
25,151 
2.'<,311 
22,2.59 
?2,467 
36,553 

46,403 

Bercen 

Haclcensack 

78  441 

Mount  Holly 

Camden 

Cape  May  C.  H 

Bridgcton 

Newark 

,58.241 

107,f!43 

13,201 

51,193 

359,053 

31,905 

.386,048 

Flemini;ton 

Trenton 

New  Brunswick 

34,507 

Mercer 

95,365 

Middlese.x 

79.762 
82,057 

Morrisiown 

6.5.156 

Toms  Kiver 

Paterson . 

Salem 

Somerville 

Newton        

19,747 

Passaic 

Salem 

Somerset 

155,202 
25,ij,30 
32,948 
24,134 

99,353 

Belvideve 

37,781 

NEW  JERSEY. 


451 


NEW  JERSEY. 


Manufactures.  Manufacturing  affords  em- 
ployment to  a  larger  number  of  wage-earners 
than  any  other  industry  in  the  State.  The  num- 
ber in  1000  was  241,582,  or  12.8  per  cent,  of  the 
population.  The  percentage  of  people  thus  en- 
gaged has  increased  faster  than  the  po|)ulation 
itself,  there  being  in  18,50  only  7.7  per  cent,  con- 
nected with  manufactures.  The  increase  in  the 
value  of  the  product  has  been  twice  as  rapid. 
From  1890  to  IfiOO  but  few  States  exceeded  New 
Jer.sey  either  in  the  absolute  or  the  percentage 
(72.5)  of  gain  attained  in  the  value  of  manufac- 
tured products.  In  tlie  latter  year  this  value 
was  estimated  at  .$011,748,000,  ])iacing  the  State 
sixth  in  rank.  Prominent  among  the  factors 
contributing  to  the  development  of  maiuifactures 
are  first.  New  Jersey's  proximity  to  the  large 
markets  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia;  second- 
ly, its  admirable  transportation  facilities;  and 
lastly,  its  iron  and  clay  resources  and  its  pro.x- 
imity  to  the  coal  and  other  mineral  fields  of 
Pennsylvania. 

The  manufacture  of  textiles  constitutes  the 
most  important  group  of  industries.  New  Jersey 
ranks  first  in  the  production  of  silk  and  silk 
goods;  and'  Paterson,  the  chief  centre,  is  the 
largest  silk  manufacturing  city  in  the  United 
States.  The  industry  was  first  established  here 
in  1840,  but  it  was  not  until  the  decade  ending 
with  1870  that  its  great  growth  began.  From 
1890  to  1900  the  value  of  the  product  increased 
nearly  30  ))er  cent.  Cottons,  woolens,  and  wor- 
steds are  also  produced,  hut  in  less  quantities. 
The  output  of  woolens  suffered  a  decline  from 
1S90  to  1900.  while  the  output  of  worsteds  in- 
creased more  than  threefold.  The  dyeing  and  fin- 
ishing of  textiles  has  assumed  large  proportions. 

Another  important  group  inclvides  the  manu- 
facture of  iron  and  steel  and  their  products. 
The  iron  and  steel  industry  began  in  Warren 
County  at  an  early  period,  the  supply  of  iron  ore 
lieing  secured  in  that  locality.  The  value  of 
|)roducts  more  than  doubled  during  the  decade 
1890-1900.  Of  yet  greater  value  are  the  products 
of  the  closely  related  foundrj'  and  machine-shop 
industry.  During  1890-1900  the  advantages  of 
cliea]ier  land  and  more  efficient  raihvaj'  service 
brought  hither  a  number  of  New  York  estab- 
lishments. Newark,  Paterson,  and  Elizabeth  are 
the  largest  centres.  The  value  of  the  electrical 
apparatus  produced  in  1900  was  nearly  eightfold 
greater  than  in  1890.  The  sewing-machine  output 
incrcnsed  in  value  59  per  cent,  in  the  same  period. 
In  1900  the  State  ranked  fourth  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  jewelry,  Newark  being  the  chief  centre. 

Tlie  State's  valuable  beds  of  clay  and  sand 
have  each  given  rise  to  an  important  industry. 
Brick  clays  are  found  in  every  section,  but  near- 
ly all  tlie  rich  clays  are  in  Middlesex  County, 
and  fortunately  close  to  the  navigable  coast 
waters  or  the  Raritan  River.  Architectural  clay 
products,  sewer  pipe,  etc.,  are  produced  in  this 
section  in  great  abundance.  Trenton  has  become 
iamo\is  for  its  pottery.  The  industry  was  be- 
gun here  in  1852,  but  it  was  not  until  the  Cen- 
tennial Exhibition  in  1876  that  the  superior 
quality  of  the  product  became  known,  and  a 
wide  market  was  opened  for  it.  From  1890  to 
1900  the  value  of  the  total  clay  product  in- 
creased 7.'^.1  per  cent.  The  sand  deposits  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  State  are  of  a  quality  that 
makes  them  valuable  in  the  manufacture  of 
glass,  and  glass  has  been  produced  in  that  sec- 


tion since  pre-Revolutionary  times.  The  leather 
industry  is  centred  largely  in  Newark.  Elizabeth 
has  one  of  the  largest  sewing-machine  factories  in 
the  United  States.  Chemicals,  liquors,  and  to- 
bacco goods  are  all  extensively  produced  and  have 
eaeii  made  large  gains.  The  first  two  are  most 
important  in  Newark,  the  last  in  Jersey  City. 
Extensive  oil-refining  works  are  located  at  Bay- 
onue,  where  the  surrounding  water  of  New  York 
Bay  is  of  sufficient  depth  to  enable  oceangoing 
vessels  to  load  from  the  docks.  The  table  on 
the  following  page  ex])lains  itself. 

Forests  a.M)  Forest  Prodi-cts.  The  primeval 
forests,  consisting  mainly  of  hard  woods,  have 
been  almost  wholly  removed,  but  there  is  consid- 
erable merchantable  seeonil-growtli  timber.  In 
1900  the  woodland  was  estimated  at  3234  square 
miles,  or  4,!  per  cent,  of  the  State's  area.  The 
value  of  the  timber  cut  did  not  show  any  marked 
tendencies  to  increase  or  decrease  in  the  last 
half  of  the  nineteenth  centur}',  the  maximum 
value,  .$2,745,317,  being  attained  in  1870.  The 
value  of  the  planing-inill  products,  etc.,  may  be 
seen  in  the  table  on  the  following  page. 

Traxsi'ortatiox  and  Commerce.  New  .Jersey 
is  well  provided  with  transportation  facilities. 
Railroads  which  approach  New  Y'ork  City  from 
the  west  or  Philadelphia  from  the  east  neces- 
sarily traverse  its  territory.  New  Jersey,  there- 
fore, has  a  greater  railroad  mileage  in  proportion 
to  its  area  than  any  other  State.  The  mileage 
increased  from  5G0  in  1800  to  2109  miles  in 
1890,  and  2242  miles  in  1900.  The  terminals 
of  the  lines  centring  in  New  Y'ork  City  are  on 
the  New  Jersey  side  of  the  Hudson  River. 

The  canals  of  New  .Jersey  were -once  its  prin- 
ei])al  commercial  channels.  The  Morris  Canal, 
101  miles  long,  from  Jersey  City  to  the  Dela- 
ware River  at  Phillipsburg,  has  always  trans- 
ported vast  quantities  of  coal  from  Pennsylvania 
to  New  Y^ork,  and  now  belongs  to  the  Lehigh 
Valley  Railroad.  It  cost  originally  $14,000,000. 
The  Delaware  and  Raritan  Canal,  from  New 
Brunswick  to  Bordentown,  43  miles  long,  with 
a  feeder  to  Trenton,  22  miles,  was  built  in  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  at  a  cost  of 
$3,935,287.  It  is  under  lease  to  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad. 

Banks.  In  1804  two  banking  companies  were 
chartered  by  the  Legislature,  one  to  do  business 
in  Newark  and  the  other  in  Trenton.  A  general 
banking  law  was  passed  in  1812  for  the  protec- 
tion of  depositors.  This  law  remained  in  force 
till  1850.  Reports  were  made  obligatory,  the  total 
indebtedness  and  the  rate  of  discount  were  limited.* 
But  the  provisions  of  the  law  were  avoided,  and  a 
number  of  speculating  banks  fiooded  the  State 
with  worthless  paper.  This  condition  of  affairs 
and  the  suspension  of  specie  payment  in  1837  led 
to  a  reform  in  1850.  Another  general  banking 
law  was  passed.  Under  this  statute  the  bank 
circulation  had  to  be  guaranteed  by  deposits  of 
collateral  security — bonds  of  States,  etc.  The 
limits  of  loans  on  real  estate  were  strictly  set 
and  investigations  of  the  hanks  made  possible. 
In  1800  there  were  eight  banks  of  issue.  Besides 
these,  there  were  a  number  of  specially  incorpo- 
rated banks  of  discount  and  deposit.  In  1859  the 
number  was  3fi.  but  most  of  them  availed  them- 
selves of  the  national  banking  law,  and  there 
were  only  five  left  in  1870.  State  banks  became 
somewhat  more  popular  toward  the  end  of  the 
century.     They  numbered  18  in   1902. 


NEW  JERSEY.  452  KEW  JERSEY. 

COMPABATIVE  SUMMARY  OP   FIFTEEN   LEADING   IXDtTSTBIES 


INDUBTRies 


Total  (or  Belected  indiistrlea  for  State.. 


Increase.  1890  to  1900  . 
Per  cent,  of  Increase .. 


Per  ceut.  of  total  of  nil  industries  In  State.. 


Textiles,  total , 

Cotton  goods,  iueludtng  cotton  small  wares.. 

Dyeing  and  finishing  teitiles 

Silk  and  silk  goods , 

Woolen  goods 

Worsted  goods 

Iron  and  steel 

Foundry  and  machine-shop  products 

Electrical  apparatus  and  supplies 

Sewing  machines  and  attachments 

Jewelry 


Pottery,  terra  cotta,  and  fire-clay  products.. 
Glass 


Rubber  and  elastic  goods 

Leather— tanned,  currU'd,  and  finished 

Liquors,  malt , 

Tobacco — chewing,  smoking,  and  snuff 

Cigars  and  cigarettes 

Chemicals 

Petroleum,  refluing 

Lumber,  planlog-mlll  products,  Including  sash,  doors,  and  blinds  j 


Year 

Number  of 

edtabliHh- 

ments 

Average 
number 
wage- 
earners 

Value  of  prod- 
ucts, includiu^ 
cUHtom  work 
and  repairing 

1900 

1,780 

117,008 

$258,421,105 

1890 

1.36T 

77,974 

156.491.146 

118 

39,034 

$101,929,959 

30.2 

50.1 

65.1 

1900 

11.5 

48.4 

42,2 

1890 

U.8 

44.9 

44.1 

1900 

321 

46.932 

$72,921,528 

1890 

242 

33,860 

52.855.496 

1900 

25 

5,681 

G.930,706 

1890 

17 

5.6.-)2 

5,902.615 

1900 

59 

7,074 

111,488.963 

1890 

41 

3.735 

t>,  183.397 

1900 

180 

24.157 

3'.I.'.I0«.662 

1890 

132 

17.446 

30.760,371 

1900 

13 

2.942 

4.755.393 

1890 

21 

4,165 

6.6,52,166 

1900 

11 

3,910 

0,823,721 

1890 

6 

937 

2,058,662 

190U 

25 

8,288 

21,381.699 

1890 

28 

5.150 

11.018..')75 

I'.WKI 

sm 

17.918 

32.621.229 

1890 

249 

12.793 

2!  ,666.955 

1900 

ai 

2.793 

6.447. 1.54 

1890 

3 

425 

744.274 

1900 

4 

4.701 

G.l.43.:i48 

1890 

3 

3.931 

4.177.:t:)0 

1900 

lOO 

2.779 

7.379.777 

1890 

74 

1.757 

4.724.,'iOO 

1900 

81 

8,117 

8,940.723 

1890 

60 

4.425 

5.165,537 

1900 

26 

5.383 

5.093,822 

1890 

34 

6,688 

5.21.8,152 

1900 

37 

2.609 

8.458,274 

1890 

12 

926 

2,135,705 

19(1(1 

77 

4.178 

13,747,155 

18911 

31 

m; 

2,780,016 

19(XI 

45 

1.723 

14,386,456 

1890 

34 

1.174 

10,018,393 

1901) 

12 

1.955 

7.788.379 

1890 

4 

131 

348,814 

1900 

4m 

1.640 

2.647,595 

1890 

444 

1.051 

1,909,406 

1900 

(U 

3.048 

12,207.289 

1890 

44 

1.712 

8,146.795 

1900 

4 

2.951 

29.649,460 

1890 

4 

2.610 

20,711,826 

19(X) 

113 

1.993 

5,107,217 

1890 

101 

1,635 

4,869,372 

In  1808  there  were  55  national  banks,  and  in 
1900,  115,  A  Department  of  Banks  and  Insur- 
ance was  establisliod  in  1801.  Tlic  banking  law 
was  rcvi.sed  in  18!Mt.  'I'rust  fonipanies  have  rap- 
idly niulti|ili('d  in  the  State  since  1880.  under  the 
influence  of  the  orj,'aiii/,ation  of  gigantic  corpora- 
tions, which  have  made  the  State  conspicuous. 
In  ten  years  the  mimber  of  these  increased  from 
<11  to  2.'i,  and  the  deposits  increased  eightfold. 
Savings  l)anks  were  established  early  (1828). 
A  law  for  regulating  them  was  jiassed  in  1870. 
It  remains  almost  unchanged.  The  condition  of 
the  various  banks  in  1002  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table : 


National        State 
banks         banks 

Trust 
com- 
panies 

Savings 
banks 

Number  of  banks 

121                18 

47 

28 

Capital 

$17,lft4,(MK)    $1  .lOS.OOO 

«'» :f.>i  nnn 

SurpIuH 

n,:)T5  (HMt           ttT9  (NMI  '     I'l  H',)1)  <HK) 

9J\  fU'Jt  (¥tn 

Deposits 

87  949  fHK)      H  9.'i0  00()  i  ('■"  (V4'.>  900  A<)  KAli  (MM) 

Loans 

80.248.0(Hj      S.O.'i:i.(X)0    .V..10.'i!o<KI  iH.Hl'.'.tMKI 

FiNANCE.s,  The  beginning  of  the  Civil  War 
found  the  State  in  a  satisfactory  financial  condi- 
tion.   It  became  involved  in  heavy  war  expenses. 


and  a  loan  of  .$2,000,000  and  a  State  tax  of  .$100,- 
000  for  war  purposes  were  authorized  in  1801, 
In  1800  the  total  war  debt  aniiuinled  to  $.'?„305,- 
200.  Hesides.  the  minor  civil  divisions  of  the 
State  (counties  and  towns)  spent  more  than  $2,"i,- 
000,000  for  war  purposes.  This  debt  was  totally 
extinguished  bv  the  redemption  of  the  last  .$"1. 
000  on  ,Ianuary  1.  1002. 

In  the  matter  of  taxation  New  .Jersey  is  in 
advance  of  many  States,  having  long  ago  solved 
the  problem  of  coiillict  between  State  and  local 
taxation  by  entirely  dividing  these  two  fields. 
Kven  between  1840  and  18,")0  the  income  of  the 
State  was  largely  derived  from  taxes  on  the 
gross  receipts  of  railroads  ('transit  duties'  was 
their  olTicial  designation),  taxes  on  capital  stock 
of  railroads,  etc.  A  State  tax  upon  general  prop- 
erty was  only  introduced  in  1801  for  war  pur- 
poses, and  though  it  existed  for  twenty  years, 
it  was  exceedingly  small.  In  1880  ".')  per  cent, 
of  the  income  was  derived  from  corporation 
taxes.  New  laws  for  taxation  of  railroads,  as 
well  as  other  corporations,  were  passed  in  1884 
and  1885,  and  were  declared  const  it  nl  ional  after 
a  hard  struggle.  Since  then  the  only  State  tax 
on  general  property  is  collected  for  the  purpo.ses 
of   the   school    fund.     The   whole   sum   collected 


NEW  JERSEY. 


453 


NEW  JERSEY. 


i.s  returned  to  the  towns.  Tliis  is  therefore  a 
State  ta.\  in  form  only. 

The  income  of  the  State  (jovcriinient  is  derived 
from  taxes  on  railroads  (70  to  75  per  cent.)  and 
other  corporations  (15  per  cent.),  and  fees, 
licenses,  ete.  Since  1S90  taxes  on  new  corpora- 
tions, of  which  so  man.v  have  been  formed  in 
New  Jersey,  have  constituted  a  large  share  of  the 
receipts.  In  1902  the  total  receipts  of  the  gen- 
eral State  fund  were  $4,.317,840.  of  which  $2,- 
8()(i,363  came  from  corporation  taxes.  The  ex- 
penditures reached  .$3,924,811,  leaving  a  balance 
of  .$393,03.5.  But  of  the  general  fund,  $883,978 
was  distributed  among  the  counties  for  school 
purposes.  Besides,  the  State  collected  and  re- 
distributed among  the  counties  $1,486,800  as 
school  tax,  and  $4{t0.784  as  a  local  railroad  tax. 
The  school  fund  amounts  to  $3,839,692.  Though 
there  was  no  debt,  the  sinking  fund  contained 
$172,550. 

Government.  The  present  Constitution  was 
ratified  by  the  people  in  1844,  and  amended  at 
a  special  election  in  1875.  Proposed  amendments 
must  receive  the  approval  of  a  majority  of  the 
members  elected  to  both  Houses  at  two  consecu- 
tively chosen  Legislatures,  and  afterwards  the 
approval  of  a  majority  of  the  qualified  electors. 
But  amendments  cannot  be  submitted  to  the 
people  oftener  than  once  in  five  years.  Voters 
must  be  citizens  who  have  resided  in  the  State 
one  year,  and  in  the  county  five  months.  An 
elector  is  not  deprived  of  his  vote  by  reason  of 
being  in  the  actual  _jnilitary  service  of  the  army 
or  navy  of  the  State  or  United  States.  The  regis- 
tration of  voters  is  required  by  law.  The  capital 
is  Trenton. 

Legi.slative.  The  Legislature, meeting  annual- 
ly, and  unlimited  as  to  session,  is  composed  of 
21  Senators,  one  from  each  county,  elected  for 
three  years,  and  of  Representatives,  not  to  exceed 
60,  elected  for  one  year,  from  the  counties  on  the 
basis  of  pojjulation,  every  county  being  at  all 
times  entitled  to  one  member.  The  salary  of  a 
Representative  is  $500.  State  elections  are  held 
annually  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday 
in  November.  Revenue  bills  originate  in  the 
Lower  House. 

Executive.  The  Governor  is  elected  for  three 
years,  and  cannot  be  reelected  until  three  years 
shall  have  elapsed.  He  can  convene  extra  sessions 
of  the  Legislature  or  of  the  Senate  alone.  The  Gov- 
ernor's veto  of  bills  or  items  of  appropriation 
bills  is  overridden  by  a  majority  vote  of  the 
whole  number  elected  to  each  House.  In  con- 
junction with  the  six  judges  of  errors  and  ap- 
peals and  the  Chancellor,  the  Governor  grants 
pardons,  etc.  The  president  of  the  Senate  and 
the  Speaker  of  the  House  respectively  succeed  to 
the  tiovcrnorship  in  case  of  a  vacancy.  The 
State  Treasurer  and  Controller  arc  appointed 
for  three  years  by  the  Senate  and  General  Assem- 
bly in  joint  meeting.  The  .Attorney-General, 
prosecutors  of  the  pleas,  clerk  of  Supreme  Court, 
clerk  of  the  Court  of  Chancery,  Secretary  of 
State,  and  keeper  of  the  State  prison  are  ap- 
pointed for  five  years — by  the  Governor  and 
Senate. 

Judiciary.  The  distinction  between  cnvuts  of 
law  and  courts  of  equity  is  still  maintained  in 
New  .Jersey.  The  judges  are  appointed  by  the 
Governor,  the  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  and 
Chancellor  for  seven  years,  others  for  five  years 
— all  subject  to  confirmation  by  the  Senate.    The 


first  or  lower  courts  are  the  county  courts  of 
common  pleas  and  oyer  and  terminer,  presided 
over  by  a  single  judge;  an  orphan's  court';  and 
court  of  general  quarter  sessions  of  the  peace. 
Next  above  is  the  Supreme  tJourt,  which  makes 
the  circuit  of  the  State,  and  is  composed  of  a 
Chief  Justice  and  eight  associates.  A  preroga- 
tive court  is  presided  over  by  the  Chancellor 
alone.  The  Court  of  Errors  and  Appeals  in  the 
last  re.sort  is  composed  of  the  Chancellor,  the 
justices  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  six  judges 
specially  appointed.  The  Senate  acts  as  a  court 
for  the  trial  of  cases  of  impeachment. 

Laws,  etc.  A  wife  holds  property  acquired  be- 
fore marriage  free  from  control  of  her  husband 
or  liability  for  his  debts.  H  living  with  her 
husband,  she  cannot  convey  her  real  property 
without  his  consent.  The  legal  and  only  rate  of 
interest  is  6  per  cent.  A  State  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture was  established  in  1886,  and  there  are  a 
board  of  health  and  bureau  of  vital  statistics. 
Each  city  and  township  is  required  to  have  local 
boards  of  health. 

Local  Governmext.  County  sheriffs  and  cor- 
oners are  elected  by  the  peo|)le  for  terms  of  three 
years,  but  cannot  be  their  own  immediate  suc- 
cessors. The  counties  also  elect  clerks  and  surro- 
gates for  terms  of  five  years.  The  townships 
elect  justices  of  the  peace  for  terms  of  five  years. 
The  affairs  of  towns  and  coiuities  are  regulated 
according  to  general  laws,  and  special  laws  can- 
not be  pas.sed  relating  to  them. 

The  State  has  ten  Representatives  in  the  Lower 
House  of  Congress. 

Militia.  The  number  of  men  of  militia  age 
in  the  State  in  1900  was  422,758.  The  number 
of  militia  in  1901  was  40.38. 

Population.  The  growth  of  the  population  is 
.shown  bv  the  following  figures:  1790,  184.139; 
1820,  277,426;  1850,  489,555;  1860,  672,0.35; 
1870,  906,096;  1880,  1,13L116;  1890,  1,444,933; 
1900,  1,883,669.  From  the  9th  position  in  1790 
New  Jersey  fell  to  21st  in  1860,  but  rose  again 
to  16th  in  1900.  Both  the  absolute  and  the 
proportionate  increase  have  been  much  greater 
since  1840  than  prior  to  that  year.  The  absolute 
increase  was  greatest  from  1890  to  1900,  the 
percentage  of  increase  being  30.4,  as  compared 
with  20.7  for  the  United  .States,  and  was  ex- 
ceeded only  in  one  State  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  The  recent  rapid  growth  is  due  largely 
to  the  heavy  innnigration  of  foreigners.  Of  the 
431,884  foreign-born,  according  to  the  census  of 
1900,  about  one-half  were  German  or  Irish,  the 
most  prominent  among  the  remainder  being  the 
English  and  Italians.  In  the  same  year  the 
negroes  numbered  69.844.  The  density  of  the 
population — 250.3  to  the  square  mile — is  exceeded 
in  only  two  States.  The  increase  from  1890  to 
1900  has  been  almost  wholly  on  the  part  of  the 
urban  poi)ulation.  In  1900  the  49  cities  con- 
taining over  4000  inhabitants  each,  together  con- 
tained 67.5  per  cent,  of  the  total  i)opulation.  only 
three  States  having  as  high  a  percentage  of 
urban   population. 

Cities.  In  the  State  of  New  Jersey  in  1900  the 
population  of  the  ten  largest  cities  was  as  fol- 
lows: Newark.  24(i.070:  Jersey  City.  206,4.33; 
Paterson,  105,171;  Camden,  75,935;  Trenton,  73,- 
307;  Hobokcn,  59,364;  Elizabeth,  52,130  ;  Bayonne, 
32,722;  Atlantic  City,  27,838;  Passaic,  27.777. 

Religion.  The  Roman  Ciitholics  form  about 
16  per  cent,  of  the  total  population  of  the  State. 


NEW  JERSEY. 


454 


NEW  JERSEY. 


The  principal  Protcst.Tnt  denominations  are  tlie 
Methodist,  with  about  19  per  cent,  of  the  total 
number  of  church  members;  the  Presbyterian. 
12  per  cent.:  the  Baptist,  8  per  cent.;  and  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  and  the  Reformed,  with 
al>out  6  per  cent.  each. 

Edlxatiox.  Tlie  question  of  education  re- 
ceived attention  at  a  very  early  date.  Bergen 
had  a  school  as  early  as  16G1,  and  the  charter 
of  Woodridge  (  llitJO)  provided  for  the  granting 
of  100  acres  of  land  for  school  purposes.  The 
arrival  of  the  Quakers  gave  an  additional  im- 
petus. Even  lief  ore  the  foundation  of  Princeton 
Iniversity,  a  number  of  classical  schools  were 
in  existence.  Tlie  finances  for  schools  were  not 
infrequently  obtained  by  means  of  lotteries. 
After  the  Revolutionary  \Var  the  matter  of  educa- 
tion, which  had  Ijeen  almost  entirely  neglected 
during  the  struggle  for  freedom,  again  came  to 
the  fore.  In  1816  the  State  Legislature  laid 
the  foundation  of  a  permanent  school  fund  by  a 
grant  of  .$10,000:  and  in  1824  a  provision  was 
made  for  the  addition  of  one-tenth  of  all  the 
annual  State  taxes.  In  1871  a  free  public  school 
system  was  establislied. 

The  educational  affairs  of  tlie  State  are  under 
the  supervision  of  a  State  superintendent,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governor  and  tlie  Senate  for 
three  years,  and  of  a  board  of  education,  whose 
10  members  are  also  appointed  by  the  Governor 
and  Senate.  The  State  has  a  compulsory  educa- 
tion law,  and  provides  free  text  books  and  school 
supplies.  The  illiterate  jiopulation  in  1000 
amounted  to  .5,0  jier  cent,  of  the  total  population 
of  ten  years  and  over.  The  proportion  of  il- 
literacy among  the  native  whites  is  1.7  per  cent.; 
foreign  whites.  14.1  jier  cent.;  colored.  17.5  per 
cent.  The  189.3  public  schools  of  the  State  em- 
jiloyed.  in  1901,  7501  teachers,  of  whom  only  098 
were  males.  T!ie  average  monthly  salaries  re- 
ceived were  ;?91.87  for  male  and  .?52.88  for  female 
teachers.  The  length  of  the  .school  term  in  1901 
was  183  days.  The  revenue  for  educational  pur- 
pr.ses  amounted  in  1901  to  .$0,718,189,  of  which 
$200,000  was  derived  from  the  permanent  school 
fund  and  the  rent  of  sclinol  lands,  .$2,399,724 
from  State  taxes,  and  $4,079,045  from  local 
taxes.  The  expenditures  for  the  same  year 
amounted  to  $7,189,712,  or  $32.49  per  pupil  in 
average  attendance.  The  evening  schools  main- 
tained in  the  larger  cities  of  the  State  had  an 
average  attendance  of  5397  in  1900. 

For  the  preparation  and  training  of  teachers 
there  are  the  State  Normal  School  at  Trenton 
and  its  auxiliaries  and  the  Model  and  Farnuiii 
Preparatory  schools.  New  .Jersey  had.  in  1900. 
170  public  and  private  high  schools  and 
academies,  with  a  total  of  15,158  students. 
Technical  education  is  jirovided  by  Stevens  In- 
stitute (q.v.)  at  Hobokeu  and  the  Xewark  Tech- 
nical School.  The  princi|>al  institutions  for 
higher  education  are  Princeton  University,  at 
Princeton:  .'stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  at 
Hoboken;  Saint  Peter's  College  (R.  ('.),  at  .Jer- 
sey City;  Saint  Benedict's  College  (R.  C. ).  at 
Newark;  Rutgers  College  (Reformed),  at  Xew 
Brunswick;  Seton  Hall  College  (R.  C),  at  South 
Orange;  and  Bordentown  Female  College,  at 
Bordentown, 

CiiARiTAnLE  AND  Penai.  iNSTTTrTTONs.  There 
is  a  State  board  of  charities.  Care  and  instruc- 
tion of  the  deaf  and  dunili  were  provided  in  Xew 
York  City  and  Buffalo  until   1883,  when  a  State 


institution  was  completed  at  Trenton.  The  blind 
are  taken  care  of  in  Xew  York  and  Pennsyl- 
vania institutions.  There  are  a  State  training 
school  for  fccble-niinded  children  and  a  State 
institution  for  feeble-iniudcd  women,  both  at 
Vineland.  The  home  for  disabled  soldiers  is  at 
Kearney.  An  industrial  school  for  girls  at  Tren- 
ton is  maintained  by  the  State.  A  State  reform 
school  for  juvenile  delinquents  is  located  at 
Jamesl)urg  in  Middlesex  County.  The  city  of 
Xewark  also  maintains  a  reformatory  home  at 
Verona.  The  old  State  lunatic  asylum  is  at 
Trenton.  This  institution  derives  a  revenue  from 
the  care  of  private  patients.  The  asylum  for 
the  insane  near  .Morristown  is  one  of  the  finest 
structures  for  the  jiurpose  in  the  country,  having 
cost  about  $2,500,000.  It  can  accommodate  up- 
ward of  1000  patients.  The  total  expense  for 
the  insane  and  the  poor  in  the  fiscal  vear 
1899-1900  was  $1,812,902.  The  State  prison 
is  at  Trenton.  In  1884  the  Legislature  passed 
a  bill  abolishing  contract  convict  labor  in  the 
prison.  The  inmates  must  now  lie  employed  upon 
goods  used  in  institutions  under  State  control, 
on  the  public-account  system,  or  on  the  piece- 
price  plan.  A  system  of  releasing  certain  in- 
mates of  the  State  prison  on  parole  has  been  in 
operation  since  1891. 

HiSTOBY.  The  territory  included  witliin  the 
limits  of  the  present  State  was  claimed  by  the 
Dutch  without  any  definite  boundaries  as  a  part 
of  Xew  Xetherland,  and  between  1014  and  1021 
settlements  were  made  in  what  is  now  Bergen 
County.  Swedes  and  Danes  also  settled  on  the 
Delaware  River,  but  were  brought  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Dutch  by  Governor  Stu.yve- 
sant.  In  1064  this  whole  region  was  granted 
to  .James,  Duke  of  York,  by  Charles  II.,  but 
before  .James  took  possession  he  conveyed  to 
John,  I^ird  Berkeley,  and  Sir  George  Carteret 
the  land  between  the  Delaware  and  Hudson 
rivers,  bounded  on  the  north  by  a  line  drawn 
from  41°  21'  on  the  Delaware  River  to  41°  on 
the  Hudson,  the  present  boundaries.  In  1004- 
05  Berkeley  and  Carteret  granted  a  form  of 
government  and  settlement,  the  'Concessions,' 
which  allowed  a  jiopular  assembly,  and  under 
which  the  colony  was  governed  until  the  Revolu- 
tion. Philip  Carteret  was  sent  over  as  Governor 
in  1605,  and  made  Klizabeth-Towu  his  capital. 
On  March  18,  1674.  Berkeley  sold  his  interest 
to  .John  Fenwiek,  in  trust  for  J]dwaril  Byl- 
linge.  both  Quakers,  for  £1000,  and  in  1670 
the  province  was  divided  by  a  line  drawn  from 
Little  Kgg  llarlior  to  llie  norlbwcst  corner.  Tlie 
Q>iiakers  took  the  western  half,  known  as  'West 
Xew  .Jersey,'  while  Carteret  retained  "East  Xew 
.Jersey.'  Soon  Byllinge  surrendered  his  title  to 
William  Penn  and  others  as  trustees  for  his 
creditors,  and  West  .Jersey  was  divided  into  one 
hundred  shares,  of  which  Fenwiek  retained  ten. 
Each  of  these  shares  carried  with  it  the  same 
rights  of  sovereignty  whidi  liad  been  granted  to 
the  Duke  of  York.  When  the  question  was 
raised  as  to  whether  the  Duke  of  York,  not  being 
a  sovereign,  could  transfer  the  rights  of  govern- 
ment. Sir  Edmund  .\ndros,  then  fJovernor  of 
Xew  York,  arrested  Philip  Carteret  and  Fenwiek, 
and  attempted  to  assume  control.  He  was 
forced  to  give  way  in  1681.  however,  and  the 
colonies  continued  to  be  governed  by  the  pro- 
prietors. In  1082  Carteret's  heirs  sold  East 
Jersey  to  William  Penn  and  his  associates.     The 


NEW  JERSEY. 


455 


NEW  JERUSALEM  CHURCH. 


proprietors  of  Ixjtli  uoloiiies  in  1702  ceded  their 
right  of  j.'overmiit'nt  to  tlie  Crown,  nnil  the  colo- 
nies were  united  and  placed  under  the  tioveriior 
of  New  Vork,  thoui>li  Xew  .Jersey  retained  its  sep- 
arate asseinl>l}'.  There  was  freedom  of  worship, 
but  politiial  privileges  were  withheld  from 
Roman  Catholics,  and  even  as  regards  others  the 
possession  of  at  least  two  hundred  acres  of 
land  or  of  property  valued  at  £.50  was  a 
necessary  i|ualifieation  for  the  sutVrage.  Tn 
173S  the  province  received  a  separate  Ciov- 
I'rnor.  Manufacturing  began  very  early.  A 
paper  mill  was  established  at  Elizabeth  in  1728, 
and  in  170S)  forty  of  these  were  in  operation. 
By  17.")0  the  popuhition  was  about  80,000.  A 
glass  factory  was  begun  in  1748.  In  1791  the 
Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Useful  Manu- 
factures was  chartered,  with  the  exclusive  right 
of  utilizing  the  falls  of  the  Passaic,  and  the  town 
of  Paterson  was  founded.  The  first  Provincial 
Congress  met  at  Xew  Brunswick.  .July  21,  1774. 
In  177G  the  Royal  Governor,  William  Franklin, 
was  deposed,  and  on  .July  2,  1770.  the  Provincial 
Congress  adopted  a  'Constitution'  for  the  'Colony 
of  Xew  Jersey'  without  submitting  it  to  the 
people.  Under  this  instrument  the  Governor  was 
to  be  chosen  annually,  and  was  to  be  executive, 
president  of  the  council,  and  chancellor,  thus 
combining  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial 
functions.  On  July  18th  the  Provincial  Congress 
ratified  the  national  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, and  changed  the  title  of  the  colony  to  the 
'State  of  Xew  Jerse.y.'  During  the  Revolution 
the  State  did  its  full  duty,  and  was  the  scene  of 
many  of  the  battles  of  the  war.  (For  military 
operations  during  the  War  of  the  Revolution,  see 
United  St.^tes.)  The  State  hesitated  to  enter  a 
Federal  union  out  of  fear  of  the  larger  States.  In 
the  constitutional  convention  of  1787  William 
Paterson  ( q.v. ) ,  one  of  her  delegates,,  proposed 
the  famous  'Xew  Jersey  Plan,'  which  provided  for 
a  single  legislative  House,  in  which  each  State 
should  have  one  vote.  The  State  ratified  the  Con- 
stitution, December  18,  1787.  The  capital  was  fixed 
at  Trenton  in  1790,  and  the  history  of  Xew  .Jersey 
for  many  years  after  that  was  one  of  increasing 
prosperity.  In  1844  a  new  constitution  was 
adopted,  providing  for  a  term  of  three  year.s 
for  the  Governor,  and  taking  away  his  judicial 
duties.  In  1875  the  Constitution  was  thoroughly 
revised.  The  word  'white'  was  struck  from  the 
suffrage  clau.se..  though,  of  course,  it  had  been  a 
dead  letter  since  the  adoption  of  the  Fifteenth 
Amendment  to  the  United  States  Constitution. 
Politically,  the  State  has  generally  incline<l  to- 
ward the  Democratic  Party.  In  1790.  1800,  and 
1812,  it  supjiorted  the  Federalist  candidates; 
from  1836  to  1848  it  was  Whig;  in  1860 
it  gave  four  votes  to  Lincoln  and  three  to 
Douglas;  in  1872  it  cast  its  vote  for  Grant: 
and  in  1896  and  1900  it  went  Republican  on 
the  money  question.  The  following  is  a  list  of 
the  colonial  and  State  Governors  of  Xew  Jersey: 

GOVEBNOR8  OF   EAST   AND    WEST    JERSEY  AFTER    THE   UNION 

Kilward.  Lord  Oornbury  • 1702-08 

John.  Lord  Lovi-lace* 1708-09 

Robert  Hunter* 1710-la 

William  liurni't" 17'20--28 

.John  Mdntffomerle* 17'28-31 

Lewis  Morris  (pres.  Council) 1731-32 

■William  I'oBb.v* 17.^2-36 

John  Anderson  (i>re8.  Council) 1736 

John  Hamilton  (pres.  Council) 1736-38 

•  Also  Governors  of  New  York. 


aOVEBNORS  OF  NEW  JEBSEV  ONLY 

Lewis  Morrl8 1738-4G 

John  Hamilton  (pres.  Council) 1746 

.fohii  lii'a.liiiK  iprea.  Council) 1746-47 

Jonathan  BHrlier 1747-57 

John  IteadiJiK  ipres.  Oouncni 1757-58 

Kiauels  HHrniinl 1758-60 

'rhontas  iioone , 1760-61 

Joslah  Hardv 1761-62 

William  Franklin 1762-76 

GOTEBNOBS  OF  THE  STATE 

William  IJvingston Federalist 1776-90 

William  I'atersou "         1790-93 

Kiehanl  Howell "         1793-1801 

Joseph  liloomUeld Democratic-Republican 1801-02 

John  Lambert  lai-tiug).  "  ■•  1802-03 

Joseph  nioomfield "  ••  1803-12 

.\;iroii  llKiien Federalist 1812-13 

William  s.  Pennington. .Democratic-Republican 1813-15 

.Mahloii  liickerson ••  ••  1815-17 

Isaac  H.  Williamson....  "  •■  1817-29 

Uarret  D.  Wall  (declined).  Democrat 1829 

I'eter  D.  Vroom "         1829-:i2 

Samuel  L.  Southard Whig 18.3'2-33 

Ellas  P.  Seeley Democrat 1833 

I'eter  I).  Vroom "         1833-;H> 

I'liilemon  Diekerson "         1836-37 

William  rennington Whig 1837-4:! 

Daniel  Haines Democrat 1843-44 

Charles  C.  Stratton Whig 1845-W 

Daniel  Haines Democrat 1848-51 

lieorgeF.  Fort "         1851-54 

Rodman  M.  Price "         1854-67 

Wm,  A.  Newell. American 1857-60 

Charles  S.  Olden "         1860-63 

Joel  Parker Democrat 1863-66 

Marcus  L.  Ward Republican 1866-69 

Theodore  F.  Randolph... Democrat 1869-72 

Joel  Parker ••         1872-75 

Joseph  D.  Bedle "         1875-78 

George  B.  McClellan "         18M-81 

(ieorge  C.  Ludlow "         1881-84 

Leon  Abbett "         1884-87 

Roberts.  Green "         1887-90 

Leon  Abbett "         1890-93 

George  T.  Werts "         1893-96 

John  \V.  Griggs Republican 1896-98 

David  O.  Watkiiis  (acting)..         "         1898 

Foster  M.  Voorhees "  1898-1902 

Franklin  Murph.v "  1902  — 

Bibliography.  Whitehead,  East  Jersey  Under 
the  Proprietary  Government  (Xewark.  1846)  ; 
Foster.  Xew  Jersey  and  the  Rebellion  (ib., 
1868)  ;  Carpenter  and  Arthur,  The  History  of 
Xeic  Jersey  (Philadelphia,  18:53);  Elmer,  The 
Constitution  and  Oovernment  of  the  Province 
ijnU  Ntate  of  Xew  Jersey  (Xewark,  1872)  ;  Raum, 
History  of  Xew  Jersey  (Philadelphia,  1880); 
Scott,  "The  Influence  of  the  Proprietors  in 
Founding  the  State  of  Xew  Jersey,"  in  Johns 
Hopkins  Lnirersity  Studies,  vol.  iii.,  Xo.  8 
(Baltimore,  1885)  ;  Cooley,  "A  Study  of  Slavery 
in  Xew  Jersev,"  in  Johns  Hopkins  University 
titudies,  vol.  xiv.,  Xos.  9,  10  (ih..  1896)  :  Mellick, 
The  Story  of  an  Old  Farm  (Somerville,  X.  J., 
1889)  ;  Salisbury.  "The  Pliysical  Geog- 
raphy of  Xew  Jersey,"  in  Xeic  Jersey  Geological 
Surrey,  Final  Report  of  State  Geologist,  vol.  iv. 
(Trenton,  1898)  ;  the  Xeic  Jersey  Historical  So- 
ciety Collections  (Xewark)  ;  the  Archives  of  the 
State  of  Xeio  Jersey  (ib.,  1880  et  seq.)  ;  and  tile 
Anmtal  Reports  of  the  Xew  Jersey  Geological 
Survey  (Trenton)  and  of  the  Xew  Jersey  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  (Xew  Brunswick, 
1880  et  seq.)  :  Mills,  Historic  Houses  of  Xew  Jer. 
sey  (  Philailelphia,  1903)  ;  Lee,  Xew  Jersey  as  a 
Colony  and  as  a  State  (Xew  York,  1903). 

NEW  JERSEY,  College  of.  See  Princeton 
Univeh-sitv. 

NEW  JERSEY  TEA.  An  American  shrub. 
See  (^'eanothcs  ;  ;ind  Plate  of  Mint,  etc 

NEW  JERUSALEM  CHURCH.     See  Swe- 

DEXBORGIANS. 


NEW  KENSINGTON. 


•156 


NEWMAN. 


NEW  KEN'SINGTON.  A  borough  in  West- 
moreland County.  I'a.,  18  miles  northeast  of 
Pittsburj;;  on  the  Allei;heny  River,  and  on  the 
liuffalo  and  Allegheny  River  division  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Railroad  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  B  3).  It 
is  known  as  a  eentre  of  large  steel  and  iron  in- 
dustries, and  for  its  brewing  interests.  There  are 
also  in  the  vicinity  manufaetories  of  glass  and 
white  lead.     Population,  in   1000,  4G65. 

NEW  LAN'ABK.  A  village  near  Lanark, 
Scotland,  \vher<'  RoIkmI  Owen  put  into  operation 
his  plans  for  inilustrial  reorganization  looking 
toward  the  betterment  of  the  workingman.  See 
L.\.NARK  and   OwKX,   Robert. 

NEWLANDS,  Francis  Griffith  (1848—). 
A  United  fStates  Senator  from  Nevada,  born  at 
Natchez,  Jliss.  Jlc  studied  at  Yale  College  and 
the  Columbian  Law  School,  practiced  law  in  San 
Francisco,  and,  having  become  a  citizen  of 
Nevada,  represented  that  State  in  the  national 
House  of  Representatives  from  1893  to  lfl03, 
when  he  was  elected  to  the  Senate.  He  has  been 
a  strong  advocate  of  Western  irrigation  and  of 
the  free  coinage  of  silver. 

NEW  LAWS.  A  code  promulgated  by  Charles 
V.  at  Madrid  in  ir)43  for  the  protection  of  the 
Indians  in  the  Spanish  colonies.  The  New  Laws 
(Sp.  Xuevas  OnlciKinzas) ,  which  were  due  to  the 
influence  of  l?artoloni(5  de  las  Casas.  'the  .\[>ostle 
of  the  Indies."  restricted  slavery  and  provided  for 
the  religious  instruction  of  the  Indians.  The  laws 
were  opposed  by  the  colonists,  and  in  Peru  were 
largely  the  cause  of  the  rebellion  under  Gonzalo 
Pizarro.     P.y  1. ")(>()  tlicy  had  ceased  to  be  effective. 

NEW  LEB'ANON.  .\  town  in  Columbia 
County,  N.  Y.,  24  miles  southeast  of  .Albany: 
on  the  Chatham  and  Lebanon  Valley  Railroad 
(Map:  New  York,  (i  .'?).  It  includes  several 
villages,  among  which  Lebanon  Springs,  a  pop- 
uhir  summer  resort,  noted  for  thermal  springs, 
and  Mount  Lebanon,  the  site  of  n  Shaker  village, 
are  best  known.  The  town  is  engaged  prin- 
cipally in  agriculture,  and  in  manufacturing 
patent  medicines,  thermometers,  and  barometers, 
glass,  flour,  lumber,  chairs,  br(K)ms,  and  baskets. 
Population,   in   ISitO,   17(i.');   in   inOO.   15.50. 

NEW  LEINSTER.  The  former  name  of 
Stewart   Ishmd.      Sec    \kw   ZkaLAND. 

NEW  LEX'INGTON.  A  village  and  the 
county-seat  of  I'cny  County,  Ohio,  21  miles 
south  by  west  of  Zanesville;  on  the  Toledo  and 
Ohio  Central,  and  the  Cincinnati  and  Muskingum 
Valley  railroads  (Map:  Ohio.  F  (!).  It  has  Saint 
-Aloysius  .\eademy  ami  a  handsome  court  house. 
There  are  some  manufactures,  clay  works  being 
among  the  leading  establishments,  and  in  the 
vicinitv  are  extensive  coal  fields.  Population,  in 
181)0,   i  170;   in  IIIOO,  1701, 

NEW  LIGHT.     A  fish.     See  Crappie. 

NEW  LON'DON.  A  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
one  of  the  county-si'ats  of  New  London  County. 
Conn.,  14  miles  south  of  Norwich,  the  other 
eounty-seat,  and  .'il  miles  east  of  New  Haven; 
on  the  Thames  River,  about  three  miles  above 
its  entrance  into  Long  Island  Sound,  and  on 
the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  and 
the  Central  Vermont  railroads  (Map:  Connecti- 
etit,  (i  4).  It  has  ilirect  eoninuinieation  with 
New  York  by  steamboat,  and  an  excfdlent  harbor 
defended  by  Forts  Trumbull  and  Oriswold.  .Just 
al>ovc  the  city,  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  is 


a  small  United  States  naval  station.  New  Lon- 
don is  a  delightful  place  of  residence  and  popular 
resort  in  summer,  .\mong  its  features  of  interest 
are  a  fine  soldiers'  and  sailors'  monument,  a 
handsome  public  library,  the  New  London  County 
Historical  Society  and  Library,  the  Hempstead 
House,  one  of  the  oldest  houses  in  Connecticut, 
the  Old  Town  Mill,  erected  in  1040  and  still  in 
operation,  the  little  schoolhouse  in  which  Nathan 
Hale  was  a  teacher,  Boulder  Park  on  the  Thames, 
White  Beach,  a  popular  and  attractive  bathing 
beach.  Williams  Park,  Memorial  Park,  and  the 
great  railroad  drawbridge  completed  in  1800. 
The  annual  Yale-Harvard  boat  race  is  rowed  on 
the  Thames.  New  London  was  formerly  the  seat 
of  extensive  whaling  and  sealing  interests,  which 
are  still  of  some  importance,  though  manufactur- 
ing is  the  leading  industry.  The  principal  estab- 
lishments are  silk  mills,  a  woolen  mill,  ship 
yards,  foundries  and  machine  shops,  a  cotton-gin 
factory,  bed-quilt  mills,  and  printing-press  works. 
The  government,  under  a  charter  of  1804,  is  ad- 
ministere<l  by  a  mayor,  chosen  every  three  years, 
and  a  unicameral  council  that  controls  elections 
to  subordinate  departments,  excepting  that  of  the 
schools,  which  is  chosen  by  popular  vote.  The  water- 
works are  owned  and  operated  bv  the  municipality. 
Population,  in   1880,   13,757;   in   1000,   17.,548. 

New  London  was  founded  in  1040  by  .John 
Winthrop.  the  younger,  and  until  1058,  when  it 
received  its  present  name,  was  known  as  Nau- 
nieag.  During  the  (ireat  Awakening"  of  1741 
there  was  a  remarkable  manifestation  of  religious 
enthusiasm  here.  On  Septemlier  0,  1781.  General 
Arnold,  at  the  head  of  a  large  British  force,  and 
assisted  by  a  fleet  of  thirty-two  vessels,  attacked 
New  London,  killed  a  number  of  its  inhabitants, 
and  burned  nearly  all  of  the  wharves  and  stores. 
(.See  (iROTON.)  New  London  was  incorporated  in 
1784.  Consult:  Caulkins.  Ili.ilorti  of  Xcir  Lmi- 
don  (New  London,  new  eil.,  1000)  ;  .Starr,  .4  Crn- 
tcnninl  Historical  tikelch  of  the  Tou-n  of  New 
London  (ib.,  1870);  and  an  article,  "'Historic 
New  London."  in  \etc  England  Magazine,  vol.  v. 
(Boston.  1887). 

NEW  MAD'RID.  .\  city  and  the  eounty-.seat 
of  Xi'u  .Madrid  County.  Mo.,  40  miles  south  by 
west  of  Cairo.  III.;  on  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
on  the  Saint  Louis  Southwestern  Railroad  (Map: 
.Missoiiri.  G  5).  The  eentre  of  a  productive  re- 
gion, it  has  a  large  river  commerce  in  grain,  lum- 
liei ,  cotton,  live-stock,  etc.  There  are  cotton  gins, 
and  manufaetories  of  lumber,  veneer,  staves,  and 
Hour.  Population,  in  1800,  1103;  in  1000.  1480. 
New  Madriil  was  founded  in  1788  as  a  Spanish 
settlement,  by  a  few  .American  frontiersmen.  For 
a  time  during  the  Civil  War  it  was  an  iujportant 
Confederate  military  station,  but  on  Alareh  14, 
1802,  it  was  abandoned  and  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Fi'deral  forces, 

NEWMAN,  nfi'iixni.  Kdwaro  (1801-70).  .An 
Fnglisli  naturalist  and  [iul)lislier,  born  at  Hamp- 
slead.  in  Miildlesex.  In  boyhood  he  showed  an 
unusual  interest  in  natural  history,  and,  though 
engaged  in  various  business  enteri)rises,  through- 
out his  life  he  devole<l  much  time  to  seientilic 
study.  He  was  one  of  the  fotir  founders  of  the 
Kntomnlogical  Club  in  London  (1820),  out  of 
which,  largelv  through  his  efforts,  grew  the  En- 
tomological Society  (18.33).  In  1840  he  estab- 
lished The  Entomologist,  which  three  vears  later 
he  incorporated  in  The  Zoiilogist,  and  this  maga- 
zine he  edited  until  1803.     Newman  also  founded 


NEWMAN. 


457 


NEWMAN. 


I 


Tlie  I'hytologist,  to  which  he  contributed  from 
1S41  to  1854,  and  from  1858  until  his  death  he 
was  the  natural  history  editor  of  the  Field. 
Among  his  works  are:  Oruinmar  of  Entonioloyy 
(2d  ed.  1841)  ;  History  of  liriti^h  Firms  (1840), 
an  accurate  work,  illustrated  by  the  author  and 
subsequently  greatly  enlarged;  liirdsnesting 
(18U1);  an  edition  of  Jlontagu's  Dictionary  of 
British  Birds  (1866);  Illustrated  History  of 
British  Moths  (1869)  ;  and  of  Butterflies  (1870- 
71).  His  contributions  to  the  Field  contain 
some  of  the  first  work  done  in  economic  en- 
tomology. Newman  was  one  of  the  last  of 
those  general  naturalists  who  have  now  given 
way  to  the  specialist. 

NEWMAN,  Francis  (?-1660).  An  English 
culonist  in  America,  Governor  of  Xew  Haven 
Colony  in  1658-59.  He  was  born  in  England,  and 
emigrated  to  New  Hampsliire  in  1638,  but  after 
a  few  months  removed  to  the  Connecticut  Valley, 
and  became  prominent  in  the  affairs  of  the 
colony  at  New  Haven.  There  he  served  as  an 
ensign  and  lieutenant  in  tlie  colonial  militia  or 
trained  bands  (1642-45),  as  secretary  of  the 
colony  under  Governor  Theophilus  Eaton  ( 1646- 
47),  and  as  a  magistrate  and  assistant  in  1653. 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  one  of  the  conunission- 
ers  sent  from  tlie  Connecticut  River  towns  to 
Manhattan  to  demand  satisfaction  of  Peter 
Stuyvesant,  Governor  of  New  Netherlands,  for 
injuries  sustained  by  the  English  colonists  at  the 
hands  of  the  Dutch.  In  July,  1654,  he  became 
one  of  the  commissioners  of  the  United  Colonies 
of  New  England,  and  in  May,  1658,  lie  succeeded 
Eaton  as  Governor  of  the  Xew  Haven  Colony,  re- 
taining the  office  until  September,  1659. 

NEWMAN,  Francis  William  (1805-97). 
An  English  scholar  and  writer,  brother  of  .John 
Henry  Newman.  He  was  born  in  London,  June 
27,  1805,  and,  with  his  brothers,  attended  the 
school  at  Ealing.  Thence  he  passed  to  Worcester 
College,  Oxford,  and  in  1826  obtained  a  fellow- 
ship in  Balliol  College.  He  withdrew  from  the 
universitj'  in  1830,  declining  the  subscription 
to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles.  After  a  tour  in 
the  East  he  was  appointed  classical  tutor  in 
Bristol  College  (1834).  In  1840  he  accepted  a 
similar  professorship  in  Manchester  New  Col- 
lege, and  in  1846  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
Latin  in  University  College,  London,  which  he 
licid  till  1869.  During  all  tliis  time  he  wa-s  an 
active  contributor  to  literary  and  scientific  peri- 
odicals, and  maintained  a  leading  part  in  the 
controversies  on  religion,  in  which  he  took  the 
lino  directly  opposite  to  that  chosen  by  his  elder 
brother,  being  no  less  ardent  as  a  disciple  of  the 
ixtreme  rationalistic  school  than  John  Henry 
Newman  of  the  dogmatical.  These  opinions,  and 
tlie  system  founded  upon  them,  form  the  subject 
of  his  work.  Phases  of  Faith,  or  Passages  from 
the  History  of  My  Creed  (1850)  ;  and  the  book 
?onstitutes  a  religious  autobiography,  recounting 
Newman's  transformation  from  a  Calvinist  to  a 
rationalistic  tlicist.  In  1849  he  had  ]nililished 
The  Soul,  its  >S'orro-»'.s  and  its  Aspirations,  a  sym- 
pathetic tliough  trenchant  examination  of  man's 
spiritual  nature  in  its  relation  to  God.  Probably 
for  these  two  books,  strongly  personal  and  ear- 
nest and  less  eccentric  than  most  of  his  other 
writings,  Newman  will  be  best  remembered.  He 
was  extraordinarily  versatile  and  treated  his 
many  subjects  with  marked  enthusiasm  and 
ability.      Of    his    many    publications,    those    re- 


garding religious  controversy,  besides  the  two 
already  mentioned,  include:  Catholic  Cnion:  Es- 
says Touurds  a  Church  of  the  Future  (1844)  ;  A 
.State  Church  .\ot  Defensible  (1845).  Political 
and  social  topics  are  leprcseuted  by:  lladical 
Jieforms,  Financial  and  Oryanic  (1848)  ;  Lectures 
on  Political  Economy  (1851)  ;  On  the  Utale  Pro- 
vision for  Vice  (1871)  ;  Remedies  for  the  Great 
Social  Evil  (1889)  ;  Europe  of  the  Near  Future 
(1871).  A  large  number  are  devoted  to  his- 
torical, classical,  and  scientific  subjects,  the  most 
important  of  which  are:  Contrasts  of  Ancient 
and  Modern  History  (1847);  translations  into 
'unrhymed  metre'  of  the  Odes  of  Horace  (1853) 
and  the  Iliad  of  Homer  (1856);  a  treatise  on 
Difficulties  of  Elementary  Ceomctry  (1841); 
Handbook  of  Modern  Arabic  (1866)^  Orthoepy 
(1869);  Miscellanies  (1869-89);  Dictionary  of 
Modem  Arabic  (1871);  Early  History  of  Car- 
dinal Newman  ( 1891 ) .  He  died  at  Weston-super- 
Mare,  October  4,  1897. 

NEWMAN,  Hknry  Roderick  (1833—).  An 
American  water-color  painter,  born  in  New  York 
City.  He  gave  up  the  study  of  Medicine,  to  be- 
come an  arti.st,  at  the  age  of  eighteen  years.  He 
went  to  France  in  1870,  and.  after'  traveling 
through  Switzerland,  settled  in  Venice  (1871), 
and  later  removed  his  studio  to  Florence.  Rus- 
kin  has  expressed  admiration  for  his  works, 
which  are  good  in  techni<iue.  They  consist  mostly 
of  architectural,  landscape,  and  flower  pieces. 
"Venice,"  "Tuscan  Spring,"  "The  Florence  Ca- 
thedral," and  "The  Gulf  of  Spezia"  are  among  his 
most  celebrated  paintings.  His  other  works  in- 
clude: "A  Study  of  Pink  and  White  Oleanders," 
"Grapes  and  Olives,"  "Flowers,"  and  "An  .Archi- 
tectural Study." 

NEWMAN,  .ToHN  Henry  (1801-90).  An 
English  religious  leader,  first  in  the  Church  of 
England  and  later  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
He  was  born  in  London.  February  21.  1801.  and 
educated  first  at  a  private  school  at  Ealing,  then 
at  Trinitj'  College,  Oxford,  which  he  entered 
when  he  was  not  quite  sixteen.  He  won  a 
scholarship  two  years  later,  and  took  his  degree 
in  1820.  In  1822  he  was  elected  to  a  fellowship 
at  Oriel,  then  the  highest  distinction  of  Oxford 
scholarship,  which  brought  him  into  close  rela- 
tions with  many  of  the  most  distinguished  men 
of  the  time;  among  them  was  a  brother  fellow, 
Edward  Bouverie  Pusey,  with  whom  he  was 
to  be  most  closely  associated  in  the  work  of 
the  Oxford  Movement.  He  was  ordained  deacon 
in  1824,  and  combined  with  his  college  position 
the  curacy  of  Saint  Clcnicnt's  Church.  A  year 
later,  his  friend  \\'hatcly  having  become  principal 
of  Saint  Alban's  Hall.  Newman  was  made  vice- 
principal,  but  resigned  the  appointment  on  being 
named  tutor  in  his  own  college  (1826).  In  1828, 
on  the  election  of  Hawkins  as  provost  of  Oriel 
(partly  through  Newman's  influence,  though 
Kelile  was  also  :i  candidate),  Newman  succeeded 
him  as  vicar  of  Saint  Mary's,  the  university 
church,  and  the  position  which  he  thus  gained 
gave  him  a  commanding  power,  by  the  wonderful 
sermons  which  he  preached  in  this  pulpit,  over 
a  whole  generation.  He  resigned  his  tutorship 
in  1832.  owing  to  differences  with  Hawkins  as 
to  college  arrangements.  He  made  his  first  visit 
to  the  Continent  soon  afterward  and  returned  in 
time  to  hear  Keble's  famous  assize  sermon  on 
National  Apostasy  (July  14.  1833),  which  he  al- 
ways   considered    as    the    actual    origin   of     the 


NEWMAN. 


458 


NEWMAN. 


Movement.  (For  tlio  coiuiilelf  liistorj'  of  its  de- 
velopment, see  OxFDKi)  -MovKMENT.  I  Here  it  is 
enough  to  .say  that  from  the  tirst  Xewmau  was 
its  acknowledged  head;  tlie  charm  of  his  per- 
sonality, the  ascetic  fervor  of  his  life,  and  the 
fame  of  his  preaching  gave  him  a  tremendous 
power.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  contributors  to 
the  Tracts  for  the  Times,  twenty-nine  of  which, 
including  the  famous  No.  90,  which  j)roved  the 
end  of  the  series,  are  from  his  pen.  The  same 
year  that  witnessed  their  beginning  (1S33)  saw 
the  publication  of  his  book  on  The  Avians,  which 
was  followed  in  1837  l)v  The  I'ropheliad  O/Jice 
of  the  Church;  in  18.58  by  works  on  .Justifica- 
tion, on  the  Canon  of  Scripture,  and  on  Anti- 
christ. In  this  year  also  Newman  became  editor 
of  the  British  Critic,  holding  the  position  until 
1841,  and  began  in  conjimction  with  Kel)le  and 
Pusey  to  publish  a  Library  of  Translations  from 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers.  On  a  formal  re- 
quest from  the  Bishop  of  O.Kford,  he  discontinued 
the  publication  of  the  Tracts  in  1841.  after  tlie 
storm  of  opposition  which  No.  90,  "Remarks  on 
Certain  Passages  in  the  XXXIX.  Articles,"  had 
aroused. 

Already  in  1839  in  the  course  of  his  study  of  the 
history  of  the  Moiiophysite  controversy  a  doubt 
had  come  to  him  whether,  after  all,  the  Anglican 
position  was  tenable;  and  the  condenmation  of 
his  position  by  bishops  and  heads  of  colleges 
showed  him  that  his  place  in  the  ^fovement  was 
gone.  Parallel  reasoning  on  the  history  of  the 
Arian  controversy,  and  the  curious  compromise 
of  the  .Jerusalem  bishopric  (see  Jekus.^lem ) , 
still  further  shook  his  allegiance  to  the  Church 
of  England. 

In  1842  he  retired  from  Oxford  to  the  neigh- 
boring village  of  Littlemore,  where  he  passed 
three  years  in  seclusion,  with  a  number  of  yoving 
men  Avho  had  attached  themselves  to  him,  wrest- 
ling in  silence  with  the  problem  thus  presented 
to  him.  In  the  early  part  of  1842  he  p\iblished  a 
formal  retractation  of  his  adverse  criticisms  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  in  the  following 
autumn,  while  he  hail  not  yet  made  up  his  mind, 
it  seemed  to  him  more  honest  to  resign  his  living. 
The  train  of  reasoning  which  occupied  him 
throughoi^t  184.5.  when  he  was  engaged  in  the 
composition  of  his  Essat/  on  the  Derelopmrnt  of 
Christian  Doctrine,  finally  brought  him  to  the 
point,  and  on  October  9th  he  became  a  Roman 
Catholic. 

.\s  his  influence  in  Oxford  and  among  thought- 
ful Anglicans  had  been  tremendous,  so  the  ef- 
fect of  this  step  was  correspondingly  great.  A 
year  after  his  reception  he  went  to  Rome  and 
was  there  ordained  priest.  Soon  afterwards  he 
returned  to  England  and  introduced  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Oratory  (q.v.),  which  be  thought 
specially  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  large  towns. 
The  greater  part  of  his  later  life  was  spent  in 
the  house  of  the  Oratory  at  Rirmingham  :  from 
18.'>4  to  1858.  however,  he  was  in  Dublin,  as  rec- 
tor of  the  unsuccessful  Catholic  I'niversity  there. 
Always  deeply  interested  in  e<lucation.  he  had 
planned  to  establish  a  house  of  the  Oratory-  at 
Oxford,  which  might  have  allowed  the  young  men 
of  his  Chiirch  to  gain  the  advantages  of  the 
imiversity;  the  project,  opposed  by  Manning,  fidl 
through,  hut  since  his  death  his  ideas  have  been 
vindicated  by  the  establishment  of  a  Catholic 
hall  there.  Constant  literary  activity  marked  all 
these  years,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  fruits 


were  his  Letter  to  tlu:  Duke  of  "Snrfolk  (1875), 
in  wliicli  lie  explained  and  defended  the  position 
of  Catholics  as  atl'ected  by  the  \'atican  decrees  in 
their  bearing  on  civil  allegiance,  in  reply  to 
Glad.stone;  and  his  memorable  Apologia  pro  Vita 
Sua  (1804),  which  contained  a  most  striking 
account  of  the  inner  workings  of  his  mind  dur- 
ing his  whole  manhood,  and  increased  the  venera- 
tion felt  for  him  by  all  his  countrymen,  of  what- 
ever shade  of  theological  opinion.  It  grew  out 
of  a  memorable  controversy  with  Charles  Kings- 
ley,  who,  by  general  consent,  had  much  the  worse 
of  the  argument.  In  1877  Newman  was  elected 
an  honorary  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford, 
and  revisited  his  loved  alma  muter  for  the  first 
time  in  twenty-two  years.  Leo  XIII.  created  him 
a  cardinal  in  1879,  allowing  him  still  to  reside  in 
England.  He  died  at  Birmingham,  August  11, 
1890. 

Both  as  a  great  spiritual  force  and  as  a  mas- 
ter of  literary  expression,  Newman  will  always 
de-serve  a  large  space  in  any  history  of  nineteenth 
century  England.  His  literary  style,  always 
pure,  melodious,  and  elevated,  and  owing  much 
to  years  of  familiarity  with  the  Authorized  Ver- 
sion of  the  Bible,  is  full  of  inidecaying  beauty. 
But  it  was  only  an  expression  of  his  mental 
habit.  The  dialectical  skill  which  marks  all  his 
controversial  work  was  governed  by  the  con- 
science whose  supremacy  he  was  never  tired  of 
enforcing:  and  the  chaste  beauty  of  his  style  was 
but  the  outcome  of  that  intense  realization  of  the 
spiritual  world  which  is  the  most  characteristic 
feature  of  all  his  teaching. 

A  complete  list  of  his  writings  would  occupy 
too  much  space.  A  uniform  edition  of  the  more 
important  of  them  was  published  under  his  o\vn 
supervision  (London.  1808-81).  Besides  those 
already  named,  mention  should  be  made  of  his: 
Kssay  in  Aid  of  a  Grammar  of  Assent  (1870)  ; 
two  works  of  fiction,  Callista.  a  Sketch  of  the 
Third  Century  (1850).  and  Loss  and  Gain,  a 
story  of  Oxford  life  in  his  own  day  (1848)  ;  nu- 
merous volumes  of  sermons,  all  characterized  by 
his  qualities:  and  some  extremely  beautiful 
verse,  of  which  the  best,  with  "The  Dream  of 
(ierontius,"  is  included  in  Verses  on  Various  Oc- 
casions (1868).  Consult,  besides  most  of  the 
books  refcried  to  under  Oxford  Mo\Ti;MENT: 
Letters  and  Correspondence  of  J.  H.  Neirmnn 
Durinri  His  Life  in  the  Entjlish  Church  (Lon- 
don. 1891):  and  sketches  by  R.  II.  Hutton 
(ib..  1891),  Walters  and  Barrow  (ib..  1901).  and 
Whyte  (New  York.  1903)  ;  also  an  admirably 
thoughtful  study  of  his  writings  in  Shairp.  Stud- 
ies in  I'octrii  and  I'hilosophii  (Edinburgh.  1866). 
His  earlier  life  is  also  told  by  his  brother  Francis 
(London.  1891).  and  in  The  Anrjiican  Career  of 
Cardinal  yeuman  (ib.,  1892)  ;  his  later,  partly 
in  Fitzgerald.  Fifty  Years  of  Catholic  Life  and 
I'niyrrns    ( ib.,   1898'). 

NEWMAN,  .John  Pmii.ip  (1820  99).  .Vn 
.American  clergyman.  Bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  He  was  born  in  New  York 
City,  and  educated  at  Cazenovia  (N.  Y.)  Semi- 
nary, which  he  quitted  in  1848  to  enter  the  min- 
istry. He  followed  the  itinerant  life  of  a  Metho- 
dist clersryman  until  1800.  when  he  went  abroad 
for  travel  and  study,  visiting  Eg^'pt  and  Pales 
tine,  subsequently  embodying  the  results  of 
this  trip  in  From  Dan  to  Iteersheba,  or  the  Land 
of  Promise  as  It  Now  Appears   (1864).     After 


BTEWMAN. 


459 


KEW   MEXICO. 


New  Orleans  was  taken  by  the  Federal  army  in 

I8G2,  lie  was  sent  there  to  (irj,'anize  the  ili'lliodist 
Episcopal  Cluireh,  and  remained  until  1869, 
meanwhile  editing,  in  addition  to  his  other 
labors,  the  New  Orleans  Advocate.  Leaving 
New  Orleans,  lie  heeaine  pastor  of  the  Metropoli- 
tan Church  at  Washington,  D.  C.  His  per- 
sonality was  a  combination  of  elergjiiian  and 
man  of  the  world;  his  pulpit  eloquence,  which  in- 
clined rather  to  the  grandiose,  nevertheless  won 
for  him  a  large  popularity  both  within  and  out- 
side  his  denomination.     At  the  end  of  his   first 


31°  20'  and  37°  north,  longitudes  103°  2'  and 
109°  2'  west,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Colorado,  on  the  cast  by  Oklahoma  and  Texas, 
on  the  south  by  Te.xas  and  Mexico,  and  on  the 
west  by  Arizona.  It  forms  almost  a  perfect 
square,  the  line  being  somewhat  broken  on  the 
southern  boundary.  The  length  along  the  west- 
ern boundary  is  400  miles;  the  greatest  width, 
358  miles.  Area,  122,.')80  .square  miles.  New 
ilexico  exceeds  in  size  every  8tate  in  the  Union 
except  Texas,  California,  and  Montana. 

TopoGR.\PHY.      The    whole    Territory    is    very 


pastorate  in  \\'ashington  in  1872,  President  Grant     elevated,  only  a  small  portion  in  the  south  lying 


appointed  him  inspector  of  consulates  in  Asia 
and  in  this  capacity  he  made  a  tour  of  the  world, 
which  resulted  in  another  work  of  travel.  The 
Thrones  and  Palaces  of  Bahtjlon  and  Nineveh 
from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  ilediterranfan 
(1876).  In  1878  he  assumed  a  pastorate  in  New- 
York  City,  and  in  1881  was  a  delegate  to  the  first 


below  4000  feet.  The  topography  may  be  divided 
into  several  more  or  less  well  marked  regions, 
running  north  and  south.  The  eastern  third  of 
the  Territory  belongs  to  the  t)reat  Plains,  which 
skirt  the  whole  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. In  the  northeastern  part  of  the  Territory 
this    plain    is    watered    by    the    Canadian    Kiver, 


Ecumenical     Methodist     Conference    in    London,     south  of  w'liich  it  slopes  gradually  into  the  level 


where  he  read  the  invited  essay  on  Scriptural 
Holiness,  said  to  mark  his  highest  achievement 
as  a  writer.  From  1882  to  1884  he  was  acting 
pastor  at  the  Madison  Avenue  Congregational 
Church.  New  York.  In  1885  he  returned  to  the 
pastorate  of  the  Metropolitan  Church,  Washing- 
ton, and  in  1888  was  elected  bishop  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church,  with  bis  official  residence 
at  Omaha,  Neb.  In  addition  to  the  works  men- 
tioned, he  published:  Christianity  Triumphant 
(1884)  ;  Evenings  icith  the  Prophets  on  the  Lost 
Empires  (1887)  ;  The  Supreniaei/  of  Law  (1890)  ; 
Conversations  irith  Christ    (1901). 

NEW'MAKKET.  A  market-town  on  the  bor- 
der of  Suffolk  and  Cambridgeshire,  England.  15 
miles  northeast  of  Cambridge  (Map;  England, 
G  4).  The  market-house  and  the  celebrated 
Jockey  Club  are  the  chief  edifices.  The  town 
owes  its  prosperity  to  the  horse-races.  The  race- 
course of  Newmarket,  upward  of  four  miles  in 
length,  is  said  to  be  the  finest  in  the  world,  and 
the  training  ground  bears  a  similar  reputation 
for  excellence.  There  are  eight  race-meetings 
held  here  annuallv.  Population,  in  1891,  8631; 
in  1901,  10,686.  Consult  Hore.  Histort/  of  New- 
market and  Annals  of  the  Turf  (3  vols,,  London, 
1886). 

NEWMARKET.  A  town  of  York  County, 
Ontario.  Canada.  34  miles  north  of  Toronto  on 
the  Northern  Railway  (Map:  Ontario,  D  3).  It 
has  busr  trading  interests  and  some  manufac- 
tures.    Population,  in  1891,  2143;  in  1901,  2125. 

NEW  MECK'LENBURG  (formerly  New 
Ireland).  The  second  largest  of  the  Bismarck 
Archipelago  (q.v.),  situated  in  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
350  miles  northeast  of  New  Guinea,  and  sep- 
arated from  New  Pomerania,  the  largest  of  the 
group,  by  Saint  George  Channel  (Map:  Aus- 
tralasia, H  3).  It  is  elongated,  has  an  area 
of  4920  square  miles,  and  consists  for  the 
most  part  of  mountains  covered  with  forests  of 
large  trees.  Little  is  known  of  the  interior  of 
the  island,  but  the  coast  lands  are  very  fertile. 
Colonization  of  the  island  has  been  unsuccessful : 

II  there  is  a  trading  station  on  the  north  coast,  but 
I  in  1897  there  were  only  nine  European  inhabi- 
•  tants,  the  bulk  of  the  population,  whose  number 
'  is  unknown,  being  savage  Melanesians. 
I  NEW  MEXICO.  A  southwestern  Territory 
l«f  the  United  States.  It  lies  between  latitudes 
K  Vol.  XIV.— 30. 


and  arid  plateau  known  as  the  Llano  Estacado. 
West  of  this  is  the  valley  of  the  Pecos  River,  the 
lowest  part  of  the  Territory,  falling  near  the 
southern  boundary  below  3000  feet.  From  the 
Pecos  Valley  the  land  rises  westward  into  the 
Front  Range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  is- 
sues from  Colorado  in  a  continuous  line  of  lofty 
peaks,  .several  of  which  are  over  12,000  feet  high. 
Toward  the  centie  of  the  Territory  the  range 
becomes  broken  into  isolated  groups  and  mesas 
inclosing  in  the  north  park-like  grassy  plains, 
but  toward  the  south  arid  and  desolate  valleys 
filled  with  lava  beds  and  salt  marshes.  West  of 
the  Front  Range  is  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  traversing  the  whole  length  of  the  Ter- 
ritory. Finally,  through  the  western  part  of  the 
Territory  stretches  the  great,  broad  plateau,  the 
Continental  Divide,  which  extends  into  Mexico 
as  the  Sierra  Madre.  Its  average  height  is  7000 
feet,  though  it  sinks  to  5000  feet  in  the  south, 
and  it  is  diversified  by  a  number  of  mesas  and 
isolated  ranges  from  8000  to  11.000  feet  high. 

CuMATE  AND  Veoetation.  The  climate  is  re- 
markably dry  and  healthful,  and  the  air  pure  and 
clear.  In  the  lower  regions  of  the  south  the 
climate  is  mild  throughout  the  year,  but  in  the 
north  the  temperature  sometimes  falls  below 
zero.  At  Santa  Fe  the  mean  temperature  for  the 
year  is  about  .50°,  for  the  warmest  month  70°, 
and  for  the  coldest  30°.  The  average  rainfall  for 
the  whole  Territory  is  about  15  inches,  being  no- 
where sufficient  for  the  needs  of  agriculture. 
Many  of  the  mountain  basins  and  river  valleys 
are  covered  with  nutritious  grasses,  one  of  the 
most  common  genera  being  the  grama-grass 
(Bouteloua) .  The  salt-grass  {Dislichlis  spi- 
cata)  often  forms  a  dense  sod  over  the  alkali 
flats  which  abound  especially  on  the  western 
plateau.  Bunch  grasses  cover  many  of  the 
mesas  and  mountain  slopes,  but  the  sage  brush 
is  predominant  in  many  of  the  plains,  and  the 
plateau  toward  the  west  becomes  arid  and  deso- 
late. Sycamore,  Cottonwood,  oak.  and  other  de- 
ciduous trees  grow  in  the  river-valleys,  and  some 
of  the  foothills  carry  growths  of  pinon  and  dwarf 
cedar,  while  extensive  forests  of  pine,  spruce, 
and  cedar  cover  the  higher  mountains.  With  the 
possible  exception  of  the  alkali  flats,  the  soil, 
wherever  there'is  any.  is  said  to  be  fertile  and 
capable  of  becoming  productive  when  irrigated. 

For  flora  and  fauna,  see  these  sections  in  the 
article  United  State.s. 


NEW  MEXICO. 


460 


NEW  MEXICO. 


Geology.  The  mountain  ranges  are  generally 
upheavals  of  a  nucleus  of  granite  and  syenite 
which  ha.s  brolicn  through  the  Paleozoic  sand- 
stones and  Carboniferous  limestone,  these  strata 
being  upturned  and  e.xposed  along  their  bases  and 
slopes.  The  eastern  plains  are  almost  wholly 
Cretaceous,  and  the  same  formation  occurs  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  western  plateau.  Intrusions 
of  eruptive  rocks  are  found  in  profusion  in 
many  parts  of  the  Territory;  these  range  from 
ancient  volcanic  rocks  and  dikes  of  porphyry 
to  more  recent  lava  Hows  which  cover  consider- 
able areas  both  on  the  plateaus  and  in  the  val- 
leys. 

Mining.  This  industry  is  but  little  developed 
in  comparison  with  its  great  possibilities.  The 
mineral  region  is  almost  PO-c.\fensivc  with  the 
mountain  region.  Coal  and  gold  are  among  the 
minerals  most  mined.  The  output  of  the  former 
increased  from  1.57.092  short  tons  in  1882  to 
],08G.54ti  short  t(ms  in  IDOl.  The  output  of  the 
latter  shows  an  imrease  from  2(>,()74  fine  ounces 
in  1S<)8  to  33..i02  in  1901.  The  output  of  silver 
and  copper,  which  had  decreased  for  a  number  of 
years,  has  grown  extraordinarily,  the  output  of 
the  former  in  1901  being  5(i3.400  tine  ounces,  as 
against  425,300  in  1898,  and  that  of  the  latter 
having  increased  from  31.884  ijounds  in  1894  to 
9.629,884  in  1901.  Emeralds,  tunpioise,  and  other 
precious  stones  are  being  mined  in  increasing 
quantities.  Other  minerals  ])roduced  are  lead, 
iron,  gj'psuni,  kaolin,  and  fire  clays. 

Forests.  The  W(M)ded  area  is  given  as  23,700 
square  miles.  The  Tnited  States  has  reserved 
tracts  amounting  to  4299  square  miles,  mostly 
about  the  head  of  the  Gila  River,  The  mer- 
chantable timber  is  found  only  in  the  mountain- 
ous regions,  and  is  mainly  yellow  pine  and 
spruce. 

Agriculture.  Irrigation  is  i)racticable  and  in 
practice  along  the  watercourses.  However,  the 
possibilities  of  irrigation  in  New  Mexico  are 
not  as  vast  as  in  some  other  Western  conunon- 
wealths,  owing  to  the  comparative  lack  of  large 
rivers  and  lakes.  The  irrigated  areas  are  scat- 
tered througliout  the  Territory  and  are  not  large 
in  any  particular  region.  The  l!io  (irande  Kiver 
supplies  water  for  a  greater  area  than  any  other 
stream.  Owing  to  evaporation  and  the  use  of  the 
water  in  irrigation,  this  stream  becomes  dry  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  Territory  during  the  ir- 
rigation season,  Mucli  water  is  wasted  by  the 
primitive  system  of  irrigation  emi)loyed  by  the 
In<Iians  and  Mexicans.  There  is  a  considerable 
irrigated  area  on  the  San  .Tuan  Kiver  in  the 
northwest.  Irrigation  has  not  been  introduced 
until  recently  in  the  eastern  plain  region.  In 
1809  there  were  97.')  irrigation  ditches  with  an 
aggregate  length  of  2382  miles.  Their  construc- 
tion cost  $4,140,319.  There  were  under  ditch 
64fi.784  acres,  of  which  203,893  acres  were  irri- 
gated, and  182,804  acres  were  in  crops.  The  total 
area  includfd  in  farms  (both  agricultural  and 
stock)  in  1900  was  .'>,  130,878  acres,  more  than 
six  times  as  great  as  the  corresponding  area  in 
1890. 

Alfalfa  is  the  moat  important  crop.  Wheat, 
corn,  and  other  cereals  are  grown  in  fair  quan- 
tities. The  Rio  CJrande  Valley  produces  a  s<i- 
perior  quality  of  prapes.  Most  of  the  temperate 
zone  fniits  are  grown.  New  Mexico  can  produce 
sugar  beets  of  the  highest  grade.  The  following 
table  of  acreages  explains  itself: 


1900 

1890 

11,346 

37,907 

16,848 

3,349 

2,220 

87,358 

Wheat 

21  863 

Oat« 

9,314 

BeauH 

Ha.v  and  forage 

26,376 

Stock-Raising.  New  Mexico  claims  the  pos- 
session of  a  combination  of  favorable  conditions — 
mild  climate,  etc. — unrivaled  for  ])ur])oses  of 
sheep-raising.  This  industry,  ever  since  the 
advent  of  the  Spaniards,  has  been  of  first  im- 
portance. The  number  of  .sheep  decreased  be- 
tween 1880  and  1890.  but  increased  enormously 
in  the  following  decade.  There  has  also  been  a 
marked  gain  in  the  number  of  cattle  and  of 
horses.  The  grazing  region  is  chielly  in  the 
eastern  part,  where  there  is  an  abundance  of 
'iiics(|iiit(''  and  other  varieties  of  native  grasses. 
Aery  little  grazing  is  afforded  in  the  arid  table- 
lands west  of  the  Rio  (irande  Valley.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  leading  stock  holdings: 


1900 

1890 

Dairv  cowe 

16,775 
975-.084 
131.153 

21.213 
3,333,743 

20.426 

18,507 

()th»T  cattle 

669  001 

Mulfs  and  aesee 

8.307 

1.248.970 

Sn-ine 

10  471 

Manufactures.  Tlie  manufacturing  interests 
are  small,  but  had  a  marked  growth  between 
1890  and  1900.  In  1890  there  were  127  estab- 
lishments with  ,$9(;,5,938  capital,  as  against  420 
with  .$2.()98,78ti  capital  in  1900.  Railroail  repair 
slio])s  were  the  most  important  establishments. 
The  large  sheep- raising  interests  explain  the 
introduction  of  wool-scouring  establishments,  of 
wliich  four  were  erected  during  the  decade. 

Tkansi'ORTatio.v.  The  .\tchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe  Railroad  traverses  the  Territory  from 
north  to  soutli.  following  the  course  of  the  Rio 
Grande.  The  Santa  Fe  Pacific  branch  of  the 
above  railroad  connects  the  Territory  with  the 
Pacific  Coast.  The  Southern  Pacific  crosses  the 
southern  portion  of  the  Territory,  and  the  Pecos 
Valley  and  the  El  Paso  and  Nortlic:istcrn  rail- 
roads have  recently  been  constructed  tlirough  the 
eastern  part.  In  1900  the  total  numlwr  of  miles 
was   1779.     There  are  no  navigable  streams. 

Banks.  The  first  bank  in  the  Territory  was  a 
national  bank  organized  in  1871.  In  1888  some 
banks  were  organized  under  the  Territorial  laws. 
The  Territorial  banking  law  provides  for  yearly 
reports  and  cxjiniinations.  in  l!iOi^  tlierc  were 
If)  national  banks,  with  a  cajiital  of  .$1,012,000: 
.surplus.  -HKLOOO;  cash,  etc..  ,$4,30,000:  deposits, 
$.'■.,033,000:  and  loans.  $3.(188.000;  and  12  Ter- 
ritorial banks,  with  capital  of  $417,000;  surplus, 
!i!.-)2,0()0 :  cash.  etc..  $148,000;  deposits,  $1,783,- 
000;   and   loans,   $1,3,54,000. 

GovEitXMENr.  New  Mexico  has  the  usual 
Territorial  form  of  government.  See  Territo- 
ries. 

Finances.  .\  public  debt  of  $200,000  was 
created  in  1884  to  constnnt  the  Capitol.  Later 
more  bonds  were  issued  for  the  erection  of  a 
penitentiary  and  other  public  buildings.  There 
was  also  a  constant  deficit  due  to  high  expendi- 
tiires.  and  also  to  the  difliculty  of  collecting 
taxes,  of  which  about  2,5  per  cent,  usually  re 
main  unpaid.  In  1889  a  movement  for  financial 
reform    gained    headway,    and    the   expenditures 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  ARIZONA  BY  COUNTIES. 


^ 


I 


COPTRIQHT,  1B81  AnD  ItOl,  BT  OOOO,  H 


o 


^ 


c 


COPYRIGHT^  1881  AND  1902,  BY  DODD,  MEAD  A  COMPAMY. 


ABEA  AND  POPULATION   OF   KEW  MEXICO   BY   COTTNTIES. 


CoUDty. 


Ucnialillo 

C'iinves 

Colfax 

l>i)Tina  Ana 

Kddy 

Grant 

Ouiiilrtlupo 

*Lt'oijai-d  Wood, 

Lincoln 

*Lnna  

*McKinIey 

Mora 

OttTO r 

♦Quay 

Rio  Arriba 

*KoiiseveIt 

♦Sandoval 

San  .Iimn 

San  Mi^el 

Santa  F& 

Sierra 

fiocorro 

Taos 

tTorrance 

Union 

Valencia 


Map 

Intlex. 

E  2 

F  3 

F  1 

E  3 

O  3 

D4 

G2 

F  2 

F  3 

E  3 

D  a 

F  2 

E3 

G  2 

E  1 

0  2 

E  2 

D  1 

F  2 

E  2 

E3 

E3 

F  1 

F  2 

G  1 

E2 

County  Seat. 


Albuquerque  . . . 

Roswell 

Raton 

Lascruces 

Carlsbad 

Silver  City 

Puerto  (le  Luna. 

Santa  Rosa 

Lincoln 

Mora 

Alamogordo 

Tecumcari 

Tierra  .\marnia, 

Portales 

Sandoval 

Aztec 

Las  Vegas 

Santa  F6 

Hillsboro 

Socorro 

Taos , 

Progreso. '. 

Clayton 

Los  Lunas 


Area  in 

square 
miles. 


8.842 
11,520 
3.784 
."i.OOl 
G,G13 

0,327 
B,0B7 

4,084 


2-,5.'J2 

C,874 


6,055 


5,742 
4,8;*} 
2,212 
3,120 

15,386 
2,265 

6.302 
9,472 


Population. 


20,913 


7,974 
9,191 


9,057 
7,081 

io,oi8 


11,534 


1,890 
24,2114 
13..S02 

3,630 

9,595 
9,868 


28.6.30 
4,778 
10,150 
10,187 
3,289 

12,883 
5,429 


4,953 


4.791 


13,777 


4.828 
22,053 
14,658 

3,158 

12,195 
10,889 

4..528 

13,895 


*  Established  since  the  last  census  was  taken. 

t  The  organization  of  Torrance  County  is  to  be  completed  January  1,  1905. 


NEW  MEXICO.  461  NEW  MEXICO. 

■were  decreased  by  about  50  per  cent.     Since  then  Jlexioo   formed   a    part   of   tlie    Mexican   cession 

the   public   debt   has   been   somewhat  diminished,  by   the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe   Hidalgo,    February 

At  the  end  of   1901   it  was  $1,180,000.     The   re-  2^    1848.      The    act   of    organization    was    passed 

ceipts  for  1001  were  .$540,705,  and  disbursements  September  9,  1850,  and  went  into  effect  in  March, 

$405,815,  leaving  a  surplus  of  $74,920.  1831.    The  original  boundaries  included  that  part 

.Militia.     In  1900  the  men  of  militia  age  num-  of  the  territory  of  the   United   States  north  of 

bcred  41,404.    The  number  of  militia  in  1901  was  the  Mexican  line,   west  of  Texas,  east  of  Cali- 

G12.  fornia,    and    south    of    37°,    including,    however, 

I'OPULATION.     The  population  increased   from  f'c    territory    north    of    37°    and    south    of   the 

61.547    ill    1850    to    91,874    in    1870,    153,953    in  .\rkansas  River.     In   1853  the  (Jadsden  Purchase 

1890.  and  195,310  in   1900.     The  foreign-born  in  (q-v.)    was    added    and    .Arizona    was    set   off    in 

the   last  year   numbered    13.025,    of   whom    (;(i49  1803.     The   portion   north   of   37°    was  added   to 

were  Mexicans.    The  Indian  population  numbered  Colorado  in  1807.     In  1850  a  convention  was  held 

13.144,  and  the  negroes  1010.    A  large  part  of  the  and  a  State  constitution  adopted,  but  the  dread 

papulation  are  descendants  of  the  original   set-  on    the    part    of    the    North    of    another    slave 

tiers,   who  were  of  Spanish  or  of  mixed  blood.  State  prevented   the  admission  of  New  Mexico. 

Albu(|Uor(|ue,   the    largest   town,    had    in    19tl0   a  Frequent  efforts   to  .si^ure   admission   have  been 

IKipulation  of  0238;  Santa  Fe,  the  capital,  5003;  made  since.     In  1894  Congress  passed  an  enabling 

ami    Las  Vegas,   3552.  act,  and  in  the  Fifty-seventh  Congress   (1901-03) 

Keugio.x   and   Education.     The  bulk  of  the  '"'  <i''t  "f  admission  passed  the  House,  but  did  not 

population  belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  reach   a   vote   in   the    Senate.      During   the   Civil 

According  to  tlie  census  of   1900  the   percentage  War  New  Mexico  was  invaded  in  December.  1801, 

uf  illiteracy  was  greater  than  that  of  any  other  ''.V  Texas   Rangers,   who  took  possession   of  the 

State  or  Territory.     With  a  compulsory'  school  Territory,   but   were   forced   to   retire    in    April, 

law.    and    greatly    increased    expenditures    for  1862,  by  regular  troops  under  Colonel  Canby  and 

school    purposes,    and    the    lengthening    of    the  a  regiment  of  Colorado  volunteers.     Since  that 

school  year,   illiteracy  is  diminishing.     The  per-  time    there    have    been    Indian    outbreaks,    which 

centage   decreased   from  44.5   in    1890   to  33.2   in  have  been  suppressed  with  difficulty.     The  follow- 

1900.      In    1890   61    per   cent,   of   the   population  ing  have  been  Governors  of  the  Territory  of  New 

could   not  speak   English.     This   tigure   fur    1900  Mexico: 
became  also  greatly   reduced.      In    1898-99   there  goveenobs 

was   raised  $414,653   for  Territorial   schools   and  james  S.  Collioun  1861-52 

institutions,    as    against    $85,129    in    1891;    the  Edwin  V,  Sumner,  ii.  S.  .\.,  Commaiidaiit.!!"!!!!!! 1862 

number  of  teachers  increased  from  407  to  706;  ^yj^,"^^,"'''/,"";^;  1^1'^''^"""^  ^'"""'S) IteLss 

and     the    school    term    lengthened     from     three  wllllam  s!  Mtsaeryiactingj.'i.'.^.'.'i.'.'.'.'.^.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.i.'.'.lseiW* 

months  in   1891    to  four  months   in   1899.     The  David  MerriwHtiier 1853-67 

Territorial    institutions    for    advanced    learning  f-  «■  H.  Davis  (acting) }***"" 

TT    •  -i.        r  X-        AT      •  J-    \  lu  Abraham  Uencher. 1857-61 

are:     University  of  New  Mexico,  at  Albuquerque;  Henry  Connelly 1861-65 

New    Mexico    College    of    Agriculture    and    Me-  W,  f!  M,  Amy '(acting) .-. 1865-66 

chanic  Arts,  at  Mesilla  Park;   School  of  ilines,  "'■i!^'^  ";  ^^jf;^'"'" }^tt^ 

.     „  '  ,,  1    o  1       1      £    o-i  ri-i  I  William  .\.  Pile 1869-71 

at   Socorro;    Normal    School    of    Silver    City,   at  Marsh  Giddinss        1871-75 

Silver  City;   New  Mexico  Jlilitary   Institute,  at  VViUlam  G.  Riteli  (acting) 1875 

Roswell;    New    Mexico    Normal    University,    at  Samuel  BAxtell 1876-78 

T  -.J  rr,         ri   ii    1-       ni         1,  t  Lewis  Uallace 1878-81 

Las     Vegas,       The     Catholic     Church     supports  Lionel  A.  Sheldon 1881-85 

eighteen  schools;   the  Methodist  Church,  eleven;  Edmund  i;.  Uoss 1885-89 

the  New  West  Educational  Commission,  five;  and  ';;  Bradford  Prince 1889-9:S 

.,       „       1     i      •         ..L        u     i.         i     c  17      ii  ^^-  L.Thornton 1898-97 

the   Presbyterian   Church,  twenty-nve.      I'urther-  Miguel  A,  Otero 1897-— 

more,  the  United  States  has  schools  for  Indians,  ,        .,  ,       „• 

including     the     Indian     Industrial     School     at         Bibliography.      Brackcnridge,    Earl,/   Discov 

Santa  Fe.  erics   bji   Xpiiniards   iii    Tiao   Mexico    (Pittsburg, 

Charitable  and  Penal  Institutions.    There  1^57)  ;   Davis,  El  Gringo;  or.  New  Mexico  and 

are  a  school  for  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind,  and  a  f^er  feoplc  (New  York,  1857)  ;  id.,  The  Spam!<h 

penitentiary  at  Santa  Fe,  and  an  insane  asylum  Vonquest   of   Xew   Mexico    (Doylestown.    1869)  ; 

at   East    Las    Vcas.  McParlin.  "Notes  on  the  History  and  Climate  of 

History.      The''  lirst  explorers   of   the   region  ^"'■'^  Mexico,"   in   fimUhxonian' Report   for  m7 

were    Spanish.      Cabega    de    Vaca    visited    it    in  (Washingtom  1878)  ;  7 7,cffeso»rf cso/ .Ve,,,  ./e.T- 

1530,  and   Coronado    (q,v,)    in   1.540-42.     Espejo  "^°    (Santa  Fe,   1881);    B.itch    A ztUm:   History 

wandered    over    mueh    of    it    in     1582-83.       In  Kesourees  and  Attractions  of  ^e,v  Mexico    [mi 

1598  .Juan  de  Onate  conquered  the  inhabitants,  1^"  Boston    1885)  ;  Lummis.  Tlie  Land  of  Foco 

who   were    Pueblo    Indians,    and    not    Aztecs,    as  Tiempo    (New    York.    189.3);    Schwatka,    In    the 

often  erroneouslv  stated.     Santa  Fe  was  founded  ''«'"'   "f   '^""^   "'"*    (^''ff   Dicellers    (ib..    1894)  ; 

between    1605   and    1616.      The    Indians    revolted  ^^rost.  New  Mexico:  Its  Resources,  Climate,  (rcug- 

about  1680,  and  kept  their  independence  for  ten  '■"/'''"■  etc.   (Santa  Fe.  1894)  ;  Bancroft.   In ;o»rt 

vears.     The   mines   were  worked   and   towns   and  '""'    -^«'"'.  -^lexico    (San    Francisco,    1888):    \'il- 

missions   were   founded.     This   region   became   a  l'J«™'    ""<«»■'»    de    la   Xueva   Mexico    (.Mexico, 

province  of  Mexico  when  that  country  gained  its  1900). 

independence  of  Spain   in  1821.     In  .lune.   1840.         NEW   MEXICO,    University   of.      .\   coedu- 

Col,    Stephen    W.    Kearny    marched    from    Fort  cationni    institution   of  higher   learning  at  .\lbu- 

Leavenworth    with    a    force   composed    of   t'nited  qucique.    New    .Mexico,    incorporated    by    an    act 

States  dragoons  and  Missouri  volunteers,  and  oc-  of  the  Territorial   Legislature  in    1889,  and  indi- 

cupied  Santa  Fe  on  August  18th.     The  whole  Ter-  cated  by  statute  as  the   future  State  university, 

ritory  was  declared  a  part  of  the  United  States.  The  collegiate,   normal,  and   preparatory  depart- 

(See  Price,  Sterling.)      The  Territory  of  New  ments  were  opened  in  1892.     Science,  music,  art, 


NEW  MEXICO. 


462 


NEW  ORLEANS. 


and  commercial  schools  were  afterwards  added. 
The  degrees  of  baclielor  of  arts  and  i)edaj,'ogy, 
of  master  of  arts  and  sciences,  and  of  doctor  of 
philosophy  are  conferred.  The  Hadley  Climato- 
logical  Laboratory  is  an  organization  for  research 
especially  with  reference  to  the  influence  of  the 
climate  of  the  arid  and  plateau  region  of  the 
United  States  upon  disea.se.  The  students  in 
1902  numberi'd  IM  and  the  faculty  twelve.  The 
library  contained  about  'yiUH)  volumes.  The  cam- 
pus contains  the  Administration  Hall,  Hadley 
Science  Hall,  the  gymnasium,  and  the  Ladies' 
Cottage.  The  total  value  of  property  under  con- 
trol of  the  college  in  11)02  was  $7.5,000.  Its  en- 
dowment consisted  of  243,000  acres  of  public 
land  and  150,000  acres  of  saline  land,  and  the 
income  was   .I;!,"). 000. 

NEW  MEXICO  COLLEGE  OF  AGBICUL- 
TURE  AND  MECHANIC  ARTS.  .\  coedu- 
cational State  institution  at  .Mesilla  Park,  \.  AL, 
established  in  188!).  it  is  supported  mainly  by  a 
Territorial  tax  and  by  the  Morrill  and  Hatch 
funds.  The  moneys  received  from  the  Federal 
Government  amount  to  .•(;40,000  annually.  In 
1902  its  income  from  all  sources  was  $48,147,  its 
grounds  and  buildings  were  valued  at  $4."),000  and 
the  whole  amount  of  college  property  at  $100,500. 
The  library  contained  10,000  volumes.  The  in- 
structors, of  whom  six  were  wiuuen.  numbered 
twenty-five,  and  there  were  103  collegiate  and 
special  students,  and  144  in  the  preparatory  de- 
partment. 

NEW  MIL'FOBD.  A  town,  including  sev- 
eral villages,  and  a  county-seat  of  Litchfield 
County,  Conn.,  15  miles  north  of  Danbury;  on 
the  Housatonic  Kiver,  and  on  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad  (Map:  Connecti- 
cut, B  3).  Tt  has  a  public  library  with  about 
3400  volumes,  and  Rectory  and  Ingleside  schools. 
both  Protestant  Episcopal.  There  arc  several 
large  tobacco  warehouses,  and  manufactories  of 
hats,  carbonized  stone  and  sewer  pipe,  lime,  i)ot- 
terv,  and  paints.  Population,  in  1890,  3917 ;  in 
1900,  4S04. 

NEW  MODEL,  The.  The  name  of  the  Par- 
liamentary Army  in  the  great  English  Civil  War, 
after  its  reorganization  under  the  ordinance  of 
February  15,  1 045.  The  pattern  was  provided 
by  Cromwell's  Ironsides.  There  was  no  longer 
to  be  a  division  of  responsibility,  but  all  au- 
thority was  concentrated  in  the  hands  of 
the  new  commander-in-chief.  Lord  Thomas 
Fairfax  (q.v.).  Cromwell  became  the  lieutenant- 
general.  Parliament  had  freed  the  army  from 
Essex  and  Manchester  by  the  Self-Denying  f)rdi- 
nance  (q.v.).  Consult  Gardiner,  Ilintotii  of  llir 
Great  f'ivil  llV/c,  vol.  i.  (London.  1880).  See 
Cromwell.  Oliver. 

NEWNAN,  nri'n(/n.  .\  city  and  the  county- 
scat  of  Coweta  County,  Ga,,  .39  miles  south  by 
west  of  Atlanta  :  on  the  .\tlanta  and  West  Point 
and  the  Central  of  (leorgia  railroads  (Alap: 
Georgia,  B  2).  It  is  the  centre  of  a  productive 
fruit-growing  and  farming  region,  and  has  a 
large  trade  in  cotton.  The  chief  industrial  estab- 
lishments include  canning  and  cigar  factories, 
cotton  and  cottonseed  oil  mills,  foundries  and 
machine  shops,  and  manufactories  of  phosphates, 
fertilizers,  etc.  The  water-works  are  owned  by 
the  municipality.  Population,  in  1890,  2859;  in 
1900,  30.54. 


NEW  NETH'ERLAND.  The  original  name 
of  the  Dutch  colony  afterwards  called  New 
Vork. 

NEWNHAM  COLLEGE.  An  institution  for 
the  higher  education  of  women,  situated  at  Cam- 
bridge, England.  It  had  its  inception  in  the 
amalgamation  in  1880  of  the  Association  for 
Promoting  the  Higher  Education  of  Women  in 
Cambridge,  organized  in  1873,  with  the  Newnham 
Hall  Company,  opened  in  1875.  As  early  as  1871 
five  women  students  came  to  Cambridge  to  study 
under  the  direction  of  Miss  Clough,  subsequently 
principal  of  Newnham  College.  This  number 
increased  to  twenty-five  by  1874.  The  growth 
of  the  college  has  continued  steadilv.  and  in 
1902  it  included  North  Hall,  estaldishe'd  in  1880; 
Clough  Hall,  1888;  and  the  Pfeiller  Building, 
1S93.  The  library  contains  about  8000  vohiraes. 
The  attendance  in  1902  was  174.  The  faculty 
included  15  resident  and  37  non-resident  tutors. 
With  certain  restrictions  the  students  have  since 
1881  enjoyed  all  the  scholastic  privileges  offered 
at  the  University  of  Cambridge.  Their  names 
appear  in  the  tripos  or  honor  list  in  the  univer- 
sity calendar.  They  do  not,  however,  receive 
degrees,  but  are  granted  certificates  instead. 

NEW  ORLEANS,  or'l^-anz.  The  largest  city 
in  Louisiana,  and,  with  the  exception  of  Natchi- 
toches, the  oldest.  It  is  situated  on  both  banks  of 
the  Mississippi,  107  miles  from  its  mouth,  in  lati- 
tude 29°  58'  N..  and  longitude  90°  04'  \^■.  (Map: 
Louisiana.  F  4).  Its  distance  from  Washington 
in  direct  line  is  900  miles;  from  Saint  Louis  by 
rail.  (i39:  and  from  Chicago  by  rail,  923.  The  city 
l)roper  occupies  a  strij)  of  land  between  the  river 
and  Lakes  Maurepas  and  Pontchartrain.  with  the 
latter  of  which  it  is  connected  by  two  canals. 
The  corporate  limits  of  the  city  emlirace  the 
whole  parish  of  Orleans  and  a  portion  of  JelTer- 
son  on  the  right  bank  ( the  town  of  .\lgiers,  or 
Fifth  District).  Th<'  ofiicial  lioundaries  thus  in- 
close an  area  of  191  square  miles,  though  the 
inhabited  jjortion  covers  only  about  37  square 
miles.  The  city  lies  about  ten  feet  below  the 
levi  I  of  the  Gulf,  and  is  so  far  below  the  level  of 
high  water  in  the  Mississippi  that  it  is  protected 
from  overflows  by  levees  twenty  feet  high  in 
places.  Its  sobriquet,  the  'Crescent  Cit,v.'  is  de- 
rived from  the  fact  that  the  original  city  fol- 
lowed the  curve  of  the  river  in  front  of  the  old 
Place  D'Armes:  but  as  the  inhabited  portion 
has  been  gradually  extended,  its  shajie  more 
nearly  resembles  the  letter  S.  It  has  a  frontage 
of  more  than  twelve  miles  on  the  river,  which  is 
about  half  a  mile  wide  in  front  of  Canal  Street 
and  from  40  to  200  feet  deep. 

Canal  Street.  200  feet  broad,  is  the  great  busi- 
ness thoroughfare,  and  cuts  the  city  in  two.  the 
portion  below  being  known  as  the  French  Quarter, 
or  ViVi/j-  Cunt',  and  the  jiortion  above  as  the 
.Vnu'rican  Quarter.  The  French  portion,  with  its 
narri>w  streets,  its  occasional  tiled  roofs,  its  old 
cathedral,  its  Spanish  city  hall  or  Cabildo,  and 
its  porte-cocheres,  is  far  more  picturesque  than 
the  .\nierican  Quarter,  which  contains  the  great 
business  houses,  the  banks,  and  also  the  hand- 
somest private  dwellings.  In  the  French  Quarter, 
however,  many  beautiful  residences,  surnmnded 
by  flowers  and  .semi-tropical  plants,  arc  to  be 
seen  on  Esplanade  .\venue.  Here  dwell  the  old 
Creole  families,  descendants  of  the  earlv  French 
or  Spanish  settlers;  here  French  is  still  spoken 


NEW  ORLEANS. 


463 


NEW  ORLEANS. 


as  a  mother  tongue,  anci  though  tlierc  has  been 
much  iiiteimanying  and  social  intoicourse  with 
Americans,  French  customs  arc  still  observed,  and 
visitors  feel  as  if  they  had  happened  upon  an 
aristocratic  faubourg  of  Paris.  Traces,  also,  of 
the  Spanish  regime  are  to  be  found  in  many  inter- 
esting specimens  of  the  Hispano-Jtoresque  style  of 
architecture,  which,  with  the  red-tiled  Spanish 
houses  and  the  exquisite  wrought-iron  of  the  bal- 
conies, make  this  portion  of  the  city  unique. 
Above  Canal  Street  the  principal  residence  streets 
are  Saint  Charles  Avenue  and  Prytania  Street. 
These  stretch  for  miles  through  the  prettiest 
section  of  the  city.  Here  are  tbe  most  beautiful 
gardens.  The  palm,  the  palmetto,  the  fig,  the 
orange,  and  tlie  magnolia  grow  in  tropical  abun- 
dance, and  even  in  winter  the  atmos])here  is  often 
perfumed  with  the  odor  of  roses,  violets,  and 
sweet  olive.  Owing  to  the  curve  of  the  river,  the 
streets  do  not  run  at  right  angles;  they  follow 
what  is  sometimes  called  'the  line  of  beauty.' 
Between  the  main  thoroughfares  of  this  portion 
of  the  city  are  interpolated  a  number  of  small 
streets,  which,  seeming  to  begin  nowhere  and  end 
nowhere,  cause  great  perplexity  to  strangers. 
The  total  extent  of  streets  is  70o"  miles,  of  which 
only  204  miles  are  paved  at  all.  The  lack  of 
paving,  resulting  in  the  disuse  of  the  unpaved 
streets,  which  in  bad  weather  become  almost 
impassable,  has  a  tendency  to  congest  traffic  on 
the  few  streets  that  are  paved.  The  street  rail- 
ways cover  a  total  mileage  of  176.  Recently 
the}'  have  been  consolidated  under  one  company. 
A  belt  line,  twelve  miles  long,  extends  around 
the  most  attractive  portion  of  the  city.  There  is 
also  an  electric  line  connecting  with  West  End, 
a  suburban  resort,  nearly  seven  miles  from  the 
head  of  Canal  Street. 

Climate.  The  Weather  Bureau  reports  have 
been  carefully  kept  for  the  last  thirtj'-two  years. 
They  show  that  the  average  rainfall  is  58.01 
inches.  In  winter  there  is  generally  some  ice 
and  occasionally  snow.  The  summers  are  long, 
but  the  heat  is  seldom  excessive,  and  prostrations 
are  rare.  The  average  annual  relative  humidity 
is  74  per  cent.  The  large  surrounding  bodies  of 
water  render  the  climate  more  equable  than  in 
the  interior.  The  annual  mean  temperature  is 
69°.  In  thirty-two  years  the  temperature  has 
never  reached  100°,  except  in  1901. 

BuiLDiXG.s.  Among  the  secular  buildings  of 
Xew  Orleans,  the  most  interesting  is  the  Cabildo 
(now  the  Supreme  Court  building).  It  was 
built  at  the  expense  of  the  Oiovernment  near  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  during  the  Span- 
ish regime.  In  it  the  formal  transfer  of  the 
Province  of  Louisiana  from  Spain  to  France  and 
from  France  to  the  United  States  took  place 
with  elaborate  ceremonies  in  180.3.  Other 
notable  structures  are  the  Custom  House  and 
Post  Office  building  (cost  .$5,000,000).  which  is 
of  massive  granite,  but  not  beautiful  as  to  archi- 
tecture; the  City  Hall,  of  Ionic  order,  and  mod- 
eled after  a  Greek  temple;  the  new  Court  House; 
the  New  Saint  Charles  Hotel,  one  of  the  most 
famous  hostelries  in  the  South ;  the  Howard  Me- 
morial Library;  Gibson  Hall  (a  part  of  Tulane 
University);  the  Charity  Hospital;  the  Medical 
College;  the  Milliken  jlemorial  Hospital;  the 
Harmony  Club  (an  aristocratic  .Tewish  associa- 
tion) ;  the  Cotton  Exchange;  the  Sugar  Ex- 
change ;  the  Athenieum ;  the  Jewish  Orphans' 
Home;    and   the   new   Tilton   Memorial   Library 


(also  a  portion  of  Tulane  University).  Among 
the  splendid  office  buildings  that  are  rapidly  ris- 
ing in  the  business  centre  of  the  city  may  be 
mentioned  the  Hennen  building,  the  Liverpool 
and  London  and  Globe,  the  Morris,  the  Masonic 
Temple,  and  the  Tulane-Newcomb.  Of  the  eccle- 
siastical edifices  the  most  prominent  are  the 
Saint  Louis  Cathedral  (Catholic),  in  which  Gen- 
eral Jackson  attended  services  after  his  great 
victory  at  Cbalmette  in  1815;  the  Archiepiscopal 
Palace  (1730),  the  oldest  building  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley;  the  Church  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, Saint  Joseph's  Church,  the  Fir.st  Pres- 
byterian, Christ  Church  Cathedral  (Episcopal). 
'I'rinity  Church,  Saint  Paul's,  Temple  Sinai  and 
Touro  synagogues,  the  Prytania  Street  (Presby- 
terian) Church,  and  the  Coliseum  Place  (Bap- 
tist)  Church. 

Park.s.  The  total  park  area  of  the  city  is 
742.66  acres.  The  two  largest  and  most  interest- 
ing parks  are  the  City  Park  and  Audubon  Park, 
which  are  both  being  rapidly  improved.  City 
Park,  which  is  situated  on  Metairie  road,  between 
the  city  and  the  lake,  contains  160  acres.  It  was 
formerly  a  plantation,  and  beneath  its  ancestral 
oaks,  draped  with  festoons  of  Spanisli  moss,  oc- 
curred nearly  all  the  famous  duels  which  were 
a  marked  feature  of  Creole  life  before  the 
Civil  War.  Dueling  has  now  passed  away.  In 
this  park  young  men  find  amusement  in  golf 
and  polo.  Portions  of  it  are  still  wild.  Audubon 
Park,  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  city,  contains 
249  acres,  and  was  also  a  plantation  in  days 
gone  by.  It  was  here  that  in  1796  the  first  suc- 
cessful attempt  was  made  to  granulate  sugar — 
marking  an  epoch  in  the  industrial  history  of  the 
State.  Its  superb  live  oaks,  its  miniature  lakes, 
and  its  great  greenhouse,  300  feet  long,  and  full 
of  rare  tropical  plants,  make  this  park  a  favorite 
resort.  It  also  contains  an  interesting  sugar 
experiment  station,  supported  by  the  State.  Be- 
sides these  parks,  there  are  two  squares  that  at- 
tract attention  on  account  of  historical  associa- 
tions. These  are  Congo  Square  (now  Beauregard 
Square)  and  Jackson  Square.  The  former  was 
in  old  times  the  resort  of  the  slaves,  and  here 
they  assembled  for  their  wild  dances  to  the 
sound  of  bones  and  drums.  Jackson  Square  was 
not  only  associated  with  the  exciting  events  that 
occurred  in  connection  with  the  two  transfers 
of  the  province  in  1803,  but  was  also  the  scene 
of  the  triumphal  entry  into  the  city  of  General 
Jackson  after  the  Battle  of  New  Orleans,  The 
square  contains  a  fine  equestrian  statue  of  Gen- 
eral Jackson,  by  Clark  Mills.  Flanked  by  the 
old  cathedral  and  the  court  buildings  on  one  side 
and  by  the  fine  Pontalba  rows  on  the  other  two 
sides,  this  square  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
symmetrical  and  beautiful  public  places  in  the 
United  States.  Near  the  square  is  the  French 
market,  which  is  one  of  the  "sights'  of  New  Or- 
leans, Visitors  crowd  to  it  early  Sunday  morn- 
ings to  listen  to  the  babel  of  tongues — French, 
Spani.sh,  Italian,  Creole  patois,  and  English — to 
drink  'cafe  noir,'  and  to  buy  gomho  fiU.  (pounded 
sassafras)  and  baskets  of  the  Choctaw  Indians, 
who  still  frequent  it. 

Cesieteries.  There  are  a  number  of  cemeteries 
in  various  portions  of  the  cit.v.  The  most  inter- 
esting are  the  Catholic  cemeteries,  of  which  the 
oldest  is  Saint  Louis  No.  1,  and  the  most  curious 
is  Saint  Roch's  Campo  Santo.  The  handsomest 
cemetery  is  the  Metairie,  which  contains,  among 


NEW  OBLEANS. 


464 


NEW  ORLEANS. 


its  fine  monuments,  the  tomb  of  tlic  Army  of 
Tennessee,  surmounted  by  the  splendiil  equestiiau 
statute  of  tien.  Albert  Sidney  Johnston.  As  it  is 
not  possible  in  New  Orleans  to  dig  much  below 
the  surface  without  tindinj;  water,  the  curious 
custom  prevails  of  burying  in  vaults,  or  'ovens,' 
rising  in  tiers  sometimes  eight  feet  above  the 
ground  line.  Jews,  however,  bury  beneath  the 
ground,  as  do  some  of  the  poorer  classes.  On 
All  Saints'  Day  (November  1st),  which  is  a  gen- 
eral holiday  in  the  city,  the  Catholics  visit  the 
cemeteries  and  decorate  the  tombs  of  the  dead. 

Pi'iiLic  IxsTiTi'Tio.N.s.  While  New  Orleans  has 
no  such  enormous  libraries  as  are  found  in  some 
of  the  Northern  cities,  it  is  fortunate  in  possess- 
ing several  of  importance.  Among  the  smaller 
ones  of  a  quasi-public  character  should  be  men- 
tioned those  owned  by  the  .Jesuits'  College,  the 
Tulane  Medical  College,  the  Parish  Medical 
Society,  the  New  Orleans  Bar  Association,  and 
the  H.  Sophie  Newcomb  Memorial  College.  The 
larger  libraries  are  the  State  Library,  with  about 
25,000  volumes:  the  Tilton  Memorial  Lilivary  of 
Tulane  University,  with  20.000  volumes  and  2000 
pamphlets;  the  Howard  Memorial,  willi  4.3,000 
volumes  and  12.000  pamphlets;  and  the  New 
Orleans  Public  J.ilirary,  with  52.000  catalogued 
and  10,000  uncataloguod  books.  The  Howard  Me- 
morial, which  is  privately  endowed,  is  a  reference 
library,  and  has  perhaps  the  best  collection  in  the 
world  of  books  concerning  the  history  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley.  The  Public  Library,  embracing 
the  former  Kisk  and  Lyceum  libraries,  has  an  in- 
creasing circulation,  amounting  in  1002  to  110.000 
volumes.  There  are  also  in  the  city  three  private 
libraries  containing  valuable  collections  of  orig- 
inal documents  on  American  history.  In  the 
Howard  Memorial  Hall  are  a  numl>er  of  interest- 
ing relics  of  the  Civil  War.  .\ndrew  Carnegie 
offered  the  city  $250,000  to  erect  a  new  library 
building  with  branches,  and  the  otler  has  been  ac- 
cepted. 

Chabitable  TNSTiTfTiON.s.  The  city  is  rich  in 
such  institutions.  The  principal  one  is  the  Char- 
ity Hospital,  built  in  18:!2.  it  treats  aboiit  5000 
patients  every  year,  without  charge.  It  receives 
from  the  State  .$05,000  annually,  with  additional 
sums  for  inii)rovement  of  buildings,  etc.,  and  is 
controlled  by  a  board  appointed  by  the  (iovernor. 
The  city  .supports  a  home  for  aged  and  infirm, 
a  house  of  refuge  for  boys,  and  an  insane  asylum. 
There  is  also  an  eye,  ear,  nose,  and  throat  hos- 
pital, maintained  by  private  contributions.  The 
Jews  have  several  well-organized  ehaiitable  in- 
stit\itioiis.  among  which  the  principal  are  the 
Jewish  Orphans'  Honu-  and  the  Ihnnc  for  Aged 
and  Infirm  .Jews.  The  Touro  Infirmary,  endowed 
by  a  wealthy  Hebrew  philanthropist,  has  a  free 
ciinic,  where  the  poor  of  all  sects  are  treated. 
The  Catholics  have  the  most  numerous  charitable 
institutions  under  their  control.  The  most  prom- 
inent are  the  Poydras  Asylum,  the  New  Orleans 
Female  Orphan  Asylum,  Saint  Vincent's  Infant 
.\syluin,  and  the  House  of  tlu^  Oood  Shepherd. 
There  are  also  for  colored  pei^ple  a  Hoys'  Home 
and  a  Home  for  the  Aged,  founded  by  a  colored 
philanthropist.  Of  recent  founilation  is  the 
Kingsley  House,  modeled  after  the  fanwus  Hull 
House  of  Chicago,  It  is  supported  by  private 
.subscriptions.  Kinnlly.  the  Charity  Organizati<m 
Society  has  undertaken  to  organize  the  many 
charities  of  the  city,  and  by  the  careful  investi- 
gation of  its  agents  to  prevent  pauperization. 


Edvc.vtioxal  IxsTlTLTiONS.  The  organization 
of  the  public  school  system  is  thorough  and  com- 
plete. A  large  number  of  the  handsome  school- 
houses  of  the  city  were  built  from  the  income  of 
a  fund  given  by  a  former  citizen.  John  Mc- 
Donogh,  which  now  amounts  to  about  $800,000. 
The  city  makes  such  appropriations  for  the  pub- 
lic schools  as  it  thinks  proper,  but  it  cannot 
appropriate  less  than  eight-tenths  of  a  mill  for 
any  one  year.  Besides  this  appropriation  it  re- 
ceives its  share  of  the  current  school  fimd  col- 
lected by  the  State.  There  are  no  "mixed'  schools. 
The  nundx'r  of  public  schools  for  whites  is  (il, 
and  for  negroes  12.  The  number  of  teachers  is 
.SOO  white  and  colored.  The  total  enrollment  for 
1002  was  31,205,  of  whom  26,l;i;5  were  white 
and  5072  were  colored.  The  public  school  s\stem 
consists  of  one  normal,  three  high,  G8  grammar 
and  primary.  18  kindergarten,  one  teachers'  prac- 
tice school,  and  one  teachers'  kindergarten  train- 
ing school.  These  schools  occupy  09  buildings.  .'?2 
of  which  were  erected  by  the  city,  28  by  the 
commissioners  of  the  McDonogh  fund,  and  two 
lionated.  The  total  cost  of  maintaining  the 
schools  per  annum  is  $510,573.  The  estinuited 
e.\penditure  for  each  pupil  is  $16.30.  Free  in- 
struction is  also  given  to  young  children  by  si.\ 
kindergartens,  sup|)orted  partly  by  churches  and 
partly  by  private  funds.  The  number  of  private 
schools  in  the  city  is  145  for  whites  and  14  for 
iu>groes.  Among  the  most  prominent  colleges 
may  be  mentioned  tlie  College  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception  (established  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers  in 
1847);  the  Soul*'  Commercial  and  Literary  In- 
stitute (established  1850);  Speiu'er's  Business 
College  and  Institute  of  Shorthand  (established 
1897)  ;  the  Blake  Institute;  and  the  Honu-  Insti- 
tute (established  in  1883).  The  last-named  in- 
stitution, besides  its  regular  work,  conducts  a 
free  night  school,  in  which  instnution  is  given 
to  nearly  1300  men  and  boys.  For  the  education 
of  the  colored  youth  there  are  four  universities, 
or  more  properly  colleges:  Leland  Iniversity 
(1S70I,  Straight'  University  (1870),  New  Or- 
leans University  (1873),  and  the  Southern  Uni- 
versity (1881).  Only  the  last  of  these  is  sup- 
ported by  the  funds  of  the  State.  For  the  whites 
there  is  only  one  university,  the  Tulane  Univer- 
sity of  Louisiana  (q.v.),  with  the  H.  Sophie  New- 
comb  Memorial  College  for  Women. 

.\mi  .sEMK.\T.s.  New  Orleans  is  famous  for  it* 
French  opera.  For  forty  years  before  the  Civil  War 
troupes  were  brought  over  from  Fraiu'e  to  fur- 
nish this  entertainment,  and  with  brief  intervals 
the  custom  has  prevailed  ever  since.  Such  is  the 
passion  fiu'  music  and  singing,  especially  among 
the  Creoles,  that  even  in  times  of  great  financial 
depression  the  city  has  managed  by  private  sul>- 
scription  to  sup|iort  these  foreign  companies.  No 
other  city  in  the  Union  has  shown  equal  enthusi- 
asm. Thousands  of  visitors  are  attracted  to  the 
city  d\iring  the  w  inter  season  by  the  opera ;  but 
a  still  greater  attraction  for  many  years  has 
lieen  the  Carnival  celebration.  As  early  as  1840 
tableaux  on  floats  were  drawn  through  the  strei'ts, 
and,  except  during  the  Civil  War.  the  custom 
has  continued  to  the  present  day.  These  superb 
]iageants  are  now  given  by  four  secret  organiza- 
tions— Momus.  Proteus.  Rex.  and  Conuis — and 
each  is  followed  at  night  by  a  gorgeous  ball. 
Other  secret  organizations  have  sprung  into  being 
of  late  years,  and  the  series  of  masked  balls  now 
extends  with  brief  intervals  from  Twelfth  Night 


NEW  ORLEANS. 


465 


NEW  ORLEANS. 


to  Mardi  Uras,  or  Shmvc  Tuesday.  Wlien  the 
morning  of  Asli  Wednesday  dawns  every  vestige 
of  tliis  prolonged  revelry  luis  vanished.  The  sub- 
jects represented  in  the  parades  are  drawn  from 
niytholog}'.  romance,  and  history.  The  floats  are 
designed  by  artists  of  established  reputation,  who, 
with  their  assistants,  spend  many  months  in 
elaborating  them.  The  e.xpi'nse  of  these  parades 
is  ab(nit  $200,000  a  year.  Nowhere  else  in  the 
world  are  similar  pageants  to  be  seen. 

Ci.rns.  The  ]nineipal  social  chilis  of  New 
Orleans  are  the  Boston,  the  Pickwick,  the  Chess, 
Checkers  and  Whist,  the  Harmony,  the  Louisi- 
ana, th"  Era  (a  women's  club),  the  Round  Table, 
the  Variete,  and  the  Southern  Yacht  Club.  The 
Louisiana  Historical  Society  devotes  itself  to  the 
investigation  and  preservation  of  the  history 
of  the  State,  while  the  Athenee  Louisianais  was 
founded  for  the  study  and  preservation  of  the 
French  language. 

Dr.^ixage  and  Sewerage.    The  surface  of  the 


vailed  for  some  time  without  Ijeing  recognized. 
In  that  year,  according  to  the  official  report, 
there  were  in  Louisiana  1",(.3.t  cases,  most  of 
Iheni  in  New  Orleans,  but  the  total  number  of 
deaths  was  only  30().  In  the  two  subsequent 
years  the  disea.se  appeared  again,  but  still  in 
a  very  mild  form  and  with  a  low  rate  of 
mortality.  In  185.3  the  death  rate  per  1000  of  the 
population  from  vellow  fever  alone  was  50.9;  in 
1854  it  was  \5aI  in  1878.  l;).20;  in  1897,  L90; 
in  1898,  .20;  and  in  1899,  only  .07.  Hence  the 
city  board  of  health  has  declared  that  '"this 
once  dreaded  disease  is  no  longer  worthy  of  a 
place  of  dignity  in  our  statistics  as  a  life  de- 
stroyer." It  may  be  added  that  the  general 
cleaning  up  that  has  been  given  by  the  United 
States  to  the  city  of  Havana  is  regarded  as  an 
important  protective  measure  for  New  Orleans. 
Finally,  the  mildness  of  the  climate  of  New  Or- 
leans, and  the  outdoor  life  which  such  a  climate 
renders    possible,   preserve   the   inhabitants   to   a 


city   being   entirely   flat,   with   the   exception   of     large  extent  from  many  of  the  terrible  diseases 


Metairie  Ridge,  which  has  an  elevation  of  about 
two  feet,  the  problem  of  drainage  and  sewerage 
has  been  a  perplexing  one  ever  since  the  founding 
of  New  Orleans.  The  average  rainfall  being 
58  inches,  tropical  downpours  are  not  infre- 
quent, and  they  sometimes  flood  the  principal 
streets  to  the  depth  of  several  feet.  To  this  in- 
convenience is  added  the  fact  that  strong  winds 
often  force  the  waters  of  Lake  Pontchartrain 
over  the  rear  of  the  city,  and  keep  it  submerged 
for  several  days.  Various  plans  for  draining  the 
city  were  tried,  but  they  all  failed.  Finally  the 
city  appropriated  for  this  purpose  a  large  amount 
of  money  derived  from  the  sale  of  street  railway 
franchises,  and  nnder  a  drainage  board  appointed 
in  189()  the  immense  work  of  digging  canals  and 
establishing  pumping  stations  was  begun.  Much 
yet  remains  to  be  done,  but  the  system  as  far 
as  completed  was  put  into  practical  operation 
in  llarch,  1900.  Meanwhile  ( 1899) ,  the  property 
owners  of  the  city  voted  a  special  ta.x  of  two 
mills  to  run  forty-two  years  to  provide  the  neces- 
sary funds  for  "sewerage,  drainage,  and  munic- 
ipal water-works."  A  new  board  was  then  ap- 
pointed, but  a  troublesome  litigation  in  the  courts 
tied  its  hands  for  manv  months.  Recent  decisions 
of  the  courts,  however,  in  favor  of  the  city  give 
promise  of  speedy  and  successful  execution  of  this 
great  work.  At  present  New  Orleans  is  insuffi- 
ciently supplied  with  river  water,  and  a  large 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  depend  upon  rain 
water,  collected  in  great  wooden  vats  or  cisterns, 
which,  rising  nearly  as  high  as  the  houses,  form 
a  imique  feature  of  the  city. 

Health.  New  Orleans  has  always  been  sub- 
ject, at  intervals,  to  visitations  of  yellow  fever, 
and  its  sanitary  reputation  has  been  thereby  seri- 
ously impaired.  Before  the  Civil  War  the  worst 
epidemics  were  those  of  1832,  when  more  than 
8000,  out  of  a  population  of  about  55,000,  died 
of  yellow  fever  and  cholera;  of  1847.  when  nearly 
2500  died  of  yellow  fever  alone;  and  of  1853 — the 
'Great  Ei)idemic" — w-hen  fully  16,000  died  from 
yellow  fever  and  other  causes.  In  1878  there 
was  one  which  carried  off  4000  persons  in  Louisi- 
ana. In  1882,  however,  a  thorough  s^'stem  of 
disinfecting  vessels  was  established  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  for  fifteen  years  the  fever 
was  kept  outside  tlie  Ixiundaries  of  the  State.  In 
1897  it  was  again  introduced  from  a  town  in  a 
neighboring   State,   where   the   disease   had    pre- 


common  in  other  cities.  The  mortality  among 
the  colored  population,  which  is  generally  im- 
provident and  careless  of  .sanitation,  is  much 
higher  than  among  the  whites. 

Ikbustry  .\nd  Commerce.  As  a  manufactur- 
ing centre  New  Orleans  has  many  advantages, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  following: 
The  climate  is  moist  enough  for  cotton  manufac- 
ture and  favorable  for  continuous  labor  through- 
out the  jear;  the  raw  materials  need  but  short 
transportation;  the  laboring  class  is  numerous 
and  contented;  fuel  is  brought  cheaply  by  water; 
and  the  exporting  facilities  are  excellent.  It  is 
estimated  that  in  the  last  twenty-five  years  the 
value  of  the  products  of  factories  in  the  city  has 
increased  six  fold.  The  chief  industries  are  rice 
cleaning  and  sugar  refining,  and  the  nuinufactur- 
ing  of  boots  and  shoes,  furniture,  men's  clothing, 
cotton  goods,  tobacco,  cigars,  and  cigarettes,  cot- 
tonseed oil,  and  planing-mill  products.  The  last 
census  (1900)  gives  the  numlier  of  wage-earners 
in  all  industries  as  19,435;  the  total  wages  paid 
as  $7,645,167;  and  the  value  of  the  total  output 
as  $03,514,505.  The  value  of  all  products  in 
1890  was  only  $48,234,924.  There  are  in  the 
city  1624  manufacturing  enterprises,  devoted  to 
150  different  industries,  with  a  total  capital  of 
$52,000,000.  The  United  States  Government  re- 
cently constructed  at  New  Orleans  one  of  the 
largest  floating  dry  docks  in  the  world.  This 
has  shown  its  ability  to  lift  and  sustain  the 
largest  ship  in  the  American  Navy.  New  Orleans 
is  the  second  export  city  in  the  Union,  being 
excelled  only  by  New  York.  Six  great  railroad 
lines,  with  a  total  mileage  of  26.881,  have  their 
terminus  here.  These  are  the  Southern  Pacific, 
Illinois  Central.  Louisville  and  Nashville,  Texas 
and  Pacific,  Southern,  and  the  Queen  and  Cres- 
cent. The  last  two  enter  New  Orleans  over  the 
tracks  of  another  line.  There  are  six  great  grain 
elevators  along  the  docks.  The  docks,  which 
are  for  the  most  part  uncovered,  extend  for  six 
miles  along  the  left  bank.  As  the  gateway  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley  the  city  is  well  situated  for 
foreign  commerce.  The  jetties  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  give  a  channel  of  about  thirty  feet,  and 
the  depth  of  the  river  in  front  of  the  city  is  ample 
for  the  largest  vessels.  Direct  lines  of  steam- 
ships connect  with  New  York,  the  West  Indies, 
Central  America,  and  Europe,  and  there  is  even  a 
direct  line  via  the  Suez  Canal  to  Japanese  ports. 


NEW  OBLEANS. 


466 


NEW  OSLEAKS. 


carrying  raw  cotton  for  manufacture.  At  present 
there  are  thirty  steamship  lines  connecting  Xew 
Orleans  nith  the  principal  ports  of  the  worlj. 
As  soon  as  the  Isthmian  Canal  is  built  a  great 
impetus  will  be  given  to  the  commerce  of  the 
city.  The  foreign  trade  consists  very  largely  of 
exports,  the  annual  value  of  wliich  is  about 
.$150,000,000.  The  imports,  however,  are  increas- 
ing, being  over  .$23,000,000  for  the  ten  months 
ending  April,  1903. 

Government.  In  1890  the  present  charter  of 
the  city  was  granted  by  the  Legislature.  It  is 
largely  in  accord  with  the  suggestions  of  the 
Municipal  Reform  League  of  America,  and  is  in 
many  respects  a  radical  departure  from  the  pre- 
vious charters.  The  executive  jiowers  are  vested 
in  a  mayor,  a  controller,  a  treasurer,  a  com- 
missioner of  police  and  |)ublic  works,  and  a  city 
engineer.  The  first  three  are  elected  for  four 
years,  while  the  rest  are  appointed  by  the  mayor 
with  the  consent  of  the  coimcil.  As  has  been  the 
custom  in  other  great  cities  of  late  years,  large 
appointive  power  is  vested  in  the  mayor,  who  is 
held  responsible  for  his  appointees.  The  only 
exception  made  is  in  the  case  of  the  keepers  of 
the  people's  money.  The  council,  which  is  uni- 
cameral, is  elected  for  four  years,  Bv  an  un- 
usual provision,  each  member  receives  a  salary 
of  $20  a  month  if  he  has  attended  all  meetings. 
The  granting  of  franchises,  the  usual  pitfall  of 
councils,  is  carefully  safeguarded.  Connected 
with  the  city  government  proper,  but  in  some 
respects  largely  independent  of  it,  are  a  number 
of  boards,  with  various  functions,  such  as  the 
civil  service  commission,  the  board  of  li([uida- 
tion  of  the  cit.v  debt,  the  police  board,  tlie  i)oard 
of  fire  commissioners,  the  school  board,  tlie  board 
of  health,  the  Xew  Orleans  levee  board,  the  port 
commission,  the  drainage  commission,  and  tlie 
water  and  sewerage  board.  Besides  the  numerous 
city  courts,  the  State  Supreme  Court,  the  United 
States  District,  the  Circuit  Court,  and  the  Cir- 
cuit Court  of  Appeals  liold  sessions  in  Xew  Or- 
leans. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  city  controller 
for  1902  gives  the  bonded  debt  of  the  city  as 
$17,28(!,490.  and  the  valuation  of  real  and  per- 
sonal projierfy  as  $147,201,984.  The  rate  of  tax- 
ation was  22  mills,  consisting  of:  city  expense 
tax,  10  mills;  interest  and  redcmiition  city  bonds, 
10  mills;  special  tax  for  water,  sewerage,  and 
drainage,  2  mills.  To  this  tax  of  22  mills  should 
be  added  the  State  tax  of  t!  mills  and  the  tax  of 
1  mill  for  the  maintenance  of  levees,  making  the 
total  rate  29  mills.  There  is  also  a  poll  tax  of 
$1,  which  is  devoted  to  the  support  of  ])ublic 
schools. 

Poi'i'LATiox.  The  census  of  1900  gave  New 
Orleans  a  populati<m  of  287,104,  making  it  the 
twelfth  largest  city  in  the  I'nited  States.  This 
total  included  30.325  per.sons  of  foreign  birth 
anil  77.714  of  neL'ro  clescent.  The  increase  in 
population,  according  to  the  censuses  of  former 
years,  is  shown  as  follows:  in  1870,  191,418; 
1880,  210.090:    1890,  242,039. 

History.  N'ew  Orleans  was  laid  out  in  171S 
bv  .lean  Haptiste  Le  Movne.  Sieur  de  Bienville, 
then  Covernnr  of  Louisiana,  and  it  was  named 
in  honor  of  the  Diike  of  Orleans.  Regent  of 
Krance.  The  centre  of  the  new  settlement  was 
the  old  Place  d'.Armes,  now  called  .Tackson 
Square.  Tn  1722,  when  Xew  Orleans  became  the 
capital  nf  the  French  territory  in  this  vicinity, 


its  low,  marshy  site  was  visited  by  P6re  Charle- 
voix, who  records  in  his  journal  that  he  found 
only  a  hundred  barrack-like  buildings,  with  a 
large  wooden  storehouse,  and  "two  or  three  resi- 
dences that  would  be  no  ornament  to  a  village  in 
France,"  With  prophetic  eye,  however,  he  added: 
"I  have  a  well-grounded  hope  that  this  wild  and 
desert  place,  which  the  reeds  and  trees  do  yet 
almost  wholly  cover,  will  be  one  day — and  per- 
haps that  day  is  not  far  distant — an  opulent  city 
and  the  metropolis  of  a  great  and  rich  colony." 
In  Xovember,  1702,  France  ceded  the  whole  of 
Louisiana  to  Spain,  but  the  people  in  Xew  Or- 
leans, who  first  heard  of  the  transaction  in  1704, 
strenuously  objected  to  the  change  and  forcibly 
expelled  the  first  Spanish  Governor,  who  came 
in  not!.  In  1709  Alexander  O'Reilly  ((j.v.), 
who  had  just  been  appointed  Governor  of  Louisi- 
ana, |)unislied  with  unsparing  severity  those  who 
had  been  jirominent  in  the  uprising.  In  the  same 
year  the  census  taken  by  Governor  O'Reilly  shows 
that  the  city  possessed  onl.v  408  houses,  with  a 
population  of  3191.  Of  these  the  free  persons 
numbered  1901,  the  slaves  1230,  and  the  domesti- 
cated Indians  00.  During  the  rest  of  the  Span- 
ish period  there  was  but  slow  growth,  perhaps  on 
account  of  the  burdensome  conunercial  restric- 
tions of  the  Spanish  regime.  During  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution  Xew  Orleans  was  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  Spanish  forces  on  the  Xorth  American 
continent,  and  the  place  from  which  a  number  of 
expeditions  were  sent  out  by  Governor  Hirnardo 
Galvez  (q.v.)  against  the  British,  In  1800,  by 
the  secret  Treaty  of  San  Ildefonso  (q.v.),  Louisi- 
ana was  retroccdcd  to  France,  but  the  French 
(iovernment  did  not  take  formal  posst'ssion  until 
X'^oveniber  30,  1803,  just  twenty  da.vs  before 
American  deputies  came  to  take  possession  for 
the  I'nited  States  in  pursuance  of  the  Louisiana 
Purchase,  By  this  year  the  population  had  in- 
creased to  a  little  over  8000.  In  1802  the  prod- 
ucts shipped  from  New  Orleans  consisted  of  Hour, 
50,000  pounds;  tobacco,  2000  hogsheads:  cotton, 
34,000  bales.  Some  5000  casks  of  rum  were  pro- 
duced in  the  di-stilleries  around  the  citj',  but  the 
manufactures  were  mostly  confined  to  cordage, 
hair-powder,  vermicelli,  and  shot. 

As  for  the  government  during  the  French  and 
Spanish  regime,  the  whole  province  was  nomi- 
nally in  the  hands  of  a  Superior  Council,  which 
was  a  judicial  body  and  theoretically  a  legisla- 
tive one.  In  truth,  however,  this  body,  which 
was  appointive,  not  elective,  had  very  little  power, 
.411  laws  for  Louisiana  were  made  in  France. 
There  was  no  self-government  either  under  the 
French  or  the  Spanish.  I'nder  the  Spanish  a 
Caliildo  (assembly)  was  substituted  for  the  Su- 
perior Council.  It  was  composed  of  six  per- 
petual rcgidores.  two  ordinary  alcaldes,  an  at- 
torney-general syndic,  and  a  clerk.  The  Governor 
presided.  By  a  curious  provision,  the  ofTices  of 
regidor  and  clerk  were  obtained  by  purchase,  and 
in  the  first  instance  at  auction.  The  ordinary 
alcaldes  and  the  attorney  were  elected  annually 
by  the  Cabildo.  The  ordinary  alcaldes  were 
judges  within  the  city  for  criminal  and  civil 
cases.  The  regidores  were  the  standard-bearer, 
the  high  sherifT.  the  receiver  of  fines,  etc.  There 
was  an  appeal  from  this  tribunal  to  the  Cap- 
tain-General of  Cuba,  and  from  him  to  the 
Royal  Audience  in  Santo  Domingo,  and  thence 
to  the  Council  of  the  Indies  in  Madrid.  As 
under  the  French,  the  laws  were  issued  by  the 


NEW  ORLEANS. 


467 


NEW  ORLEANS. 


(jovernor  in  the  name  of  tlie  King.  Even  the 
police  regulations  were  issued  by  the  same 
r)t1ic'ial. 

In  1804,  the  year  after  the  Unite<l  States  ob- 
I. lined  possession.  President  Jetrerson  said  that 
"the  position  of  New  Orleans  certainly  destines  it 
to  he  the  greatest  eity  the  world  has  ever  seen:" 
but  the  growth  for  many  years,  though  rapid, 
did  not  come  up  to  the  general  expectations.  In 
1805  New  Orleans  was  regularly  incorporated, 
and  the  inhabitants  elected  a  city  council.  This 
was  the  lirst  occasion  on  which  the  right  of  public 
suffrage  was  ever  exercised  in  Louisiana.  Ameri- 
cans now  crowded  into  the  newly  acquired  city. 
Jn  the  winter  of  1800-07  wild  rumors  were 
abroad  that  Burr  intended  to  make  New  Orleans 
the  capital  of  a  new  empire.  The  city  was  placed 
under  martial  law  by  General  Wilkinson,  and  it 
was  some  time  before  the  excitement  subsided. 

A  great  impetus  to  the  prosperity  of  the  city 
was  given  in  1812,  when  the  first  steamboat  ar- 
rived from  Pittsburg.  The  Mississippi  was  now 
to  become  a  great  highway  of  commerce,  and 
New  Orleans  was  to  flourish  accordingly.  Growth 
was  checked  for  a  time  by  the  war  with  Great 
r.ritain.  which  followed  soon.  When,  however. 
General  Jackson  won  his  great  victory  at  Chal- 
mette  in  1815  (see  New  Orleans,  Battle 
OF),  attention  was  speedily  directed  to  the 
I  ity  that  he  had  saved,  and  its  population 
iiRrea.sed  more  rapidly  than  ever  before.  By 
1S30  it  had  risen  to"  40.000,  and  in  1840  to 
10-2.000.  The  citj-  was  extended  beyond  its  old 
boundaries,  gas  and  other  improvements  were  in- 
troduced.and  a  more  cosmopolitan  spirit  began  to 
n|)pear.  In  18.'i7  the  city  became  involved  in  the 
speculative  mania  of  the  daj'  anil  suffered  se- 
verely from  the  ensuing  panic.  Nothing,  how- 
lAcr.  could  permanently  check  the  prosperity  of 
Xcw  Orleans,  not  even  the  terrible  ravages  of  the 
yellow  fever,  which  in  the  decade  before  the  Civil 
War  were  more  fatal  than  ever  before.  In  1836 
the  Creoles  were  so  little  in  accord  with  the 
Americans  that  a  novel  form  of  government  was 
tried.  The  city  was  divided  into  three  nuinicipal- 
ities,  each  with  a  recorder  and  a  council  of  alder- 
men. There  were  a  mayor  and  a  general  council 
(embracing  the  councils  of  the  different  munic- 
ipalities) to  control  the  affairs  of  general  inter- 
est, but  each  municipality  could  tax  itself  and 
manage  its  local  affairs.  This  anomalous  state 
of  things  continued  until  1852.  In  1849  the  State 
lapital  was  transferred  to  Baton  Rouge,  but  later 
\(  \v  Orleans  was  again  for  a  time  the  capital 
ilSOS-SO). 

In  the  Civil  War  New  Orleans  was  an  im- 
lortant  centre  of  Confederate  military  and  com- 
1111  rcial  operations  until  captured  by  a  Federal 
lliit  under  Admiral  Farragut  in  April,  1802. 
I  See  Fort  .Jack.son.)  Thereafter  it  proved  an 
important  strategic  point  for  attacks  upon  other 
jiarts  of  the  Confederacy.  Under  the  administra- 
(iiin  nf  Gen.  B.  F.  Butler  (q.v,).  which  lasted 
from  ^fay  to  December,  1802.  the  city  suffered 
tile  extreme  rigor  of  martial  law.  Butler's  suc- 
cessor. Gen.  N.  P.  Banks,  was  far  more  concilia- 
tory. During  the  period  of  reconstruction  New 
Orleans  was  the  headquarters  of  the  politicians 
and  of  the  'carpetbaggers'  who,  with  their  freed- 
nien  allies,  governed  the  State  during  this  stormy 
period.  In  1806  there  was  a  serious  riot  at  Me- 
chanics' Institute  (now  Tulane  Hall),  in  which 
a  constitutional   convention   was   broken    up   by 


I 


the  Democrats  and  a  number  of  persons  killed. 
In  1874  the  Uepublican  Governor,  William  Pitt 
Kellogg,  fearing  an  uprising  of  the  people,"denied 
the  inhabitants  the  right  to  bear  arms,  and  when- 
ever arms  were  found  on  any  person  they  were 
seized  by  the  police.  Phe  White  League,'  a  Demo- 
cratic organization,  determined  to  procure  arms  at 
all  hazards.  Arms  were  ordered  by  steamer  from 
the  North,  and  when  the  steamer  arrived  at  the 
level',  ihe  League,  arming  itself  as  best  it  could, 
marched  down  to  the  dock  on  Canal  Street  to 
receive  them.  Here  a  contiict  was  precipitated 
with  the  metropolitan  police  of  the  (iovernor. 
The  police  were  .scattered,  and  the  artillery  which 
they  had  placed  upon  the  levee  was  turned 
against  themselves.  The  White  Leaguers  lost 
sixteen  men.  Seventeen  years  later  a  monument 
was  erected  to  their  memory  on  the  spot  where  they 
fell.  While  an  ap])eal  to  the  President  once  more 
restored  the  (Jovernor  to  power,  this  affair  of 
September  14,  1874,  is  generally  regarded  as  the 
beginning  of  the  end  of  reconstruction  in  Louisi- 
ana. In  1877  the  United  States  troops  were  with- 
drawn, and  with  them  the  "carpetbag'  rule  disap- 
peared. With  a  free  government  restored,  the 
city  turned  its  attention  to  the  development  of 
its  great  opportunities,  and  steady  progress  has 
marked  its  subsequent  history.  In  1884  a  Cotton 
Centennial  Exposition  was  held  here — the  first 
bale  of  cotton  exported  from  this  country  having 
been  shipped  from  Charleston  in  1784.  In  1880 
the  capital  of  the  State  was  removefl  from  New 
Orleans.  In  1891  nine  Italians,  members  of  the 
Mafia  ( q.v. ) ,  who  had  been  arrested  for  the 
murder  of  the  chief  of  police,  David  C.  Hennessy, 
were  lynched  by  a  mob,  after  being  acquitted  by 
the  courts.  This  gave  rise  to  considerable  con- 
troversy between  the  United  States  and  the 
Italian  governments. 

Consult:  Standard  History  of  Jfew  Orleans 
(Chicago,  1900)  :  King,  Nett-  Orleans,  the  Place 
and  the  People  (New  York,  1890)  ;  JIartin,  His- 
tort/  of  Louisiana  (New  Orleans.  1882)  ;  Gayarre, 
Hifitrjry  of  Louisiana  (ib.,  I90.S);  King  and 
Ficklen,  History  of  Louisiana  (ib..  189.3)  :  War- 
ing and  Cable,  "Social  Statistics  of  Cities, 
History  and  Present  Condition."  in  Tenth  United 
States  Census  (Washington.  1881)  :  Howe,  "Mu- 
nicipal History  of  New  Orleans."  in  Johns  Hop- 
kins Unirersity  Studies,  ser.  vii..  No.  4  (Balti- 
more. 1889)  :  Commereial.  Industrial,  and  Finan- 
cial Outlook  for  Nein  Orleans  (Cedar  Rapids, 
Iowa,  1894). 

NEW  ORLEANS,  Battle  of.  The  last  bat- 
tle of  the  War  of  1812  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  fought  at  Chalmette,  near 
New  Orleans,  La.,  .lanuary  8.  IHl.'i.  On 
December  10,  1814.  a  British  fleet  of  more 
than  fifty  sail  with  about  7000  troops  on 
board  arrived  off  the  eastern  coast  of  Louisi- 
ana and  came  to  anchor  near  the  entrance 
to  Lake  Borgne.  Twelve  days  later  a  division 
of  the  troops,  by  the  aid  of  treacherous  Spanish 
fishermen,  made  its  way  up  Bayou  Bicnvenu.  and 
on  the  afternoon  of  the  23d  reached  the  right 
bank  of  the  Mississippi,  some  miles  below  New- 
Orleans.  A  few  ho\irs  later  the  Americans,  who 
for  some  weeks  had.  inider  the  leadership  of 
Major-Gen.  .\ndrew  .Tackson.  been  preparing  to 
resist  the  invasion,  made  a  night  attack  upon  the 
division  and  inflicted  considerable  loss,  but  did  not 
succeed  in  overwhelming  it.     Next  morning  Gen- 


NEW  OBLEANS. 


468 


NEWPORT. 


eral  Juckson  fell  l)aek  Ijeliiml  iui  old  disuseil  mill- 
race  that  stretched  across  the  strip  of  solid  ground 
from  the  river  to  a  cypress  swamp,  ami  there 
threw  up  a  breastwork.  This  breastwork  was  com- 
posed chieHy  of  earth,  and  not  of  cotton  bales,  as 
was  once  believed;  as  a  matter  of  fact.  '^TT  bales 
were  originally  used  in  the  embrasures  of  some 
of  the  batteries  and  in  building  a  magazine.  On 
New  Year's  Day  .Major-tJen.  Sir  Edward  I'akcn- 
ham,  who  had  now  arrived  with  rcenforccmcnts 
and  taken  command  of  the  English.  attenipte<l  to 
batter  down  the  American  lines  by  a  cannonade; 
but  this  attempt  failed,  and  he  then  decided 
to  try  an  assault.  The  plan  he  adopted  was  for 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Thornlon  to  cross  the  river 
and  storm  an  American  battery  on  the  right 
bank;  wliile  on  the  left  bank  two  columns  were  to 
assault  the  American  main  position.  The  assault 
was  made  on  the  morning  of  .January  8.  1815.  On 
the  left  bank  the  British  attacked  with  spirit,  but 
were  met  with  such  a  heavy  cannonade  and 
with  such  a  storm  of  bullets  from  the  rifles  of 
the  American  troops,  mainly  backwoodsmen  from 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  that  in  less  than  half 
an  hour  about  2,">00  men.  including  ilajor-Generals 
Pakenham.  Oilibs.  and  Keane,  were  shot  down, 
and  the  assault  failed.  The  American  loss  in 
this  main  engagement  was  but  eight  killed  and 
thirteen  wounded.  On  the  right  bank  Tliornton 
was  successful,  but.  owing  to  the  defeat  of  the 
main  army,  was  unable  to  follow  \ip  his  advan- 
tage. Ten  aays  later  the  British  retreated  to 
their  ships.  Although  the  battle  was  fought 
after  the  Treaty  of  Ghent  (q.v.)  had  been 
signed,  it  had  results  of  importance.  It  was, 
says  the  historian  Schoulcr,  the  only  battle  of 
the  war  that  made  an  impression  on  Europe,  and 
it  served  also  to  help  cpii<-ken  the  yet  feeble  sense 
of  American  nationality.  By  giving  a  s\niset 
glow  of  success  to  an  otherwise  somewhat  in- 
glorious war.  it  greatly  strengthened  the  position 
of  the  Administration  and  hastened  the  "death- 
bed scene  of  the  Eederalist  Party."  Host  im- 
portant of  all,  it  made  (icneral  Jackson,  who  had 
displayed  military  talents  of  a  high  order. 
the  idol  of  the  American  people  and  was  an 
important  factor  in  causing  his  subsequent  eleva- 
tion to  the  Presidency,  f'onsnlt :  T.atour.  IJis- 
toriral  Mrmoir  of  the  Wiir  in  Wrst  Flnridii  (mil 
Loui.iiiina  in  lHl',-1.')  (Philadelphia,  ISlfi)  ; 
Walker,  Jncksoii  and  \ric  Orleans  (Xew  York, 
1856)  ;  Parton,  Life  of  Avdrrir  .fnck.ion  (ib., 
1860)  ;  .Tames,  Militarii  Occurrenren  (London, 
1818)  ;  Cook,  Narrativr  of  Events  in  the  floitth  of 
France  and  of  the  Attnelc  on  Ycir  Orleans  in  /.<!/)- 
15  (ib.,  1834)  :  and  Gleig,  Campaigns  of  the  liril- 
ish  Armt/  at  Washinalon  and  \eir  Orleans  (Am. 
ed.,  Philadelphia,  1821  and  183.3). 

NEW  PHILADELPHIA.  A  citv  and  the 
connty-scat  of  Tuscarawas  County,  Ohio.  100 
miles  south  of  Cleveland;  on  the  Tuscarawas 
River,  the  Ohio  Canal,  and  the  Cleveland,  Lorain 
and  Wheeling  and  the  Pennsylvania  railroads 
(Map:  Ohio,  H  4).  There  are  mining  interests, 
and  manufactures  of  steel,  canned  good*,  roofing 
tile,  woolen  goods,  carriages,  flour,  brooms,  and 
pressed,  stamped,  and  enameled  goods.  The  prin- 
cipal attractions  of  the  city  are  Springer's  Park 
and  .Shorenbraun  Springs.  Settled  in  ISO.').  Xew 
Philadelphia  was  first  incorporated  three  years 
later.  The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  who 
holds  office  for  two  years,  and  a  unicameral  coun- 


cil. Town  meetings  are  held  \\heu  required  by 
nuitters  of  general  interest.  Population,  in  1890, 
4456;  in  1900,  6213. 

NEW  PHIL'IPPINES.  Another  name  for 
the  taruline   J-huiiN    |c|.v.). 

NEW  PLYM'OUTH.  The  capital  and  sea- 
port of  Taranaki  County.  North  Island,  New 
Zealand,  on  the  west  coast,  UK)  miles  southwest' 
of  Auckland  (Map:  Xew  Zealand,  D  3).  It  has 
an  extensive  harbor  and  is  a  terminal  of  railway 
lines  to  Wellington  and  X'apier.  Population,  in 
1901,  4405.  Consult  Wells,  History  of  Taranaki 
(Xew  Plymouth.  1878). 

NEW  POMERA'NIA  (Ger.  Xeii  Pommern), 
formcily  Xew  Bkit.kin.  The  largest  island  of 
the  Bismarck  Arihi|)elago,  in  Melanesia.  It 
lies  50  miles  from  the  northeast  coast  of  X'ew 
Guinea,  and  stretches  east  and  northward  in  a 
narrow  crescent,  300  miles  long  and  90  miles  in 
greatest  breadth,  but  in  several  places  contracted 
to  a  .strip  only  a  few  miles  wide  (Map:  Aus- 
tralasia, H  3).  Its  area  is  about  0500  square 
miles.  The  interior  is  still  but  little  known ;  it 
is  mountainous.,  with  .several  active  or  half  ex- 
tinct volcanoes  in  the  northeastern  part,  one  of 
which  has  an  altitude  of  3600  feet,  while  in  the 
western  extremitv  Hunstein  Mountain  reaches  a 
height  of  0000  feet.  The  rainfall  on  the  island 
is  abundant,  and  the  vegetation  is  luxuriant,  the 
interior  being  covered  with  innnense  forests 
reaching  to  the  summits  of  the  mountains,  while 
the  coastal  districts  are  very  fertile.  The  na- 
tives, whose  numbers  are  unknown,  are  Mela- 
nesian  savages.  The  European  inhabitants  num- 
ber less  than  100,  and  reside  in  a  missionary  ami 
a  trading  station  on  the  northeastern  coast.  For 
statistics  and  history,  see  Bis>r.\RCK  -Archipel- 
.viio. 

NEWPORT.  A  market-town  and  river-port 
in  Monmouthshire.  England.  20  miles  southwest 
of  Monniouth.  on  theUsk.  four  miles  from  the  Bris- 
tol Channel,  and  12  miles  northeast  of  ('ardilT 
( .Map :  England.  C  5  ) .  It  has  brass  and  iron  foun- 
dries, breweries  and  ]iottery  works,  and  manufac- 
tures of  tclcLoaph  and  railway  supplies  and  wag- 
ons, india-rubber,  and  gutta  percha.  Iron  ships  are 
also  built  here.  The  dock  accommodation  covers 
80  acres,  and  it  has  an  important  shipping  trade 
in  coal  and  iron.  The  town  has  fine  buildings. 
Prominent  among  them  are  the  town  hall  and 
Saint  Woollos,  one  of  the  most  curious  churches 
in  England.  The  municipality  owns  much  real 
estate,  the  water-works,  electric  lighting  plant, 
tramways,  baths,  slaughter  lio\ises.  markets, 
cemeteries,  provides  technical  instruction  and  cot- 
tage allotments,  and  maintains  a  free  library,  mu- 
seum, parks,  isolation  hos])it:il.  and  a  tire  bri- 
gade. The  town  is  first  mentioned  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  tenth  century,  and  received  its  first 
charter  from  Edward  II.  The  towers  and  the 
central  mass  remain  of  the  castle,  built  about 
1130  bv  Robert,  Earl  of  Gloucester.  Population, 
in  189i,  54,707:  in  1901,  07.290. 

NEWPORT.  The  chief  town  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight.  En;;l;in(l.  situated  near  the  centre  of  the 
island,  on  the  .Medina  (Map:  Englaml.  E  6).  It 
is  the  commercial  centre  of  supply  for  the  island, 
has  breweries,  cement  factories,  and  trade  in 
nnilt.  wheat.  :ind  Hour.  Saint  Thomas'-;  Church, 
founded  in  1854.  is  a  handsome  e<iifice.  and  con- 
tains a  monument  erected  by  Queen  Victoria  to 


NEWPORT. 


469 


NEWPORT. 


the  Princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Charles  1. 
Its  grammar  school,  founded  in  1012,  was  the 
scene  of  negotiations  between  Charles  1.  and  the 
Parliament.  llie  town,  already  favored  with 
charters  and  privileges,  was  incorporated  by 
James  I.  It  owns  the  water  supplv  and  markets. 
Population,  in   1801,  10,210:  in  litOl,  lO.fill. 

NEWPORT.  A  city  in  Campbell  tlounty, 
Ky.,  at  the  junction  of  the  Ohio  and  Licking 
rivers,  which  separate  it  from  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
and  Covington.  Ky. ;  and  on  the  Chesapeake 
and  Ohio  and  the  Louisville  and  Nashville 
railroads  (ilap:  Kentucky,  G  1).  There  are 
bridges  across  both  rivers,  and  the  cities  of  Cin- 
cinnati, Newport,  and  Covington  are  connected 
by  electric  railroad,  the  Kentucky  cities  be- 
ing popular  as  places  of  residence  for  Cincinnati 
business  men.  A  few  miles  distant,  in  the  hills 
bask  of  Newport,  is  the  United  States  military 
post.  Fort  Thomas.  Newport  has  a  city  park, 
and  a  public  librarj-,  the  library  building  ranking 
with  other  prominent  edifices  of  the  city — the 
court  house,  municipal  building,  and  in  addition 
the  post  office.  Masonic  Temple,  and  Newport 
and  German  national  banks.  The  chief  manufac- 
tured products  are  watch-cases,  cast  iron  pipes, 
sheet  iron,  rails,  carriage  supplies,  and  cigar- 
box  material.  Settled  about  1701,  Newport  was 
incorporated  in  1795  as  a  town,  and  in  1850  re- 
ceived a  city  charter.  The  government,  imder  a 
charter  of  1804,  is  administered  by  a  bicameral 
council  and  by  a  mayor,  elected  every  four  years. 
The  executive  appoints  fire,  police,  and  water- 
works commissioners,  and,  with  the  consent  of 
the  board  of  aldermen,  the  city  auditor  and  su- 
perintendent of  public  works.  The  council  is 
selected  from  the  wards,  but  elected  at  large,  and 
appoints  bridge  commissioners.  Other  municipal 
otKcials  and  the  board  of  education  are  chosen 
by.  popular  vote.  Members  of  the  municipal 
council  and  board  of  education  hold  office  for 
two  years,  all  other  officers  for  four  years.  The 
city  owns  and  operates  the  water-works.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890.  24,918;  in  1900,  28,301. 

NEWPORT.  A  town  and  the  county-seat  of 
Sullivan  County,  N.  H.,  42  miles  west-north- 
west of  Concord ;  on  the  Sugar  River,  and  on  the 
Boston  and  Maine  Railroad  (Map:  New  Hamp- 
shire, F  8).  The  beautiful  surroundings  of  the 
town  make  it  of  considerable  importance  as  a 
summer  resort.  There  is  a  public  library  of  7000 
volumes.  Newport  has  extensive  manufactures 
of  flannels,  cotton  underwear,  shoes,  agricultural 
implements,  and  lumber  products.  The  water- 
works are  owned  bv  the  municipalitv.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890.  262.3;  in  1000,  3126.  Consult 
Wheeler,  The  History  of  Neirport.  N.  H.  (Con- 
cord, 1879). 

NEWPORT.  A  port  of  entry  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Newport  County,  R.  1..  and  until  1000 
one  of  the  capitals  of  the  State,  17  miles  south 
by  west  of  Fall  River,  Mass.,  and  30  miles 
south  of  Providence ;  on  Rhode  Island  in  Nar- 
ragansett  Bay,  and  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven 
and  Hartford  Railroad  (Map:  Rhode  Island,  C 
4).  It  has  also  regular  steamboat  communica- 
tion with  New  York,  Providence,  and  other 
cities,  with  increased  transportation  facilities  in 
summer.  Newport  is  an  important  LTnited  States 
naval  station,  but  lias  far  greater  reputation  as 
a  summer  resort.  Its  splendid  harbor,  defended 
by   Fort    Adams    and    Fort    Greble,    admits   the 


largest  vessels  and  usually  presents  a  scene  of 
great  animation,  wliile  its  varied  scenery,  its 
points  of  historic  interest,  equable  climate,  and 
excellent  facilities  for  boating,  bathing,  and  driv- 
ing have  combined  to  establish  Newport  as  the 
most  exclusive  and  fashionable  watering  place 
in  the  United  States.  The  narrow  streets  and 
quaint  houses  of  the  old  town  adjoin  the  harbor; 
the  'society'  quarters  with  their  new  and  more 
elaborate  architecture  reach  over  to  the  ocean 
side  of  the  island.  Among  the  popular  objects 
of  interest  are  First  or  Easton's  Beach,  and 
Bailey's  Beach,  the  bathing  resorts;  Cliff  Walk 
and  the  ten-mile  Ocean  Drive;  the  Hanging 
Rocks;  the  rocky  fissure,  fifty  feet  deep,  locally 
known  as  Purgatory:  and  Spouting  Rock,  where 
the  water,  when  disturbed  by  a  storm,  is  forced 
through  an  opening  in  the  rock,  sometimes  to  a 
height  of  fifty  feet.  On  Coaster  Harbor  Island 
is  the  United  States  Naval  Training  Station  and 
War  College,  and  on  Goat  Island,  a  United  States 
torpedo  station.  The  naval  hospital  on  the  main- 
land was  opened  in  1897.  On  Canonicut  Island, 
opposite  Newport,  is  the  town  of  .lamestown, 
which  has  an  individual  reputation  as  a  summer 
resort.  There  are  numerous  public  fountains, 
statues  and  monuments,  and  public  parks,  nota- 
bly Touro  and  Morton  parks;  several  libraries^ 
Redwood  and  People's  together  containing  more 
than  60,000  volumes,  and  the  Newport  Historical 
Society,  which  has  an  interesting  collection  of 
relics;  Saint  George's  and  Cloyne  House  schools. 
Other  attractive  features  of  Newport  are  its 
historic  buildings:  the  State  House,  erected  in 
1742;  the  old  city  hall,  in  1763;  the  .synagogue 
(1703),  said  to  be  the  oldest  in  the  United 
States;  Redwood  Library,  in  1748;  Trinity 
Church  (Protestant  Episcopal),  in  1725:  the 
Saver  House,  headquarters  of  the  British  army 
in  1777 ;  and  the  Vernon  House,  Rochambeau's 
headquarters  in  1780.  In  commerce  and  industry 
Newport  is  comparatively  of  small  importance; 
there  is,  however,  a  large  trade  in  fish.  The  gov- 
ernment is  administered  under  a  charter  of  1853, 
which  provides  for  a  mayor,  annuallv  elected,  and 
a  bicameral  city  council  that  has  important  elec- 
tive powers  in  municipal  offices.  Population,  in 
1890,   19,457;   in  1900,  22,034. 

Newport  was  settled  in  1639  by  William  Cod- 
dington  and  a  few  followers,  who  in  the  previous 
year  had  been  driven  from  Boston  for  sympathiz- 
ing with  Antinomianism.  In  1647  it  was  united 
for  governmental  purposes  with  Providence. 
Portsmouth,  and  Warwick,  under  the  charter  of 
1643,  but  there  was  much  dissatisfaction  until 
a  second  charter  was  issued  in  1663.  Here,  in 
1640,  one  of  the  first  public  schools  in  America 
was  begun;  and  here,  in  1656,  came  some  of  the 
first  Quakers  who  emigrated  to  this  country.  In 
1729  Bishop  Berkeley  came  to  Newport,  and  re- 
mained in  the  vicinity  for  nearly  three  vears.  the 
house,  Whitehall,  occupied  hv  him,  being  still  in 
fairly  good  condition.  Here  he  wrote  much  of  his 
Alciphron  and  his  ode  on  Western  progress.  In 
the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  Newport 
was  a  great  trading  centre,  and  by  1769  its  com- 
merce exceeded  that  of  New  York.  On  May  17, 
1769,  the  British  sloop  Lihrrty,  engaged  in  en- 
forcing the  smuggling  laws,  was  destroyed  here — 
this  being  one  of  the  earliest  acts  of  American  re- 
sistance to  England.  From  December.  1776.  to 
November.  1779.  Newport  was  occupied  by  Brit- 
ish troops,  by  whom  480  of  its  houses  were  de- 


NEWPORT. 


470 


NEW  ROCHELLE. 


etroyed  and  its  shipping  so  crippled  that  the 
town  never  recovered  its  commercial  prestige. 
Rochambeau  with  his  French  troops  was  sta- 
tioned here  in  1780.  First  incorporated  in  1784, 
Newport  surrendered  its  charter  two  years  later, 
and  was  not  reincorporated  until  1853.  It  was 
tlie  birthplace  of  Commodore  JI.  C.  Perry  and  of 
William  EUery  Channing.  In  Touro  Park  stands 
the  famous  'Old  Stone  Mill,'  formerly  supposed  to 
have  been  built  by  the  Northmen  in  the  eleventh 
century,  but  now  very  generally  believed  to  have 
been  erected  by  Gov.  Benedict  Arnold  about  1U75. 
The  Newport  Mercury,  founded  in  1758  by  James 
Franklin,  is  still  published.  Consult:  (Jreene, 
The  Providence  I'luiitation  (Providence,  188G)  ; 
"Newport  in  the  Revolution,"  an  article  in  the 
New  Enyhmd  Magazine,  n.  s.,  vol.  ii.  (Boston, 
1890)  ;  Brooks,  The  Controversy  Touching  the 
Stone  Hill    (Newport,  1851). 

NEWPORT.  A  village  and  the  county-seat  of 
Orleans  County.  Vt.,  49  miles  north  by  east  of 
Wontpelier;  on  Lake  Memphremagog,  and  on  the 
Canadian  Pacific  and  the  Boston  and  Maine 
railroads  (Map:  Vermont,  F  2).  It  has  tlie 
(ioodrich  Memorial  Library  (public),  with  C500 
volumes,  and  is  a  well-known  summer  resort.  The 
village  is  surrounded  by  a  farming  region.  There 
are  some  manufactures.  Population,  in  1890, 
1730;  in  1900,  1874. 

NEWPORT,  Christopher  (c.1565-U317).  An 
F.nglish  navigator.  In  1591  he  sailed  from  Lon- 
don as  captain  of  the  GohUii  Dragon  with  three 
other  ships,  on  an  expedition  to  the  West  Indies. 
After  sacking  four  Spanish  towns  and  capturing 
and  sinking  twenty  Spanish  mercbantnien,  the  ex- 
pedition turned  back  across  the  Atlantic  laden 
witli  spoil.  At  Flores  they  joined  Sir  .John  Burgh 
and  took  part  with  him'  in  the  capture  of  the 
Mudre  de  Dios,  August  3,  1592.  In  1606  New- 
port commanded  the  fleet  of  three  ships  which 
ccmveyed  John  Smith  and  his  fellow  colonists  to 
Virginia.  He  spent  some  time  in  Virginia,  and 
took  part  in  an  exploring  expedition  up  the 
.lames  River  with  Smith.  In  1607-08  he  made 
another  voyage  to  \irginia,  and  in  1009  com- 
manded the  first  expedition  sent  out  under  the 
second  charter,  which  conveyed  Sir  Thomas  Gates 
and  Lord  Somers  to  Virginia.  Newport's  ship, 
the  Sea  Venture,  was  cast  ashore  on  the  Ber- 
mudas, whence  the  colonists  proceeded  to  Vir- 
ginia in  two  snuill  pinnaces,  which  they  con- 
struc,ted  from  the  wrecked  ship.  In  Kill  he 
made  a  last  voyage  to  Virginia.  In  the  year 
following  he  entered  the  service  of  tlie  Fast 
India  Company.  Between  1613  and  1017  he 
made  four  voyages  to  India  for  the  company, 
finally  dying  at  Bantam  of  a  fever.  .\n 
account  of  his  voyages  to  America,  entitled 
Tieirport's  Di-scovcrieK  in  I'lcyim".  and  purport- 
ing to  have  been  written  by  "a  gentleman  of  the 
colony,"  was  published  in  the  Archwologia  Amer- 
icnna,  vol.  iv.   (Boston.  1860). 

NEWPORT,  riKORfiE  {1803-.54).  An  English 
naturalist  and  physician,  born  at  Canterbury,  and 
educated  at  London  I'niversity  and  at  the  College 
of  Surgeons.  He  was  one  of  the  most  skilled 
anatomists  of  his  time,  and  his  researches  on  the 
structure  of  insects  and  other  arthropods  are  very 
important.  His  publications  include:  On  the  Urn- 
pirntifin  of  Inserts  (1836)  :  article  on  "Insecta" 
in  Todd's  Cyclopedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology 
(1839);    On    the    Use   of   Antenna   of   Insects 


(1840)  ;  List  of  Spceinicns  uf  Myriopoda  in  the 
British  Museum  (1844)  ;  Monograph  of  the  Class 
Myriopoda,  Order  Chilopoda  (1845);  and  On 
the  Impregnation  of  the  Ovum  in  the  Amphibia 
(1851). 

NEWPORT  NEWS.  A  city  and  port  of 
entry  in  Warwick  County,  Va.,  12  miles  north 
by  west  of  Norfolk,  and  75  miles  southeast  of 
Richmond ;  on  the  James  River  and  Hampton 
Koads,  and  the  terminus  of  the  Chesapeake  and 
Ohio  Railroad  (Map:  Virginia,  11  5).  It  has 
also  several  coastwise  and  foreign  steamship 
lines.  A  line  harbor  and  excellent  shipping  facili- 
ties have  made  Newport  News  the  centre  of  large 
commercial  interests,  its  foreign  trade  in  1^01 
being  valued  at  ,$36,658,000,  including  exports  to 
the  amount  of  $32,508,000.  Its  industrial  inter- 
ests, too,  are  well  developed.  There  is  a  ship- 
yard employing  6000  men,  with  two  dry  docks, 
600  and  900  feet  in  length ;  also  grain  elevators, 
lumber  mills,  iron  works,  and  coal  wharves. 
Casino  Park,  in  the  heart  of  the  city  and  on  tlie 
James  River,  is  a  popular  place  of  resort.  The 
government,  under  tlie  original  charter  of  in- 
corporation, is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  every 
two  years,  and  a  city  council,  which  confirms  the 
executive's  appointment  of  the  police  commis- 
sioners and  elects  all  other  nnmicipal  officials, 
excepting  those  chosen  by  the  jieople.  Settled  in 
1882,  Newport  News  was  incorporated  first  in 
1896.  Its  growth  during  the  decade  1800'1900 
was  exceedingly  rajiid,  a  po])ulation  in  1890  of 
4449  having  increased  to  19,635  in  1900. 

NEW  PROVIDENCE.  Tlie  most  impor- 
tant, although  one  of  tlie  smallest,  of  the  Bahama 
Islands.  It  is  situated  between  Eleuthera  and 
Andros  islands,  170  miles  from  the  southeast 
coast  of  Florida  (Map:  West  Indies,  J  2),  and 
has  an  area  of  85  sipiare  miles.  In  physical 
features  it  resembles  the  other  Bahamas  (q.v.), 
but  it  alone  has  a  good  harbor,  and  on  it  is  the 
town  of  Nassau  (q.v.),  the  capital  of  the  islands. 
The  first  English  settlement  in  the  Bahamas  was 
founded  on  New  Providence  in  1629. 

NEW  RED  SANDSTONE.  .\  large  series  of 
reddish-colored  loams,  shales,  and  sandstones,  oc- 
curring between  the  Carboniferous  and  the 
Middle  Triassic  formations,  were  grouped  to- 
gether under  this  name,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  Old  Red  Sandstone  group,  which  lies  below 
the  coal  measures,  and  has  a  similar  mineral 
structure.  It  has  been  found,  however,  that  two 
very  distinct  periods  were  included  under  this 
name;  and  the  contained  fossils  of  each  group 
were  found  to  be  .so  remarkably  different  that 
the  one  period  was  referred  to  the  Paleozoic  sys- 
tem, under  the  name  of  Permian  (q.v.).  while 
the  other  was  determined  to  belong  to  the  Tri- 
assic system  (q.v.).  The  name  is  no  longer  used 
in  the  Cnited  St:ites. 

NEW  RIVER.  A  river  of  West  Virginia. 
See  Great  Kanawha. 

NEW  ROCHELLE,  rA  sliel'.  A  city  in  West- 
chester County.  N.  S'.,  16i/j  miles  from  the 
Grand  Central  Station.  New  York  City:  on  an 
arm  of  Long  Island  Sound,  and  on  the  New 
York.  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad  (Map: 
New  York.  G  5).  It  is  inainly  a  residential  sub- 
urb of  New  York,  and  has  s(»ie  reputation  as  a 
summer  resort.  There  are  many  handsome  resi- 
dences, and  several  spacious  colonial  mansions 


NEW  BOCHELLE. 


471 


NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 


I 


dating  from  the  Dutch  and  English  periods.  An 
Ursulint'  seminary  now  occupies  'Leiand  Castle,' 
which  is  known  for  its  fine  interior  decorations. 
The  city  lias  a  public  library  with  over  8500 
volumes.  New  Rochelle  was  settled  in  1687  by 
Huguenots,  some  of  whom  were  natives  of 
La  IJochelle.  It  was  the  home  for  several  years  of 
Thomas  Paine,  to  whose  memory  a  monument 
has  been  erected.  Population,  in  1890,  9057 ;  iu 
1900,  14,720. 

NEW  BOSS.  A  town  lying  mainly  in  County 
Wexford  and  partly  in  Kilkenny,  Ireland, 
on  the  Barrow  River,  29  miles  by  rail  north- 
west of  Wexford  (Map:  Ireland,  E  4).  An  iron 
bridge  with  a  draw  connects  the  suburb  of  Ros- 
bercon  on  the  Kilkenny  side.  Ships  of  600  tons 
can  unload  at  its  quays  at  all  stages  of  the 
tide.  Its  favorable  situation  is  deserving  of 
much  greater  industrial  prosperity  than  the  town 
possesses.  There  is,  however,  some  trade  in 
agricultural  products,  and  there  are  salmon  fish- 
eries. Although  believed  to  date  from  the  sixth 
century,  its  history  begins  with  the  erection  of 
the  old  monastery  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
Cromwell  captured  the  town  in  1649  and  de- 
stroyed its  walls  and  fortresses,  of  which  there 
are  fragmentary  remains.  Population,  in  1901, 
.")S67. 

NEWBY,  nu'ri.  A  seaport  and  market-towni. 
jjarlly  in  County  Armagh,  but  principally  in 
County  Down,  Ulster,  Ireland,  03  miles  north  of 
Dublin  and  .38  miles  south-southwest  of  Belfast 
(Map:  Ireland,  E  2).  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Newry  River,  which  is  crossed  by  five  bridges  and 
falls  into  Carlingford  Lough,  and  by  a  canal,  by 
which  the  navigation  is  prolonged  to  Lough 
Xeagh.  a  distance  of  .32  miles.  Newry  is  also  con- 
nected by  the  Newry  Canal  with  Victoria  Lock. 
The  town  is  handsomely  and  compactly  built. 
The  quays  are  lined  with  spacious  warehouses, 
and  there  are  several  tanyards,  coach  and  car 
manufactories,  iron  foundries,  grain,  flour,  and 
spinning  mills.  Extensive  water-works  'have 
been  constructed.  Steam  vessels  ply  to  Liverpool 
and  Glasgow  from  Warrenpoint,  a  port  five  miles 
distant  on  Carlingford  Lough.  The  Newry  and 
Greenore  Railway  connects  the  Newry  and  Ar- 
magh line  with  the  deep  water  harbor  of  Green- 
ore.  The  town  is  nearly  coeval  with  the  English 
invasion,  having  grown  up  around  a  monastery 
founded  in  1183  and  a  castle  subsequently  erected 
by  De  Courcey.  This  castle  was  the  scene  of 
sevci'al  struggles,  and  in  most  of  the  civil  wars 
of  Ulster  Newry  suft'ered  severely.  It  was  in- 
corporated as  a  borough  by  .Tames  I.,  and  sent 
two  members  to  Parliament.  The  corporation 
was  abolished  by  the  Irish  Municipal  Reform  Act 
and  the  affairs  of  the  town  are  now  administered 
bv  twentv-one  commissioners.  Population,  in 
1891,  12,9G1;   in  1901.  12..587. 

NEW  SALLEE,  sii-la'.  A  seaport  of  Mo- 
rocco.    See  R.\B.^T. 

NEW    SCHOOL    PBESBYTEEIANS.      Sea 

PRESISYTKRIANISM. 

NEW  SIBE'EIA,  or  Lt.^kiiov,  ISLANDS.  A 
group  of  islands  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  situated 
nortli  of  Eastern  Siberia,  between  latitudes  73°  9' 
and  77°  30'  N.,  and  between  longitudes  136°  16' 
and  159°  6'  E.  (Map:  Asia.  PI).  The  principal 
islands  of  the  group  are  Kotelnoi,  New  Silteria, 
and  Liakhov,  with  areas  of  from   1000  to  3000 


square  miles,  the  combined  area  of  the  whole 
group  being  9500  square  miles.  The  islands  con- 
sist mainly  of  rocky,  ice-bound  cliffs,  and  are 
quite  treeless  and  uninhabited,  save  for  the  tem- 
porary sojourn  of  hunters.  Game,  especially  fur- 
bearing  animals,  is  aliundant.  The  islands  are 
noted  for  the  great  quantities  of  bones  of  extinct 
animals  found  there,  notably  those  of  the  mam- 
moth. The  group  was  discovered  in  1770  by  the 
Russian  merchant  Liakhoff.  and  the  islands  have 
since  been  visited  by  several  other  explorers. 

NEW     SOUTH    SHETLAND     ISLANDS. 

See  South  Siietl.^xd  Islands. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES.  A  State  of  Aus- 
tralia, situated  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
continent,  and  bounded  on  the  north  by  Queens- 
land, on  the  east  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the 
south  by  Victoria,  and  on  the  west  by  South 
Australia  (Map:  Australia,  H  5).  Its  area, 
310,367  squares  miles,  is  more  than  five  times 
that  of  England  and  Wales,  much  larger  than 
that  of  any  of  the  United  States,  and  more  than 
twice  that  of  the  State  of  California. 

Physical  FE.iTtBEs.  The  Great  Dividing 
Range  runs  along  the  coast  in  an  irregular  sys- 
tem of  broken  minor  ranges,  whose  main  axis 
extends  about  100  miles  inland.  It  is  known  as 
the  Australian  Alps  in  the  south,  the  Blue 
Mountains  near  the  centre,  and  the  New  England 
Range  in  the  north.  These  mountains  are  broken 
by  deep  ravines  and  canons.  The  Blue  Mountains 
are  especially  rugged  and  abrupt  and  long  formed 
an  impassable  barrier.  The  highest  point  is 
Mount  Kosciusko,  near  the  southern  boundary, 
with  an  altitude  of  7308  feet.  The  mountains 
are  flanked  on  tlie  west  by  a  broad,  undulating 
plateau,  which  sinks  gradually  toward  the  Great 
Plains  of  the  west,  but  rises  again  in  the  north- 
western corner  of  the  State  to  a  height  of  2000 
feet  in  the  Stanley  and  Grey  Ranges.  The  coast 
is  bold  and  rocky,  and  indented  by  a  number  of 
small  inlets,  among  which  Port  Jackson,  the 
harbor  of  Sydney,  forms  one  of  the  finest  harbors 
in  tlie  world.  The  rivers  on  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Dividing  Range  are  small,  the  largest  being 
the  Hawkesbury,  with  a  length  of  330  miles.  The 
Murray  River  forms'  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  State,  and  its  two  great  tributaries,  the 
Darling  and  the  Lachlan,  course  through  the 
western  plains.  Several  streams  flow  from 
the  northwestern  mountains  toward  the  Darling, 
but  are  lost  in  the  arid  plains  before  they  reach 
it.  Nearly  all  the  rivers  of  the  plains  dry  up  or 
are  reduced  to  strings  of  ponds  during  the  dry 
season,  while  in  the  wet  season  large  areas  of  the 
plains  are  inundated. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  in  general  mild,  be- 
coming subtropical  toward  the  north.  The  mean 
temperature  on  the  coast  is  76°,  with  an  average 
.maximum  of  100°  for  .January,  and  55°  for  .July. 
'On  the  interior  plains  the  range  is  much  greater. 
Here  the  temperature  may  reach  130°,  and  there 
are  hot  dust  winds.  The  rainfall  is  greatest  in 
the  southeastern  extremity,  where  it  registers  73 
inches,  the  average  on  the  coast  being  50  inches. 
On  the  interior  plains  it  is  generally  less  than  20 
inches,  falling  below  10  inches  in  the  northwest. 
The  uplands  and  the  eastern  portion  of  the  great 
plains  are  covered  with  open  forests  of  eucalyp- 
tus trees.  Denser  forests  grow  in  the  valleys  of 
the  very  fertile  coastal  districts.  The  arid  west- 
ern plains  are  covered  only  with  stunted  scrub. 


NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 


472 


NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 


The  flora  and  fauna  partake  of  the  general  char- 
acter of  Eastern  Australia.     See  Australia. 

Geology  anu  Mikebals.  The  mountain  and 
plateau  regions  consist  mainly  of  Paleozoic  rocks, 
Silurian  in  the  south.  Carboniferous  in  the 
central  portion,  and  Devonian  in  tlie  north, 
while  the  northeastern  and  southeastern  cuast 
districts  are  overlaid  with  lower  Mesozoic  strata. 
There  are  considerable  outcrops  of  granites  and 
metamorphic  nn-ks  in  the  higher  regions,  with 
dikes  of  volcanic  trap,  basalt,  and  greenstone. 
The  great  plains  are  formed  by  horizontal  strata 
of  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  sandstone,  sands,  and 
gravel.  Kich  and  extensive  coal  beds  cover  large 
areas  in  the  State,  (iold  exists  in  quartz  veins 
in  the  Silurian  rocks,  and  silver,  tin,  copper, 
iron,  and  precious  stones  are  also  found. 

Mi.NiNG.  Mining  rivals  grazing  in  importance, 
and  has  been  gaining,  while  the  latter  has  de- 
clined. The  first  Australian  gold  was  mined 
in  New  South  Wales,  and  the  total  value  of 
this  product  mined  to  date  exceeds  that  of 
any  other  mineral  in  the  State.  The  an- 
nual output  in  recent  years,  however,  has 
been  exceeded  in  value  by  silver  and  silver- 
lead  and  by  coal,  although  nearly  half  the 
men  employed  in  the  mining  industry,  or  10.350 
(1809),  are  engaged  in  gold-mining.  The  aver- 
age yield  of  gold  between  1800  and  1000  was  twice 
that  of  the  preceding  decade.  The  output  in  1000 
was  valued  at  £1,194.521.  The  production  of 
silver  and  silver-lead  ore  was  insignificant  prinr 
to  1884.  when  it  increased  rapidly  until  1801.  the 
record  for  that  year  not  having  been  subsequently 
surpassed.  In  1000  the  value  was  £2,604,117. 
The  production  of  coal  in  1000  was  valued  at 
£1,668.011,  an  amount  exceeded  in  only  one  pre- 
vious year.  The  decline  in  copper  production 
from  1800  to  1895  was  wholly  regaine<l  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  decade,  the  output  in  1000  be- 
ing valued  at  £425, ."iOl.  The  pmduction  of  tin 
in  1900  was  valued  at  £142.724— the  highest 
figure  attained  since  1802.  Several  kinds  of  iron 
ore  are  mined,  and  a  number  of  other  minerals 
are  obtained   in  small  quantities. 

.^ORicrLTiRE.  .\gri(ult>ire  is  increasing  in  im- 
portance, but  is  still  subsidiary  to  stock-raising. 
The  soil  is  generally  of  great  fertility,  but  the 
scantiness  and  uncertainty  of  the  rainfall  prevent 
it  from  being  tilled  in  the  great  regions  west  of 
the  mountain  ranges.  The  unfavorable  climatic 
conditions  are  most  severe  on  the  far  western 
plains.  In  the  coast  district,  and  on  the  table- 
lands and  the  western  slope  of  the  tablelands, 
a  considerable  area  is  cultivated.  The  climate  on 
the  coast  admits  of  the  growth  of  a  wide  range 
of  products,  both  temperate  and  tropical,  being 
not  unlike  that  of  California  in  this  respect.  .\1- 
thoush  the  possibilities  of  fruit  eulture  are  great, 
the  industry  in  general  has  not  made  any  consid- 
erable progress.  Oranges  anil  gr:i|)es.  however, 
receive  no  little  attention.  The  remoteness  from 
the  world's  markets  has  tended  to  limit  the  ]iro- 
duction  of  all  agricultural  products.  The  total 
area  under  tillage,  excluding  lands  grassed,  in- 
creased almost  steadilv  from  629.180  acn'«  in  1881 
to  8.52.704  acres  in  ISO],  an<I  2.446.767  acres  in 
1001.  The  ])rineipal  crop  and  the  one  that  rep- 
resents the  largest  percentage  of  increase  is 
wheat,  to  which  1.5.10.600  acres  were  devoted  in 
the  latter  year.  The  other  principal  crops,  with 
their  acreages,  were:  hay,  66.2.16:  corn,  206.051  ; 


oats,  29,383;  sugar-cane,  22,114;  and  grapevines, 
8441. 

Stock-Raisixg.  The  extensive  area  of  grassed 
lands  and  the  miklness  of  the  winters  are  greatly 
favorable  to  grazing,  which  is  the  most  charac- 
teristic industry  of  the  State.  The  greatest  at- 
tention is  paid  to  sheep,  about  four-sevenths  of 
the  sheep  of  Australia  being  in  Xew  South 
Wales.  The  maxinnim  number,  nearly  62,000,000, 
was  reached  in  1801.  This  was  reduced  in  1900 
to  about  40,000,000.  The  decrease  was  attributed 
to  the  droughts,  which  were  very  severe  during 
this  period.  The  insutticient  water  supply  is  a 
serious  disadvantage  to  the  industry.  The  nuni- 
l)er  of  cattle  in  1000  was  1,08.1.116;  liorses,  481,- 
417;  and  swine,  256,577.  iluch  of  the  pastoral 
land  is  owned  by  the  State  and  leased  to  the 
stockmen. 

MAXtF.\CTiRES.  Prior  to  the  establishment  of 
the  federation  of  Australian  States,  Xew  South 
Wales  diftered  from  the  other  Australian  colonies 
in  that  it  did  not  have  a  tariff  fur  the  protection 
of  its  manufactures.  However,  the  majority  of 
the  60.770  hands  employed  in  these  industries  in 
1900  were  engaged  in  domestic  manufactures 
which  were  not  subject  to  foreign  competition — 
the  preparation  of  food,  drink,  etc.  The  manu- 
factures centre  largely  about  Sydney. 

Tka.nsportatio.v  and  Commerce.  A  railroad 
traverses  the  eastern  part  of  the  State  from 
north  to  south  and  a  branch  line  penetrates 
northwestward  to  the  Darling  River.  In  1900 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  2896  miles  of  line  in 
operation  were  in  the  hands  of  the  Government. 
The  net  earnings  are  almost  equal  to  the  annual 
cost  of  the  debt  incurred  in  the  construction. 
The  State  has  a  large  foreign  trade.  It  is  almost 
evenly  divided  between  imports  and  exports.  The 
value  of  the  total  trade  in  1900  was  £55.725..587, 
being  in  excess  of  that  reached  in  any  previous 
year.  Considerably  over  three-fifths  of  the  im- 
ports were  for  home  consumption,  and  a  like 
amount  of  the  exports  were  of  domestic  origin. 
Wool  is  by  far  the  greatest  item  of  the  State's  ex- 
ports. It  is  followed  in  order  of  importance  by 
silver,  silver-lead,  and  ore,  coal,  copper,  tallow, 
and  tin.  The  great  bulk  of  the  conunerce  is  with 
the  United  Kingdom,  but  the  trade  with  the 
I'nited  States,  France,  Germany,  and  Belgium  is 
rapidly  growing.  The  largest  export  to  the 
I'nited  States  is  wool  and  the  State's  imports 
from  the  I'nited  States  are  mainly  manufactured 
products.  In  1900.  3406  vessels,"  with  3.020.801 
tonnage,  cleared  the  ports  of  Xew  South  Wales. 

Government  AXn  Finance.  Xew  South  Wales 
is  governed  by  a  (!ov?rnor,  appointed  by  the 
Crown,  a  responsible  Ministry,  a  Legislative 
Coinicil  appointed  by  the  Crown  for  life,  and  a 
Legislative  .Xssendily  elected  by  the  resident  vot- 
ers of  the  colony.  Down  to  1893  there  was  a 
property  qualifi<'ation  by  law.  In  that  year  it 
was  abolished.  The  sufTrage  is  exercised  by  every 
male  subject  twenty-i>ne  years  of  age  who  has 
lived  three  years  in  the  colony  and  three  months 
in  his  electoral  district.  N^ew  South  Wales  has 
six  representatives  in  the  .\ustralian  Senate  and 
26  in  the  .\ustralian  House  of  Representatives. 
In  the  fiscal  year  ending  in  1900.  out  of  a  total 
net  revenue  nf  £9.070.(!77.  the  Government  re- 
ceived £2.618.066  from  taxation.  £2.116.076  from 
land-sales  and  leases,  and  £4. 092. .521  from  ser- 
vice— railroads,  etc.  The  greater  part  of  the  tnx 
receipts    are    from    import    and    excise    duties. 


COPVRIOHT,  1»0»,  BY  OOOD,  ME»OA  C0MP4HV 


r^\ 


r 


NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 


473 


NEWSPAPER. 


There  is  an  iiieonie  tax.  The  bulk  of  the  income 
is  expended  upon  tlie  maintenance  of  the  public 
works  and  public  service  and  the  charges  of  the 
public  debt.  For  a  further  discussion  of  Xew 
South  Wales  and  its  government,  particularly  in 
comparison    with    other    Australian    States,    see 

AU.STK.\L1A.\    FE1)EK.\T10.\. 

Population.  In  1901  there  was  a  population 
of  1,350,133— males,  712,45U;  females,  U4(;,(;77— 
or  4.38  per  square  mile.  In  IStiO  the  population 
was  only  348,540,  the  gain  since  that  time  hav- 
ing been  much  greater  than  for  any  other  Aus- 
tralian State.  At  the  end  of  the  century  the 
State  had  passed  Victoria,  and  had  become  the 
most  populous  Australian  State.  From  1881  to 
ISill  there  were  104,205  more  arrivals  than  de- 
partures, but  the  excess  had  fallen  in  the  fullow- 
Jowing  decade  to  only  10,107.  The  Chinese  num- 
ber 10,1)74,  and  the  aborigines  and  half  castes 
7434.  In  1901  Svdney,  the  capital,  had  a  popu- 
lation of  lll,80i.  and  with  sulmrbs,  488,908; 
Newcastle,  14,250;  and  Broken  Hill,  27,518. 

Religion.  About  45  per  cent,  of  the  church 
jiirpulation  are  adlierents  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land and  about  25  per  cent.  Roman  Catholic.  The 
Presbyterians  and  the  Wesleyans  and  other  Meth- 
odists are  the  strongest  of  the  smaller  denomi- 
nations.    State  ai<l  to  religion  is  abolished. 

Edicatiox.  There  is  a  compulsory  school 
attendance  law  for  children  between  the  ages  of 
!-i\  and  fourteen.  Small  fees  are  charged  those 
able  to  pay.  In  1900  there  were  238,382  scholars 
enrolled  in  the  State  schools  and  colleges,  and 
00.327  in  private  institutions.  Over  half  of  the 
latter  number  were  in  Catholic  schools.  In  1900 
the  gross  State  expenditure  for  schools  was  £780,- 
2HJ,  and  the  receipts  from  school  fees  amounted 
to  £82.494.  The  State  maintains  a  university  at 
Sydney. 

Hi-STORY.  See  Australia  and  article  on  Aus- 
tralian Federation. 

BiBLiocRAPiiY.     Robinson.   Sew   South   Wales 

London,    1873)  ;    ^Yoods,  Fish  and  Fisheries  of 

'  ,r  South  Wales  (ib.,  1882);  Xilson,  The 
I  iniber  Trees  of  New  Soutli  Wales  (Sydney, 
1884)  ;  Hillyard,  A'eit'  Houth  Wales  (Baltimore, 
1887)  :  Liversidge,  Minerals  of  Xew  South  Wales 
(London,  1888)  ;  Griffin,  Xew  South  Wales:  Her 
Commerce  and  Resources  (Sydney,  1888)  ;  Cogh- 
lan.  The  Wenltli  and  Prof/ress  of  Seiv  Soiith 
Wales  (ib.,  1887  et  seq.)';  Fraser,  The  Alo- 
Tit/ines  of  Xeio  South  Wales  (ib.,  1892); 
Hutchinson,  yew  South  Wales  (ib.,  1896)  ; 
Australasia,  in  the  "British  Empire  Se- 
ries" (London,  1900);  and.  for  the  history, 
Flanagan.  Histori/  of  yew  South  Wales  (L(mdon, 
1862)  ;  Lang.  -In  Historical  and  Statistical 
Account  of  ycir  South  Wales  (ib.,  1875)  ; 
Barton,  History  of  j\'e!(?  South  Wales  (Sydney. 
1889)  ;  Historical  Records  of  yew  South  Wales 
(Sydney). 

NEWSPAPER.  A  public  print  issued  at 
periodical  intervals,  sold  at  a  fixed  price  per 
copy,  and  for  a  definite  period  to  regular  read- 
ers known  as  subscribers,  and  giving  three  classes 
of  information:  (a)  relating  to  events,  or  'ne^vs'; 
(h)  opinions,  or  'editorials';  and  (c)  wares  on 
Bale,  or  'advertisements.'  A  newspaper  is  dis- 
tinguished on  one  side  from  the  magazine  or 
monthly  by  the  absence  in  the  latter  of  any  con- 
certed effort  to  present  a  new  record  of  recent 
current  events.  It  is  separated  from  the  pam- 
phlet  or   newsletter  by   its   periodic   appearance 


and  stated  publication.  Special  postal  privileges 
in  the  United  Slates — a  rate  of  one  cent  a  pound, 
paid  in  bulk,  or  one-eighth  that  for  books,  one- 
si.xtcenth  that  for  merchandise,  and  onetliirty- 
second  that  for  letters — and  in  other  countries 
press  laws  have  led  to  many  judicial  and  admin- 
istrative decisions  which  unite  in  defining  a  peri- 
odical as  earmarked  by  recurrent  publication  and 
a  subscription  list  made  in  good  faith,  and  the 
newspaper  as  published  at  least  once  a  week. 
The  term  newspaper,  while  legally  applied  to  a 
weekly,  usually  indicates  a  daily  publication 
issued  either  early  in  the  morning  or  in  the 
afternoon.  When  the  size  of  a  sheet  of  paper 
and  of  a  press  bed-plate  was  limited  by  conditions 
of  manufacture  to  the  sweep  of  a  man's  arm  in 
paper-making  or  in  working  a  hand-|)ress,  the 
newspaper  consisted  of  one  large  folio  sheet 
doubled,  giving  four  pages.  When  the  changes 
in  paper  manufacture  at  the  close  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  and  in  the  bed-jilate  of  a  press 
at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
through  the  a|)plication  of  power  to  printing 
enlarged  the  sheets  and  altered  their  limit,  the 
newspaper  began  to  be  folded  for  the  weekly  to 
a  square  octavo,  and  enlarged  for  the  daily  to  a 
large  'blanket'  sheet.  The  introduction  of  the 
cylinder  press  after  the  middle  of  tlie  nine- 
teenth century  and  the  manufacture  of  paper 
from  wood-pulp  of  any  size  desired,  fed  to  a  press 
from  a  spool,  changed  the  daily  newspaper  to  its 
present  form,  containing  a  variable  number  of 
pages — from  4  pages  to  above  100,  but  usually 
12  to  10  pages  in  English-speaking  cities  of  over 
500,000:  8  to  12  in  cities  of  250.000;  and  4  in 
cities  of  less  than  20,000;  in  Europe,  usually 
from  4  to  8  in  cities  of  100,000;  and  4  in 
smaller  places,  printed  on  both  sides  at  a  single 
impression.  Newspapers,  by  periodic  appearance, 
divide  sharply  into  weekly  (usually  devoted  to  a 
special  field,  social,  political,  literary,  the  general 
weekly  being  the  exception)  and  daily.  The 
special  daily  is  the  exception,  the  world's  four 
largest  capitals  and  some  .\merican  lesser  cities 
having  dailies  devoted  exclusively  to  the  stock 
market  or  sports.  .\merican  universities  of 
over  1000  students  usually  support  a  daily.  The 
city  daily  necessarily  covers  four  fields:  (a)  the 
events  of  the  place  in  which  it  is  published:  (b) 
events  without;  (e)  opinion,  usually  given  on  a 
separate  page,  known  as  the  editm-ial  page;  (d) 
the  quotation  of  stock,  cereal,  and  other  ex- 
changes, and  advertisements.  To  these  are  add- 
ed combined  criticism  and  record,  in  special 
articles  and  correspondence  on  special  fields,  as 
politics,  sports,  theatre,  letters,  education,  etc. 
Usually  the  earlier  pages  of  a  newspaper  open 
with  news  from  without  and  pass  to  local  news. 
The  markets  and  the  larger  share  of  the  adver- 
tisements are  usually  on  later  pages.  The  edi- 
torial page,  or  expression  of  opinion,  is  generally 
between.  When  the  two  sides  of  a  4  or  8-page 
sheet  had  to  be  printed  successively  (until  the 
invention  of  the  web-perfecting  press),  this  divi- 
sion was  necessary.^  Still  preserved  from  custom, 
an  arrangement  is  now  growing  up  in  the  United 
States  in  which  important  news,  likely  to  attract 
buyers,  gravitates  to  the  front,  and  other  fields 
to  the  rear  pages,  an  arrangement  long  prevalent 
in  the  French  boulevard  press.  As  politics  is 
the  one  subject  of  universal  interest  for  men, 
newspapers  in  all  countries  tend  to  ally  them- 
selves with  one  of  two  political   parties,  where 


NEWSPAPER. 


471 


NEWSPAPER. 


a  bipartisan  organization  for  the  control  of  an 
elective  government  exists.  Wlicre,  as  in  Euro- 
pean countries,  parties  are  replaced  by  groups, 
each  has  its  newspaper.  In  both  cases  some 
papers  are  known  as  independent.  In  all,  new.s- 
papers  exert  a  double  inlluence.  Those  who  read 
are  directly  affected  by  what  is  i)rinted  as  with 
any  printed  utterance,  but  the  periodic  issue  and 
the  consequent  array  of  subscribers  or  regular 
readers  give  newspapers  in  politics  and  in  other 
fields  a  representative  character,  tlieir  inlluence 
depending  on  the  fact  that  what  is  said  expresses 
the  opinion  of  a  great  multitude  of  readers. 
The  skillful  editor  succeeds  in  combining  leader- 
ship in  new  exigencies  and  problems  witli  the 
capacity  of  expressing  the  opinion  or  sentiment 
that  great  nuisses  of  his  readers  will  feel  as  new- 
events  call   for  the  application  of  old  |)rinciples. 

Two  empires,  the  Roman  and  the  Chinese,  had 
from  an  early  period  issues  similar  to  the  news- 
paper. The.lr^o  llhirnn  ( Daily  Occurrences)  of 
ancient  Rome  contained  reports  of  great  military 
achievements  and  of  interesting  events  at  Rome, 
as  reports  of  elections,  trials,  games,  fires,  sacri- 
fices, and  miracles.  They  were  written  out  by 
oOicers  called  actuarii,  and  deposited  among  other 
public  archives.  Copies  were  sometimes  jjosted 
in  public  places,  and  sent  at  irregular  intervals 
to  the  generals  in  the  provinces,  that  the  army 
might  be  informed  of  what  was  taking  place  in 
other  j)arts  of  the  Empire.  They  continued  to  be 
issued  until  the  downfall  of  the  Western  Eni|)ire. 

The  Peking  Oazette,  Tihiitij-pao,  "News  of  the 
Capital,"  has  appeared  since  713  to  741  in  the 
T'ang  dynasty  at  the  Chinese  capital,  and  has 
for  many  centuries  been  issued  daily.  It  is 
printed  in  a  Government  edition  sent  to  officials, 
and  in  a  popular  edition  with  regular  subscribers, 
reprints  also  appearing  in  the  provinces,  both 
having  been  furnished  from  an  early  period.  It 
consists  exclusively  of  Imperial  rescripts,  coun- 
cil decrees,  and  otlicial  news.  It  is  undoubtedly 
the  earliest  daily  in  existence. 

Neither  of  these  official  issues  has  any  relation 
with  the  modern  newspaper  by  example,  still  less 
by  direct  descent.  The  newspaper,  as  known  to- 
day, is  of  composite  origin.  In  the  sixteenth 
century  it  was  represented  by  news  sheets,  single 
folio  pages  sold  by  peddlers  and  criers  giving 
news  of  a  single  occurrence.  The  first  dated  ex- 
amples of  these  appeared  in  140.'!.  and  some  800 
examples  are  preserved  which  appeared  Ix>fore 
1510. 

These  small  news  sheets  appeared  in  Augsburg. 
Vienna.  Ratisbon.  Nurcml)erg.  .\iitwerp,  and  many 
other  places,  generally  in  the  form  of  letters.  The 
extant  numbers  contain,  among  other  matters, 
accounts  of  the  discovery  of  .\merica.  of  the  con- 
quests of  the  Turks,  of  the  French  and  .\ustrian 
War  in  Italy,  with  such  local  occurrences  as  exe- 
cutions, inimdations.  earthquakes,  burnings  of 
witches,  and  child-murders,  supposed  to  be  com- 
mitted by  the  .Tews.  Of  e(|ual  interest  are  the 
official  yolizir  Snillr.  established  by  the  Vene- 
tian Oovernment  in  \'MCt.  containing  accounts 
of  the  wars  carried  on  by  the  Republic,  and  of 
other  events  of  general  interest.  At  first  they 
were  not  printed,  but  might  be  read  in  various 
public  places  on  payment  of  a  small  coin,  called 
a  tjnzzrtta.  whence  the  name  fiazrttr   (q.v.). 

These  represented  the  issiie  of  floating  rumor 
or  a  private  letter  by  the  presses  of  the  day.  As 
the  press  ceased  to  be  a  personal,  and  became  a 


business  venture,  and  regular  communication  was 
established  by  varioiis  posts  over  European  coun- 
tries, these  broad  sheets  of  news  and  opinion 
developed  into  the  journal  regularly  issued — of 
which  the  f)aHt/'iiiVer.7oHni(i/,  published  by  Ege- 
nolph  Emmel  in  161.5,  suspended  in  1U02,  was 
the  first — the  "news-letter,'  furnished  to  the  cor- 
respondent by  men  usually  in  otlicial  life  at  the 
different  capitals,  the  prototype  of  the  later 
despatch  and  correspondent,  and  the  pamphlet, 
discussing  opinion,  whicli  began  treating  public 
affairs  all  over  Europe  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  editorial  in  the  seventeenth  century.  By  the 
opening  of  the  eighteenth  century  these  became 
united  in  daily  journals  which  combined  the 
re])ort  of  the  liroad  sheet,  the  correspondence  of 
the  news-letter,  and  the  polemics  of  the  pam- 
phlet, adding  the  advertisement  in  1648,  and  the 
regular  market  report  at  the  close  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century^ 

E.NGLAND.  The  founder  of  the  English  press 
was  a  London  printer  named  Nathaniel  Butter 
(died  1604).  As  early  as  lOO.'i  he  was  issuing 
news  pamphlets:  and  in  1622  he  began  The  Xeiot 
of  the  Prcaent  Week,  which  under  varying  titles 
was  continued  till  I6.3fl.  His  slips  were  iiy)stly 
compiled  from  similar  foreign  sheets,  and  con- 
tainc<l  very  little  home  news.  But  they  bore  the 
<iistinguisbing  mark  of  the  newspaper:  they  were 
published  regularly.  During  the  Civil  Wars 
there  circulated  a  large  number  of  sheets,  with 
such  names  as  EiiylntKi'n  Mrmorahlr  Arrirlrntfi; 
The  Kini/rlom's  Intelligence ;  Meretiriiix  Aiilictix; 
Mercurius  Politicus;  The  ficots  Intelligencer; 
The  Parliament's  Scout;  The  Scots  Dove;  The 
Parliament  Kite;  The  Secret  Owl;  Mercuriug 
Mastix;  Merevrius  Democritus;  and  Mercurius 
Achcrontieus,  or  Veics  from  Hell.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  news  was  poor  in  the  extreme,  and 
the  connnent  most  virulent.  The  first  English 
newspaper  which  aimed  at  general  information 
was  the  Public  Intelligencer,  established  by  Sir 
Roger  L'Estrange  in  lOO."?:  it  was  dropped  soon 
after  the  appearance  of  the  London  Oazette,  the 
first  number  of  which  was  published  at  Oxford, 
November  7,  166.5.  A  second  paper,  called  the 
Observer  was  started  by  L'Estrange  in  1681.  In 
the  reign  of  Charles  IT.  the  development  of  the 
newspaper  was  checked  by  the  rigid  enforcement 
of  the  licensing  act  of  1662.  I"ndcr  that  rf'gime 
nothing  but  an  official  organ  could  long  survive. 
The  repeal  of  the  licensing  act  in  1605  opened  a 
new  era  in  English  journalism.  Newspapers  at 
once  sprang  up  in  I.ondon  and  in  other  cities. 
Resides  news-letters,  flying  posts,  and  mercuries, 
ajipeared  the  Edinburgh  Gazette,  a  semi-weekly 
(1009):  the  Daily  Courant.  the  first  English 
daily  (1702):  the  Review,  established  by  Defoe 
for  the  discussion  of  political  questions  (1703)  : 
and  the  Orange  Postman,  the  first  pennv  paper 
(1700). 

Though  the  licensing  act  was  of  the  past,  the 
newspaper  writer  was  held  to  strict  account  for 
what  he  printed.  During  the  reign  of  Oeorge 
III.  prosecutions  were  especially  common.  The 
usual  result  was  to  give  increased  currency  to  the 
doctrines  assailed,  and  to  confer  a  fictitious  im- 
portance on  traders  in  politics,  by  whom  many  of 
the  joiirnals  were  condvicted.  The  first  attempt 
nt  Parliamentary  reporting  was  also  resented  by 
the  House  of  Commons  as  a  breach  of  privilege, 
but  the  imprisonments  of  1771  ended  in  the  tacit 
concession  of  publicity  of  discussion,  which  haa 


NEWSPAPEK. 


475 


NEWSPAPER. 


ever  since  prevailed.  The  Speaker  in  1803  ex- 
cluded the  re[)rescntative  of  tlie  Loitdiin  Vhroiiicle 
from  the  Coninions  gallery,  and  it  was  generally 
accepted  as  within  his  power.  A  greater  obstacle 
encountered  by  the  press  was  the  r-tainp  tax.  In 
1712  a  duty  of  a  halfpenny  per  sheet  was  placed 
on  every  ])aper  of  a  sheet  and  a  half.  It  put  an 
end  to  Defoe's  Rccicw,  Addison's  Upectalor,  and 
'all  the  little  penny  papers.'  The  tax  was  raised 
in  1757  to  a  penny  a  copy;  in  1770  to  a  penny 
and  a  half;  in  1789,  to  twopence;  in  171)4,  to 
twopence-halfpenny;  in  17117,  to  threepence-half- 
penny; and  in  1.S1.3  to  fourpence.  At  this  time 
the  usual  price  jier  copy  was  sevenpence.  In  1830 
the  tax  was  reduced  to  a  penny,  and  in  1855 
abolished  altogether.  And  in  1801  the  duty  on 
paper  was  repealed.  As  a  result,  newspapers 
increased  enormously  in  number,  and  the  price 
per  copy  was  reduced  to  the  present  level,  from 
threepence  to  a  halfpenny. 

Notwithstanding  these  exorbitant  imposts, 
which  were  at  first  intended  to  be  as  deadly  as 
the  old  licensing  act.  many  newspapers  were  es- 
tablished, and  as  their  scope  widened  they  be- 
came more  and  more  important.  The  Saint 
Jantes's  Post  and  the  Saint  James's  Eveninr/  Post, 
eaen  started  in  1715,  were  fused  in  the  Saint 
James's  Chronicle  (1724),  the  liveliest  paper  of 
the  period.  The  London  Daily  Post  and  General 
Adrertiser,  founded  in  1720,  changed  its  name  in 
1752  to  the  Public  Advertiser,  and  was  after- 
wards famous  for  the  contributions  of  '.Junius.' 
In  1702  .John  Wilkes  issued  the  first  number  of 
the  Korlh  Briton.  The  Morning  Chronicle,  es- 
tablished in  1700.  was  the  first  newspaper  to 
give  adequate  reports  of  Parliamentary  debates; 
it  invented  the  leading  article ;  and  in  its  columns 
first  appeared  Hazlitt's  dramatic  criticisms.  It 
■was  soon  rivaled  by  the  Morning  Post  (1772) 
and  the  Morning  Herald  (1781).  The  London 
Daily  T^nirersal  Register,  begun  in  1785,  was 
turned  into  the  Times  in  1788.  From  the  first. 
the  Times,  under  the  direction  of  John  Walter 
(q.v.).  devoted  itself  mainly  to  a  discussion  of 
public  affairs,  governmental,  educational,  and 
commercial.  Its  Parliamentary  reports  and 
'leaders'  soon  became  the  best,  and  in  course  of 
time  it  was  recognized  as  'the  leading  journal 
of  Europe.'  It  was  the  first  to  discard  the  hand- 
press  and  to  substitute  steam  (1814).  In  1840 
appeared  the  Diiily  Xeirs  with  Dickens  as  editor; 
and  in  185.5  the  Daily  Telegraph .  the  first  penny 
paper  of  the  nineteenth  century,  which  gained  an 
immense  audience  under  the  regime  of  G.  A.  Sala. 
The  Standard,  now  the  chief  Conservative  news- 
paper, was  started  in  1827,  as  an  evening  edi- 
tion of  the  Morning  Herald.  It  made  a  stout 
fight  against  Catholic  emancipation.  Its  cause 
lost,  it  lived  a  lingering  life  until  revived  in 
1870  by  its  able  editor,  W.  H.  Mudford.  Other 
popular  London  dailies  ai-e  the  Globe  (1803); 
the  Echo  (1808),  the  first  London  halfpenny 
newspaper;  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette  (1805),  which 
John  Jlorley  turned  from  its  conservative  ways 
into  a  powerful  Radical  organ;  Saint  James's 
Gazette  (1880)  ;  the  Evening  Sews  (1881)  ;  the 
Star  (1888);  Arestminster  Gazette  (1802);  the 
Sun  (1803)  ;  and  the  Daily  Mail  (1800),  founded 
by  A.  C.  ITarmswnrth.  who  is  a  striking  figure 
in  recent  journalism. 

The  London  literary  and  society  papers  have 
a  line  of  connection  with  Addison.  The  numer- 
ous imitatitms  of  the  Spectator  (1711-12)  were 
Vol.  XIV.— 31. 


essays  on  manners  and  literature.  The  nineteenth 
century  type  of  the  weekly  review  was  set  by 
J.eigh  Hunt  in  the  IJxamincr  (1808).  which  com- 
bined literature  ;ind  politics.  Under  its  first 
editor  and  Alliany  Fonblanque  (q.v.),  it  had  a 
brilliant  career,  as  an  exponent  of  current  radi- 
calism. The  Athenaum  (1828)  confines  itself 
to  literature,  art,  and  music.  Though  it  has  had 
many  rivals,  it  is  to-day  one  of  the  most  trust- 
worthy reviews  in  the  world.  The  Academy 
(ISOO)  is  similar  in  design,  but  riuis  more  to 
literary  gossip.  The  Saturday  Review  (1855), 
once  the  most  solid,  is  now  the  "smartest'  of 
English  weeklies.  The  Spectator  (1828),  under 
R,  S.  Rintoul,  exerted  for  thirty  years  a  mighty 
influence  for  reform.  After  R.  H.  Hutton  as- 
sumed the  editor.ship  (1800),  it  became  less 
radical  in  tone;  and  its  sane  di.scussions  of  poli- 
tics and  literature  were  among  the  best  that 
journalism  has  ever  offered.  It  still  holds  its 
liigh  position.  As  the  champion  of  radicalism, 
the  Speaker  was  established  in  1890  by  T. 
Wemyss  Reid.  Other  weekly  reviews  of  liter;i- 
ture,  society,  and  politics  (one  or  all),  are  the 
Literary  World  (1868);  the  National  Observer 
(1887)  ;  the  Outlook  (1808)  ;  Literature  (1807)  ; 
the  Pull  Mall  Budget  (1868)  ;  the  Saint  James's 
Budget  (1880);  the  Weekly  Sun  (1801);  the 
Guardian  (1840);  the  Weekly  Register  (1849); 
Pearson's  Weekly  (1800)  ;  Vanity  Fair  (1808)  ; 
Society  (1878)  ;  the  Pelican  (1887)  ;  the  Critic 
(1895);  Lloyd's  Newspaper  (1842);  Reynolds's 
Neicspaper  (1850);  the  Referee  (1877);  the 
brilliant  World  (1874).  founded  by  Edmund 
Yates;  and  Truth  (1877).  edited  by  Henry  La- 
bouehere.  Exceedingly  popular  are  several  light 
journals  approaching  the  magazine,  such  as  Tit- 
Bits  (1881)  and  Answers  (1888).  At  the  liead 
of  illustrated  weeklies  stand  the  Illustrated 
London  News  (1842)  ;  the  Graphic  (1860);  the 
Ladi/'s  Pictorial  (1880);  the  Gentlewoman 
(1890);  and  Black  and  White  (1801).  There 
are  also  reviews  for  distinct  trades,  professions, 
and  pastimes;  the  Illustrated  Sportinq  and  Dra- 
matic News  (1874)  ;  the  Cycle  (1803)  ;  the  Mu- 
sician (1807);  the  Economist  (1841);  the 
Statist  (1878),  for  the  markets  of  finance; 
Engineering  (1806);  and  so  on  through  many 
phases  of  contemporary  life.  Among  comic 
jovirnals  Punch    (q.v.)    is  still  supreme. 

The  press  of  London,  taken  collectively,  has 
passed  through  three  broadly  marked  stages.  It 
began  on  a  mere  transcript  of  tlie  cit.v's  rumor, 
gossip,  and  abuse.  Repressed  by  the  licensing  act 
for  a  generation,  it  took  two  forms  on  its  repeal, 
1605,  one  literary,  of  which  Addison's  Spectator 
was  the  highest  type,  and  the  other  bitterly  po- 
lemic (L'Estrange  and  Defoe).  In  these  jour- 
nals, which  appeared  in  quick  succession  for  a 
century,  the  personality  of  the  editor  was  deci- 
sive. With  the  Xapoleonie  wars  English  journal- 
ism entered  on  a  tliird  stage,  led  and  molded  by 
.John  Waller,  the  foumler  of  the  London  Titnes. 
in  which  the  personality  of  the  editor  became 
only  one  factor,  though  still  of  importance,  in 
a  compact  organ  of  public  opinion  and  vehicle  of 
public  news,  whose  articles  were  anonymous  and 
whose  editor  was  by  a  transparent  fiction  un- 
known. The  weight  and  influence  of  journals  in 
this  period  turned  on  the  success  with  which  edi- 
torials ex)u-essed  the  opinions  of  the  ruling  forces 
of  the  nation,  of  a  party,  a  class,  or  an  interest, 
and  the  accuracy  and  impartiality  with  which  its 


NEWSPAPER. 


470 


NEWSPAPER. 


new?  colunms  icronU'il  taots.  WliiU"  tliis  tyiw  was 
most  conipk'tely  developed  in  the  Timts,  it  was 
apparent  in  all  English  perio<licals,  daily,  weekly, 
and  monthly,  from  the  Napoleonic  wars  until  the 
defeat  of  (ihulstone's  Irish  Home  lUile  Hill  recast 
party  relations  and  based  the  (_'onser\ative-lmpe- 
rialist  majority  on  a  mass  vote.  With  tliis  pe- 
riod, now  nearly  twenty  years  distant,  Kn<.'lish 
dailies  began  developing  circulation  independent 
of  inllucnce,  signed  articles  and  the  personal 
journalist  became  conspicuous,  and  the  publisher 
with  an  avowed  commercial  aim  bad  an  increas- 
ing control  and  inllucnce.  The  earlier  new-paper, 
like  the  Timcx.  waned  in  weight,  and  the  type 
of  the  new  is  not  yet  ilcvcloped. 

The  earliest  provincial  English  newspaper  was 
the  ^\'orcestrr  I'oshnnn  (IGOO),  which,  under  the 
name  Bfiroic's  n'wcmtcr  Journal.  stiW  circulates 
freely  through  the  West  Midlands.  Five  years 
later  was  founded  the  Mrrcuri).  now  called  the 
Lincoln,  Riitlnnd,  and  i<tnmford  Merciir;/.  Tn 
ITtMJ  appeared  the  Xonrirh  Pontman  at  a  penny, 
with  the  announcement  that  a  halfpenny  would 
not  be  ref\ised.  It  was  followed  by  the  Xonricli 
Mercury  (1714),  which  still  exists.  Among  other 
early  successes  were  the  yottingham  (onrnnt 
(1710).  which  with  changed  name  continued  till 
18St>,  when  it  was  incorporated  with  the  illustra- 
ted ^ycek■lll  Exprc.is:  the  yewcastlc  Cournnt 
(1710),  with  a  present  large  circulation  in  the 
north:  the  still  prosperous  Hereford  Journal 
(1713);  the  Leeds  Mercury  (1718),  one  of  the 
best  of  provincial  papers:  the  fSalishury  and 
Winchester  Journal  (17:iO),  now  'an  intlu- 
ential  paper;  and  the  Birminf/hain  (layette 
(1741),  to-day  one  of  the  leading  Jlidland 
dailies.  These  examples,  without  the  catalogiie 
of  numerous  failures,  show  how  the  newspaper 
spread  through  England  early  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  They  were,  however,  small  sheets,  and 
continued  to  be  sui-h  till  about  18C0.  Still  other 
well-known  Engli>h  papers  are  the  Lrr da-York- 
shire Post  (17i)4),  with  a  daily  since  ISCil'i  and 
an  evening  issue  since  1S!)0;  the  Xrncantlc  Chron- 
icle (1704),  now  issuing  two  daily  editions; 
the  Liverpool  Courier  (1808),  two  daily  issues 
and  a  weekly;  the  Leicester  Daily  Post  (1872)  ; 
the  Sheffield  M'echlii  Trieijraph.  with  a  circula- 
tion of  21.'j,00n;  and  the  Manchester  Guardian 
(1821),  which  has  a  reputation  far  beyond  Eng- 
land for  its  independence  and  able  comment. 
Wales  depends  largely  upon  the  newspapers  of 
the  border  emnities.  She  has.  however,  several 
Knglish  jcnirnals  of  her  own;  as  the  \orth  Wales 
Chronicle  ( Uangor.  1807):  the  South  Wales 
Daily  (Cardiff.  1872),  in  the  Liberal  interest; 
and  the  ^yestern  Mail  (IStiO),  in  the  Conserva- 
tive interest.  A  few  newspapers  are  printeil  in 
the  Welsh  language.  .Among  them  are  V  (Icncdl 
Cymreiy  (The  Welsh  Nation)  and  lianer  nc 
Amserau  Cymru    (Hanner  and  Times  of  Wales). 

ScOTl.ANn  very  naturally  had  a  hand  in  the 
numerous  sheets  employed  to  circuhite  informa- 
tion during  the  civil  wars.  The  first  to  be  print- 
ed in  Scotland  was  the  Mcrcurius  I'olilicus 
(l-eith.  Ifi.i.'i:  Edinburgh,  lfi.")4-(i0).  Inder 
the  title  .Ucrri(riuj«  Puhlicus.  it  continued  till 
Kit'i.'i.  The  Mcrcuriux  Calcdetnius  (Eflinbnrgb, 
KitiO)  failed  after  ten  issues.  The  estab- 
lishment of  the  newspaper  in  Scotland  was  due 
to  .Tames  Watson,  who  was  both  eilitor  and 
printer.  lie  >*tnrted  the  Kdinhurqh  (ln:cll'j 
(1700);    the   Kdinhurgh  Courant    (170,5),  a   tri- 


weekly, which  suspended  after  fifty-five  num- 
bers; and  the  Scots  Courant  (170G).  continued 
till  1718.  In  1718  appeared  the  Edinhuryh  Kiin- 
iny  Courant.  and  two  years  later  the  Caledonian 
Mcrciiry.  which  continued  for  nearly  a  century 
and  a  half.  The  Scotsman  (Edinburgh,  1817), 
a  daily  since  18.i.i,  the  most  substantial  journal 
in  Scotland,  is  also  most  favorably  known  in  the 
I'niteil  States.  Among  the  nwuierous  other  good 
Scotch  journals  are  tlie  (llas(i0H'  Herald  (1782), 
an  independent  daily  with  a  weekly  issue;  the 
Cilasyou-  Weekly  M<iil  (18(i2)  ;  the />HH(ffc  .l(ir<r- 
tiscr  (1801).  daily;  the  Dundee  Weekly  Xcus 
(18.1.J),  having  a  circulation  above  250,000 ;  the 
.Ihcrdecn  Journal  (1748),  dailv  and  weekly;  and 
the  Xorth  British  Daily  Mail  ("(Jlasgow.  18"47). 

lKKr..\ND.  During  the  civil  wars  there  were 
printeil  in  London  several  sheets  containing  news 
from  Ireland,  as  Warrcnted  Tidings  from  Ire- 
land (ItUl)  and  Mcrcurius  nibernicus  (1044). 
The  first  real  Irish  newspajier  was  the  Dublin 
\cu-s-Lcttcr  (l()8.j).  Fifteen  years  later  came 
the  first  Dublin  daily.  Puc's  Occurrences,  which 
was  continued  for  a  half  century.  In  1728  ap- 
peared another  daily,  Falkcncr's  Journal. 
Esdaile's  Xeujs-Letter  (1744),  changed  to  Saun- 
ders's \etcs-Letter  (1754).  a  Dublin  tri-weekly 
and  then  a  daily,  lasted  till  1879.  The  ofiicial 
Dublin  Gazette'  (1710?)  still  continues.  The 
oldest  provincial  Irish  newspapers  still  existing 
are  the  daily  Belfast  \cirs  Letter  (1737),  the 
semi-weekly  Watrrfr>rd  Chronicle  (1700),  and 
the  Limerick  Chronicle  (1760).  Among  the 
most  flourishing  Dublin  newspapers  are  the  fa- 
mous Freeman's  Journal  (1703);  the  AVcckly 
Sation  (1847);  the  Keening  Telegraph  (1877): 
and  Sport  (1881).  The  Belfast  Xorthern  Whig 
(1824).  with  a  large  circulation  in  Ul.ster,  is  also 
well  known  outside  of  Ireland. 

The  British  ('oix)NIES.  In  British  Xorth 
.\merica  the  chief  jilaces  from  which  newspapers 
(daily  and  weekly)  are  dilTused  are  Toronto, 
Montreal.  Ottawa.  (Juebec.  and  Halifax.  Among 
the  earliest  journals  were  the  Halifax  Gazette 
(1751).  which  lasted  hardly  twenty  years,  and 
the  Montreal  Gazette  (1705),  now  a  daily  and 
weekly.  Toronto,  though  later  in  the  field,  takes 
the  lead  to-day  with  its  five  dailies  and  many 
weeklies,  among  which  are  the  Globe  (morning, 
evening,  and  we<'kly).  the  Daily  Mail,  and  Errn- 
ing  Xcus.  Quebec  and  Ottawa  support  several 
dailies  and  weeklies  in  French. 

Iniu.\.  The  dcpnrtation  clause  in  the  early 
libel  act,  censorship,  and  a  rigid  license  act 
restricted  journalism  in  India,  and  a  press  law 
still  leaves  all  newspapers  published  in  the 
vernacular  subject  to  administrative  suppression. 
Anglo-Indian  journalism  began  with  the  Indian 
World.  Calcutta,  edited  by  William  Duane  in 
1794.  deported  by  the  East  India  Company.  He 
was  afterwards  editor  of  the  Aurora.  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.  About  thirty  years  later  J.  S. 
Buckingham  was  deported  for  a  like  reason.  In 
1800  nine  ncws)iapers  were  started  and  soon 
suspendeil.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  the 
English  pa]x>rs  were  the  Englishman,  started  in 
1821  as  John  Bull  in  the  East'  Ilurakarn.  Cal- 
cutta Star,  and  I'ricnd  of  India.  Much  of  Rudyard 
Kipling's  early  work  appeared  in  the  Lahore  Cir  il 
anil  Military  Gatetlr.  In  Calcutta  nine  dailies  are 
|)ubli-be(l  in  Knglish  and  seven  in  the  vernacular. 
The  Indian  Daily  Mirror  (1803)  is  the  first  dally 
in    English    edited    by   natives.      The    Hindu   of 


\ 


NEWSPAPER. 


477 


NEWSPAPER. 


Madras  is  the  oldest  daily  in  that  city.  In  all, 
five  dailies  in  En^jflish  are  eondneted  by  natives. 
There  are  in  the  Knipire  about  140  English  and 
about  300  native  newspapers.  The  largest  circu- 
lation of  the  latter  is  25.000,  and  most  circulate 
a  few  hundreds.  The  vernacular  press  is  for  the 
most  part  bitterly  opposed  to  the  Government, 
and  is  generally  edited  by  Bengalis. 

Ai'STRAi.A.siA  AND  SovTU  AFRICA.  .Journalism 
in  Australia  began  with  the  Sydney  (jiizcttc  and 
Xew  South  Wales  .lrfrc;-(isc-;-  ('1803-04),  of  which 
but  one  complete  tile  is  in  existence  at  the 
Sydney  Government  House.  The  history  of 
journalism  in  Australia  is  scattered  with 
failures  from  ISIO  to  ISCO.  But  to-day  the 
dailies  and  weeklies  of  large  circulation  are 
luinierous.  Though  the  press  has  been  estab- 
lished in  the  small  towns,  the  great  journalistic 
centres  are  Jlelbounie  and  Sydney;  and  next  to 
them,  Adelaide  and  Brisbane.  We  may  cite 
for  Melbourne,  the  Argus,  the  Aije.  and  the  nu- 
merous journals  devoted  to  building,  mining, 
stock-raising,  and  shipping;  for  Xew  South 
Wales,  the  Sydney  Morning  Herald,  the  Atis- 
traliun  titar,  and  the  Daily  Telegraph  ;  for  South 
Australia,  the  Register;  for  Queensland,  the 
Brisbane  Courier.  The  Australian  papers  are 
remarkable  for  the  large  numljer  of  jniges  in  an 
issue,  larger  in  proportion  to  population  and 
circulation  than  in  any  other  country,  particu- 
larly in  the  case  of  weeklies. 

Xew  Zealand's  first  paper  was  the  Xew  Zea- 
land Herald  (1841),  now  consolidated  with  the 
Auckland  Xews.  It  was  published  for  a  year, 
revived  (1863)  by  W.  C.  Wilson,  and  merged  in 
its  present  ownership  (1864).  It  is  one  of  two 
dailies  in  Auckland.  The  Times,  Wellington,  is 
a  typical  and  leading  daily.  A  Maori  paper, 
Te  i'dlcio  Matirki,  is  published  by  a  former  chief. 
Tawhiao.  The  newspaper  has  followed  the 
colonist  to  Cape  Colony.  Xatal.  and  to  other 
British  possessions  in  Africa,  and  throughout  the 
world.  Cape  Colony  has  several  weeklies  and 
three  dailies,  of  which  may  be  mentioned  the 
Cape  Argus  and  the  Cape  Times,  both  daily  and 
weekly. 

France.  The  now  flourishing  Gazette  de 
Franee  (daih')  is  the  oldest  of  all  French  news- 
papers. As  the  Gazette  it  was  established  at 
Paris  in  1631  under  the  patronage  of  Richelieu 
by  Theophraste  Renaudot  (loS4-1653).  It  first 
appeared  weekly  with  a  monthly  supplement, 
and  afterwards  as  a  semi-weekly.  Being  thus 
a  continuous  record  (except  for  a  slight  suspen- 
siim)  of  foreign  and  domestic  events  for  toward 
three  centuries,  it  possesses  very  great  historical 
value.  In  its  arrangement  of  foreign  news  first 
and  home  news  last,  it  also  set.  an  example  which 
has  generally  prevailed  in  French  journalism. 
Before  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  it 
began  to  give  space  to  commerce,  theatrical  an- 
nouncements, and  advertisements.  The  Gazette 
Burlesque  (1050-65),  the  first  journal  of  the 
kind,  aimed  to  be  the  ehronique  scandaleuse  of 
Paris.  The  two  types  thus  established  were 
continued  in  the  Mereurc  Galant  (1672),  which, 
under  ditl'erent  names,  commonly  the  Mcrcure 
de  France,  was  continued,  w-ilh  short  interrup- 
tions, down  to  1853.  The  rather  insipid  Journal 
de  Paris  (1777-1819)  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  Parisian  daily.  During  the  Revolution  jour- 
nals sprang  up  rapidly  as  organs  of  the  various 


parties,  but  they  soon  expired.  Two,  however, 
have  lived  till  the  present  time:  the  Journal 
dcs  Debats  (1780)  anil  the  Moniteur  Vnirrrscl 
(1789),  the  oflicial  organ  under  the  first  Xapo- 
leon.  The  Constitutionnel,  in  which  Sainte- 
Beuve  began  the  Causerics  du  lundi.  dates  from 
1815.  In  1836  were  established  two  cheaper 
papers,  the  Presse  and  the  f^ircle,  now  poinilar 
dailies.  The  Figaro,  the  modern  journal  de 
seandale,  established  in  1854,  became  a  daily  in 
1S66.  It  has  had  considerable  inlluence  on  the 
lighter  newspaper  in  England  and  elsewhere.  The 
Charivari  (1832),  a  journal  satirique,  has  like- 
wise been  imitated  in  many  countries.  The 
Patrie,  political,  commercial,  and  literary,  was 
a  daily  from  the  first  (1841).  Of  all  Parisian 
newspapers,  perhaps  the  Tinips  (a  daily.  1861) 
has  the  most  solid  reputation  abroad.  The  Pa- 
risian political  press  is  further  represented  by 
the  Soir  (1870),  the  Matin  (1884),  and  many 
others.  The  Petit  Journal  (1863),  the  first 
French  paper  selling  at  five  centimes  (half  the 
usual  price),  at  once  gained  a  circulation  of 
100,000  After  arrangements  were  made  whereby 
it  could  be  furnished  throughout  France  at  the 
same  price,  its  daily  issue  rapidly  increased  till 
it  reached  a  million.  French  newspapers  contain 
less  news  than  the  English  or  the  American. 
Space  is  thus  found  for  the  feuilleton,  a  literary 
essay,  sketch,  or  short  story,  an  indispensable 
feature  of  the  French  journal.  Paris  is  famous 
for  her  weeklies  devoted  to  art,  fashion,  litera- 
ture, and  the  professions.  Outside  of  Paris,  the 
larger  towns  support  several  dailies. 

Belgium.  Antwerp  has  already  been  men- 
tioned as  one  of  the  places  from  which  were 
issued  the  news-letters  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
They  were  succeeded  by  the  Xieun^e  Tijflinghen 
of  Antwerp  (1605?),  on  W'hich  were  founded  the 
Posttijdingen  (1637-44)  and  the  Gazette  van  Ant- 
u-erpen  (down  to  1827).  To  the  period  1640-50 
belong  the  Xieuae  Tijdinghen  of  Bruges,  the 
Brusselsche  Gazette,  and  Le  Courier  Veritable  des 
i'a;/s-i?as( Brussels),  which,  as  the  official  Gazette 
de  Bruxelles  and  the  Gazette  des  Pays-Bas,  con- 
tinued till  1791.  At  that  time  the  most  outspoken 
political  journal  was  the  Annates  Politigues  of 
Linguet  (often  suppressed).  The  Belgian  press, 
held  in  firm  restraint  during  the  Si)anish.  Aus- 
trian, and  French  rule,  became  practically  free  on 
the  independence  of  Belgium  (1830).  Antwerp 
with  its  seven  dailies  has  been  far  outstripped  by 
Brussels,  which  has  now  about  twenty  dailies.  The 
chief  are  the  Independunee  Beige,  the  Etoile 
Beige,  and  the  Journal  de  Bruxelles.  At  Antwerp 
and  at  Ghent  dailies  are  published  in  Flemish. 

Holland.  The  papers  of  Holland  were  long 
noted  for  the  accuracy  of  their  commercial  news. 
Since  1830  they  have  given  more  attention  to 
politics.  At  present  the  principal  Dutcli  dailies 
are  the  Allgenicene  Handrlsblad  and  Xieuus  ran. 
den  Dag,  both  of  Amsterdam  ;  the  Amsterd/imsehe 
Courant :  the  Journal  de  la  Haye ;  the  Haagsehe 
Courant ;  and  the  Staats  Courant — published  at 
The  Hague.  Other  places  of  active  journalism 
are  Haarlem  and  Rotterdam.  Weeklies,  several 
of  which  are  illustrated,  are  also  common. 

Switzerland.  The  Swiss  pajiers  are  devoted 
mostly  to  local  interests.  They  are.  however, 
well  managed,  especially  the  dailies  at  Geneva, 
Berne,  and  Lausanne.  For  tourists  there  is 
p\d)lished  at  Geneva  tlie  Swiss  and  Nice  Times, 
in  both  French  and  English. 


NEWSPAPER. 


478 


NEWSPAPER. 


Gkrmany.  The  uews  slieets  of  the  sixteenth 
tviitiiry  led  to  the  newspapers  that  began  to 
appear  just  after  IGOO.  Frankforton-Main  was 
among  the  first  with  the  Frunkfiirlcr  Jounial 
(1615)  and  the  Frankfurter  Uberiioftlamtszei- 
tung  (KilO),  which,  as  the  Frankfurter  Post- 
zeitung.  lived  till  lS(i(i.  Periodical  papers  were 
soon  established  in  other  towns,  as  Strassburg, 
Nuremberg,  Hildesheim,  Augsburg,  Munich, 
Hamburg,  and  Leipzig  (1060).  The  Uambur- 
gischcr  Correspondent  (1714),  still  existing,  is 
famed  as  being  tlie  first  to  have  a  regular  foreign 
correspomlent,  a  Kreneh  refugee  living  in  Eng- 
land (1725-35).  The  Allgemrine  Zeitung.  f,U\Tted 
at  Augsburg  in  17lt8  and  published  since  188."! 
at  JIunich,  from  the  first  a  weighty  political 
organ,  now  .ranks  among  the  foremost  ])api'rs  of 
Germany.  The  press  in  (lerniany  was  long  under 
severe  restrictions.  The  press  laws  of  (lennany 
are  in  theory  liberal.  In  practice,  however,  by  a 
rigid  application  of  the  law  in  regard  to  l6se- 
majeste,  the  courts  have  come  to  con.struc  almost 
any  criticism  of  current  administration  as  an 
insult  to  the  constituted  authorities.  Even  a 
comment  on  the  frcqnciuy  of  railroad  accidents 
has  been  visited  with  court  proceedings,  and  the 
editor  of  Kladderadalsch  was  imprisoned  for 
two  months  for  a  cartoon  which  represented  a 
group  of  great  soldiers  of  the  past  reading  the 
Emperor's  speech  to  his  guard,  declaring  that  it 
was  necessary  to  be  a  good  Christian  in  order  to 
l)e  a  good  soldier.  Berlin  has  over  twenty-five 
dailies,  among  which  are  the  Tossixche  '/.ritung; 
the  Norddeutsehe  Allgemeine  Zeitung;  the  yeue 
Prcussische  Zeitung;  Xational-Zeitung ;  the 
TAgliche  Kundschau  :  Oermania  ;  and  the  Volks- 
zeitung.  The  Coliigne  Gazette  is  noted  for  its 
foreign  news.  From  all  the  great  cities  of  Ger- 
many issue  many  weeklies,  some  of  which  are 
illustrated.  The  leading  comic  periodicals  are 
Fliegende  Blatter  and  Jugend.  ihniich,  and  Klad- 
deradatsch,  Berlin. 

Al"STRlA-HuN(:.\KV  took  an  active  part  in  the 
early  history  of  journalism  and  has  kept  abreast 
with  modern  methods.  Of  the  Vienna  dailies, 
numbering  about  fifteen,  the  most  important  are 
the  .Veiir  Freie  I'resse ;  Xeues  Wiener  Tage1>lntt ; 
Wiener  Allgemeine  Zeitung;  Deutsehe  Zeitung; 
the  semiofficial  Fremdenhlatt ;  and  the  oificial 
M'iener  Zeitung,  with  its  semi-olficial  evening  edi- 
tion, ^yiener  Abrndpofit,  Budapest  has  twenty- 
seven  dailies,  of  which  I'esti  Xaplo  (Pest  Daily), 
Egyelertes  (Union),  and  Festi  Hirlap  (Pest 
Gazette)  are  the  nio.st  prominent  in  Hungarian, 
and  the  Pester  Lloi/d  and  Xeuir  Pester  ■lnurnal 
in  German.  .-Xniong  the  provincial  ))apcrs  the 
foremost  in  Gernian  arc  the  liuhemia.  in  I'rague; 
the  Grazer  Tagespusl.  the  Triister  Zeitung;  in 
("zeeh,  the  \iirodni  lAslg  (National  Xcws),  in 
Prague:  in  Polish,  the  Czas  (Times),  in  Cracow; 
and  in  Halian,  the  Independente,  in  Triest.  As 
in  France,  considerable  space  is  given  by  the 
press  of  Germany  and  .\ustria  to  literary  reviews 
and  short  stories. 

ScANUiXAViA.  Tlie  earliest  Swedish  paper 
seems  to  have  Ix'en  the  Ordinarie  PoslTidrndr 
of  Stockholm  (1643-80).  A  little  later  came  the 
Svrnsk  Mereurius  (1675-83)  and  the  I'elatianes 
ri/nVwa- in  Latin  ( IOS'2-1701 ).  Tn  the  eighteenth 
century  were  established  two  French  papers:  the 
Gazette  Fran<;aiHe  (1742)  and  the  Mereure  de 
SiiMe  (1772).  Tlie  first  political  paper  of  im- 
portance in  Sweden  was  the  Argus,  founded  by 


Johannsen  (1820).  Ten  years  later  were  estab- 
lished the  Fiiderneslandet,  the  organ  of  the 
Royalists,  and  the  Aftonbladet.  the  organ  of  the 
Keformers.  now  the  leading  dailies  of  Stockholm. 
The  first  Norwegian  newspapers  were  the  I'hris- 
tiania  Infrlligentsscdler  (1763)  and  the  Adrcsse- 
eu)itors  F.fterrctninger  (Bergen,  1705).  Chris- 
tiania  now  has  five  and  Bergen  three  dailies.  In 
both  Norway  and  Sweden  semi-weeklies  and  tri- 
weeklies are  common.  The  press  of  Denmark  dates 
from  the  Danske  Mereurius  (16t>6).  Down  to 
1830  the  papers  of  Denmark  were  made  up  mostly 
of  extracts  from  foreign  journals:  and  those 
outside  of  Copenhagen  are  still  very  poor.  Copen- 
hagen now  has  thirteen  dailies,  morning  and 
evening,  of  which  the  oldest  is  the  lierlingske 
Tidende  (1749).  The  ,iftrnpo.<iten  enjoys  the 
largest  circulation.  At  Reikjavik  in  Iceland  are 
pul)lished  two  small  journals. 

Italv.  As  has  already  been  mentioned,  Italy 
with  her  ancient  Aetn  Diurna,  and  the  Venetian 
gazettes  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  the  original 
home  of  the  newspaper.  The  succeeding  slieets 
fell  into  disfavor  with  the  popes  and  were  de- 
nounced in  a  bull  issued  by  Gregory  XIII.  Tlie 
Diario  di  Roma  (I7I6)  was  the  leading  Italian 
newspaper  for  more  than  a  century.  Next  fol- 
lowed the  existing  Oazzetta  di  yapoli.  Up  to 
1848  the  newspapers  of  Italy,  subject  to  strict 
censorship,  were  small  and  politically  insignifi- 
cant. Press  laws  then  became  liberal,  and  as  a 
result  newspapers  sprang  up  rapidly.  Among 
the  ten  Roman  dailies  may  be  cited  the  Opinions 
(established  at  Turin  in  1847  and  afterwards  re- 
moved to  Rome);  Diritto ;  Riforma  ;  FanfuUa  : 
and  the  lore  delta  Yeritii  (in  the  interest  of  the 
Pojie  I .  Florence  issues  the  Corrierc  Italians  and 
two  other  dailies:  Genoa,  the  Caff  am  and  the 
Corriere  Mereantile ;  llilan,  si.x  dailies,  among 
them  the  influential  Perseveranza ;  Turin,  five; 
Venice,  four:  and  Naples,  six.  There  are  also 
several  illustrated  an<l  humorous  weeklies. 

The  SPANi.sir  Pkninsula.  Though  there  were 
earlier  sheets  published  at  irregular  intervals, 
the  first  Spanish  iiews|)aper  seems  to  date  only 
from  tlie  eighteenth  century.  Even  for  some  time 
after  1800  JIadrid  had  only  its  Diario,  Indeed, 
the  press  in  Spain  had  a  hard  career  till  the 
Revolution  of  1854.  Dailies  in  all  the  chief  cities 
are  now  numerous.  Ma<lrid  has  about  twenty, 
among  which  are  the  [mpareiiit  and  the  Corre- 
.ipondeneia  de  Espana,  Among  the  Madrid  illus- 
trated weeklies  are  the  Correspnndeneia  /tins- 
trada  and  the  Illuslraciiin  F.spanida  y  .Imrricana. 
From  the  American  staiulpoint,  the  news  in 
Spanish  papers  is  meagre.  This  is  also  true  of 
the  numerous  dailies  of  Lisbon. 

RfssiA.  The  earliest  newspapers  of  Russia 
were  issued  undofK  the  direction  of  Peter  the 
Great,  first  at  Jloscow  and  then  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg, to  report  the  progress  of  the  war  with 
Sweden.  The  first  gazette,  the  Vedomosti,  ap- 
peared in  Moscow  in  1702.  The  issue  of  1703, 
preserved  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Saint 
Petersburg,  was  reprinted  in  1855.  Political 
journalism,  however,  has  never  been  p<'rmitted 
in  Russia  except  in  ilefcnse  of  the  Government 
policy.  The  nourishing  period  of  the  press  has 
been  at  the  time  of  national  crises,  as  the  French 
invasion  of  1812.  the  Polish  insurrection  of  1830, 
and  the  Crimean  War.  The  official  organ  is  the 
Journal  de  ffaint  Petersbotirg,  The  Moror  Vre- 
mi/o    (New   Times),   the    Novosti    (a   news   and 


I 


NEWSPAPEB. 


479 


NEWSPAPER. 


stock  gazette),  and  tlie  Severimiia  (Xorthcrn 
Bee)  circulate  widely  from  Saint  Petershurj;. 
The  oldest  Moscow  daily  is  the  Moskvsl;ia  )></o- 
iiuisli  (Moscow  News),  dating  from  ITlili.  Rus- 
sian papers,  necessarily  occupying  themselves 
mainly  with  scientific  and  litcrarj'  subjecis,  make 
much  of  tlic  fcuilh-ton.  Tlie  weekly  Xiia 
( Harvestfield)  issues  two  large  monthh-  supple- 
ments. 

TuBivEY.  The  newspaper  was  introduced  into 
Turkey  by  the  French,  the  first  being  started  iu 
Pera  in  1795  by  Verninhac,  French  Ambassador. 
The  Djeridt'i  llavadis,  established  in  1843  by 
Alfred  Churchill,  an  Englishman  born  in  Turkey, 
is  now  the  leading  daily  of  Constantinople. 
Beirut  is  the  centre  of  the  Arab  press  of 
the  Empire.  There  exist  dailies  in  the  capital, 
al.so  in  English,  French,  Italian,  Armenian, 
and  Greek.  Owing  to  the  repressive  policj'  of 
the  Government,  the  editorial  is  impossible.  Tlie 
contents  of  a  Turkish  paper  include  home  and 
foreign  news,  a  Court  gazette,  official  appoint- 
7nents,  advettisements,  and  a  feuillctoii.  Religious 
weeklies,  as  the  Avedafer  in  Armenian,  have 
played  an  important  part  in  mission  enterprise. 

Greece.  During  the  War  of  Liberation,  manj 
papers  appeared  in  Athens,  but  they  disap- 
peared in  183;5  on  the  introduction  of  caution 
money,  by  King  Otho.  Then  followed  the  period 
of  the  ofliieial  organ.  Now  the  Athenian  press 
is  represented  by  several  journals  in  Cireek, 
French,  Italian,  and  English  ;  the  daily  Akropolis, 
Ephemeris,  and  .Vca  Ephemcris;  and  the  weekly 
Joiinidl  d'Athcncs.  and  the  ilessar/er  d'Athrnes. 

Ciiix.\.  The  Peking  Gazette  has  already  been 
de.scribed.  It  contains  a  court  calendar.  Impe- 
rial decrees,  and  memorials  from  officers  of  the 
State.  The  European  journal  has  been  brought 
to  China  by  the  English  and  the  Frencli.  Shang- 
hai and  Hong  Kong  have  several  dailies  in  Eng- 
lish and  Chinese.  The  native  press  of  China  is 
the  product  of  the  past  twenty-five  years.  The 
earliest  was  the  Chenij-pno  of  Shanghai,  begun  by 
an  Englishman.  Major,  aided  by  Chinese  literati, 
ciroilation,  180.5,  12,000:  the'Hon-pao  (1883); 
the  Clic-pao  at  Tien-tsin;  and  KouaiHipao  at 
Canton.  These  have  been  succeeded  by  a  ver- 
nacular press  all  over  the  Empire,  which  has  a 
considerable  inlluence.  The  iihih  Wu-pao  of 
Shanghai  is  one  of  several  sheets  started  by  a 
viceroy,  in  this  case  Chang  Chih-tung,  to  counter- 
act the  vernacular  press  in  private  hands,  and  in 
August,  1898,  the  subject  of  an  Imperial  rescript. 

Japan.  Japanese  journalism  owes  its  initia- 
tive impulse  and  traditions  to  Fukazawa.  who 
founded  and  for  many  years  edited  the  t^'izi 
Khimjio.  the  leading  daily  paper  in  the  Empire, 
published  at  Tokio.  Himself  one  of  the  ablest 
editors  of  the  century,  as  prolific  as  Girardin,  as 
full  of  moral  earnestness  as  Greeley,  and  as  able 
in  directing  public  policy  as  Pelane,  his  paper  in 
the  early  stages  of  the  Miji  educated  .Japan.  The 
first  periodical,  Manhio.  appeared  in  18G3.  The 
first  daily,  MuUuchi  Khimhon,  was  established 
in  1871  at  Tokio.  Among  other  .Tapanese  papers 
wcirfliy  of  mention  are:  Xichi  Xirhi  Hhimhon 
(1872),  Count  Ito's  organ,  Hociti  Sliiinlio)!.  Jis-i 
Shiniiio.  Xijijinii.  Kolniiniii  Hhiinhon.  Kohumiii, 
and  Xoroiiio.  The  Miro  Mho  is  a  comic  paper. 
In  1883  .Japan  had  113  newspapers  and  periodi- 
cals, of  which  one  had  1900  circulation:  in  1888. 
550,  and  in  1900,  827,  of  which  Tokio  had  201, 
Osaka  5G,  and  Kioto  51.    The  dailies  number  150, 


of  which  17  in  1888  had  a  combined  circulation  of 
130,200. 

The  I'xiTED  States.  The  ijewspaper  lias  an 
importance  in  the  United  States  attained  nowhere 
else.  A  broad  area  under  a  common  language 
with  a  homogeneous  [jopulation,  universal  educa- 
tion, easy  means  of  communication,  the  clieapest 
mail  facilities  known,  newspaper  tolls  cheaper 
in  proportion  to  average  distance,  though  higher 
for  short  distances  than  elsewhere,  and  a  con- 
stant interest  in  politic;il  and  social  afi'airs, 
complete  freedom  from  censorship  or  restriction, 
e.xcept  that  provided  by  the  libel  laws,  have  given 
5  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  the  world  40  jier 
cent,  of  its  newspapers.  Less  accurate  than  the 
English  newspaper,  less  well  written  than  the 
French,  less  well  e(iuii)ped  than  the  (ieriiian,  tlie 
American  newspaper  occupies  a  mean  position 
between  all  three  in  the  extent  of  its  news  ser- 
vice, in  the  freedom  of  its  literary  vehicle,  and 
in  its  habit  of  treating  all  subjects  from  the  point 
of  the  educator  rather  than  the  investigator. 
Journalism  in  the  I'nited  States  has  shared  the 
conditions  due  to  material  circumstances  which 
atlect  all  periodicals.  They  have  already  been  de- 
scribed for  England,  where,  a  dense  population 
occupying  a  limited  area,  questions  of  transporta- 
tion play  a  limited  part.  The  journalism  of  the 
Revolution,  when  for  iiewsjiaper  purposes  no  com- 
mon eonimunication  existed  between  colonial  cen- 
tres, was  limited  in  influence  and  circulation  to 
the  place  and  region  iu  which  each  paper  was 
published,  and  even  the  New  York  Journal,  in 
which  the  Federalist  appeared,  had  small  influ- 
ence outside  of  New  York  City.  When  the  postal 
service  was  fully  organizeil  after  the  Revolution, 
but  remained  subject  to  special  carriage  until  the 
organization  of  an  adequate  stage  service  along 
the  Atlantic  Coast  in  the  third  and  fourth 
decades  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  rates 
upon  newspapers  were  so  high  that  their  circu- 
lation was  the  luxury  of  a  few,  and  the  small 
group  of  newspapers  edited  at  the  chief  centres 
by  men  of  a  commanding  personality,  known  to 
the  public  class  of  the  period,  had  a  most  impor- 
tant influence,  akin  to  that  of  the  English  journal 
of  the  same  time,  from  the  general  knowledge 
among  men  of  public  aflfairs  of  the  personality 
of  their  editors,  and  their  ability  to  affect  the 
dominant  class  of  their  place  and  region.  The 
organization  of  a  stage  service,  in  particular 
between  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  just  prior 
to  the  development  of  railroads,  and  a  reduction 
in  newspaper  mail  rates  gave  a  wide  circulation 
to  weeklies  and  began  the  political  influence  of 
such  newspapers,  usually  the  weekly  edition  of 
<a  daily,  which  lasted  from  1840  to  1875.  During 
this  period,  as  with  the  New  York  Trihinw.  the 
real  influence  and  weight  of  its  editor  rested,  not 
upon  its  daily  edition,  which  in  this  case  was 
always  out-topped  in  New  Y'ork  City  in  circula- 
tion by  two  or  more  papers,  but  upon  its  weekly, 
which  circulated  throughout  all  the  North.  Po- 
litical and  religious  weeklies  during  this  period 
were  the  most  profitable  of  newspaper  properties, 
and  the  most  potent  of  political,  religious,  and 
social  factors.  Ten  years  after  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War  competition  began  in  the  telegraph 
service,  both  by  cable  and  by  land;  tolls  dropped, 
newspaper  postage  was  reduced  to  a  nominal 
figure,  the  price  of  paper  per  pound  began  to 
decrease,  train  service  was  improved,  the  early 
delivery  of  the  morning  paper  became  possible. 


NEWSPAPER. 


48U 


NEWSPAPER. 


owing  to  Jirossos  caiiiMc  of  priiitins  a  larse 
edition  nipidly  before  breakfast  within  a  raduis 
of  200  miles,  and  during  the  last  (juarter  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  daily  became  dominant. 
It  had  lor  more  than  half  a  century  held  an  un- 
challenged field  in  all  cities  of  over  100.000  popu- 
lation. The  changes  just  recited  extended  the 
newspaper  radius  of  all  cities  of  half  a  million 
or  over,  and  dailies  which  had  been  important  at 
a  remove  of  100  or  200  miles  over  a  great  cen- 
tre, in  towns  from  ,50.000  to  lOO.OtK).  while  they 
suH'ered  no  loss  in  their  value  as  local  means  of 
conuuunication  and  business  ])ropcrties.  lost  their 
weight  in  the  daily  newspaper  Held  as  organs  of 
political  and  social  importance,  now  that  circu- 
lation which  had  been  measured  by  the  10,000 
down  to  188.')  was  measured  by  the  100.000.  From 
1840,  when  the  power  press,  the  railroad,  and  the 
telegraph  ma<le  the  modern  daily  newspaper  pos- 
sible, (iown  to  1875,  a  circulation  of  SO.OOO  in 
Xew  York  Cit.v  was  remarkable,  and  nearly  all 
newspapers  were  well  satisfied  with  half  of  this. 
From  187;")  to  1885  these  figures  doubled.  From 
188;")  to  1!K)0,  witli  a  few  exceptions,  a  newspaper 
could  not  be  considered  in  any  city  of  over 
half  a  million  as  of  importance  unless  its 
daily  circulation  turned  100,000,  and  in  cities 
still  larger  150.000  to  twice  these  figures  was 
not  unknown.  The  eflect  of  this  enormous 
growth  was  to  change  radically  both  the  con- 
dition and  character  of  newspapers  seeking  a 
large  circulaticm.  Where  a  regulation  subscrip- 
tion had  been  the  general  source  of  support,  news- 
stand and  street  sales  became  res],ousil)le  for  the 
great  bulk  of  the  edition.  Newspapers  began 
sharply  to  difTerentiate  between  the  newspaper 
in  eac^i  city  which  .sought  a  large  but  unstable 
circulation  and  the  newspaper  which  aimed  at 
a  smaller  but  secure  and  more  select  gniuj)  of 
readers.  Where  one  newspaper  to  the  home  had 
been  the  rule, 'it  became  more  and  more  common 
for  the  house  and  oMicc  to  take  from  two  to  five. 
During  the  last  decade  of  tlie  nineteenth  century, 
in  the  struggle  for  circulation  and  a  general  com- 
petition, the  usual  price  of  the  daily  newspaper 
in  a  large  city,  which  was  4  and  .'5  cents  down  to 
1880,  and  from  2  to  3  cents  down  to  1800, 
dropped  to  1  cent  for  most  of  the  newspapers 
having  a  large  circulation,  for  all  in  Philadel- 
phia, for  all  liut  three  English  morning  newspapers 
in  New  York  in  the  general  field,  while  in  Hos- 
ton  and  (liieago  2  and  .'?  cents  was  still  main- 
tained. .\t  the  same  time,  a  corresponding  fall 
took  place  in  the  rate  charged  for  the  small 
'want'  advertisement,  and  for  the  special  ailver- 
tising  of  business  firms,  a  larger  and  larger 
share  of  which  was  monopolized  by  'department 
stores.' 

Boston  was  first  in  the  field  with  I'liblirl.-  Oc- 
currences (1()!)0).  a  small  quarto  sheet,  having 
one  page  blank.  For  containing  "reficxions  of  a 
very  high  nature,"  it  was  suppressed  by  the 
(lovernor  of  Massaehusetls.  Next  came  the 
I'.oslon  yrir.i-l.rlli-r  (1704  1,  first  conducted  by 
John  Campbell,  the  postmaster.  In  1710  it  met 
a  bitter  rival  in  the  Hoston  Cazrllr;  but  with 
its  name  changed  to  the  Mtinnarlni/irtlfi  flasrilc 
nntl  Hoxldii  yrws-Lellcr.  it  grew  to  lie  the  chief 
organ  of  Hritish  rule  in  .\nierica  down  to  the 
evacuation  of  Boston.  In  1721  .Tames  Franklin 
began  the  Xcir  Eiiqhinil  Coiiraiit.  It  sns]>endcd 
in  1727:  and  two  years  later  Henjamin  Franklin, 
who  had  been  a])iirenticed  to  his  brother  .Tames, 


established  at  Phihulclphia  the  Pciiiisylfnnia 
Oazritt;  which  he  conducted  as  a  weekly  till  17t)0. 
The  I'eiui.si/lvaitiu  Vii::ttlc  was  then  merged  in 
the  X<irih  American.  Numerous  ventures  at  Bos- 
ton led  to  the  Jioston  Evenimj  I'ost  ( 17,'!.5) ,  which 
was  ably  conducted  as  an  indei>endenl  journal 
down  to  1775.  when  it  exi)ired.  The  new  lioxtim 
Gazette  (1755)  became  the  voice  of  the  people 
against  Kngland.  To  it  John  Adams  contributed 
the  Letters  of  Novanglus.  The  Miixxdcliiixctts 
t^jiy  (  1770)  was  another  brilliant  ]iaper  on  the 
Kevolutionary  side.  On  the  day  of  the  battle  of 
Lexington,  it  was  removed  to  Worcester,  where, 
after  one  short  suspension,  it  lias  continued  till 
the  present  under  the  name  of  the  W(>rcis,ter  .S'/<.i/. 
In  other  colonies  the  newsi)apcr  had  alreaily 
appeared  or  was  appearing.  In  1725  the  colonies 
had  two  newspapers,  one  in  Boston  and  one  in 
Philadelpliia.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Kcvolution 
the  niunl)er  had  increased  to  .■?4.  The  years  im- 
mediately following  saw,  amid  many  failures  and 
successes,  the  establishment  of  two  dailies:  the 
Adieriiser  of  Philadel|)hia  (1784)  and  the  Ad- 
lertiscr  of  New  York  (1785). 

For  America,  as  for  the  rest  of  the  world,  the 
period  of  immense  expansion  in  journalism  began 
about  1830.  on  the  cstablisliment  of  the  great 
New  Y'ork  dailies.  The  Daili/  Sun  (18.33),  the 
first  penny  paper  in  the  United  States,  was 
among  the  pioneers.  Reorganized  by  Charles  A. 
Dana  in  lSt!8,  it  gained  wide  re])ule  for  concise 
news  items  and  brilliant  editorials.  The  llrndd 
(1835).  founded  by  James  (Jordou  Bennett,  has 
long  been  noted  for  its  exclusive  foreign  news, 
often  obtained  at  lavish  expense.  The  Tribune 
(1841),  for  thirty  years  under  the  management 
of  Horace  Greeley,  was  distinguished  for  its 
vigorous  editorials.  It  still  remains  one  of  the 
cleanest  and  most  reliable  among  ncwspajiers. 
The  Time».  founded  in  1851  by  Henry  .Tames 
Raymond,  has  always  aimed  at  sane  and  conser- 
vative connnent  on  co7itemporary  (pu'stions. 
Among  other  New  Y'ork  dailies  of  high  standing 
are  the  Ereninff  Pout  (1801).  an  iiuli'peudcnt 
paper  somewhat  on  the  Knglish  type,  and  con- 
taining .solid  and  trustworthy  book  reviews:  the 
Commercial  Adrertiser  (evening),  which  is  most 
favorably  known  for  its  fin;incial  and  literary 
comment;  the  .l/oi7  and  Express  (evening)  :  and 
the  Press,  founded  in  the  interests  of  the  Kcjinb- 
liean  Party.  The  latest  phases  of  moilern  journal- 
ism are  represented  by  the  World  ami  the  .hmnial 
or  American.  Fxcellent  dailies  are  also  published 
in  (ierman,  French,  and  Italian.  New  Yiuk  has 
found  indispensable  a  few  dailies  and  numerous 
weeklies  devoted  to  finance  and  each  important 
liraiicli  of  trade.  Such  arc:  the  Financial  y<n-s 
(daily)  :  the  -Journal  of  Commerce  (daily)  ; 
iiradxtreet's :  the  Iron  .\;ie.  etc.  Each  depart- 
ment of  knowledge  and  each  ]irofession  also  has 
its  weekly.  Of  the  many  illustrated  journals 
Harper's  Weehlii  is  the  oldest,  .\mong  others 
are  Collier's  Weehlii  and  Eranlr  I.eylie's  llhis- 
Iraled  Papir.  In  1875  the  Grapliie  was  the  only 
illustrated  daily.  Now  a  daily  without  illustra- 
tion is  rare.  American  liumiu-  finds  expression  in 
Pud:.  Judfjr.  and  Life:  criticism  in  the  \alion. 
in  many  other  weeklies,  and  in  the  Saturday  or 
Sunday  editions  of  the  dailies.  The  Times  pub- 
lishes a  Saturday  sup]demeut  composed  wholly  of 
hook  reviews  and  literary  comment.  Among  re- 
ligious journals,  which  often  include  literary 
criticism,  are  the  Observer   (Presbyterian)  ;  the 


NEWSPAPER. 


481 


NEWSPAPER. 


Churchman  (Episcopal)  ;  tlic  Chri/ttinn  Adrocntc 
(Methodist)  ;  tlic  lU-a miner  (Baptist)  ;  tlie  Iwli- 
pendent  and  the  Outlook  (liberal)  ;  the  Vutltolic 
J{evicir:  tlie  Catholic  American  ;  and  many  He- 
brew weeklies.  Sport,  art.  science,  the  drama, 
fashion  and  society — each  has  its  own  periodicals. 
I'uhlic  t)jiinion  presents  a  rfcunij'  of  current 
thought.  New  York  .still  leads  the  American 
press.  But  what  has  been  said  of  her  journals 
is  largely  true  of  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Balti- 
more. Cincinnati,  Chicago.  Saint  l.ouis,  and  San 
Francisco.  And  from  certain  other  cities,  some- 
times small.  ar<!  issued  newspajiors  which  have 
gained  a  national  reimtation.  Such  are  the 
hlprinfilicld  Rri)ulil!can.  the  Detroit  Free  Presn', 
the  J^oni.srille  Courier-Journal,  and  the  yew 
Orlea)is  Picayune.  The  last  years  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  witnessed  the  rise  of  the  Sunday 
issue  of  the  great  dailies.  These  immense  Sun- 
day magazines,  sometimes  running  above  a  hun- 
dred pages,  with  colored  illustrations,  are  now 
published  in  all  the  larger  cities. 

The  Making  of  the  Ne\vsp.\i>er.  For  a  con- 
ception of  the  wonderful  progress  of  the  press, 
one  nuist  leave  mere  annals  and  enter  the  work- 
shop. The  newspaper  such  as  Defoe  edited  was 
notliing  more  than  a  brief  chronicle  of  news 
gathered  ha])hazard,  concluding  with  the  ad- 
vertisement of  a  quack  doctor.  Next  came  the 
reporter.  The  special  correspondent  here  and 
there  appeared  in  the  seventeenth  century,  but 
he  did  not  gain  his  place  till  tlie  Crimean  War, 
and  in  the  United  States  not  till  the  Civil  War. 
Now  every  great  daily  has  its  hundred  corre- 
spondents scattered  about  the  globe.  Tliis  has 
been  rendered  practicable  by  the  cable.  For  sav- 
ing expense,  news  agencies  have  been  formed  in 
Europe  and  America.  Renter's  (1858)  was  the 
first  for  England.  The  Associated  Press  of  tlie 
United  States  dates  from  1849.  Though  these 
serve  for  the  smaller  papers,  they  are  to  the 
larger  papers  only  hints  to  be  followed  up  by 
their  own  agents.  The  telegraph,  indispensable 
for  gathering  news,  has  been  reenforced  by  the 
telephone,  which  is  now  finding  its  way  into  every 
village.  These  new  sources  for  obtaining  news 
have  revolutionized  the  office.  The  editor  who 
personally  superintended  the  issue  of  his  paper  is 
of  the  past.  There  can  never  be  another  Greeley  or 
Dana.  The  editor-in-chief  of  certain  papers  finds 
no  time  even  to  write  a  leader.  The  work  of  making 
the  paper  must  be  divided  and  subdivided.  A  'city 
editor'  directs  the  reporters  in  gathering  news. 
A  'news  editor'  keeps  in  touch  with  outside  cor- 
respondents through  the  telegrajdi  and  the  tele- 
phone. What  pours  in  from  the  press  associa- 
tions and  a  paper's  own  avenues  must  be  thor- 
oughly sifted  by  'copy  editors.'  who  now  throw 
out  far  more  than  they  put  in.  For  important 
news  articles  there  are  usually  special  writers. 
'Exchange  editors'  read  other  periodicals  with 
scissors  in  hand,  clipping  what  they  think  will 
interest  the  public.  Cnnunent  on  the  news  of  the 
day  is  in  the  liands  of  a  trained  corps  of  editorial 
■writers.  All  these  and  other  departments  re- 
ceive their  general  instructions  from  the  editor- 
in-chief,  whose  place  has  shifted  from  the  old 
editorial  desk  to  the  telephone.  There  are.  more- 
over, editors  for  finance,  commerce,  and  sport, 
and  critics  for  music,  the  theatre,  and  litera- 
ture. Many  papers  also  now  employ  a  woman, 
with  a  corps  of  assistants,  to  gather  the  news 
especially  interesting  to  women.     Finall}',  there 


is  the  'night  editor.'  who  makes  up  the  paper, 
arranging  all  the  articles  and  the  headlines.  The 
Sunday  issue  is  under  the  direction  of  a  special 
editor,  who  has  his  own  stall'  of  correspondents. 
For  providing  the  Sunday  newspapers  with 
stories  by  pojiular  novelists,  syndicates  were 
formed  just  after  18!U).  The  syndicate  purchases 
the  manuscript  from  the  author  and  sells  the 
right  of  simultaneous  publication  to  one  news- 
paper in  each  of  the  great  cities,  thus  making  a 
handsome  profit.  The  proceeds  from  the  trans- 
action have  temi)tcd  Stevenson,  Kipling,  and 
many  otlier  well-known  novelists.  Much  miscel- 
laneous nianu^cri]it  now  passes  through  syndi- 
cates. The  counting  room  of  the  newspaper  we 
can  enter  only  to  remark  that  an  expert  is  re- 
quired to  look  after  the  advertisements.  The  in- 
come from  advertisements,  once  insignificant,  is 
now  so  great  that  even  the  wealthiest  daily  could 
not  long  survive  a  serious  quarrel  with  its  pa- 
trons. 

Great  as  all  these  developments  are,  the  mar- 
velous changes  await  one  who  enters  the  mechani- 
cal department.  Down  to  1S14  all  papers  were 
]uinted  on  hand-presses.  Then  the  cylinder  press 
of  Koening.  run  by  steam  and  printing  about  a 
thousand  copies  an  hour,  was  introduced  by  the 
London  Times.  In  the  hands  of  Sir  Rowland 
Hill,  Richard  M.  Hoe,  and  other  later  inventors, 
the  so-called  'web-perfecting  press'  has  reached  a 
stage  in  its  development  where  it  will  print,  fold, 
paste,  and  count  more  than  100.000  copies  of 
eight-page  papers  an  hour.  The  most  recent 
presses  will  also  print  a  sheet  in  six  distinct 
colors.  These  improvements  have  been  accom- 
panied by  quicker  means  of  stereotyping.  Plates 
may  be  made  and  clamped  on  the  press  within 
twelve  minutes.  In  the  last  decade  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  hand  tyjiesetting  gave  way  to  the 
linotype  machine,  which,  besides  reducing  the 
expense  of  composition  by  one-half  in  New  York 
and  by  one-third  in  certain  other  cities,  brought 
the  interval  between  the  reception  of  the  latest 
news  and  its  publication  down  to  less  than  half 
an  hour.  Between  IST;!  and  1900  pai)cr  suitable 
fiu'  i)rint  decreased  in  cost  from  12  to  2  cents  a 
]iound.  New  ])rocesses  in  ])hotograpliy  have  also 
made  easy  the  ra])id  reproduction  of  pictures. 
The  interval  between  a  snapshot  and  the  printed 
picture  is  less  than  two  hours.  Electricity  is  dis- 
placing steam.  The  automobile  has  been  pressed 
into  service  for  getting  newspajiers  on  the  street; 
and  for  wider  circulation  special  trains  are  em- 
ployed. 

No  obsei'ver  can  fail  to  notice  that  under  the 
new  regime,  where  the  editor-in-chief  counts  for 
less,  the  press  of  the  United  States  is  Iiecoming 
less  personal  and  more  and  more  independent. 
True,  nearly  all  .American  papers  are  the  voice 
of  some  i>arty,  l)ut  they  are  not  its  slaves.  Cer- 
tainly public  questions  are  now  discussed  with  a 
sanity  ami  cahnness  rare  in  earlier  years. 

Statistics.  According  to  estimates  at  the 
close  of  the  year  1!)00,  the  total  number  of  news- 
papers published  in  Ihe  world  was  about  50,000 
(an  increase  of  10.000  during  the  previous  ten 
years),  distributed  as  follows:  United  States 
and  Canada,  21.78!);  Germany.  7000:  Great  Brit- 
ain. nOOO:  France.  4.300 ;  .Japan,  2000:  Italy, 
1500:  Austria-IIungarv.  1200;  Asia,  exclusive 
of  .Japan,  1000:  Spain',  8.50:  Russia,  800;  Aus- 
tralia. 800:  Greece,  000;  Switzerland,  4.50;  Hol- 
land. 300;   Belgium,  300;   all  others,   1000.     Of 


NEWSPAPER. 


482 


NEWT, 


the  21,789  cstiiiKitea  lur  i\w  rnitcil  States  and 
Canada,  only  '.124  were  puldi^lu'd  in  Canada. 
According  to  ficiiucncy  of  i.-isuo,  tliey  ran  thus: 
weekly,  15,375:  monthly,  2939;  daily,  2279; 
semimonthly,  290;  semi-weekly,  470;  quarterly, 
180;  bi-weekly,  70:  bi-monthly. 08  :  Iri-weekly,  52. 
The  number  for  each  State  and  Territory  in  the 
United  States  was  as  follows:  Alabama,  231; 
Alaska,  9;  Arizona,  54:  Arkansas,  257;  Cali- 
fornia, 098;  Colorado,  320;  Connecticut,  190; 
Delaware,  42;  District  of  Columbia.  82:  Florida, 
159;  Georgia.  302:  Hawaii,  20;  Idalio.  70;  Illi- 
nois, 170(i;  Indian  Territory,  84:  Indiana,  859; 
Iowa,  1073;  Kansas,  703;  Kentucky,  314;  Louisi- 
ana, 192;  Maine,  154;  Maryland,  211;  Jlassa- 
chusetts.  618;  Michigan,  790;  Minnesota,  653; 
Mississippi,  222;  Missouri,  1033;  Montana,  92; 
Nebraska,  617;  Nevada,  30:  New  Hampshire, 
105;  New  .Jersey,  384:  New  Mexico.  52;  New- 
York,  2032:  North  Carolina,  255;  North  Da- 
kota, 155;  Ohio.  1217:  Oklahoma,  125:  Oregon, 
192;  Pennsylvania,  1403;  Porto  Eico,  7;  Rhode 
Island,  59;  South  Carolina,  128:  South  Dakota, 
267;  Tennessee,  289;  Texas,  794;  Utah,  77;  Ver- 
mont, 75;  Virginia,  240;  Washington,  221  ;  West 
Virginia,   189;   Wisconsin,  642;    Wyoming,  41. 

The  fullest  analysis  ever  made  of  the  com- 
mercial side  of  newspapers  for  any  one  countiy 
appeared  in  the  United  States  Census  Report  for 
1000.  It  varies  considerably  from  the  figures 
compiled  by  advertising  agencies  in  the  number 
of  jMTiodicals.  because  the  latter  contain  numer- 
ous transitory  publications  of  small  consequence. 
The  growth  of  the  periodical  press  in  the  United 
States  during  the  last  half-century  is  best  shown 
by  the  following  table: 


fnim  lOHO  lo  /S7'.2  (New  York.  1873).  Hud-son 
gives  much  information  in  regard  to  foreign  jour- 
nalism. The  American  WeeLli)  Merciirii  for  1719- 
21.  the  first  American  newsjjaper  in  the  middle 
colonies,  was  reprinted  by  the  Colonial  Society 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1898.  For  Kngland,  consult 
Grant,  The  Xeirsiiuper  i'ress  (London,  1871-72)  ; 
Pebody,  English  Journalism  (ib.,  1882),  a  brief 
account;  .Jackson,  The  Pictorial  I'ress  (ib., 
1885)  ;  Andrews,  Histori/  of  British  Journal- 
ism (ib.,  1859);  Fox  Bourne.  J-!n<jlish  Seus- 
papers  ( ib.,  1887);  and  the  catalogue  of 
the  British  Museum.  Full  statistics  are 
given  for  each  year  in  Sell's  Dictionary  of  the 
World's  Press  (London),  Ayers  and  Rowell's 
Xru^spaper  Directories  give  .statistics  for  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  United  States  Cen- 
sus Reports  are  most  trustworthy.  For  the  Con 
tinent,  see  llatin,  Histoirc  politi(iue  et  lit- 
tcraire  de  la  presse  en  France  (8  vols.,  Paris, 
1859-01);  and  Les  Ga::ettes  de  Uollande  it  la 
presse  clandestine  aux  X^'IIeme  et  XVIIIrme 
siicles  (Paris,  1805)  ;  Warz^e,  Essai  historique 
et  critique  des  journaux  helijes  (Ghent,  1845); 
Larousse,  Grand  Dictionmiire  Vnirersel  (15  vols., 
1800-70;  supplements  1878-90),  which  describes 
under  separate  heads  the  most  important  jour- 
nals; Salomon,  Oeschichte  des  dvutschen  Zei- 
tunrisiresens.  vol.  i.  (I^eipzig.  1900)  ;  and  the 
German  encyclopaedias,  especially  Urockhaus's 
Konrersatiiins-Lcxikon  (Leipzig).  See  also  Jour- 
nalism, CoLu:nE:  Periodical;  and  Phinti.ng. 

NEW    SWE'DEN.      The   early   name   of   the 
region  between  New  York  and  Virginia. 

NEWT     (1\IE.    neicte,    ewte,    cfte.    by    faulty 
liaison  or  sandhi  for  an  ewte;  a  similar  instance 


All  classes 

Daily 

Number 

Total 

circulation 

per  Issue 

Agpregate 

number  of 

copies  Issued 

during  the  .year 

Number 

Total 

Circulation 

per  issue 

18,226 
14.901 
11,314 
5,871 
4,061 
2.526 

114.29«,334 
69,138.934 
31,779.686 
20.842.475 
13.Wa.4()9 
6.142,177 

S.16S.14S.749 
4,r,8I.113.6.'!0 
2.067.848.209 
1.508,548.250 
927.951.548 
426,409,978 

2.226 
1.610 
971 
674 
387 
264 

15.102.1.56 

8.387,188 

1880                             

3.566.395 

1870                 

2.6UI..547 

I860 

1.478.435 

1860 

768.454 

5 1 


Complete  figures  exist  in  regard  to  the  busi- 
ness of  publication  only  during  the  past  twenty 
years.     These  are  summarized  as  follows: 


in  English  is  nickname,  and  reverse  changes  are 
adder,  apron,  aur/er,  oranfic.  umpire).  A  small 
salamander  of  the  genus  Triton  in  Euroiie  and 


Number  of  publlcationB 

Aggregate 
circulation 
per  Issue 

AgKregate  number 

of  copies  issued 

during  the  census 

year 

YEAR 

Total        Reporting 

Not 
Reporting 

21.272             18,226 
17,616             14,901 
11,314             11.314 

3.046 
2.716 

114.299.334 
69.138.9:14 
31.779,686 

8.168.148.749 

1890                           

4.681. li:),630 

1880 

2.067,848,209 

Pounds  of 
paper  used 

Value  of  newspajier  products 

TEAR 

Average 
number 

Total  wages 

Total 

Advertising 

Subscriptions 
and  sales 

1900     

94.601 
76,437 
71,615 

$80,333,051 
40,074.937 
98  659.836 

1,233,142,248 

552.876,161 
189,145.048 

$175,789,610 
143..586.448 
89,009,074 

$9I>,S61.127 
71,243.361 
39.136.306 

$79,928,483 

1890 

72.343.087 

4il.872.76« 

BinLionRAniv.  The  works  on  the  newspaper 
are  all  considerably  out  of  date.  For  a  general 
▼  iew  of  the  history  of  the  press  down  to  its  re- 
cent marvelous  ilevelopment.  the  best  single  book 
is    Hudson's   •/')"ni«/i'.»i    in    the    United    States 


Asia,  and  Dieniyct.vlus  in  North  America.  The 
most  familiar  American  newt  is  the  redspntted 
one  {Dicnu/ctiilus  riridesccns) .  When  full  grown 
it  is  almut  fo\ir  inches  long,  and  is  greenish- 
brown  above,  with  a   line  of  vermilion  dots  on 


NEWT. 


483       NEW  TESTAMENT  CHRONOLOGY. 


tlie  sides;  below,  it  is  orange  dotted  with  black. 
It  inhabits  ditches  and  quiet  waters,  where  it 
feeds  voraciously  on  all  sorts  of  small  acjuatic 
animals.  With  the  beginning  of  warm  weather 
the  females  begin  to   deposit  their  eggs,   which 


AMERICAN  GREEN  NEWT. 

1.  Adult  male  of  THemyctylus  riridescens  in  the  green 
aquatic  dress.  2.  Toung  newt  in  the  vermilion,  terrestrial 
Btage.  3.  Egg-8,  attached  to  a  water-weed.  4.  An  egg,  en- 
larged.   5.  Larva,  with  external  gilis. 

may  be  laid  singly  during  five  or  six  weeks,  and 
are  attached  to  the  leaves  of  submerged  plants. 
The  young  liatch  in  a  fortniglit  or  so,  and 
remain  in  the  water,  wearing  a  dull  green  coat, 
until  the  end  of  the  season,  when,  having  com- 
pleted their  first  metamorphosis,  their  gills  dis- 
appear, the  throat  and  lungs  become  adapted 
to  breathing  air,  and  they  leave  the  water.  Their 
color  now  changes  to  a  rich  uniform  vermilion 
with  fiery  button-like  spots  along  the  sides. 
They  are  then  only  two  or  three  inches  long,  and 
hide  under  leaves  and  within  rotten  logs,  feeding 
upon  small  worms  and  the  like,  but  coming  out 
frequently,  especially  in  the  night  and  wet 
weather.  Tliese  little  creatures  are  among  the 
prettiest  objects  in  the  American  woods.  This 
sojourn  on  land  lasts  until  the  autumn  of  the 
third  or  spring  of  the  fourth  season,  by  which 
time  they  have  nearly  attained  to  full  sizp,  and 
have  reached  se.xiuil  maturity.  They  tlien  grad- 
ually change  in  color  back  to  the  original  green, 
and  return  to  the  water,  where  tlieir  lungs  cease 
to  act,  pharyngeal  respiration  is  reestablished, 
and  they  proceed  to  breed.  This  species  is  lo- 
cally numerous  all  over  the  Eastern  United 
States.  A  much  larger  species  {Dicmycti/liis 
torosus)  occurs  in  the  Western  States.  It  is 
dark  brown  in  color,  yellowish  beneath,  and  the 
tail  is  provided  with  fins.  It  feeds  mainly  on 
earthworms. 


EUEOPEAN  CRESTED  NEWT. 

Male  in  breeding  dress. 

Of  the  Old  World  species,  the  most  widely 
distributed  is  the  crested  newt  {Triton  cri.ifa- 
tus),  which  is  olive-browii  with  white  blotches 
on  the  sides,  and  tlie  males  of  which,  during 
the  breeding  season,  have  serrated  crests  along 
the  backs.     Another   well-known    species   is   the 


marbled  newt  {Triton  inannoratus) ,  witli  wliich 
flic  cresteil  newt  hybridizes.  All  newts  prefer  ,1 
cool  and  moist  situation,  and  liibemate  \isually 
in  the  ground.  Some  species  remain  all  tlieir 
lives  in  tlie  water,  while  others  ]]ass  most  of 
their  lives  on  land.  They  cast  their  skins  from 
time  to  time,  more  frequently  when  young,  and 
the  cast  skin  is  eaten.  The  bre<>ding  liabits  of 
all  resemble  those  of  our  American  species.  Con- 
sult: Gadow,  Amphibid  and  liepliles  (l.oiiilon, 
1001);  Gage,  "Life  History  of  the  Vermilion- 
S|)otted  Newt,"  in  The  Amcricun  Xaluralist 
(  I'hiladelphia,  1801);  Sherwood,  Salamanders 
Found  in  the  Viciniti/  of  Xcw  York  City  (New 
York,  180.5)  ;  Jordan,  '"Habits  and  Development 
of  Newts,"  in  Journal  of  Morphology,  vol.  viii. 
(Boston,  1893). 

NEW  TESTAMENT.     See  Bible. 

NEW  TESTAMENT  CHRONOLOGY.     The 

science  which  deals  with  the  dates  and  order  of 
events  in  the  life  of  Clirist  and  the  Apostolic- 
Age. 

I.  TuE  Chronology  of  the  Life  op  Christ. 
The  main  data  are  to  be  found  in  the  Gospels 
and  checked  by  comparison  with  the  contempo- 
rary events  of  secular  history. 

( 1 )  The  Date  of  the  Xativity. — From  Matthew 
we  learn  that  the  birth  of  Jesus  took  place  "in 
the  days  of  Herod  the  King"  ( ii.  1 ) .  The  visit 
of  the  wise  men,  the  flight  of  the  Holy  Family 
into  Egypt,  and  the  massacre  of  the  children 
under  two  years  of  age  all  preceded  Herod's 
death  (ii.  3-18)_.  Tlius  Herod's  death  gives  us 
a  date  later  than  which  the  birth  of  .Jesus  cannot 
be  placed.  According  to  data  in  Josephus,  it  is 
beyond  all  doubt  that  Herod  died  not  long  before 
the  Passover  of  B.C.  4.  The  star  of  the  wise  men 
may  have  been  the  conjunction  of  Jupiter  and 
Saturn,  which  occurred  in  B.C.  7.  The  Nativity 
was,  however,  after  the  first  appearance  of  the 
star.  Since  several  events  took  place  between 
the  Nativity  and  Herod's  death,  the  evidence  in 
Matthew  is  conclusive  only  for  a  date  between 
B.C.  7  and  B.C.  4.  In  Luke  ii.  1  the  data  are 
more  definite.  "In  those  days  there  went  forth 
a  decree  from  Cicsar  Augustus  that  the  [Roman] 
world  should  be  enrolled.  This  was  tlie  first 
enrollment  made  when  Quirinius  was  Governor 
of  Syria."  The  meaning  seems  to  be  that  this 
enrollment  was  the  first  one  of  the  kind  in  those 
regions,  and  that  it  was  taken  while  Quirinius 
was  Governor.  This  definite  statement  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  discussion.  The  main  points 
in  dispute  are:  whether  Augustus  ordered  an 
enrollment  in  Palestine  before  the  famous  one 
of  A.D.  G  (which  was,  curiously  enougli,  while 
Quirinius  was  Governor  of  Syria),  and,  if  so, 
whether  Quirinius  was  the  Roman  official  in- 
trusted with  it-s  execution.  As  to  the  first  ques- 
tion, documents  recently  discovered  in  Egypt 
supplement  our  former  imperfect  knowledge  of 
Augustus's  various  censuses,  so  that  we  are  now 
reasonably  sure  that  about  B.C.  9-8  a  census  was 
ordered  to  be  taken  in  Palestine  as  a  part  of 
the  second  general  census  of  the  Empire,  in 
which  Palestine  was  now,  for  the  first  time, 
included.  From  B.C.  23,  for  a  number  of  years,  a 
census  was  taken  every  fourteen  years.  It  is 
likely  that  the  census  ordered  for  the  year  B.C. 
9-8  did  not  actually  take  place  in  Palestine, 
owing  to  its  peculiar  circumstances,  until  B.r.  7. 
As  to  the  second  question,  there  is  a  possibility 


TTEW  TESTAMENT  CHRONOLOGY.        -484       NEW  TESTAMENT  CHRONOLOGY. 


VI 


tliat  Luke  has  made  a  mistake  in  naming  Qui- 
rinius  instead  of  Saturninus  as  the  (Jovernov  of 
Syria  at  the  time.  Tliiis  botli  Luke  and  Matthew 
agree  to  the  etVect  that  the  Nativity  took  |)hioe 
about  B.C.  7  or  A.r.c.  747.  It  would  seem  that 
further  aid  might  be  derived  from  Luke  iii.  1-3 
and  -23.  wliieh  verses  apparently  state  that  Josus 
was  thirty  years  of  age  in  the  fifteenth  year  of 
Tiberius  Civsar.  But  this  is  not  the  case.  VVc 
are  uncertain  ( 1 )  from  what  date  Luke  reckoned 
the  reign  of  TiUuius;  (2)  how  nuicU  latitude  is 
to  be  allowed  to  the  expression  "about  thirty 
years;"  and  (3)  how  dose  the  connection  is 
between  v.  23  and  vv.  1-3.  For  these  reasons 
we  must  be  content  with  the  result  stated  above, 
and  date  the  Nativity  about  n.c.  7. 

There  are  no  data  for  determining  tlie  month 
and  day  of  the  birth  of  .Tesus.  Ancient  tradition 
wavered  between  two  dates,  .Jaiuuuy  Cth  and 
December  25th,  each  of  which  seems  to  have 
been  the  result  of  calculation,  not  based  on 
trustworthy  tradition. 

(2)  The  Dale  of  Jesus'  linptism. — From  Luke 
we  learn  that  .lohn  the  Baptist  took  up  his 
work  in  the  lifteentli  year  of  Tiberius.  Such,  at 
least,  seems  to  be  tlie  meaning  of  Luke  iii.  1-3. 
"Now  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Tibe- 
rius CiESar  .  .  .  the  word  of  God  came  unto 
John  ...  in  the  wilderness."  If  Luke 
reckoned  the  reign  of  Tiberius  from  the  death 
of  Augustus,  the  year  August  a.d.  2S-August 
A.u.  2!)  would  be  the" year  intended.  If  he  counted 
from  A.I).  12,  when  Tiberius  was  associated  with 
Augustus,  as  the  first  year,  then  A.D.  20-27  would 
be  the  year  indicated.  Accordingly,  the  baptism 
of  .Jesus  was  either  in  A.u.  27  or  in  A.n.  29.  In 
the  Gospel  of  .Tohn  we  have  a  datiun  which 
enables  us  to  decide  between  these  two  dates. 
In  John  ii.  20,  at  the  time  of  .lesus'  first 
public  appearance  in  .Jerusalem,  which  was  not 
long  after  the  beginning  of  His  public  ministry, 
there  is  the  statement  that  the  Temple  had  been. 
at  the  time,  forty-six  years  in  the  process  of 
construction.  Since  the  reconstruction  of  the 
Temple   was   begun   bv   Herod   in   B.C.   20-10.   the 

baptism  of  .resus  could  not  have  been  later  than  ^^  ^j^^  ^^^^^  Gospels  (ilark  vi.  30  and  parallels) 
A.n.  27.  Early  in  the  .vear  A.i..  27  seems,  then,  ^,^j^  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^p,,^  ^.^,.^  proliable.  For  sucl 
the  most  probable  date  for  this  event. 

(3)  The  Duration  of  the  Minifttrt/. — The  first 


1-4,    .Jesus    is   again    in    Galilee   at    the   time 

of  a  Passover, 
vii.  2  s(|(i.,  .lesus  goes  to  Jerusalem  to  a  Feast  of 

Tabernacles.     After  this  there  is  no  mention  of 

a  return  to  Galilee. 
X.   22,   Jesus   is   in   Jerusalem   at   the   Feast   of 

Dedication;  thence  He  retires  beyond  Jordan. 

While   here   He   is  called   to   Betliany   by   the 

(loath  of  Lazarus.    He  then  goes  to  Ephraim  in 

Judea. 
xii.  1.  six  days  before  the   (last)   Passover  Jesus 

arrives  at  Bethany. 

Two  of  these  data  are  somewhat  uncertain. 
The  reference  in  iv.  3.5  to  the  "^mr  months,  and 
then  Cometh  the  harvest,"  may  indicate  the 
actual  season  of  the  year  when  the  words  were 
spoken.  In  that  case  .Jesus  must  have  passed 
through  Samaria  in  December  or  January  after 
His  first  Passover  (John  ii.  13  sqq.).  If 
the  first  Passover  was  that  of  a.d.  27,  the  events 
narrated  in  chap.  iv.  took  place  in  Deceml)er, 
A.D.  27,  or  in  January.  A.D.  28.  But  it  is  pos'^ible 
that  tlie  statement  in  iv.  3.5  may  have  been  a 
mere  inoverbial  expression  used  by  .Jesus  to  point 
a  lesson.  In  that  case  it  has  no  chronological 
significance,  and  the  journey  through  Samaria 
niav  have  taken  place  in  May,  a.d.  27.  The  un- 
named feast  of  v.  1  ("After  these  things  there 
was  a  feast  of  the  .Jews,  and  .Jesus  went  up  to 
Jerusalem")  introduces  the  greatest  element  of 
uncertainty.  The  main  question  is  whether  it 
was  a  Passover.  If  it  was,  then  John's  Gospel 
gives  us  four  Passovers  in  Jesus'  public  min- 
istry. There  are  two  weighty  reasons  against 
taking  the  reference  in  this  sense.  First,  John's 
1ISUS  loquendi  would  lead  us  to  expect  him  to 
have  expressly  stated  that  it  was  a  Passover,  if 
such  had  been  the  case.  Second,  a  Passover  is 
expressly  indicated  in  the  next  chapter  (.John 
vi.  1-4).  If  v.  1  refers  to  a  Passover,  we  have 
not  only  a  whole  year  passed  over  in  complete 
silence  by  John,  but  we  also  have  two  wliole 
years  and  more  of  active  public  ministry  to 
place  before  the  Passover  of  .lohn  vi.  Since 
the  narrative  of  John  at  this  jilace  meets  that 


three  Gosjiels  give  us  only  the  vaguest  hints  as 
to  the  length  of  the  Lord's  public  ministry,  llicy 
b<'gin  their  narrative  of  His  public  life  with  His 
work  in  (iaiilee  after  the  im|)risonnient  of  John 
the  Baptist.  But  Mark  i.  14  ("Now  after  f hat 
John  was  delivered  up.  .Tesus  came  into  Galilee") 
seems  to  imply  that  some  time  elapsed  between 
the  Temptation  and  .John's  imprisonment.  This 
gap  is  partially  filled  by  the  Gospel  of  .John, 
which  also  gives  a  well-ordered  arrangement  of 
the  events  of  the  ministry  narrated  by  it.  lis 
data  are  as  follows: 
ii.    13   sqq.,  Jesus  in  Jerusalem   at   a   Passover. 

after    His    baptism    and    a    brief    sojourn    in 

(ialilee. 
iii.  23  sqq..  a  brir'f  sojourn,  length  not  stated,  in 

Jiidea.  l>efore  .lohn  was  impri-oned. 
iv.  1-35.  .Tesus  retires  into  Galilee.     On  the  way. 

in  Samaria,  He  says  to  His  disciples.  "Do  ye 

not  say  that  there  are  yet   four   months  and 

the  hardest  conies?" 
v.    1,  .Tesus   goes   up  to  Jerusalem   to   attend   a 

feast   (unnamed). 


uch 
reasons  it  seems  better  to  take  .John  v.  1  as 
referring  to  some  minor  feast  between  the  two 
Passovers  of  ii.  13  sqq.  and  vi.  1-4.  The  evi- 
dence of  the  Gospel  of  John,  then,  is  to  the 
elTect  that  there  were  three  Passovers  in  the 
public  ministrv  of  Our  I-«rd,  those  of  the  years 
A.D.  27,  28.  and  29. 

(4)  The  Bute  of  the  Crucifixion.— AW  tlie 
Gosjiels  agree  that  the  day  of  the  week  wa.s 
Friday.  It  is  a  question  whether  this  Friday 
was  the  Passover  day  or  the  day  after  the  Pass- 
over. Since  the  Passover  always  came  on  the 
fourteenth  day  of  the  .Jewish  [lunar]  numth 
Nisan.  the  question  is.  Was  .lesus  crucified  on 
the  14tli  or  on  the  15th  of  Nisan?  On  this 
)H>iiit  the  evidence  of  the  CJospels  appears  con- 
trailictory.  Tlie  Synoptic  Gos]>els  positively  state 
that  Jesiis  ate  his  last  supper  with  His  disci- 
ples on  the  Passover  evening,  i.e.  on  the  14th 
of  Nisan.  and  that  He  was  crucified  on  the 
next  or  15th  day.  But  the  Gosp<d  of  .John  in 
several  passages,  xiii.  1-2.  x\'iii.  28.  xix.  13 
and  31,  appears  to  place  the  Crucifixion  on  the 
Passover  day.  Of  the  references  noted,  xyiii. 
28,  "they  themselves  [the  Jews]  entered  not  into 


NEW  TESTAMENT  CHRONOLOGY.       485       NEW  TESTAMENT  CHRONOLOGY. 


the  priutoriuiii.  that  they  might  not  be  defiled, 
but  luiglit  eat  the  Passover,"  and  xix.  14,  "Xow 
it  was  the  Preparation  (iropacrKeuiJ)  of  the  Pass- 
over." are  the  most  iuiportant.  It  is  to  be 
noted,  however,  that  the  (iospel  of  John  uses  the 
term  t4  irdo-xai  the  Passover,  in  an  inclusive 
sense  to  indicate  the  whole  Passover  season,  just 
as  the  Syiio])tic  Gospels  use  the  term  rd  lifv/ia, 
the  [Feast  ofj  Unleavened  Bread,  in  the  same 
broad  sense.  It  is  also  to  Ije  noted  that  in 
xix.  31  and  42  the  word  Trapaa-Ktvri,  literally 
'l>reparation  day,'  is  used  in  its  connnon  sig- 
nilicance  of  Friday.  It  is  therefore  possible  that 
in  verse  14  we  should  interpret  so  as  to  read 
"it  was  the  Fridaj'  of  the  Passover  season."  So 
understood,  there  is  no  conflict  between  John 
and  the  S^Tioptists.  If  there  is  actual  disagree- 
ment, the  evidence  ma}'  be  represented  as  fol- 
lows : 

13 


NI8AN 

Jewish  customs 
fixed  according 
to  da.ve  of 
Xisau 

S.TUciptic  Gospels, 
as  to — 

(1)  Da.vs  ot  the 
week 

(2)  Events 

Gospel  of  .Tolin, 
as  to— 

(1)  Da.vs  uf  the 
week 


(2)  Events 


Wednesday 


Thursday 


Lord's  Supper 
(not  identical 
with  Passover) 


14 

Passover  meal 
at  evening 


Thursday 

Passover  meal. 
Lord's  Supper 


Friday — the 
wapatTKevri 

Crucifixion 


tianity,  (1)  in  the  city  of  .Jerusalem,  chaps, 
i.-vii.;  (2)  among*  the  Jewish  population  of 
Palestine  and  Syria,  with  the  transition  to  work 
among  the  Ontiles,  chaps,  viii.-.xii. ;  and  (3) 
among  the  Gentiles  through  the  missionary  labors 
of  Paul,  chaps,  xiii.xxviii.  Since  the  data  in 
referfflice  to  Paul's  career  are  more  ninnerous  an«l 
exact  than  those  connected  with  the  earlier 
events,  we  shall  make  the  chronology  of  Paul'.s 
labors  the  basi.s  of  our  investigations.  We  have 
to  consider  the  evidence  furnished  bj'  the  follow- 
ing data : 

( 1 )  Acts  ix.  23  sqq.  Paul's  escape  from  the 
Jews  at  Damascus  'many  days'  after  his  eon- 
version.  In  II.  Cor.  xi.  32  Paul  refers  to  this 
event,  noting  that  it  took  place  while  .\retas 
was  ethnarcli  of  Damascus.  In  Oal.  i.  18  Paul 
says  that  he  did  not  leave  Damascus  for  Jeru- 
salem   until   three   years    after   his    conversion. 

15  18  17 

Hol.T  Rest  Da.v.  Wave  Sheaf 

First  day  of  the 
Feast  of  Un- 
leavened Bread 


Friday — i.e.  the 
TrapaiTKsvifl 
Crucifixion 


Saturday  —  i.e. 
Sabbath, a  'great 
Sabbath";  xix.  31 


2(;. 

27. 
27. 

27. 

r-2n. 


29. 


Saturday 


Sunday 


Resurrection 


Sunday 
Kesurrectlon 


If  the  year  of  the  Crucifixion  was  A.u.  2'J,  the 
Passover  was  either  in  April  (17th  or  18th)  or 
March  (18th).  The  latter  is  the  more  probable 
date. 

We  therefore  arrive  at  the  following  results: 
B.C.     9-7.     The     annunciations     concerning     the 
births  of  the  Baptist  and  Jesus. 
7.     Birth  of  Jesus. 
.A.D.      2(>.     John  the  Baptist  opens  his  ministry. 
(2C)  Jesus  is  baptized  by  John. 
(Early  in  the  year)  Jesus  begins  His 
ministry. 

The  first  Passover,  in  Jerusalem  (John 
ii.  13  sqq.). 
Passover  to  Passover,  two  years  of 
public    activity,     a    year    and    some 
months  being  spent  in  Galilee. 
March  18.  Friday,  the  Crucifixion.   On 
Sunday.  March  20th.  the  Resurrection, 
and  40  days  later  the  .\scension. 
These  results  differ  from  those  most  commonly 
accepted,  mainly  in  that  they  make  the  ministrv' 
cover  Init  two  years  and  a  little  over  instead  of 
three  years  or  more.    The  main  specific  difference 
is  in  regard  to  the  feast  of  John  v.  1.  which  is 
usually   taken   as   a   Passover.     The   most   com- 
monly accepted  year  for  the  Crucifixion  is  a.d. 
30  instead  of  .\.n.  29.  as  given  above. 

II.  Chronology  of  tiik  Apostolic  Age.  The 
Apostolic  Age  began  immediately  after  the  Lord's 
Ascension.  Its  close  may  be  considered  as  marked 
by  the  passing  away  of  the  Apostles  and  their 
companions.  Our  main  authority  for  this  period 
is  the  Book  of  Acts.  Incidentally,  the  Epistles 
furnish  some  valuable  hints.  In  Acts  we  are 
presented  with  a  sketch  of  the  progress  of  Chris- 


In  all  probability  Aretas  was  not  ethnarch  of 
Damascus  until  after  the  death  of  Tiberius, 
March  10,  a.d.  37.  It  is  certain  that  he  did  not 
hold  this  position  in  a.d.  34.  Therefore  Paul's 
conversion  was  not  before  a.d.  31,  probably  not 
before  a.d.  34. 

(2)  Acts  xi.  27-30  and  xii.  25.  Agabus,  a 
prophet,  predicted  a  famine.  In  consequence,  the 
Christians  of  Antioch  sent  aid  to  Jerusalem  by 
Barnabas  and  Paul,  active  workers  in  the  An- 
tioch church.  This  visit  was  probably  not  long 
before  the  famine  was  at  its  height.  Notices 
in  Josephus  (Ant.,  x.\.  2,  3  and  5,  2)  show  that 
there  was  such  a  famine  about  a.d.  47.  Tlie 
prophecy  may  well  have  been  uttered  two  or 
three  years  earlier,  and  the  visit  may  be  placed 
in  a.d.  40-47. 

(3)  .ids  xiii.  7.  Sergius  Paulus  is  mentioned 
as  proconsul  of  Cyprus.  The  name  of  this  ofiicial 
has  been  discovered  on  an  inscription  of  Cyprus, 
but  his  date  has  not  been  determined.  All  that 
is  certain  is  that  he  was  not  proconsul  of  the 
island  in  the  years  a.d.  51  and  ,52. 

(4)  Acts  xviii.  2  and  12.  Paul,  soon  after  his 
arrival  in  Corinth  on  his  second  missionary 
journey,  meets  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  Jews  lately 
banished  from  Rome  in  ccmsequence  of  a  decree 
of  the  Emperor  Claudius.  Paul  stays  in  Corinth 
upward  of  two  years,  during  which  time  Gallio 
was  proconsul  of  Achaia.  We  have  here  two 
data :  Claudius's  decree  and  Gallio's  proconsul- 
ship.  The  edict  of  expulsion  is  mentioned  by 
Suetonius  and  probably  referred  to  by  Tacitus 
and  Dio  Cassius,  but  in  such  a  way  that  its 
date  cannot  be  exactly  fixed.  Orosius  (fifth 
century,  a.d.)   places  it  in  a.d.  49.    As  to  Gallio, 


NEW  TESTAMENT  CHRONOLOGY.        4:86       NEW  TESTAMENT  CHRONOLOGY. 


all  that  can  be  said  is  that  he  was  probably 
not  appoiiiteil  to  the  ollioe  before  the  reeall  of 
his  famous  brother  Seneca  from  banishment 
(A.D.  40).  Thus  .\.D.  -i'JoO  may  be  accepted 
provisionally  as  the  most  satisfactory  date  for 
these  facts. 

(5)  Ads  XX.  6~.  Paul,  on  his  way  to  Jeru- 
salem, returning  from  his  third  missionary  jour- 
ney, kept  the  Feast  of  liileavened  Bread  at 
Pliilippi,  .Macedonia.  Leaving  I'hilippi.  in  five 
days  he  reached  Troas.  Here  he  stayed  seven 
days,  leaving  on  Monday.  Keckcmiii'.;  back,  it 
becomes  probable,  but  not  certain,  that  the  Pass- 
over of  that  year  was  on  Thursday.  In  that 
case,  the  year  was  probably  eitlier  A.i).  50  or  57, 
the  probability  being  in  favor  of  56. 

(6)  Acts  xxU:  2~.  After  Paul  had  been  de- 
tained as  a  prisoner  for  two  years,  Felix,  the 
Roman  (Jovernor  of  Palestine,  was  succeeded  by 
Festus.  Felix  was  appointed  in  a.d.  52  by  Clau- 
dius, having  already  been  in  charge  of  Samaria 
for  some  time.  In  Acts  xxiv.  10,  two  years 
before  Felix's  removal,  Paul  addresses  him  as 
having  l)een  for  'many  years'  judge  of  the  nation. 
The  Apostle  may  have  included  in  the  'many 
years'  the  time  tliat  Felix  spent  in  Samaria,  and 
the  statement  should  not  lie  pressed  as  neces- 
sitating as  many  as  five  or  six  years  after  a.d. 
52  as  the  time  when  they  were  uttered.  Josephus 
says  that  Felix,  when  rec'alled,  had  to  answer 
serious  charges  before  Nero,  and  would  have 
been  condemned,  had  not  his  wealthy  brother 
Pallas  interce<led  for  hini.  Though  Pallas  was 
dismissed  from  ollice  soon  after  Nero's  accession 
(A.D.  54).  he  was  for  some  years  a  wealthy  and 
influential  man.  Eusebius's  Chronicle  places  the 
appointment  of  Festus  in  the  year  September  50- 
September  57.  The  accuracy  of  this  statement  is 
not  beyond  doubt.  Paul's  words  in  .\cts  xxiv.  10, 
as  well  as  the  general  representation  of  Felix's 
administration  in  Josephus.  seem  to  require  a 
date  not  earlier  than  A.D.  58  for  the  recall  of 
Felix  and  tiie  appointment  of  Festus.  This  date 
will  harmcmize  with  the  conclusion  reached  under 
No.  5  above. 

(7)  The  Death  of  Paul.  All  that  can  be  said 
here  is  that  the  most  ancient  tradition  of  the 
Church  represents  that  Paul  closed  his  career 
by  suffering  martyrdom  at  Rome  under  Nero. 
As  to  the  date,  it  is  most  probable  that  this 
took  place  in  the  cruel  persecution  by  which 
Nero  sought  to  divert  from  himself  the  suspicion 
of  having  burned  Home.  i.e.  in  a.d.  (!4  or  05. 

(8)  The  I'rrioil  Covered  by  Aets  i.-xii.  (in 
reference  to  the  iloings  of  the  .lewish-Christian 
Church  of  Palestine).  The  only  fixed  date  we 
have  is  the  death  of  Herod  .Vyrippa  I.  (.\cts  xii. 
19  sqq.)  in  A.D.  44.  From  this  we  see  that  the 
period  covered  by  these  chapters  is  about  fifteen 
years,  since  the  Crucifixion  took  place  a.d.  29. 
Within  the  period  we  have  the  probable  date, 
A.D.  .34,  as  thai  for  the  conversion  of  Paul.  On 
the  basis  of  the  results  thus  reached  we  may 
construct  the  following  table: 

A.D.  29.  Pentecost,  first  preaching  by  the  Apos- 
tles.     .\<rts  ii. 

29-34  (35).  Christianity  organized  and  be- 
comes prominent  in  .Terusalem.  Acts 
ii.-vi. 

34  (35).  Stephen  martyred.  Persecution  ex- 
tends Christianity  outside  Jerusalem. 
Paul  converted  at  Damascus.  Acts 
vii.-ix. 


34-37  (35-3S).    Paul  in  Arabia.     His  return 
to  Damascus   and  escape  thence.     He 
visits   Jerusalem   and   goes   thence   to 
Tarsus.    Gal.  i.  17-21;  II.  Cor.  xi.  32; 
Acts  ix.  30. 
34  (35)-44.    Rapid  extension  of  Christianity 
through  Palestine.  Pba?nicia.  and  Syr- 
ia, as  far  as  Antioch.     Acts  ix.-xi. 
38-40?.    Paul  and  Barnabas  in  Antioch. 
44.    Execution    of    James,    the    brother    of 
John.       Peter    escapes     from     Herod 
Agrippa    I.,    who   soon    after    dies   at 
Ca'sarea.     .\cts  xii. 
4G  ?.     Paul  and  Barnabas  carry  a  contribu- 
tion to  Jerusalem.     Acts  xi.  27-30. 
47  (Spring) -48     (Fall).       Fir.st     missionary 

journey  of  Paul.     Acts  xiii.-xiv. 
49    (Pentecost  ?).     The  Apostolic  Council   in 
Jerusalem.     Acts  xv.  (cf.  Gal.  ii.  1-10). 
49.     Barnabas  and  JIark  go  to  Cyprus.     Acts 

XV.  35-39. 
49.   (Fall) -52    (Summer).     The  Second  Mis- 
sionary  .Tourney.     Acts   xv.   40-xviii. 
22.     I.  and  II.  Tbessalonians  written 
from  Corinth  in  50  and  51. 
52    (Early  Fall) -50    (Spring).     Third   Mis- 
sionary .Tourney.     Acts  xviii.   23-xxi. 
17.       I.     Corinthians     written     from 
Ephesus,  53-54.     II.  Corinthians  writ- 
ten from  Macedonia  late  in  spring  of 
55.      Galatians    written    from    some- 
where on  the  journey  to  Corinth,  in 
summer  or  fall  of  55.     Romans  writ- 
ten  from   Cnriuth   in   50. 
56-58.     Paul  held  in  Palestine,  most  of  Uie 

time  in  Casarea.     Acts  xxiii.  1. 
m    (Fall) -59    (Spring).      Paul's   voyage   to 

Rome. 
59-61.     Two  years'  imprisonment  in   Rome. 
Epistles    to    Phili|ipians,    Colossians, 
Philemon,  and  Kphesians. 
61-64.     Missionary   journey   to    Spain.      Re- 
visits the  East.    I.  Timothy  and  Titus 
written. 
64.     Again   imprisoned   in   Rome.     II.   Tim- 
othy written. 
64    (65).    Executed  by  order  of  Xero.     -Ac- 
cording  to   tradition,   Peter   also   was 
martyred    at    Rome    about   the    same 
time. 
70.     The  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the   Ro- 
mans  under   Titus.     The   Palestinian 
Christians  scattered. 
65(?)-90(  ■;)■      The    Apostle    John    in    Asia 
ilinor   (Ephesus). 
The  table   given   above   differs    from    tlie   most 
commonly      received      chronology       ( Wie-elcr's) , 
mainly  iii  that  it  dates  the  cliief  events  of  Paiil's 
life    about   two   years    earlier.      Ramsay's    dates 
are.    in    the    main,    about    one   year    later    than 
those  given  above,  Harnack's  two  years  earlier. 

BlDUOGRAPliV.  Of  the  large  body  of  literature 
bearing  on  New  Testament  Chronology-,  par- 
ticular mention  may  be  made  of  tin-  following: 
Tdeler,  Handbuch  '  dcr  »infhemnliscben  und 
trt^linisrhri)  Chrnnolofric  (Berlin.  1825)  ;  Wiese- 
ler.  Chrotiolnfti.irhe  fSiinnpsr  dcr  rirr  F.vnn- 
fielien  (Hamburg.  1843:  Eng.  trans.,  2d  ed..  Lon- 
don. 1878)  :  id..  Vhrnnolofiic  dcs  nposloli.ichrn 
Zeitnllers  (Gilttingen,  1848):  id..  Beitriirie  zur 
riehtifien  ^Vurdifnln(|  drr  Evan(ie}irn  (fJotha, 
1869):  Lewin.  Fnati  Saeri  (London.  1805): 
Schiircr,    Oeschichte    des    judischen    Volkes    im 


i 


NEW  TESTAMENT  CHRONOLOGY. 


487 


NEWTON. 


Zeitaller  Jcsu  Christi  (Leipzig.  1880-00;  Eng. 
trans.,  New  York,  18'J1);  Hariiack,  Chrunoluyie 
der  altchristlichen  Liltcralur  (Leipzig,  1897); 
Kamsay,  Haint  Paul  the  Traveler  and  the  lio- 
man  Cilizen  (New  York,  1890)  ;  id.,  Was  Christ 
Horn  in  Bellileheni f   (London,  1898). 

NEW  THEOLOGY,  The,  or  Xew  Divixity. 
A  term  often  applied  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
last  century  to  a  movement  represented  by  And- 
Cver  Theological  Seminary,  and  embodied  in  a 
small  volume  by  its  professors,  called  Progressive 
Orthodoxii,  published  in  1880.  It  became  clear 
finally  that  ihe  movement  was  larger  and  deeper 
than  tliis,  and  the  term  is  now  generally  applied 
to  tliose  forms  of  theological  elTort  which  attempt 
to  incorporate  fully  in  theologj'  the  approved  re- 
sults of  modern  thinking,  especially  such  as  are 
derived  from  tlie  general  theory  of  evolution. 
Tlie  new  theologj'  cannot  be  said  to  be  a  con- 
sistent system  of  thought,  nor  uniform  among  its 
various  advocates  and  promotors.  There  are  left 
and  right  wings.  But  with  various  differences  of 
emphasis  and  of  the  completeness  with  which  the 
separate  results  of  the  new  methods  are  adopted, 
the  new  theology  may  be  said  to  agree  in  the 
following  points :  the  acceptance  of  evolution  as 
the  method  of  divine  providence  in  the  spiritual 
sphere  as  well  as  in  the  material ;  the  employ- 
ment of  the  methods  of  the  liigher  criticism  in 
the  discussion  of  the  origin  and  auth(u-ity  of 
both  Testaments ;  the  rejection  of  verbal  inspira- 
tion and  the  substitution  for  it  of  greater,  or 
sometimes  exclusive,  emphasis  upon  revelation 
(see  Inspiration)  ;  a  subjective  view  of  the 
atonement ;  increased  emphasis  upon  ethics  in 
distinction  from  dogmatics,  and  upon  sociological 
study  and  work;  restatement  of  positions  in 
eschatology,  with  a  strong  tendency  to  univer- 
salism.  The  tendency  of  the  school  is  to  mini- 
mize the  supernatural  (miraculous),  and  in  the 
left  wing  to  exclude  it.  Every  important  de- 
nomination of  Christians  has  some  share  in  this 
movement. 

NEWTON,  mVton.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  ,Tas])er  C'oimty,  III..  50  miles  southwest  of 
Terre  Haute.  Ind. ;  on  the  Embarras  River,  and 
on  the  Indiana  and  Illinois  Southern  and  the 
Peoria,  Decatur  and  Evansville  railroads  (Map: 
Illinois,  D  5).  The  surrounding  region  is  well 
adapted  to  farming  and  fruit-growing,  and  there 
are  also  coal  deposits.  The  city  manufactures 
flour,  woolen  goods,  lumber  products,  brick, 
and  tile.  Population,  in  1890,  1428;  in  1900, 
1030. 

NEWTON.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Jasper  County,  Iowa,  30  miles  east  by  north  of 
Des  Moines;  on  the  Iowa  Central  and  the  Chi- 
cago, Rock  Island  and  Pacific  railroads  (Map: 
Iowa,  D  3).  It  is  the  seat  of  Newton  Normal 
College,  and  has  a  Carnegie  library  ($10,000), 
and  a  fine  post-office  building.  The  city  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  district  engaged  in  farming  and 
stock-raising,  and  manufactures  agricultural  ma- 
chines, foundry  and  machine-shop  products,  brick 
and  tile,  tlour,  etc.  The  water-works  are  owned 
by  the  municipality.  Population,  in  1890.  2504; 
in  1900.  3082. 

NEWTON.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Harvey  County.  Kan..  201  miles  southwest  of 
Kansas  City;  on  the  Missouri  Pacific  and  the 
Atchison.  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  railroads  (Map: 
Kansas,  E  3).     It  has  a  public  library  with  over 


5000  volumes,  and  Bethel  College  (Mennonite). 
The  city  is  a  division  point  on  the  Santa  Fe 
Railroad,  and,  as  the  centre  of  a  tine  farming  and 
stock-raising  section,  has  considerable  trade. 
There  are  some  manufactures,  principally  flour 
and  grain  drills.  Newton  was  settled  and  in- 
corjioratcd  about  1871.  It  is  governed  by  a 
mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a  council.  The 
watcr-uorks  are  owned  and  operated  by  the 
nuinicipality.  Population,  in  1890,  5005;  in 
1900,  0208. 

NEWTON.  A  city  in  Middlesex  County, 
Mass.,  adjoining  Boston;  on  the  Charles  River 
and  on  the  Boston  and  Albany  Railroad  (Mn|i: 
Massachusetts,  E  3).  Within  the  municipal 
limits  are  15  villages,  the  city  occupying  an  area 
of  about  18  square  miles.  Newton  has  a  site  of 
great  beauty,  several  hills  contributing  to  its  pic- 
turesqueness,  and  it  is  one  of  Boston's  handsome 
suburbs.  There  are  160  acres  of  city  park.s,  be- 
sides the  Metropolitan  Park  reservation  (118 
acres),  and  the  Metropolitan  parkways,  whicli 
extend  along  the  Charles  River.  The  city  m:iin- 
tains  a  public  library  (01,400  volumes),  and  is 
the  seat  of  the  Newton  Theological  Instituli'm 
(Baptist),  opened  in  1825,  the  Lasell  Seminary 
for  women,  opened  in  1851,  and  the  Allen  School 
for  boys,  opened  in  1853.  Among  the  more  promi- 
nent buildings  are  the  First  Baptist  Church  and 
Eliot  Church,  and  the  high  school  and  several 
grammar  schools.  The  Eliot  Memorial  in  honor 
of  the  'Apostle  to  the  Indians'  stands  near  the 
site  of  Waban's  Wig\vam,  where  John  Eliot  be- 
gan on  October  28,  lti40,  to  preach  to  the  In- 
dians, in  the  town  called  'Nonantum.'  A  large 
cemetery  is  in  the  heart  of  the  city.  Though 
Newton  is  primarily  a  residential  city,  it  is  en- 
gaged to  a  considerable  extent  in  manufacturing. 
Its  industrial  establishments  include  machine 
shops,  fire-alarm  supply  works,  silk  mills,  wors- 
ted mills,  rubber  works,  manufactories  of  paper 
boxes,  curtains,  railway  signals,  cordage,  shoes, 
etc.  The  manufacturing  interests  are  promote<l 
by  the  water  power  of  Charles  River.  Under  :i 
charter,  last  revised  in  1899  and  1902.  the  gov- 
ernment is  vested  in  a  mayor,  hereafter  to  be 
elected  for  two  years,  and  a  board  of  aldermen,  in 
which  each  ward  is  represented  by  three  mem- 
bers— one  alderman  elected  annually  by  the 
ward,  and  two  aldermen-at-large  elected  from 
the  ward  on  a  general  ticket,  one  being  chosen 
each  year  to  serve  two  years.  Some  of  the  ad- 
ministrative officials  arc  elected  by  the  board  of 
aldermen,  and  some  are  subject  to  confirmation 
by  that  liody  upon  nomination  of  the  mayor. 
The  school  committee  is  chosen  by  popular  vote 
for  terms  of  three  years.  Newton  spends  an- 
nually in  maintenance  and  operation  more  than 
$1,000,000.  the  princi|)al  items  being:  for  inter- 
est on  debt,  $205,000:  for  sinking  funds.  $119,- 
500;  for  schools,  $200,000:  for  drains,  parks, 
sewers,  and  streets,  $170,000:  for  the  police  de- 
partment, $70,000:  for  municipal  lighting,  .$53,- 
500;  for  the  fire  department  and  wires,  $58,000; 
for  the  charity  department.  $25,000;  for  the 
health  department.  $21,000.  Newton  is  one  of  the 
wealthiest  cities  per  capita  in  the  United  States; 
the  assessed  valuation  of  property,  real  and  per- 
sonal, in  1902  was  about  $02,000,000,  and  the 
net  debt  January  1.  1903,  $4,331,283.94.  The 
water-works  are  owned  and  operated  by  the 
municipality.      Population,   in    1890,   24,379;    in 


NEWTON. 


488 


NEWTON. 


1900,  33,587.  Settkil  in  1031  and  originally  a 
part  of  Cambridge  (Newtowne),  Xcwton  was 
iiR-orporated  as  a  separate  town  in  lti8S,  being 
ealled  New  Cambridge  until  10n2.  It  was  char- 
tered as  a  city  in  1873.  Consult  Smith,  History 
of  Xeuloii,  MussacJiusells  (lioston,  1880). 

NEWTON.  A  town  and  the  county-seat  of 
Sussex  County,  N.  J.,  00  miles  west  by  north 
of  New  York  City;  on  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna 
and  Western  Railroad  (Jlap:  New  Jersey,  CI). 
It  is  known  as  a  sunnuer  resort ;  has  the  Newton 
Collegiate  Institute  and  the  Dennis  Library 
(subscription),  with  over  8000  volumes.  The 
surrounding  country  is  largely  agricultural, 
tlio\igh  there  is  considerable  mineral  wealth,  and 
the  city  manufactures  shoes,  silks,  ])aper  boxes, 
and  roofing  slate.  Tlie  water-works  are  owned 
by  the  municipality.  Pojjulation,  in  1890,  3003; 
in   1900.  4.37t). 

NEWTON,  AUKKi)  (IS:i9— ).  An  English 
ornithologist  and  zoiilogist.  He  was  born  at  Ge- 
neva, Switzerland,  of  British  parents,  and  gradu- 
ated at  Magdalene  College.  Cand)riilge,  in  18.53.  As 
a  (raveling  fellow  of  the  college  he  visited  Lap- 
land, Iceland,  the  West  Indies.  North  America, 
Spitzbergen.  and  other  countries  between  the 
years  1854-04.  and  by  bringing  the  subject  to  the 
notice  of  the  British  Association  he  was  instru- 
mental in  getting  passed  the  acts  of  Parliament 
for  the  protection  of  birds.  He  was  made  vice- 
president  of  the  Royal  and  the  Zoological  So- 
cieties, president  of  the  Cambridge  Philosophical 
Societ}',  and  received  gold  medals  from  the  Lin- 
nean  and  the  Royal  Society.  His  publications  in- 
clude: 'I'hc  Zoiiloqii  of  Ancient  Europe  (1802)  ; 
Zoolotifi  (1874;  2d  ed.  1894);  The  liinls  of 
(Ireenland  (1875);  and  .1  Dictionary  of  liirds 
(1893-90).  He  edited  The  Ihis  for  five  years 
(18(io-70).  and  contributed  the  article  on  Or- 
nithologyto  the  ninth  edition  of  the  Encyelnp<cdia 
liritdnnica. 

NEWTON,  Cii.XRLES  TiioMA.s  (1810-94).  An 
English  arelLTologist.  He  was  educated  at  Christ 
Church.  Oxford.  In  1840  he  became  assistant 
keeper  of  the  department  of  antiquities  in  the 
British  Museum,  and  in  18.52  obtained  the  ap- 
pointment of  vice-consul  at  Mytilene.  whence  he 
was  transferred  in  1853  to  Rhodes.  His  position 
was  avowedly  in  the  interest  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum, anil  his  time  largely  devoted  to  archae- 
ological travels  and  excavation.  In  1850  he  be- 
L'an  his  great  work  at  Budruti,  the  ancient  Hali- 
carnassus.  where  he  discovered  the  site  of  the 
famous  ilausoleum,  and  recovered  many  remains 
of  the  ancient  sculptures.  He  next  worked  at 
Branchid;e  an<l  Cnidus.  securing  valuable  results. 
He  was  rewarded  by  an  appointment  to  the  con- 
sulship at  Rome  in  1800.  and  in  1801  was  made 
keeper  of  Greek  and  Roman  antiqtiities  in  the 
British  Museum,  a  position  which  he  held  until 
failing  health  led  1o  his  resignation  in  1885. 
From  1880  to  1888  he  was  Yates  professor 
of  classical  archa'ologv-  at  the  I'niversity  College, 
London.  In  18(!1  he  married  .\nn  Mary,  daugh- 
ter of  the  artist  .Joseph  Severn,  and  herself  an 
artist  of  high  reputation.  .She  died  in  1809. 
Newton's  great  service  lay  in  widening  the  nar- 
row circle  of  classical  studies  in  England,  by 
drawing  attention  to  the  importance  of  art  and 
nrchtrology  in  any  estimate  of  fJreek  life.  For 
the  museum  his  long  term  proved  of  great  im- 
portance, as  he  was  able  to  secure  large  grants 


and  acquire  five  valuable  collections  of  antiqui- 
ties. He  received  the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L. 
from  Oxford  in  1875,  LL.D.  from  Cambridge,  and 
Ph.D.  from  Strassbiirg  in  1879.  He  published 
many  short  papers  and  discussions,  some  of 
which  were  collected  in  his  Essays  on  Art  and 
Archaolotjy  (London,  1880),  ineliuling  the  best 
popular  accoiuit  of  Greek  inscriptions.  Other 
important  works  were:  History  of  Discoveries 
at  Halicarnassus,  Cnidiis,  and  ]iranchidw  (Lon- 
don, 18(52-03)  and  Travels  and  Discoveries  in  the 
Levant    (ib.,   1805). 

NEWTON,.  Gilbert  Stuabt  (I794-I835).  An 
Engli.sh  portrait  and  genre  painter.  He  was 
born  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  September  20, 
1794,  the  son  of  Edward  Newton,  British  collector 
of  customs.  Newton's  ])arents  had  quitted  Boston 
after  the  evacuation  by  British  troops  in  1776, 
but  his  mother  returned  to  that  city  upim  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1803.  He  studied  ))ainting 
with  his  uncle,  Gilbert  Stuart.  In  1817  he  trav- 
eled in  Italy,  and  studied  at  Florence,  later  visit- 
ing Paris,  where  he  was  influenced  by  Watteau. 
He  entered  the  schools  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
and  in  1832  was  made  Academician.  Among  his 
chief  works  are:  "The  Deserted"  (1821),  Metro- 
politan Museum.  New  York:  '•The  Lovers'  Quar- 
rel" (1826).;  "The  Dull  Lecture"  (1825),  Lenox 
Library,  New  York;  "Don  (Juixote  in  His  Study'' 
(1828);  "The  Lute-Player,"  New  York  Histori- 
cal Society;  "Yorick  and  the  Grisette"  (18.30) 
and  "The  Widow,  or  the  Dutch  Girl"  (1829), 
National  Gallery,  London;  "Portia  and  Bas- 
sanio"  (I83I),  South  Kensington  Jluseum :  and 
his  last  picture,  ".\belard."  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1833.  .\mong  his  portraits 
are  those  of  Thomas  Moore..  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
and  Washington  Irving.  Newton's  pictures,  al- 
though deficient  in  drawin.c.  are  good  in  coloring, 
refined  and  indivi<lual  in  conception.  Suffering 
fnuu  mental  derangement,  in  1833  he  was  re- 
moved to  an  asylum  at  Chelsea,  where  he  died 
of  consumption.  August  5,  1835. 

NEWTON,  HiiiERT  Axsox  (18.30-00).  An 
.\merican  astronomer  and  mathematician,  best 
known  for  his  researches  on  meteors.  He  was 
born  at  .'shcrburne.  N.  Y.,  and  graduated  at  Yale 
in  1850.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Yale.  His  chief  labor,  the  study 
of  the  laws  of  meteoroids  and  of  comets  and  their 
interrelation,  began  with  the  attempt  to  con- 
tribtite  to  the  theory  advaiu'ed-bv  Professor  Olm- 
sted of  Yale  in  1833.  that  meteors  were  a  part  of 
a  mass  of  bodies  moving  round  the  sun  in  a  fixed 
orbit.  Newton  calculated  five  [)ossible  orbits  ami 
showed  the  mode  of  deciding  between  them,  by 
a  computation  of  the  secular  motion  of  the 
node.  He  supervised  the  work  of  the  Connecti- 
cut .\eadeniy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  in  18(;i  in 
regard  to  the  Atigust  anil  November  nieteors: 
prepared  a  map  of  the  heavens  for  its  use:  and 
identified  comets  with  meteors  and  shooting 
stars.  This  led  to  his  valuable  statistical  study 
of  comets.  On  these  subjects  he  became  a  world- 
wide authority,  winning  from  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  the  Smith  gold  medal  for  his  re- 
searches on  meteors.  Many  of  these  were  pub- 
lished in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Xntion^il  Academy, 
the  Journal  of  Science,  and  the  American  Jour- 
nal of  Science. 

NEWTON,  Sir  Lsaac  (1042-1727).  A  famous 
English  mathematician  and  natural  philosopher, 


p-cLo^c  fld-nj^-L. 


SIR    ISAAC    NEWTON 
FROM    AN    ENGRAVING    BY    ROBERT    C.   BELL,   AFTER   A    PAINTING    BY    SIR    GODFREY    KNELLER 


'i  :\ 


u 


NEWTON. 


489 


NEWTON. 


born  at  Woolstliorpc,  in  Lincolnshire.  Ncuton 
received  lii.s  early  education  at  the  grammar 
school  of  (iranthani,  in  the  ncij;liliorliood  of  his 
home,  at  Woolstliorpc.  On  .June  .">,  UiOl,  he  left 
home  for  t'aniliridye,  where  he  was  admitted  as 
suhsizar  at  Trinity  College.  On  .July  Stli  follow- 
ing he  matriculated  as  sizar  of  the  same  col- 
lege. He  immediately  applied  himself  to  mathe- 
matical studies,  and  within  a  very  few  years  not 
only  made  himself  master  of  most  of  the  works 
of  value  then  cxi.sting,  but  had  also  begun  to 
make  some  progress  in  original  methods  for  ex- 
tending the  science.  In  the  years  UiOo  ami  lUOO 
he  made  many  important  mathematical  inven- 
tions and  discoveries,  including  that  of  the 
binomial  theorem,  the  method  of  tangents 
of  Gregory  and  Clusius,  the  direct  method 
of  fluxions  (integral  calculus),  and  the  ac- 
tion of  giavity  on  the  moon.  According  to 
a  legend,  which,  however,  is  scrious-ly  consitlered 
by  certain  authorities,  in  the  year  16G5  the  fall 
of  an  apple,  as  Xewton  sat  in  his  garden  at 
W'oolsthorpe,  suggested  the  most  magniticent  of 
his  subsequent  discoveries — the  law  of  universal 
gravitation  (q.v.).  On  his  first  attempt,  liow- 
ever,  to  apply  the  law,  to  explain  the  lunar  and 
planetary  motions,  he  employed  an  estimate 
then  in  use  of  the  radius  of  the  earth,  which 
based  on  the  value  of  a  degree  of  latitude  then 
prevalent,  was  so  erroneous  as  to  produce  a  dis- 
crepancy between  the  value  of  the  real  force  of 
gravity  and  that  required  by  theory  to  explain 
the  motions,  and  indicated  only  an  approximate 
verification  of  his  theory.  He  accordingly  aban- 
doned for  a  number  of  years  the  hypotliesis  for 
other  stiulies,  which  consisted  chicily  of  investi- 
gations of  the  nature  of  light  and  the  construc- 
tion of  telescopes  (q.v.).  In  ICGG  he  had  ac- 
quired a  prism,  and  in  1G68  completed  his  first 
reflecting  telescope,  with  which  he  observed  Jupi- 
ter's satellites.  In  a  variety  of  ingenious  and  in- 
teresting experiments  where  a  spectrum  was  pro- 
duced by  sunlight  refracted  through  a  prism  in 
a  darkened  room,  he  was  led  to  the  conclusion 
that  rays  of  light  which  difTer  in  color  difi'er 
also  in  refrangibility.  This  discovery  enabled 
him  to  explain  an  imperfection  of  tlie  telescope, 
which  had  not  till  then  been  accounted  for.  The 
indistinctness  of  the  image  formed  by  the  object- 
glass  was  not  necessarily  due  to  any  imperfection 
of  its  form,  but  to  the  fact  of  the  diflercnt  col- 
ored rays  of  light  being  broiight  to  a  focus  at 
difYcrent  distances.  He  concluded  rightly  that 
it  was  impossible  for  an  object-glass  consisting 
of  a  single  lens  to  produce  a  distinct  image.  He 
went  further,  and  too  hastily  concluding,  from  a 
single  experiment,  that  the  dispersive  power  of 
difl'erent  substances  was  proportional  to  their  re- 
fractive power,  be  pronounced  it  impossible  to 
produce  a  perfect  image  by  a  comliination  of 
lenses.  This  conclusion — since  proved  erroneous 
by  the  invention  of  the  achromatic  telescope  by 
Chester  ilore  Hall,  about  1720.  and  afterwards, 
independently,  by  Dolland  (q.v.)  in  17.51 — turned 
Newton's  attention  to  the  construction  of  re- 
flecting telescopes;  and  the  form  devised  by  him 
is  the  one  which,  at  later  periods,  proved  so  use- 
ful  in  astronomical  researches. 

It  was  on  .January  11.  1(172,  that  Newton  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society,  having 
become  known  to  that  body  from  his  reflecting 
telescopes,  and  a  month  later  his  famous  paper 
on  a  "New  Theory  About  Light  and  Color"  was 


read  before  that  body,  in  which  he  states  that 
"Light  consists  of  rays  dilVerently  refrangible" 
and  that  "Colors  are  not  (lualilieations  of  light 
derived  from  refractions  or  natural  bodies,  as  is 
generally  believed,  but  original  and  connate 
])roperties  which  in  divers  rays  are  divers."  Ho 
also  said  that  "White  light  is  ever  compounded 
and  to  its  composition  are  recpiisite  all  the  afore- 
said primary  colors  mixed  in  proper  proportion." 
In  1075  Newton  connnunicated  to  the  Royal  So- 
ciety a  paper  on  light  and  color,  which  contained 
an  explanation  of  the  production  of  colors  by 
thin  plates  or  films,  an<l  in  which  were  given 
the  results  of  the  first  measurements  of  tlie  col- 
ored rings  now  known  as  Newton's  rings  (q!v.). 
Newton  formulated  the  emission  theory  of  light 
from  hypotheses  previously  advanced  by  Des- 
cartes, and  a  complete  exposition  of  that  theory 
was  the  result.  All  of  Newton's  investigations 
in  light  and  color  were  collected  into  a  work  with 
the  title  of  Oplictn,  published  in  1704.  The  de- 
velopment of  the  theory  was  accomplished  l)y 
rigid  dynamical  reasoning,  and  the  explanation.s 
of  reflection,  refraction,  diffraction,  and  the 
colors  of  thin  ])lates  were  made  on  the  basis 
that  light  consisted  of  luminous  corpuscles  sent 
out  from  the  light-giving  body.  This  theory, 
while  it  did  not  survive  the  work  of  Voung  and 
Fresnel,  nevertheless  had  more  points  in  connuon 
with  the  undulatory  theory  than  is  generally  sup- 
posed {Optics,  book  ii.,  part  iii.,  prop.  XI I.). 
At  what  period  Newton  resumed  his  calculations 
about  gravitation,  employing  the  more  correct 
measure  of  the  earth  obtained  by  Picard  in  lti70, 
does  not  clearly  appear;  but  it  was  in  the  year 
1684  that  it  became  known  to  Halley  that  he  was 
in  possession  of  the  whole  theory  and  its  demon- 
stration. It  was  on  the  urgent  solicitation  of 
Halley  that  he  w'as  induced  to  commit  to  a  syste- 
matic treatise  these  principles  and  their  demon- 
strations. The  principal  results  of  his  discoveries 
were  set  down  in  a  treatise  called  Dr  Motii  Cor- 
porum,  and  were  afterwards  more  conii)lctely  un- 
folded in  the  great  work  entitled  FhihisiijihitB 
Saturalis  Piviicipia  Mnlhemuticn,  whicli  was 
finally  p\fl)lished  about  midsununer,  I0S7. 

Shortly  before  the  Principi/i  was  given  to  the 
public,  Newton,  who  since  1(560  had  occupied  the 
Lucasian  chair  at  Cambridge,  was  called  to  take 
an  active  part  in  defending  the  rights  of  the 
university  against  the  illegal  encroachments  of 
.James  II.  The  conspicvu)us  part  which  he  had 
taken  on  that  occasion  procured  him  a  seat  in  the 
Convention  Parliament,  in  which  he  sat  from 
January,  1680.  to  its  dissolution  in  ICiOO.  In 
1606  he  was  appointed  warden  of  the  mint,  and 
in  1600  was  promoted  to  the  oflice  of  master  of 
the  mint,  an  ollice  which  he  held  till  the  end  of 
his  life.  He  again  took  a  seat  in  Parliament 
in  the  year  1701,  as  the  representative  of  his 
university.  Thus  engaged  in  the  public  service, 
he  had  little  time  left  for  mere  scientific  studies 
— pursuits  which  he  always  held  of  secondary 
iuqiortance  to  the  public  duties  in  which  he  was 
engaged.  In  the  interval  of  public  duly,  how- 
ever. Newton  showed  that  lie  still  retained  the 
scientific  power  by  which  his  great  discoveries 
had  been  made.  He  was  president  of  the  Royal 
Society  from  1703  till  his  death,  a  period  of 
twenty-four  years,  being  each  year  reelected.  In 
this  position,  and  enjoying  the  confidence  of 
Prince  George  of  Denmark,  he  did  much  toward 
the  advancement  of  science;  and  one  of  his  most 


NEWTON. 


490 


NEWTON. 


important  works  during  this  time  was  the  super- 
intendence of  the  publication  of  Flamsteed's 
(Jreeturivh  Ohscriiili(m.i — a  task,  however,  not 
accomplished  without  nmcli  controversy  and  some 
bitterness  between  himself  and  that  astronomer. 
The  controversy  between  Kewton  and  Leibnitz, 
as  to  priority  of  discovery  of  the  differential  cal- 
culus, or  the  method  of  llu.xions,  was  raised 
rather  through  the  partisanship  of  jealous  friends 
than  through  the  anxiety  of  the  philosophers 
tliemselves,  who  were,  however,  induced  to  enter 
into  and  carry  on  the  dispute  with  some  degree 
of  bitterness  and  mutual  recrimination.  The  de- 
tails of  these  controversies,  with  all  other  in- 
formation of  the  life  of  this  philosopher,  will  he 
found  admirably  collected  in  the  biography  by 
Brewster,  who  wrote,  not  only  with  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  Newton's  works,  but  in  ])os- 
session  of  all  the  materials  collected  in  the  hands 
of  his  family.  Newton  died  on  March  20,  1 727,  and 
his  remains  received  a  resting-place  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  where  a  monument  was  erected 
to  his  memory  in  \7^\.  \  magnificent  full-length 
statue  of  the  philosopher,  executed  by  Rmiliilliac, 
was  erected  in  17").t  in  the  antechapel  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  This  work  was  assisted  by 
a  cast  of  the  face  taken  after  death,  which  is 
preserved  in  the  University  Library  at  Cam- 
bridge. In  IGOO  Newton  was  elected  a  for- 
eign associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
in  1705  he  received  the  honor  of  knighthood  from 
Queen  Anne,  Among  the  best  editions  of  New- 
ton's principal  works  are  the  quarto  edition  of 
the  Optics  (London,  1704),  and  the  quarto  edi- 
tion of  the  Principia.  ])ublished  at  Cambridge, 
England,  in  1713.  Consult:  Brewster,  Memoirs 
of  thr  Life.  ^VritinrJ!!.  and  Dincoreries  of  Sir  Isaac 
Netrlon  (London,  I8o.5-G0)  ;  Pemberton,  View  of 
fiir  Isaac  yewtoii's  Phiiosophii  (ib.,  1728)  ;  Ball. 
History  of  Mathematics  (ib.,  1893)  ;  id..  Essay  on 
Newton's  Princi])ia  (ib.,  180."!)  ;  and  Olazebrook, 
in  the  Dielinnori/  of  Xational  Biography,  xl, 
(New  York,   1804), 

NEWTON,  .Toiix  (1022-78).  An  English 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  born  at  Oundle, 
Northamptonshire.  He  studied  at  Oxford  and 
remained  loyal  to  the  King  under  Cromwell. 
New'ton  was  something  of  an  educational 
reformer,  urged  intelligent  instruction  in 
mathematics,  and  wrote  textbooks  on  arith- 
metic, geometry,  astronomy,  logic,  and  rhetoric. 
But  his  most  important  labors  were  for  the 
facilitation  of  the  decimal  system  and  of 
logarithms.  His  histittitio  Mathematica.  with 
its  logarithmic  tables  and  descriptions  of  ap- 
plications to  astronomy,  dialing,  and  navigation 
(115.14).  is  one  of  the  earliest  books  of  its  kind 
in  KMgli>h. 

NEWTON,  .John  (1725-1807).  A  Church  of 
England  divine.  He  was  born  in  London,  .luly 
24,  1725,  son  of  a  sea-captain.  After  a  little 
time  at  a  boarding-school  in  Essex,  he  went  to 
sea  with  his  father  at  the  age  of  eleven.  During 
the  next  six  years  he  ma<le  other  voyages  with 
his  father  and  adopted  infi<lel  opinions.  lie 
became  midshipman  on  a  man-of-war.  but  de- 
.serted,  was  caught.  Hogged,  and  degraded.  In 
1745  he  set  sail  for  India  as  a  common  sailor, 
and  was  landed  penniless  on  the  African  coast 
near  Sierra  Leone.  In  1747  an  English  captain, 
arriving  nt  Sierra  I^one  with  a  request  from 
his  father  to  look  o\it  for  him,  rescued  him  from 


a  most  degraded  condition,  and  took  him  home. 
On  the  voyage  during  a  storm  he  became  con- 
verted, and  thenceforth  was  a  changed  man. 
Soon  afterwards  he  was  appointed  commander 
of  an  -Vfrican  slaver,  and  for  four  years  con- 
tinued in  the  slave  trade,  the  cruelties  of  which 
afterwards  he  labored  earnestly  to  expose.  In 
17.54  a  sudden  attack  of  sickness  led  him  to 
abandon  a  seafaring  life,  and  from  1775  to  1760 
he  was  tide-surveyor  at  Liverpool.  At  this  time 
he  studied  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  the  best 
theological  works  in  Latin,  French,  and  English. 
In  1704  he  was  ordained  and  appointed  curate 
of  the  parish  of  Olney.  Buckinghamshire,  where 
he  remained  sixteen  years.  He  entered  heartily 
into  the  religious  work  and  views  of  Wesley  and 
Whitefield.  At  Olney  he  published  in  1704  .In 
Authentic  Xarratire  of  Some  KemarUable  and 
Interesting  Particulars  in  the  Life  of  the  Rev. 
John  Xenton.  Here,  too,  he  formed  an  intimate 
friendship  with  Cowper,  and  in  connection  with 
him  proiluced  the  Olney  Flymns  (1770).  Most 
of  them  were  written  by  himself  for  the  use  of 
his  congregation.  In  17S0  he  became  rector  of 
the  unitcil  parishes  of  Saint  JIary  Wonlnoth  and 
Saint  Mary  WooUluirch,  Lombanl  Street,  Lon- 
don, where  he  remained  till  his  death,  in  London, 
December  21,  1807.  His  works,  besides  those 
already  mentioned,  were  a  Review  of  Ecclesias- 
tical History  (1770)  ;  Omicron's  Letters  (1774)  ; 
Canliphonia,  or  the  Utterances  of  the  Ileart 
(1781)  ;  Messiah:  Fifty  Discourses  on  the  Scrip- 
tural Passages  of  the  Oratorio  of  Handel  ( 1780)  ; 
and  numerous  sermons,  discourses,  tracts,  and 
letters.  His  collected  works  were  e<lited  with 
memoir  by  Cecil  (London,  1808).  Consult,  also, 
the  memoir  by  Bickersteth   (ib.,  1843). 

NEWTON,  .Jonx  (1823-05).  An  American 
niililary  and  civil  engineer  and  soldier.  He  was 
born  in  Virginia  and  was  educated  at  West 
Point,  receiving  a  connnission  in  the  Corps  of 
Engineers  on  his  graduation  in  1842.  After 
serving  as  assistant  professor  of  engineering  at 
the  L'nited  States  Military  Academy  for  three 
years,  he  was  occupied  with  the  construction 
of  fortifications  and  river  and  harbor  improve- 
nient  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  During  the  Civil 
War,  after  receiving  the  rank  of  brigadier-gen- 
eral of  volunteers,  he  was  sununoiu'd  to  assist 
in  constructing  the  defenses  of  Washington.  He 
took  part  in  the  battles  of  Gaines's  MilLGlendale, 
South  .Mountain,  and  Antietam,  and  in  command 
of  a  division  he  was  present  at  Fredericksburg, 
at  Salem,  and  at  Gettysburg.  In  the  invasion  of 
Georgia  he  led  a  division  of  the  Army  of  the 
Cumberland  through  all  the  engagements  preced- 
ing the  capture  of  Atlanta,  and  March  13,  1865, 
he  was  made  brevet  major  in  the  United  States 
.\rmy.  After  the  war  he  was  occupied  in 
strengthening  the  defenses  of  New  York  Harbor, 
in  removing  the  obstacles  to  navigation  at  Hell 
Gate  (q.v. )  and  other  portions  of  the  East 
River,  in  harbor  im]irovements  at  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  and  New  York  Harbor.  .June  30,  1879, 
he  attained  the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  corps  of 
engineers;  in  1884  was  maile  brigadier-general 
and  chief  of  engineers:  retired  in  1880.  He  was 
commissioner  of  public  works.  New  York  City,  1887- 
88.  a  position  wliich  he  resigned  to  become  presi- 
dent of  the  Pananui  Railroad  Company  in  1888. 

NEWTON,  Richard  Hkukr  (1840—).  A 
clcrgynian   of   the   Protestant    Kpiscopal   Church. 


NEWTON. 


491 


NEWTOWN  ARDS. 


lie  was  born  in  Pliiladelphia.  He  studied  at 
the  University  of  Peiins3lvania  and  Pliiliidolpliia 
Divinity  School,  and  was  ordained  in  1802. 
I'rom  18G9  to  1002  he  was  rector  of  All  Souls' 
I  liurch  in  New  York  City,  and  in  the  latter 
ir  accepted  the  position  of  chaplain  at  Leland 
>ranford,  .Jr.,  University  at  Palo  Alto,  Cal. 
He  t)elonf.'s  to  the  "broad  church'  party  and  has 
won  distinction  for  his  advocacy  of  liberal  ideas. 
He  has  jiidilislied:  Sliidies  of  Jesus  (1881); 
Right  and  Wroiirj  Uses  of  the  Bible  (1883)  ;  The 
Book  of  the  Beginnings  (1884);  Philistinism 
(188.5):  Social  Studies  (1887);  Church  and 
Ci-rrd   (ISdll:   Christian  Science   (1808). 

NEWTON-AB'BOT.  A  market-town  in  Dev- 
onshire, England,  on  tlie  Teign  estuary  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Lemon,  15  miles  south  of  Exeter 
(ilap:  England,  C  6).  It  has  railway  works,  a 
shipping  trade,  and  considerable  commerce  in 
agiicultural  produce  and  cattle.  Its  principal 
iniiustry  is  the  manufacture  of  ornamental  pot- 
tery from  china  clay  and  potter's  clay,  found 
in  the  neighborhood.  Lignite  and  tin  ore  are 
mined.  It  has  some  interesting  old  buildings,  a 
tnwn  hall,  and  municipal  markets.  In  the  vicin- 
ily  are  important  remains  of  a  Roman  encamp- 
ment. Charles  I.  lodged  at  Newton-Abbot  during 
his  western  campaign,  and  here  William  III. 
was  first  proclaimed  King  in  1688.  Population, 
in  1891,  11,000;  in  1901,  12,500. 

NEWTON-IN-MAKEEEIELD,  mak'er-feld, 
or  Xewtux-le-W  ILLOW.S.  A  manufacturing  town 
in  Lancashire,  England,  15  miles  west  of  Man- 
chester (Map:  England,  D  3).  The  chief  indus- 
tries are  paper-making,  printing,  sugar  refining, 
railway  wagon  manufacturing,  and  coal-min- 
ing. It  has  a  town  hall,  mechanics'  institute, 
and  grammar  school.  There  is  a  beautiful  lake 
in  the  town  called  Xewton  Mere,  which  is  co\'- 
I'red,  during  the  sunnner  months,  with  the 
pleasure-boats  of  the  residents.  Horse-races  are 
lield  here  in  June,  and  horse  and  cattle  fairs  in 
Jlay  and  August  annually.  The  barony  belonged 
to  Edward  the  Confessor.  Population,  in  1891, 
12,801:  in  1901,  16,699. 

NEWTON'S  RINGS.  The  colored  rings  seen 
wlien  a  thin  film  of  air  or  other  substance  inter- 
venes between  the  surfaces  of  two  plates  of 
glass.  This  phenomenon  is  named  from  its  dis- 
coverer. Sir  Isaac  Newton,  who  in  his  work  on 
Optics  describes  how  he  took  a  plano-convex  lens 
designed  for  a  fourteen-foot  telescope  and  placed 
it  with  its  plane  side  do\niward  on  top  of  a 
double  convex  lens  constructed  for  a  telescope 
of  about  fifty  feet  in  length.  On  slowly  pressing 
tlie  upper  lens  against  the  lower,  a  number  of 
concentric  rings  having  the  point  of  contact  of 
tlie  lenses  as  their  centre  appeared,  increasing 
in  size  as  the  pressure  was  increased.  This 
arrangement  of  a  lens  and  plane  surface  is  often 
eni])loyed  in  performing  the  experiment,  and  the 
thickness  of  the  film  and  the  wave  lengths  of 
llie  different  kinds  of  lights  can  be  ascertained. 
The  effect  is  due  to  the  interference  (q.v.)  of 
the  waves  of  light  reflected  from  the  upper  and 
lower  surfaces  of  the  thin  film  of  air,  which 
from  nothing  at  the  point  of  contact  gradually 
increases  in  thickness  with  the  distance  from 
tlie  centre.  If  light  of  one  color,  or,  speaking 
more  scientifically,  of  a  single  wave  length,  is 
used,  the  rings  will  be  alternately  bright  and 
dark,  the  bright  waves  being  produced  by  the 
Vol.  XIV.— 32. 


combination  of  the  various  waves  caused  by 
interference  and  overlapping.  Therefore  the 
colors  of  Newton's  rings  are  not  pure  spectral 
colors,  though  they  are  extremely  brilliant  and 
varied.  In  the  centre,  where  the  glass  surfaces 
are  in  contact,  there  is  a  dark  spot,  and  as  the 
air  film  begins  to  have  an  appreciable  thickness 
the  rings  are  formed.  They  were  divided  by 
Newton  into  a  series  of  orders,  seven  in  number, 
tliough  usually  not  more  than  four  or  five  are 
seen.  The  colors  of  the  first  or<ler,  from  the 
central  black  circle  outward,  are  gray,  whitish, 
straw  color,  orange,  brick-red,  and  dark  purple, 
tlie  last  color  corresponding  to  a  thickness  of 
the  film  of  .000011  of  an  inch  or  .00028  of  a 
millimeter.  In  the  second  order  we  have  the 
purest  colors,  which  run  through  a  succession 
of  violet,  blue,  peacock,  yellow,  orange,  red.  and 
violet,  the  thickness  of  the  air  film  in  the  last 
instance  amounting  to  .000022  of  an  inch  or 
.00055  of  a  millimeter;  in  the  third  and  fourth 
orders  we  also  have  a  succession  of  colors;  in 
the  fifth  we  have  pale  green,  pale  rose,  and  rose : 
in  the  sixth,  pale  peacock,  and  pale  rose  and 
rose;  and  in  the  seventh,  pale  green  and  rose. 
When  the  thickness  of  the  film  reaches  .001  mil- 
limeter the  color  appears  as  pale  green,  and  is 
included  in  the  fourtli  order,  but  from  this  point 
the  colors  begin  to  fade  and  disappear.  By 
means  of  these  rings  we  are  enabled  to  measure 
the  distance  between  two  transparent  surfaces 
which  are  in  seeming  contact.  In  case  the  light 
passes  through  the  plates  instead  of  being  re- 
fleeted,  the  colors  are  reversed,  and  we  have  the 
rings  formed  witli  the  complementary  colors.  See 
Light,  sections  Interference  a.nA  Diffraction.  Con- 
sult: Thompson,  Light  Visible  and  Inrisihle; 
Preston,  Theory  of  Light    (New  Yrtrk,   1894). 

NEWTON  THEOLOGICAL  INSTITU- 
TION. A  divinity  school  at  Newton  Centre. 
Mass.,  founded  in  1825,  under  the  supervision  of 
the  Baptist  churches  of  New  England,  but  open 
to  members  of  any  Christian  denomination.  It 
has  a  three  years'  course  leading  to  the  degree 
of  bachelor  of  divinity.  In  1902  there  were 
8  instiiictors  and  fll  students.  The  buildings, 
eight  in  number,  are  valued  with  the  grounds 
at  .$400,000.  The  institution  has  a  library  of 
24.000  volumes,  an  endowment  of  $800,000.  and 
property  estimated  at  $1,300,000, 

NEWTOWN.  Formerly  a  town  in  Queens 
Countv,  N.  Y..  since  1898  included  in  the  Borough 
of  Queens,  New  York  City  (q.v.)  (JSIap:  New 
Y'ork  City,  G  6) .  Newtown  was  founded  by  New 
Englanders  in  1652,  and  was  known  as  Middle- 
burgh  until  1004,  when  it  came  under  the  juris- 
diction of  Connecticut,  and  was  renamed  Hast- 
ings. It  received  its  present  name  and  became 
part  of  New  Y'ork  in  1665.  During  the  Revolu- 
tion it  was  occupied  for  some  time  by  British 
troops.  Consult  .J.  Riker,  -Jr.,  The  Annals  of 
yewtown    (New  Y'ork,   1852). 

NEWTOWNARDS.  nu'ton-.ardz'.  A  town  in 
county  Down.  Ireland.  13  miles  by  rail  from 
Belfast,  on  Lough  Strangford  (Map:  Ireland, 
F  2).  It  has  many  interesting  ruins,  notalily 
those  of  the  Old  Parish  Church.  For  a  hundred 
years  the  manufacture  of  linen  goods  has  been 
the  most  important  industry.  Newtoivnards  was 
chartered  as  a  borough  by  James  I.  Population, 
in  1901,  9110. 


NEW  ULM. 


492 


NEW  YORK. 


NEW  UXM.  A  city  and  the  oounty-seat  of 
Brown  County,  Minn.,  26  luilcs  west  by  north  of 
Mankato:  on  the  Minnesota  Kiver,  and  on  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  and  the  Jlinneapolis 
and  Saint  Louis  railroads  (Map:  Minnesota, 
D  6).  It  has  a  handsome  court  house,  Saint 
Alexander  Hospital,  a  public  library  and  high 
school  and  Turnvcrcin  libraries.  Saint  Michael's 
Academy,  and  Dr,  Martin  Luther  College 
(Lutheran).  New  Ulni  is  the  centre  of  a  rich 
agricultural  and  stock-raising  section,  and  carries 
on  considerable  trade.  Its  industrial  establish- 
ments comprise  grain  elevators  and  flour  mills, 
breweries,  cigar  factories,  brick  plants,  machine 
shops,  cooperage  shops,  and  manufactories  of 
pipe  organs,  woolens,  pottery,  and  creamery 
products.  Under  a  revised  charter  of  18!)!.  the 
government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  bien- 
nially, and  a  council.  There  are  municipal 
water-works  and  electric-light  plants.  Settled 
in  1854,  New  L'lm  was  incorporated  in  1870. 
It  was  in  1862  the  scene  of  an  Indian  massacre. 
A  memorial  has  been  erected  to  the  citizen 
soldiers  killed  by  the  Indians,  and  on  Hermann 
Heights  is  a  fine  monument  in  honor  of  Hermann 
(Arminius).  Population,  in  1890,  3741;  in  1900, 
5403. 

NEW  WAY  TO  PAY  OLD  DEBTS,  A.  A 
play  by  Ma.ssingcr,  printed  in  1632.  It  was 
written  probably  in  1625.  Fletcher  has  been 
credited  with  a  share  in  it,  but  his  part,  if 
any,  was  slight.  It  was  the  most  popular  of 
Massinger's  plays,  and  was  acted  until  recent 
times. 

NEW  WEST'MINSTER.  The  former  capi- 
tal and  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  Province 
of  British  Columbia.  Canada,  on  Fra.ser  River, 
in  the  midst  of  the  gold  region.  15  miles  above 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  75  miles  northeast  of 
Victoria  (Map:  British  Columbia.  E  5).  The 
river  at  this  point  is  about  a  mile  wide  and 
contains  several  inliabitcd  islands.  The  terminus 
of  the  Great  Northern  Railway  via  Blaine  is  on 
the  opposite  l)ank.  The  city  is  the  centre  of 
considerable  tracts  of  arable  land,  is  delightfully 
located,  has  a  fine  climate,  and  a  heavy  rainfall. 
Its  leading  industry  is  salmon  fishing,  several 
establishments  exporting  the  fish  in  cans  and 
barrels.  Other  kinds  of  fisli  are  caught  for  this 
trade.  Fish  oil  is  manufactured.  New  Westmin- 
ster has  also  a  large  traffic  in  lumber  and  furs, 
a  woolen  mill,  foundries,  iron  works,  machine 
and  carriage  factories,  etc.  Anthracite  and  bitu- 
minous coal  are  exported.  Tliere  are.  in  the  city, 
Methodist  and  Roman  Catholic  colleges,  the 
provincial  asylum  for  the  insane,  the  Dominion 
penitentiary,  and  public  library;  and  New  West- 
minster has  municipal  water-works,  electric 
lights,  an  electric  street  railroad,  and  public 
parks.     P..|.ulMli,,M,  in  l^^Ol,  6678;  in  1901,  6499. 

NEW  YEAR'S  DAY.  The  first  day  of  the 
year.  The  custom  of  celebrating  by  some  re- 
ligious observance,  generally  accompanied  by 
festive  rejoicing,  the  first  day  of  the  year,  ap- 
pears to  have  prevailed  among  most  of  the  an- 
rienf  nations.  The  .Tews,  the  Egyptians,  the 
Chinese,  the  Romans,  and  the  Mohammedans,  al- 
thouL'h  dilTering  as  to  the  time  from  which  they 
reckoned  the  commencement  of  the  year,  all  re- 
garded it  as  a  day  of  special  interest.  In  Rome 
the  year  anciently  began  in  March :  and  when 
Kuma,  according  to  the  ancient  legend,  made  the 


year  begin  on  January  1st,  that  day  was  held  sa- 
cred to  Janus  Bifrons,  who  was  thus  supposed  to 
turn  at  once  back  upon  the  old  year  and  forward 
into  the  new.  On  the  establishment  of  Chris- 
tianity, the  usage  of  a  solemn  inauguration  of 
the  new  year  was  retained;  but  considerable 
variety  prevailed,  both  as  to  the  time  and  as 
to  the  manner  of  its  celebration.  Christmas  Day, 
the  Annunciation  (March  25tb).  Easter  Day.  and 
ilarch  1st  have  all,  at  different  times  or  places, 
shared  with  .January  1st  the  honor  of  opening 
the  new  year;  nor  was  it  till  late  in  the  sixteenth 
century  that  .January  1st  was  in  most  countries 
accepted  as  the  first  day  of  the  new  year.  The 
early  fathers — Chrysostoni.  Ambrose,  Augustine. 
Peter  Chrysologus,  and  others — in  reprobation  of 
the  immoral  and  superstitious  observances  of  the 
pagan  festival,  prohibited  in  Christian  use  all 
festive  celebration;  and,  on  the  contrary,  directed 
that  tlie  Christian  year  should  be  opened  with  a 
day  of  prayer,  fasting,  and  humiliation.  The 
mandate,  however,  was  but  partially  observed. 

The  social  observances  of  the  first  day  of  the 
new  year  appear  to  have  been  in  substance  the 
same  in  all  ages.  From  the  earliest  recorded 
celebration  we  find  notice  of  feasting  and  the 
interchange  of  presents.  Tradition  referred  the 
origin  of  New  Year's  gifts  among  the  Romans 
toTatius,  Kingof  the  Sabines(B.c.  747).  Branches 
cut  from  the  wood  consecrated  to  Strenia,  the 
goddess  of  strength,  were  received  by  him  on 
the  first  day  of  the  new  year  as  presents  of  good 
omen.  He  sanctioned  the  custom  and  called  the 
gifts  strcncE  (cf.  French  jour  dYtrennes) .  In 
later  times  in  Rome  similar  practices  attended 
the  worship  of  Salus.  Simple  strciKF.  consisting 
of  t)ranches  of  baj'  and  of  palm,  sweetmeats  made 
of  honey,  figs,  or  dates  as  a  goml  omen  that  the 
year  might  bring  only  joy  and  happiness  (Ovid, 
Fasti,  i.,  185-190),  finally  gave  way  to  gifts  of 
more  elaborate  character.  The  custom  of  pre- 
senting gifts  to  the  Emperor  Iiecame  .so  general 
that  the  people  went  en  masse  to  carry  him 
l)resents  and  to  wish  him  a  happy  new  year. 
The  writers  of  the  Empire  describe  other  ob- 
servances— exchanging  visits,  masquerading,  and 
feasting — which  characterized  the  day.  The  fes- 
tival held  by  the  Druids  at  the  opening  of  the 
year  resembles  the  worship  of  Salus  by  the  Ro- 
mans. Tlie  priests  cut  the  sacred  plant  and 
distributed  the  sprays.  In  many  countries  the 
night  before  New  Year's.  '.Saint  Sylvester's  Eve,' 
was  celebrated  with  great  festivity,  which  was 
prolonged  till  after  twelve  o'clock,  when  the  new 
year  was  ushered  in  with  congratulations,  visits, 
and  mutual  wishes  for  a  happy  new  year.  This  is 
an  ancient  Scottish  custom,  which  also  prevails 
in  many  parts  of  Germany,  where  the  form  of 
wish — "Prosst-  (for  the  Lat.  pro.ti'/)  Neujahr" 
— "MayJhe  new  year  be  happy" — attests  the  an- 
tiquity of  the  custom.  In  many  places  the  prac- 
tice of  tolling  bells  at  midnight,  and  thus  'ringing 
in  the  new  year.'  is  still  observed.  Many  l^li- 
gious  communions  are  wont  to  celelirate  it  with  a 
special  service  or  watch  night.  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  the  Te  Deum  is  often  sung  at 
the  close  of  the  old  year  in  thanksgiving  for  the 
blessings  granted  during  its  course,  and  New 
Year's  Day  is  a  holy  day  of  obligation,  because 
on  it   falls  the  Feast  of  the  Circumcision. 

NEW  YORK  (popniarlv  called  the  'Empire 
.State).     A  North  .Atlantic  State  of  the  United 


I 


I 


NEW  YORK. 


493 


NEW  YORK. 


States.  It  lies  between  latitudes  40°  30'  and  45° 
r  north,  longitudes  71°  51'  and  7!)°  4U'  wesfc 
and  is  bounded  on  the  northwest  by  Lake  On- 
tario and  the  Saint  Lawrence  River,  which 
siparate  it  I'roui  the  Canadian  Province  of  On- 
tario; on  the  north  by  the  Province  of  Quebec; 
and  on  the  east  by  the  States  of  Vermont,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Connecticut,  a  part  of  the  Vermont 
liuundary  being  formed  by  Lake  Champlain.  On 
tlie  south  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  its  arms,  Long 
l.■^land  Sound,  Xew  York  Bay,  and  Staten  Island 

!  Sound,  surround  Long  Island  and  Staten  Lsland, 
which  belong  to  the  State,  while  the  mainland 
portion  is  bounded  by  a  part  of  these  waters  and 
by  the  States  of  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania. 
(Ml  the  west  the  boundary  is  completed  by  the 
latter  State,  together  with  Lake  Krie  and  the 
Niagara  River.  New  York  has  roughly  the 
-liaise  of  a  triangle,  with  the  base  on  the  Great 
Lakes  and  the  apex  extending  down  to  the  ocean. 
I  Its  extreme  length  from  north  to  south  is  312 
I  miles,  and  from  east  to  west  326  miles.  It  ranks 
twenty-sixth  in  size  among  the  States,  its  area 
being  49,170  square  miles,  of  which  47,620  .square 
miles  are  land  surface. 

ToPOGR.\PHT,  The  topographical  features  of 
New  York  are  varied  and  complex,  but  a  certain 
number  of  more  or  less  well-marked  physical  di- 
\  isions  may  be  recognized.  The  great  Appalach- 
ian belt  first  comes  out  upon  the  coast  in  this 
Mate.  The  Piedmont  plain,  which  has  such  a 
distinctive  development  farther  south,  is  here 
>carcely  represented;  and  the  coastal  plain  is 
represented  only  by  Long  Island,  which  is  low 
and  sandy,  with  an  average  elevation  of  about  70 
feet  and  a  maximum  of  380  feet.  The  first  di- 
\  i~ion  of  the  mainland,  covering  the  southeastern 
( orner  of  the  State,  consists  of  the  Highlands,  an 
extension  of  the  Highlands  of  New  Jersey.  It 
is  a  rugged  region  rising  in  some  of  its  peaks 
I  to  a  height  of  about  1500  feet,  and  is  pierced  by 
the  Hudson  in  a  magnificent  gorge.  It  falls  into 
gentle  undulations  toward  Long  Island  Sound 
and  New  York  P.ay.  Northwest  and  north  of  the 
Highlands  follows  an  extension  of  the  Kittatinny 
Valley  of  New  Jersey.  This  is  low  compared  with 
the  neighboring  elevations,  but  east  of  the  Hudson 
the  land  rises  into  the  Taconie  Range,  2800  feet 
high,  which  runs  along  the  eastern  boundary 
into  Massachusetts  and  Vermont,  where  its  ex- 
tension forms  the  Green  Mountains.  West  of 
this  Taconie  region  rises  the  extension  of  the 
Pcnnsylvanian  part  of  the  Appalachian  system  in 
the  form  of  a  vast  plateau  covering  more  than 
one-third  of  the  State,  and  reaching  from  the 
Hudson  to  within  two  or  three  miles  of  Lake 
Erie.  It  is  deeply  eroded  by  river  valleys  lying 
in  places  over  1000  feet  below  the  higher  por- 
tions. Its  eastern  part  rises  in  many  peaks  over 
.'iilOO  feet  in  the  wild  and  much  dissected  moun- 
tain region  Icnown  as  the  Catskills,  whose  highest 
peak.  Slide  ^Mountain,  has  an  altitude  of  4205 
feet.  South  of  the  Catskills  are  the  Shawangunk 
Moimtains.  The  average  elevation  of  the  western 
part  of  the  great  plateau  is  about  1200  feet,  with 
some  points  reaching  2000  feet.  Throughout  its 
length  on  the  north,  east,  and  southeast,  it  is 
bounded  by  a  limestone  escarpment  in  some  places 
very  high  and  abrupt,  and  known  in  the  east  as 
the  Helderberg  Mountain.  North  of  this  escarp- 
ment is  a  low-lying  region,  forming  in  the  west 
the  lake  shore  plain  and  in  the  east  the  Mohawk 
Valley.     The  latter  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 


an  irregular  and  hilly  country,  which  merges 
imperceptibly  into  tlie  last  great  topographical 
region,  the  Adirondacks.  The  Adirondacks  with 
their  outlying  hills  cover  the  entire  northern  part 
of  the  State,  Their  central  portion  is  heavily 
forested,  and  is  a  famous  summer  resort.  Sev- 
eral of  their  peaks  are  over  4000  feet  high,  and 
Mount  Marcv,  the  highest  point  in  the  State,  has 
an  altitude  of  5344  feet. 

Hydbogb.^phy.  The  rivers  of  the  State  flow 
in  all  directions,  and  supply  five  main  sys- 
tems— the  Saint  Lawrence,  Hudson,  ^Mississippi, 
Susquehanna,  and  Delaware.  The  Saint  Law- 
rence drainage  basin  is  the  largest  in  the  State, 
but  includes  mostl.y  small  streams  flowing  into 
Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  the  Saint  Lawrence 
River,  and  Lake  Champlain.  The  largest  of 
these  streams  are  the  Genesee,  the  Oswego,  and 
the  Black  rivers,  all  emptying  into  Lake  On- 
tario. The  second  drainage  basin  is  that  of  the 
Hudson — the  only  large  river  flowing  entirely 
within  the  State.  It  explains  in  large  part  the 
commercial  supremacy  of  New  York,  since 
through  its  western  branch-valley  of  the  Mo- 
hawk, through  which  it  has  been  practicable  to 
construct  a  canal,  it  opens  a  continuous  waterway 
into  the  heart  of  the  Continent.  Even  before  the 
Erie  Canal  was  constructed  the  Hudson  and  Mo- 
hawk valleys  constituted  an  important  trade 
route  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Great  Lakes. 
The  Delaware  and  Susquehanna  rivprs  both  rise 
in  this  State,  draining  its  south-central  portion. 
The  latter  is  a  large  river  before  it  crosses  the 
boundary,  but  is  not  navigable.  The  Jlississippi 
system  is  represented  only  by  the  .-Mlegheny 
River  in  the  extreme  western  part  of  the  State. 
JIany  of  the  rivers  flow  through  picturesque 
gorges,  and  are  broken  by  falls  and  rapids,  the 
most  noted  of  which,  besides  Niagara,  are  those 
of  the  Genesee  at  Rochester. 

New  York  is  dotted  with  numerous  lakes  cele- 
brated for  beauty.  Some  of  them  are  of  consider- 
able size,  and  nearly  all  are  of  elongated  type, 
formed  by  the  damming  of  river  valleys  by  gla- 
cial materials.  This  type  appears  most  conspicu- 
ously in  the  gi'oup  known  as  the  Finger  Lakes 
in  the  western  part  of  the  State.  They  lie  nearly 
parallel  in  a  north  and  south  direction.  The 
largest  are  Lakes  Seneca  and  Cayuga,  each  nearly 
40  miles  long  and  from  2  to  3  miles  wide.  Lake 
Chautauqua  in  the  extreme  west  and  the  pictur- 
esque Lake  George  in  the  extreme  east  are  of 
similar  formation,  as  is  also  Oneida  Lake  in  the 
central  portion,  though  the  last  has  a  width  of 
over  5  miles,  with  a  length  of  20  miles.  The  Ad- 
irondack region  abounds  in  mountain  lakes  of 
romantic  beauty. 

Climate,  The  climate  of  the  State  is  of  the 
continental  rather  than  the  insular  type,  though 
the  extreme  coastal  regions  of  Long  Island  are 
somewhat  tempered  by  the  ocean.  The  range  of 
temperature  is  nowhere  as  great  as  in  the  States 
of  the  Northwestern  plains.  The  average  nuiximuni 
is  about  100°  and  the  minimum  zero,  or  a  few  de- 
grees below,  but  these  figures  vary  nuich  with 
the  topography,  the  winters  in  the  Adirondacks 
being  very  cold.  The  mean  temperature  for  .Tan- 
uarv  is  30°  on  the  coast,  26°  in  the  northwest, 
and  15°  in  the  Adirondacks.  The  corresponding 
figures  for  July  are  72°,  70°,  and  64°.  Tlie  rain- 
fall is  abundant  throughout  the  State.  In  the 
.\dirondacks  it  is  nearly  60  inches,  and  at  New 
York  Citv,  42  inches.     In  the  rest  of  the  State 


NEW  YOBK. 


494 


NEW  YORK. 


it  ranges  between  35  and  45  inches,  being  least  in 
the  northwest. 

UEOLOCiV.  There  are  two  areas  of  Archaean 
rocks,  which  probabh"  represent  the  portions  of 
the  State  that  rose  above  the  pre-Canibrian  ocean. 
These  are  the  Adiiondack  region  of  the  north  and 
the  Highlands  of  the  extreme  south.  Both 
consist  of  very  ancient  crystalline  and  meta- 
niorphic  rocks,  gi'anites,  gneisses,  etc.,  with  in- 
truded basic  rocks  forming  the  central  or  Mount 
Alarcy  group  of  the  .\dirondacks.  The  northern 
Archa'an  area  is  Hanked  on  the  north  by  outcrops 
of  Potsdam  sandstone  of  the  Cambrian  .\f;e.  and 
again  on  all  sides  by  a  narrow  banil  of  Trenton 
limestone,  while  a  tongue  of  Lower  Cambrian 
extends  from  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Cham- 
plain  toward  the  Hudson  Valley.  In  the  early 
Silurian  Age  a  great  upheaval  connected  the 
Adirondacks  with  the  Highlands  and  raised 
above  sea-level  the  regions  bordering  these  on 
the  west.  That  jHirtion  now  appears  as  Lower 
Silurian  slates  and  limestones,  running  in  a  great 
curve  from  Lake  Ontario  toward  Lake  Ceorge, 
and  thence  south  and  southwest  ward  into  the 
Kittatinny  Valley  of  New  .Jersej-.  On  this  for- 
mation the  Upper  Silurian  rests  uneonformably 
and  crops  out  along  the  southern  shore  of  Lake 
Ontario.  The  rest  of  the  State,  including  the 
entire  southwestern  and  south-central  portion  as 
far  east  as  tlie  Hudson  Valley,  remained  sub- 
merged untiUthe  close  of  the  Devonian  Age,  when, 
in  the  early  Carboniferous  Age,  it  was  raised 
by  the  great  Appalachian  upheaval.  This  por- 
tion is  now  covered  by  rocks  of  the  Devonian  sys- 
tem, forming  the  great  western  ))lateau,  which 
is  terminated  by  the  abrupt  escarpment  formed 
by  the  Helderberg  limestone.  The  eastern  por- 
tion of  the  plateau  is  more  folded  and  upturned 
than  the  western,  and  is  cajjped  by  harder  sand- 
stone, whence  it  remains  at  a  higher  level  as  the 
Catskill  Jlountains.  The  Cpper  Devonian  may 
have  been  overlain  by  a  light  Carboniferous 
stratum;  but  if  so,  the  latter  has  been  entirely 
worn  away,  and  the  State  contains  no  rocks  later 
tlian  the  Upper  Devonian,  with  the  exception  of  a 
small  area  of  Triassic  and  Cretaceous  strata  in 
the  soutlieastern  part.  Glacial  action  has  been 
very  effective  in  shaping  the  present  topography 
of  New  York,  by  the  formation  of  lakes,  the 
changing  of  river  eoui'ses,  the  scooping  out  of 
some  valleys  and  filling  in  of  others,  and  the 
deposition  of  moraine  materials,  these  materials 
covering  the  older  rock-formations  in  an  irregu- 
lar sheet  from  a  few  inches  to  several  hundred 
feet  in  tliiekness,  and  constituting  the  jirincipal 
soil  of  the  State. 

M  I.N  ERA  L  Re.soibces.  The  coal  measures, 
which  are  so  extensively  developed  south  of  the 
boundary,  are  not  represented  in  this  State. 
There  are  valuable  clay  deposits  in  the  lowlands 
around  the  lakes  and  river  valleys,  formed  by 
the  deposits  from  the  larirer  lakes  which  covered 
those  regions  in  Pleistocene  times.  The  granites 
of  the  Arelnran  regions,  the  limestones  of  the 
Trenton  and  Nia;;ara  formations  in  the  north- 
west, and  the  Potsdam  anil  Catskill  sandstones, 
especially  those  layers  of  the  Hamilton  group 
known  as  the  Hudson  Tiiver  bluestone,  form 
valuable  sources  of  bnildinfr  stone.  The  princi- 
pal metallic  ore  is  iron,  which  occurs  in  cxten-ive 
bcrls  of  mapnetite  and  herniatite  in  the  crystal- 
line rocks  of  the  .Adirondacks.  Tntcrbedded  with 
the  shales  of  the  UppiT  Silurian  strata  south  of 


Lake  Ontario  are  extensive  deposits  of  rock  salt 
from  15  to  150  feet  thick,  while  other  minerals 
are  found  in  smaller  quantities  in  various  parts 
of  the  State. 

Mixing.  New  York  has  no  coal  mines,  and  is 
in  this  respect  in  marked  contrast  with  the  sister 
Conunonwealth  of  Pennsylvania.  The  State  ranks 
high  in  the  stone-quarrying  industry.  All  the 
more  important  varieties  of  stone,  as  well 
as  industrial  cUiys.  are  worked.  The  out- 
put of  limestone  in  1900  was  valued  at  .$1,730.- 
1G2.  the  largest  for  any  year  in  the  decade  18!10- 
1900.  The  sandstone  for  the  same  year  (nearly 
two-thirds  being  bluestone)  was  valued  at 
$1.407,4911 — also  the  largest  value  attaine<l  from 
1890  to  1900.  The  annual  production  of  granite 
and  of  marble  each  ranges  in  value  from  about 
.$■200,000  to  .$500,000.  Slate  is  of  less  impor- 
tance. New  York  produces  over  half  of  the  total 
output  of  rock  cement  for  the  country,  the  value 
for  1900  being  .$2,045,451.  Portland  cement  is 
also  made.  The  value  of  the  clav  products  for 
1900  was  .$8,073.709— a  little  less  "than  in  1890— 
of  which  over  one-sixth  represented  pottery,  and 
the  remainder  brick  and  tile.  New  York  is  the 
largest  salt-producing  State,  the  value  of  the  pro- 
duct being  over  one-third  that  for  the  entire 
country.  Prior  to  1893  New  York  was  exceeded 
by  Jlichigan  in  the  salt  output,  but  it  has  regu- 
larly held  first  rank  since  that  year.  Since 
1898  the  annual  value  has  been  more  than  $2,- 
000.000.  The  yield  of  the  ditTerent  kinds  of  iron 
ore  in  1900  was:  red  hematite.  44.407  long  tons; 
brown  hematite.  44.891;  magnetite.  345.714;  and 
c;ul>onate.  6413  long  tons,  the  value  of  tlie  en- 
tire product  being  $1,103,817.  Petroleum  and 
natural  gas  are  obtained  in  the  western  part  of 
the  State.  The  value  of  the  natural  gas  yield 
was  greatest  in  1890- $552,000.  The  highest  sub- 
sequent figure  was  that  for  1900— $303,307.  Only 
one  State,  Wisconsin,  exceeds  New  York  in  the 
value  of  its  mineral  waters,  the  total  receipts 
being  $929,038,  from  44  springs  reporting  in 
1900. 

I'l.siiERlES.  The  fishery  industries,  like  those 
of  most  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  coast  States,  have 
greatly  declined  in  value  of  late.  Its  vessel 
fisheries,  however,  show  an  increase.  In  1898 
there  were  9185  persons  engaged  in  the  industries, 
as  against  12,240  in  1891.  The  value  of  the 
catch  for  the  same  year  was  $3,545,189.  sliowing 
a  decline  of  nearly  30  per  cent,  since  1891.  al- 
though the  amount  of  the  catch  increased  during 
the  same  period.  SutTolk  County,  on  Long  Isl- 
and, is  the  foremost  county  in  the  State  in 
fisheries.  The  oyster  represents  more  than  one- 
half  of  the  total  value.  Next  conn-  menhaden, 
blnefisb,  and  clams.  In  the  counties  bordering 
on  the  Hudson  the  fisheries  are  of  minor  impor- 
tance. The  chief  species  here  are  shad  and  alc- 
wives.  The  lake  fisheries  of  New  York  are  al.so 
of  some  importance.  The  menliaden  industry  has 
lieen  consiiU'rably  conxiliilati'd  in  bite  years. 
Its  proihict  in  1898  was  $405,488.  The  value 
of  the  canned  fish  aniounteil  in  1900  to 
$197.8ti!).  See  the  bibliography  under  the  article 
I'lSIIEKIES. 

AcRlcrLTrRE.  For  a  long  time  New  York  was 
the  first  State  in  agricultural  importance,  and 
as  late  as  1890  was  surpassed  bv  Illinois  alone 
in  the  value  of  farm  products.  In  1900.  although 
these  products  had  increased  51  per  cent,  in  the 
decade  enclii:g   with   that   viar.  the  amount     was 


i 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  NEW  YORK  BY  COUNTIES. 


Map 
Index. 

County  Seat. 

\rea  in 
square 
miles. 

Population. 

County. 

1890. 

1900. 

Albiuiy 

F  3 
B  3 
E  3 
B  3 
D  3 

A3 
U3 
K  3 
G  4 
G3 

D3 
E  3 
G  4 
B  3 

F  1 

F  1 
F  2 
B  2 
F  3 
F  2 

E2 
E  1 
F5 
E  2 
C  3 

E3 
C  2 
P  3 
(i  5 
F  5 

B  2 
E  2 
D  2 
C  3 
F  4 

B  2 
D2 
E  3 
G4 
t;5 

(J  3 

F5 
P  5 
F  1 
F  2 

F  3 
F3 
C  3 
D  3 
C  3 

(J  5 
F  4 

n  3 

D  3 

F  4 

F  2 
G  2 
C  3 
G  4 
B  3 
C  3 

Allian.v 

Belmont 

.528 
1,018 

096 
1,:*30 

722 

1.062 
394 
847 

1,041 
W7 

•    486 
1,531 
800 
1,040 
1,83-1 

1,717 
486 
484 
644 

1,747 

1,426 
1,253 

1,265 
635 

649 
643 
399 
252 
63 

622 

1,180 
794 
652 
849 

396 
974 
978 
2:j9 
139 

C64 
57 
180 
2,810 
8,30 

210 

648 

.339 

338 

1,401 

918 
967 
.518 
477 
1,128 

895 
797 
634 
450 
003 
348 

164,.5.55 
•43,240 
62,973 
00,866 
65,308 

75.202 
48,265 
37,776 
40,437 
46,172 

38,0.57 
45,496 
77,879 
322,981 
33,052 

38,110 
37,650 
3:3,265 
31,.598 
4,763 

45,608 
68,806 
8:)8,5-17 
29,806 
37,801 

42,892 
189,586 
45,699 

l,5i5,36i 

02,491 

122.933 
146,2.17 
48,453 
97.8.59 

30,803 
71.883 
.50.861 
14,849 
12,S,059 

134,51 1 

51,693 
35,103 
85,1148 
57,663 

29,797 
29.164 
10.711 
38,327 
81,473 

03,491 
31,031 
39,935 
:i3,933 
87,IX)3 

37.806 
45.690 
49,739 
146,773 
31,193 
31,001 

165,571 
41,501 

Brooino 

Cattamugus 

Cayuga 

[Jinghanilou 

69,149 
65,043 

06,234 

Mavvillc 

88,314 

Elmira 

54,063 

Norwich 

3<i,5CH 

47,4;W 

Hudson 

43,211 

Cortland 

8i',576 

Delhi.     .   ..; 

Poughkeepsie 

46,413 

81,070 

Buffalo 

Elizabethtown 

Malone 

433,686 

Essex 

30,707 
42,853 

Fulton 

42,842 

34,561 

Catskill 

Lake  Pleasant 

31,478 

4,947 

Herkimer 

51, (M9 

Watertown 

Brooklyn 

Lowville 

Geneseo 

76,748 

Kings 

Lewis 

1,166,.582 
27,427 
37,059 

Madison 

40,545 

Koeheetcr 

217,854 

47,488 

Nassau 

Mineola     

New  York 

55,448 
2,050,600 

Niaojara 

Oneida 

Onondaga 

Ontario 

Orange 

74,961 

Utica 

133,800 
168,7:» 

49,605 

Goshen 

.\lbion 

103,859 

Orleans 

Oswego 

30,164 
70,881 

Cooperstown 

48,939 

Putnam 

C'armel 

13,787 
152,999 

Troy 

Hiehmnnd 

New  City 

Cantf)n 

Bnllston  Spa 

Schenectady 

121,697 

67,031 

Rockland 

.38,298 

St  Lawrence 

89,08:j 

Saratoga 

61,089 

Schenectady .. 

46,852 

Schoharie  

Watkins 

26,8.54 

Srhuvler 

15.811 

Seneca 

Ovid  &  Waterloo 

Bath 

28,114 
82,822 

Suffolk 

Riverhcad 

77,582 
33,306 

Tioga  

Tompkins 

Ulster..- 

Warren    

Washington 

Owego 

Ithaca 

37,951 
33,830 
88,422 

Caldwell 

Avgyle 

Lyons 

White  Plains 

Warsaw 

29,94,'» 

45,62". 
48,660 

Westchester 

183,375 
30,413 

Yates 

Pcnn  Yan  

20,318 

^-^•l* 


o 


m 


NEW  YORK. 


495 


NEW  YORK. 


exceeded  in  three  Western  States.  Each  decade 
since  1S70  lias  witnessed  a  decrease  in  the  value 
of  farm  laud  and  farm  improvements,  a  fact 
generally  explained  by  the  rise  of  Western  eom- 
IK'tition.  The  area  of  improved  land  reached  its 
maximum  in  New  York  in  1880,  and  declined  in 
eacli  of  the  sulisequent  decades.  In  1900  74.3 
per  cent,  of  the  land  area  of  the  State  was  in- 


prominent    item.      The    following    table    of    the 
holdings  of  stock  is  self-explanatory: 


Dairy  cows.. 
Other  cattle 
Horses 

eluded    in    farms,   and   of   this   amount    G8.9   per     sheep 

cent,  was  improved.     The  average  size  of  farms     Swine 

decreased  from  112.1  acres  in  18.50  to  99.0  acres 
in  1900.  Tenant  farming  is  growing  in  favor, 
and  embraced  in  1900  23.9  per  cent,  of  all  farms. 
Over  one-half  of  the  total  crop  acreage  is  de- 
voted to  hay  and  forage,  and  exceeds  the  corre- 
sponding area  in  any  other  State.     The  impor 


l,oUl,(10» 

l.Uil4.7*(l 

628,43B 

3.C51 

984,516 

676,639 


1,440,230 

B91.162 

604,430 

4.()36 

1.528.976 
843,342 


Forests  and  Forest  Products.  Forests  of 
white  pine,  spruce,  and  hemlock  originally  cov- 
ered the  Adirondacks,  and,  mingled  with  hard 
woods,  were  common  throughout  other  parts  of 
the  State.  New  York  has  long  played  a  promi- 
tance  of  the  dairy  industry  gives  a  special  value  nent  part  in  the  luiidier  industry  of  the  country, 
to  hay.  \Vhile  tlie  total  product  is  sometimes  ex-  and  in  18.50  ranked  first  among  the  States  in  the 
ceedeil  in  other  States,  it  generally  stands  first  as  value  of  timber  products.  As  a  result  the  mer- 
to  total  value.  Oats  is  the  most  i'miiortant  cereal  chantable  timber  has  been  generally  removed 
and  is  a  favorite  crop  in  the  Saint  Lawrence  Val-  except  in  the  Adirondacks,  and  most  of  the 
ley.  Wheat  and  corn  are  of  about  equal  promi-  pine  has  been  cleared  from  that  region.  The 
nenee.  Both  regained  from  1890  to  1!I00  a  part  State  possesses  here  1,IG3,414  acres.  In  1900 
of  the  very  large  loss  of  area  which  characterized  there  were  in  Xew  Y'ork  705,914  acres  in  private 
them  in  the  preceding  decade.     Only  one  other     reserves,  and  1,356,816  acres  were  owned  by  indi- 


State  rivals  Xew  Y'ork  in  the  production  of  rye 
and  buckwheat. 

After  hay,  the  potato  is  the  most  valuable  farm 
])roduot.  The  Slate  is  unapproachcd  in  the  area 
devoted  to  this  vegetable,  and  in  the  value  of 
its  production.   New  York  also  takes  first  rank  in 


vidnals  or  companies  for  other  purposes.  Hem- 
lock and  spruce  are  cut  in  the  largest  quantities. 
From  the  table  below  it  will  be  seen  that  while 
the  value  of  the  lumber  and  timber  products,  as 
also  the  planing  mill  products,  etc.,  decreased 
somewhat  during  the  decade,  the  value  of  paper 


garden  farming.     Long  Island  is  almost  wholly  and   wood   pulp   increased   88.2   per   cent.     This 

devoted  to  this  industry,   for  which  it  has  the  gave  the  State  first  rank  in  this  industry, 

special  advantage  of  being  near  to  the  Xew  Y'ork  M.\.viFACTrRES.     The  leading  position  of  New 

market.      In   the   production   of   be.ans   the   State  York  as  a  manufacturing  State  dates  from  about 

holds    second    rank.       In    the    western    counties  1825,   when   the   Erie    Canal   was   finished.      The 

north  of  the  watershed  and  in  Ulster  County  are  largest   absolute  gain  in  the  industry  was  made 

large  fruit  orchards,  the  apple  trees  constituting  from  1880  to  1890.     The  percentage  of  the  popu- 

0  per  cent,  of  the  total  nundier  of  fruit  trees  in  lation  engaged   in  the   industryas  wage-earners 


the  State.  Grapes  are  grown  abundantly  in  the 
southern  jjart  of  the  Hudson  Valley  and  in  the 
lake  region.  Tobacco  is  raised  in  the  Chemung 
Valley  and  northeastward  to  the  eastern  end  of 
Lake  Eric.  Hops  are  a  prominent  crop  in  some 
of  the  central  counties,  but  recently  there  has 
been  a  significant  decrease, owing  to  Western  com- 
petition. A  large  income  is  annually  obtained 
from  the  products  of  fioriculture.     Fertilizers  are 


increased  from  6.4  in  1850  to  1L7  in  1900.  There 
was,  however,  a  decrease  in  the  last  decade  of 
that  period.  The  total  value  of  manufactures  for 
the  year  1900  was  ,$2,175,726,900.  This  figure 
was  one-seventh  greater  than  that  for  Pennsyl- 
vania— the  only  other  State  which  approaches 
New  Y'ork  in  this  respect.  The  figure  was  in 
fact  nearly  one-si.xth  of  that  for  the  United 
States.     This  position  is  held  by  the  State  de- 


very   commonly  used   throughout   the   State,   an     spite  the  comparative  lack  of  iron  manufactur- 


average  of  $20  per  farm  being  expended  for  them. 
The  following  table  of  acreages  explains  itself: 


CEOP 

1900 

1890 

Hav 

5,154,965 
1,329,753 
658,654 
557,736 
2S9,862 
177,416 
111.658 
395,640 
129,298 

5  ^43  010 

Oats.    . 

1  417  371 

Corn 

493  3''0 

Wheat 

462  561 

Buckwheat 

280  0^9 

R.ve 

Barley 

349.311 

Beans 

Stock-Raisixg.  stock-raising  is  characterized 
by  the  great  prominence  of  dairy  cows.  The 
number  of  cows  has  increased  steadily,  and  the 
dairy  industry  has  likewise  grown.  In  1900  the 
value  of  dairy  products  constituted  30.5  per  cent. 


ing  and  textile  industries.  It  is  due  to  the  great 
number  of  factories  and  shops  producing  the 
more  highly  finished  products.  The  State  is  not 
without  valuable  resources  of  field,  forest,  and 
mine,  and  counts  also  among  its  advantages  the 
sources  of  an  abundant  water-power,  including 
the  Niagara  Falls.  Hut  its  advanced  ])osition 
is  the  outgrowth  rather  of  its  superior  situation 
with  respect  to  both  home  and  foreign  markets. 
The  construction  of  the  Erie  Canal  westward 
through  the  Jlohawk  Valley — the  only  natural 
break  in  the  Appalachian  Moiuitain  range — es- 
tablished early  communication  between  the  Hud- 
son River  and  the  Great  Lakes,  and  brought  to 
New  York  nnich  of  the  eonnnerce  of  the  West. 
The  water  routes  determined  the  location  of 
nearly  all  the  large  towns,  which  in  turn  largely 
determined  the  location   of  raihvav  routes.     At 


v:i 

of   the   gross    farm    income.      The    receipts    from     the  southern  extremity  of  this  system  of  water 

the  sales  of  milk  in  that  year  were  .'f!36,248.833,     transportation  was  New  Y'ork  Harbor,  with   its 


and  from  sales  of  butter,  $9,808,440.  From  1890 
to  1900  there  was  .a  decided  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  cattle  and  a  marked  decrease  in  the  num- 
ber   of    sheep.      Poultry    products    are    a    very 


superior  natural  facilities  for  shipping.  New 
Y'ork  City  thus  became  the  metropolis  of  tlie 
country,  and  extensive  manufacttiring  industries 
sprang  up  in  and  about  it.     About  three-fifths 


NEW  YOKK. 


496 


NEW  YORK. 


Total  tor  selected  Industries  (or  State.. 


Increa«e.  1890  to  1900.. 
Per  cent,  of  Increase... 


Per  cent.  o(  total  of  all  industries  In  State.. 


Year 


1900 
1890 


Clothing— total 

Clothing,  men's,  factory  product 

Clothing,  women's,  tactorj  product 

Furnishing  gotids,  men's 

Millinery  ami  lace  goods 

Musical  instruments— total 

Textiles— total 

Carpets  and  rugs,  other  than  rag 

Cotton  goods  (including  cotton  small  wares).. 

Hosiery  and  knit  goods 

Silk  and  silk  goods 

Woolen  goods 

Worsted  goods 

Fur  goods 

Shirts 


1900 
1890 


■{\ 


Gloves  and  mittens 

Boots  and  shoes,  factory  product 

Leather— tanned,  curried,  and  finished j  j 

Iron  and  st4?el \ 

Foundry  and  machine-shop  products | 

Ironwork,  architectural  and  ornamental j 

Electrical  apparatus  and  supplies { 

Jewelry ( 

Sugar  and  molasses,  refining { 

Coffee  and  spice,  roasting  and  grinding ^ 

Confectionery \ 

Patent  medicines  and  compounds j 

Tobacco- chewing,  smoking,  and  snuB j 

Tobacco— cigars  and  cigarettes I 

Liquors- total j 


:! 


Flouring  and  grist-mill  products 

Slaughtering 

Soap  and  candles 

Cheese,  butter,  and  condensed  milk,  factory  product. 

Chemical  products— total 

Printing  and  publishing 

Lithographing  and  engraving 

LumtMT  and  timber  products 

Lumber,    planing    mill    products.    Including    aaab 
doors,  and  blinds _■ 

Agrlr-ultnral  Implement* 

Carriages  and  wagons 


Number  of 
establish- 
ments 


Average 
number 
wage- 
earners 


24,417 
21.309 


3.108 
14.6 


31.0 
32.4 


502,839 
445,867 


66.972 
12.8 


59.2 
59.3 


1900 

4.204 

90,017 

1890 

3.466 

78.874 

1900 

2,531 

41,300 

1890 

2.B61 

64,110 

1900 

1.073 

48,717 

1H90 

805 

24,704 

1900 

270 

21.610 

1S90 

215 

11,671 

1900 

393 

11.274 

1890 

165 

6,038 

1900 

193 

7. '244 

1890 

211 

7.142 

1900 

537 

04,901 

1890 

627 

61,097 

1900 

12 

8.603 

1S90 

IS 

8.879 

1900 

52 

9,'-'59 

1890 

42 

8.316 

1900 

242 

26.470 

1890 

201 

19.828 

1900 

92 

7.861 

1890 

185 

12.719 

1900 

65 

4.o;S3 

1890 

91 

2.8:18 

1900 

7 

3.7'>6 

1890 

11 

3.870 

1900 

560 

4.454 

1890 

281 

4,342 

1900 

324 

13.565 

1890 

377 

17,948 

1900 

244 

9.8R9 

1890 

212 

6,208 

19(X) 

223 

16,796 

1890 

2!>7 

15,361 

1900 

147 

6,530 

ISM 

210 

6.2D0 

1900 

30 

5.418 

1890 

44 

6,848 

l'.HX) 

1,.1.W 

50.173 

IS'.IO 

1,081 

39.133 

1901) 

203 

4.942 

1890 

155 

4.018 

l'.XX) 

134 

10.370 

1890 

6(i 

3,890 

1900 

250 

3,022 

1890 

195 

1.994 

1900 

14 

3.275 

1890 

14 

610 

1900 

87 

1.541 

1890 

70 

1.'260 

1900 

858 

7.'2:)0 

1890 

657 

6.920 

1900 

892 

2.8K> 

1890 

227 

1.467 

1900 

42 

1.020 

1890 

30 

1.531 

1900 

3,0.56 

26.051 

1S90 

2.858 

28,708 

1900 

279 

7,730 

1890 

•249 

7,084 

1900 

1,B13 

2,489 

1890 

l.'2.35 

3,389 

1900 

110 

3.099 

1890 

181 

8.744 

1900 

91 

2.020 

1890 

101 

1.711 

1900 

1.908 

2.439 

1890 

1,308 

2.461 

1900 

279 

8.854 

1890 

288 

8.720 

1900 

2.640 

82.948 

1890 

2,230 

27..5S7 

1900 

111 

6.335 

1890 

94 

4.094 

1900 

1,76S 

6.850 

1890 

1.734 

12.981 

1900 

60» 

11.616 

1890 

640 

14.179 

1900 

87 

B.651 

1890 

116 

5.620 

1900 

893 

6.081 

1890 

1.098 

9.776 

Value  of  prod- 
ucts. Including 
custom  work 
and  repairing 


$1,380,975,268 
1,082.595.478 


$298,379,790 
•27.6 

63.5 
63.3 

$233,370,447 
141,968,351 
126.478,057 
96,880.9.';7 
106.892.390 
45.087.394 
31.000,834 
14.379,970 
21,037.782 
10,803,361 
15,5CK).k:19 
15,713.919 
94.2l!3.m7 
86.642,771 
15,029,218 
14,606.116 
10,788,003 
9,777,^295 
35,886,048 
24,776,582 
12,706,'246 
19,417,796 
6,716,005 
5,188,020 
5,958,259 
5,763.102 
15,828.996 
12.434.272 
22.782.302 
17,483.9.58 
10,835,898 
7.369,7;«1 
25,.'')85.ti:ll 
•23,661. 204 
23.^205.991 
23.318.078 
13.858.553 
15.849.637 
96,636,517 
72,084,500 
12,745.249 
8,386,-281 
22.695.024 
8.189.180 
10.244.6'J4 
7.3H.'i,13!l 
90.680.47S 
17,157.694 
22.470.856 
31.013.213 
18.842.148 
12.920.812 
17,075.937 
8.032.938 
4,(112.101 
4.431.373 
49,028.479 
47,4^22.603 
58.^>82.253 
64.009.249 
42.796.340 
52,5.10.744 
57.431,-293 
7«.t'42.151 
12.8:0.045 
9,030.982 
26,557.8«8 
14.;185.91Wi 
40.663.363 
41.338.134 
95.232.051 
68.9-29.001 
11.062.«56 
8.333.764 
15.766.977 
17.160..547 
29.7B6.'257 
33.766.173 
10,537.2I>4 
11.680.842 
l;l.Ot;H.385 
16.80:1.241 


Rank 

among  the 

States 


First 
First 
First 
First 
First 

Second 
Tenth 
First 
Fourth 


First 

First 

First 

Second 

Third 

Seventh 

Second 

First 

First 

Third 

First 

First 

First 

First 


Second 

First 

First 

First 

First 

First 

Twelfth 

First 

Third 

Second 


NEW  YORK. 


497 


NEW  YOBK. 


INDUSTRIES 


Cars  aod  ^neral  shop  constructiou  aud  repairs  by  I 
steam  railroad  companies ( 

ruruiture,  factory  product '. ■! 

Gas,  illuminating  and  heating | 

Petroleum,  refining i 

Paper  and  wood  pulp i 


1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 


Number  of 

estabiisb- 

luents 


82 
46 
351 
415 
101 
94 
4 
9 
179 
153 


Average 
number 
wage- 
earners 


13.002 
H.riHS 
14,481 
13.211 
0,381 
3.970 
2,629 
3,096 
9,268 
6,339 


Value  of  prod- 
ucts, including 
custom  work 
aud  repairing 


$16,194,850 
9,046,026 
23,643.245 
23.539,011 
20,917,720 
18,716,683 
27,184,624 
25,786,841 
26,715,628 
14,192,240 


Hank 

among  the 

States 


Third 
First 
First 
Third 
First 


of  the  total  State  output  is  accredited  to  New 
York  City,  but  this  output  includes  many  indus- 
tries of  only  local  concern,  such  as  the  manufac- 
ture of  gas  and  of  bread  and  otlier  food  prepara- 
tions, carpentering,  plumbing,  tinsmithing,  and 
masonry  work.  In  the  different  branches  of 
the  clotliing  and  garment  industr.y.  New  York 
City  anil  other  towns  of  the  State  produce 
more  tlian  a  third  of  the  output  of  the 
United  States.  The  production  of  men's  and 
women's  factory-made  clothing  is  largely  con- 
fined to  the  metropolis.  The  work  is  generally 
performed  in  small  workshops  or  tenement  rooms. 
This  system  grows  out  of  the  necessity  for 
specialization  owing  to  the  large  number  of 
patterns  used,  and  is  favored  by  the  abundance 
of  cheap  labor  available  where  there  are  such 
large  numbers  of  foreigners  unable  to  secure  more 
profitable  employment.  Tliis  branch  of  industry 
is  of  comparatively  recent  de%-elopment.  Troy 
shares  with  New  York  in  the  extensive  produc- 
tion of  men's  furnishing  goods — shirts,  neckwear, 
etc.  ilillinery  and  lace  goods  and  silk  and  silk 
goods  are  New  Y'ork  City  products,  the  last 
having  suffered  a  large  decline  from  1890  to  1900 
owing  to  the  removal  of  establishments,  in  quest 
of  cheaper  rents  and  certain  otlier  advantages,  to 
points  outside  the  State.  Y'onkers  is  tlie  centre 
of  a  large  knitting  industry,  and  Cohoes  and 
Vtica  are  noted  for  their  carpet  and  rug  manu- 
factures. The  manufacture  of  fur  goods  in  New 
York  City,  and  of  boots  and  shoes  at  different 
points,  is  extensive.  Tanning  and  tlie  manufac- 
ture of  leather  are  also  very  important. 

\Vhilo  the  iron  and  steel  industry  is  of  com- 
paratively small  and  decreasing  importance,  the 
foundry  and  machine-shop  industry  is  rapidly 
developing,  and  in  1900  gave  the  State  .second 
rank.  The  printing  press  and  steam  engine  are 
tlie  best  known  of  these  products.  The  industry 
is  well  represented  at  most  of  the  large  centres. 
New  Y'ork  is  unrivaled  in  the  manufacture  of 
electrical  apparatus  and  musical  instruments. 
Especially  prominent  are  the  manufactures  of 
refined  sugar  and  molasses,  roasted  and  ground 
coffee  and  spice,  confectionery,  patent  medicine, 
tobacco,  and  liquors — most  of  whicli  are  produced 
almost  wholly  in  New  Y'ork  City.  Flour  and 
grist  milling,  slaughtering  and  meat-packing,  and 
the  factory  production  of  cheese,  butter,  and 
condensed  milk,  are  more  generally  distributed 
over  the  State.  In  the  first-named  industiy  the 
State  ranks  second.  On  the  opening  of  the  Erie 
Canal,  Rochester,  being  favored  with  water  power 
from  the  falls  of  the  Genesee  River,  became  the 
leading  'flour  city'  of  the  United  States,  and 
New  Y'ork  held  first  place  until  the  comparatively 
recent  development  of  the  industry  at  Min- 
neapolis, Between  1890  and  1900  both  the  flour- 
ing  and   slaughtering   industries   declined.     The 


factory  production  of  cheese,  butter,  and  con- 
densed milk,  on  the  contrary,  increased  during 
that  period  nearly  85  per  cent.,  and  the  State 
continues  to  hold  first  rank  in  this  line.  The 
manufacture  of  chemicals,  including  paints  and 
varnishes,  has  attained  large  proportions  in  New 
Y'ork  City.  The  printing  industry  of  New  Y'ork 
is  more  than  twice  that  of  anj'  other  State,  and 
the  metropolis  is  the  centre  of  the  periodical  press 
as  well  as  of  book  publishing.  New  Y'ork  has 
long  ranked  as  one  of  the  foremost  States  in  the 
brewing  industry.  The  preceding  table  is  a  sum- 
mary for   the  leading  industries. 

Commerce  and  Transportation.  In  maritime 
commerce  New  York  far  outranks  any  other 
State  in  the  Union.  In  the  fiscal  year  ending 
.June  30,  1901,  04  per  cent,  of  the  imports  and 
3.5.00  per  cent,  of  the  exports  of  the  entire  nation 
passed  through  the  port  of  New  Y'ork.  Its  trallic 
to  and  from  other  United  States  coast  points 
is  between  two  and  three  times  the  volume  of 
its  foreign  trade.  In  addition  it  has  a  vast 
trade  along  the  Hudson.  Buffalo  is  the  chief 
lake  port  of  the  State,  and  has  an  immense 
commerce  with  the  West.  With  this  commerce 
may  be  included  that  of  Tonawanda.  Oswego 
is  the  principal  port  on  Lake  Ontario.  Other 
important  shipping  points  are:  Charlotte,  Sodus 
Point,  Fair  Haven,  and  Cape  Vincent  on  Lake 
Ontario,  Ogdensburg  on  the  Saint  Lawrence 
River,  Rouses  Point,  Plattsburg,  and  Whitehall 
on  Lake  Cliamplain,  and  Newburgh  and  Rondmit 
on  the  Hudson  River.  The  total  traffic  for  the 
entire  State  can  best  be  noted  in  connection  with 
the  means  of  inland  transportation. 

New  Y'ork  was  the  first  State  to  enter  actively 
on  the  work  of  canal  construction.  In  addition 
to  the  Erie  Canal,  opened  in  1825,  the  State  has 
constructed  the  Champlain  Canal,  the  Oswego 
Canal,  and  several  other  branch  canals,  and  en- 
larged the  Erie  Canal  to  four  times  its  original 
dimensions.  The  total  expenditure  on  canal  con- 
struction has  been  nearly  .$100,000,000.  In  re- 
cent .years,  owing  to  railroad  competition  and  the 
neglect  of  the  State  to  improve  the  canals,  the 
trallic  on  them  has  declined,  most  of  the  branch 
canals  have  been  abandoned,  and  only  on  the  Erie 
and  Champlain  routes  is  there  any  considerable 
tonnage.  Proposed  plans  for  the  enlargement  of 
the  Erie  Canal  constitute  a  most  important  ques- 
tion for  the  State. 

Tlie  first  railroad  in  the  State  was  the  Mohawk 
and  Hudson,  opened  in  1831  from  Alban3'  to 
Schenectady,  a  distance  of  seventeen  miles.  By 
1842  there  were  lines  extending  from  Albany 
to  Buffalo.  Within  another  decade  the  Erie  road 
across  the  southern  part  of  the  State  and  the 
Hudson  River  road  from  New  York  to  Albany 
had  been  completed.  Since  tlten  roads  have  been 
built  over  every  section   of  the   State,  and  the 


NEW  YORK. 


498 


NEW  YOKK. 


different  lines  have  been  united  into  great  sys- 
tems. There  were,  in  lilOO.  SOOo  miles  of  road 
and  over  12,000  miles  of  track  in  the  State. 
The  total  tralTie  in  1899  was  150.000.000  pas- 
sengers, moved  3.500.000.000  passenger  miles,  and 
170.000.000  tons  of  freight,  moved  24.000,000,000 
ton-miles — being  one  fourth  of  the  passenger 
traflie  and  one-fifth  of  the  freight  traflic  of  the 
entire  country.  The  jirincipal  railroad  systems 
crossing  the  State  are  the  New  York  Central 
and  Hudson  River,  the  Erie,  the  Lackawanna,  the 
New  York,  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis  (with  the 
\Vest  Shore),  the  New  York,  Ontario  and  West- 
em,  and  the  Lehigh  Valley.  Other  important 
systems  enter  at  the  east  and  west.  There  is  a 
State  board  of  railroad  commissioners,  having 
general  supervision  of  railroads  and  their  opera- 
tion with  reference  to  public  safety  and  conveni- 
ence. The  board  is  empowered  to  investigate  and 
report  violations  of  the  law. 

B.\XKS.  The  paramount  jiosition  of  Xew  York 
City  in  the  Ameriean  financial  world  places  Xew 
York  State  in  the  lead  among  the  States  in  the 
number  and  resources  of  its  financial  institu- 
tions. The  first  bank  of  the  State  was  the 
Bank  of  North  .\merica.  incorporated  in  1782, 
In  1791  the  second  bank  was  chartered  under 
the  name  of  the  Bank  of  Xew  York,  In  1S04 
an  act  was  passed  prohibiting  banking  and  the 
issuing  of  currency  in  the  State  except  vnider  a 
special  charter  from  the  Legislature,  Due  to 
the  high  jirofits,  banking  charters  were  eagerly 
sought  and  became  political  favors.  At  the  time 
of  the  declaration  of  war  with  Great  Britain  in 
1812  there  were  twenty  banks  in  the  State,  and 
twenty-four  more  were  chartered  between  1812 
and  1829.  As  the  bank  charters  were  for  a 
limited  number  of  years,  and  most  of  them 
were  to  expire  in  1831,  flie  banks  in  1828  made 
a  combined  effort  for  a  general  renewal  of  their 
charters.  But  a  strong  opjKisition  developed  to 
this  plan.  The  careless  distribution  of  charters 
to  political  friends  had  produced  bad  results, 
and  the  Xew  York  currency  was  becoming  less 
secure.  A  reform  of  the  banking  system  was 
therefore  undertaken  in  1820,  and  the  plan  of 
securing  bank  circulation  by  the  formation  of 
a  safety  fund  was  successfully  carried  through. 
The  law  required  all  l)anks  with  new  or  renewed 
charters  to  contribute  one-half  of  one  per  cent, 
of  their  ca|)ital  annually  to  a  common  safety 
fund,  out  of  which  losses  from  bank  failures 
were  to  be  covered.  A  board  of  three  bank  com- 
missioners was  created  by  the  same  bill,  and 
quarterly  examinations  and  annual  reports  pro- 


object  of  popular  dissatisfaction,  which  expressed 
itself  in  a  demand  for  a  free  banking  system. 
As  a  result  of  this  agitation  a  free  banking 
law  was  passed  in  1838,  which,  in  order  to  secure 
the  bank  currency,  compelled  the  investment  of 
the  bank  capital  in  Xew  Y'ork  State  Imnds  or 
e(|ually  good  securities  and  their  deposit  with 
the  .State,  This  was  the  plan  afterwards  adopted 
by  the  Federal  Government  in  the  national  bank- 
ing system.  For  some  time  both  systems  of 
banking  worked  side  by  side,  notwithstanding 
a  great  deal  of  friction.  For  twelve  years  ( 1829- 
41)  this  safety  fund  was  not  drawn  upon,  as 
no  chartered  bank  failed  during  that  time.  But 
the  failure  of  six  banks  in  1841  so  exhausted  the 
fund  that  a  law  was  passed  in  1842  limiting  the 
g\iaranlee  to  circulation  only,  and  not  to  all  the 
liabilities  of  tlie  failing  banks.  As  the  charters 
of  the  chartered  safety  fund  banks  expired, 
most  of  them  reorganized  under  the  free  banking 
law.  This  was  amended  in  1840  by  limiting  the 
deposits  to  Xew  York  State  bonds,  as  many  of 
the  other  securities  deposited  had  proveil  worth- 
less. In  the  many  bank  failures  during  the 
crisis  of  1841,  this  system  of  deposits  jiroved  its 
value,  preventing  serious  losses  on  circulation. 

In  the  severe  financial  crisis  of  1857  this  sys- 
tem was  again  put  to  a  severe  test,  but  not- 
withstanding a  general  suspension  of  specie  pay- 
ment for  some  time,  the  banks  remained  linn. 
At  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  the  national 
banking  system  the  Xew  Y'ork  banking  was  not 
only  the  greatest,  but  also  the  most  secure  in 
the  country.  The  new  system  was  therefore  not 
welcomed,  and  specially  heavy  taxes  were  im- 
posed on  the  national  banks.  These  taxes  were, 
however,  declared  unconstitutional  by  the  Federal 
courts.  The  State  banks  were  forced  to  obtain 
national  charters,  and  from  309  in  1803  the 
numlier  of  State  banks  was  reduced  to  45  in 
1S(!8,  After  that  their  number  increased  but 
slowlv  until  1880  (701,  when  a  steady  increase 
began,  .Since  1894  capital  has  preferre<l  the  new 
form  of  organization  known  as  trust  companies, 
which,  while  doing  a  general  banking  business, 
are  yet  different  enough  to  have  a  more  favor- 
able system  of  taxation.  Savings  banks  have 
existed  in  the  State  since  1819,  and  their  number 
grew  rapidly,  especially  after  the  Civil  War, 
increasing  from  71  in  1S()3  to  150  in  1873. 
Though  since  then  their  number  has  gradually 
diminished,  the  amount  of  deposits  has  increased 
immensely.    See  article  on  B.v.NK.  Baxki.vg. 

The  condition  of  the  banks  in  Xew  York  State 
in  1902  is  shown  as  follows: 


National 
bankB 

State 
banks 

Private 
banks 

Trust 
comiianies 

Savings 
l>iink8 

362 

193 

» 

70 

127 

Capitnl 

S136.0S8.000 
80.643.000 
199.777.000 
78S.92I.000 
772.391,000 

$25.,'iiri,nno 

l7,3-jr..cKi(i 
7,'>.:t'.n'>,iHt>i 

2.'i:l,4l'.>.ll(«> 
218,H36,UU0 

$323,000 

73.000 

191,000 

2,011,000 

1,798.000 

$53,225,000 

70,887,000 

10,481.000 

881.001.000 

701.284,000 

$ 

nr),,'i4o,noo 

Cash,  etc 

9.3:111,000 

I,ail,(!K9,(HX) 

LfOans 

404,997,000 

I 


vided  for.  In  1832  fifly-two  banks  were  members 
of  the  safety  fund,  and  twelve  did  not  belong 
to  it. 

The  financial  crisis  of  1837  was  heavily  felt 
in  Xew  York,  where  the  banks  suspended  specie 
payments,  and  bills  of  many  concerns  passed  at 
a    discount.     The    chartered    banks    became    the 


The  system  of  clearing  houses  originated  in 
Xew  York  City.  Tlie  total  exchanges  for  the  first 
year!  1854)  were  more  than  tivean<l  a  half  billions, 
and  in  1900  more  than  sixty  billion  dollars. 
Consolidation  has  latterly  become  a  prominent 
feature  of  the  banking  business  of  Xew  York, 
about  thirty  small  banks  having  been  bought  out 


r 

r 


NEW  YOKK. 


4<,)e 


NEW  YOEK. 


bv  larger  institutions,  ami  in  many  instances 
becominjr  local  hranclics  of  tlio  same.  The  larjrest 
financial  transactions  all  over  tlie  country  mostly 
emanate  from  New  York,  and.  liesiiles,  Xcw  York 
City  remains  the  main  channel  for  all  linancial 
transactions  hetween  the  Old  and  New  Worlds. 
The  New  York  clearing  house  is  therefore  the 
clearing  house  for  the  whole  nation.  The  New 
York  money  market  regulates  the  country's 
money  markets,  and  is  beginning  to  assert  a 
dominant  influence  upon  the  European  world. 
Many  foreign  loans  have  been  floated  in  New 
Y'ork  during  the  last  few  years,  and  many  foreign 
securities  listed  on  the  New  Y'ork  exchange.  The 
greatest  industrial  and  railroad  consolidations 
between  IStlO  and  1000,  though  chartered  in 
New  Jersey  and  Delaware,  and  uniting  property 
located  in  various  parts  of  the  Cnion.  are  never- 
theless all  creatures  of  'Wall  Street' — as  the 
New  Y"ork  financial  world  has  come  to  be  known. 

FlNAUCE.  At  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary 
War  the  State,  by  the  sale  of  public  lands,  formed 
a  general  fluid,  the  revenues  of  which  were  to  de- 
fray the  expenses  of  government,  and  for  some 
time  this  was  actually  accomplished.  Another 
fund  was  established  for  .school  purposes.  In  1814 
the  State  even  paid  out  of  this  fund  the  direct 
tax  levied  by  the  National  Government.  A  State 
tax  became  necessary  after  that,  but  was  dis- 
continued in  1820.  In  1817  the  State  entered 
upon  the  system  of  public  improvements,  mainly 
canal  construction,  and  a  public  debt  of  more 
than  $7,000,000  was  created  for  that  purpose. 
At  the  same  time  a  sinking  fund  was  organized, 
and  the  tolls  of  the  canals.,  as  well  as  the  salt 
duties,  were  assigned  to  it  so  as  to  prevent 
financial  difficulties.  After  the  construction  of 
the  main  Erie  Canal,  other  lateral  canals  were 
undertaken,  which  increased  the  public  debt.  In 
1827  the  State  entered  upon  a  new  policy  of 
lending  its  credit  to  private  companies  for  public 
improvements,  and  $.5,228,700  was  loaned  to  ten 
companies,  chiefly  railroads.  Some  of  them 
failed,  the  most  important  one  being  the  Erie 
Railroad  (in  1842).  Their  indebtedness  ($3,005,- 
000)  became  a  burden  upon  the  State  fund.  The 
total  debt  then  amounted  to  more  than  $20,000,- 
000,  and  the  State  was  threatened  with  in- 
solvency. A  new  course  was  therefore  adojited 
in  1842.  All  expenditures  upon  public  works 
were  stopped,  outstanding  debts  funded,  and  a 
tax  imposed  to  meet  the  expenses  of  government 
and  the  payment  of  interest.  The  new  Constitu- 
tion of  1840  provided  for  a  sjiecial  canal  sinking 
fund  and  a  general  sinking  fund,  and  prohibited 
the  creation  of  a  new  indebtedness  except  for 
war  purposes,  and  even  then  only  after  popular 
sanction  by  a  referendum.  This  last  provision 
has  been  preserved  in  the  present  Constitution. 
Under  these  strict  regulations  the  bounty  State 
debt  of  $30,000,000  was  created  in  1805  to  meet 
the  expenses  of  the  Civil  War,  and  at  that  time 
the  State  debt  reached  its  maximum  of  $53,000,- 
000.  After  tliat  the  debt  was  rapidly  reduced 
by  means  of  the  sinking  fund.  In  1870  it  was 
only  $32,400,000:  in  1880,  $8,988,000.  The  year 
1893  saw  the  total  extinction  of  the  debt. 

But  a  public  debt  was  again  created  toward 
the  year  1900  for  purposes  of  canal  improvement. 
After  1842  the  main  source  of  the  State  income 
was  a  direct  tax  upon  all  assessable  property. 
Between  1890  and  1900  other  sources,  such  as 
licenses,    fees    from    foreign    corporations,    etc.. 


became  more  important,  and  at  the  end  of  th« 
nineteenth  century  several  energetic  ell'orts  were 
made  to  separate  the  sources  of  State  and  local 
taxation.  New  taxes  were  laid  upon  banks,  trust 
conii)aiiics.  |)nblic  franchises  of  corporations. 
Further  etl'orts  in  the  same  direction  were  made 
in  1902.  On  January  1,  1903,  the  debt  of  the 
State  amounted  to  .$10,000,000.  The  aggregate 
receipts  of  the  ten  funds  for  which  separate 
accounts  are  kept  were  $27,040,558,  or,  subtract- 
ing transfers  from  one  fund  to  the  other.  $24,042,- 
4G2.  The  main  soiirces  of  income  were  a  State 
tax  for  general  and  for  school  purposes.  29  per 
cent.;  inheritance  tax,  14  per  cent.;  excise  tax, 
17 ^^  per  cent.;  and  corporation  tax.  25 ^i  per 
cent.  The  expenditures  were  $20.(J09,055,  or,  ex- 
cluding transfers.  .$23,601,959,  leaving  a  surplus 
of  $440,503.  Balance  in  treasury  (1903), 
$6,992,590. 

Government  and  Administration.  The  la.st 
revision  of  the  Constitution  took  place  in  1894, 
and  on  lieing  approved  by  the  vote  of  the  people 
of  the  State  went  into  force  on  January  1,  1895. 
It  provides  for  a  census  in  1905  and  every  tenth 
year  thereafter.  It  permits  of  amendments  if 
passed  in  two  consecutive  Legislatures  by  a 
majority  of  each  House,  and  adopted  by  a  vote 
of  the  people.  It  provides  for  the  submission 
to  the  people  of  the  question  of  a  constitutional 
convention  every  twenty  years,  or  oftener  if 
ordered  by  the  Legislature.  A  voter  in  New 
Y'ork  must  luive  been  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  ninety  days,  a  resident  of  the  State  one 
year,  of  the  county  four  months,  and  of  the 
town  or  precinct  thirty  days.  The  registration 
of  voters  is  rei|uired,  but  such  registration  can- 
not be  required  for  town  and  village  elei'tions 
except  b}'  express  provision  of  law.  The  holding 
of  party  primaries  in  the  cities  is  regulated  by 
statute.  The  Legislature  consists  of  a  Senate 
of  50  members,  chosen  for  two  years,  and  an 
Assembly  of  150  members,  chosen  annually.  Of 
the  latter,  sixty  are  elected  in  New  Y'ork  City. 
The  As.sembly  districts  are  single-member  dis- 
tricts. Each  county,  except  Fulton  and  Herkimer, 
has  at  least  one  reiiresentative.  The  more  popu- 
lous counties  are  formed  into  Assembly  districts, 
but  county  lines  are  not  crossed.  The  member-s 
of  either  House  receive  a  salary  of  $1500  and 
mileage.    The  capital  of  the  State  is  Albany. 

Executive.  The  Governor  is  elected  for  two 
years.  He  has  the  right  to  veto  legislative 
measures,  including  items  in  appropriation  bills, 
but  his  veto  may  be  over-ridden  by  two-thirds 
of  the  members  of  each  branch  of  the  Legisla- 
ture. He  has.  the  power  to  pardon;  he  may 
remove  certain  State  and  local  officers;  and  with 
the  consent  of  the  Senate  he  makes  appointments 
to  a  number  of  positions.  With  the  Ciovernor 
there  are  elected  for  the  same  term  a  Lieutemmt- 
Governor  ( who  is  president  of  the  Senate ) .  a 
Secretary  of  State,  a  Comptroller,  a  Treasurer, 
an  Attorney-General,  and  a  State  Engineer  and 
Surveyor.  Tlie  most  important  appointive  otli- 
cers  are  the  superintendent  of  public  works 
(who  has  charge  of  the  State  canals),  and 
in  addition  the  superintendents  of  banking, 
of  insurance,  and  of  State  pri.sons;  also  a  com- 
missioner of  labor  statistics,  a  factory  inspector, 
an  excise  commissioner,  and  a  commissioner  of 
agriculture.  There  are  boards  or  commissions, 
also    appointed,    for    charities,    health,    lunacy, 


NEW  YOBK. 


500 


NEW  YORK. 


railroads,  tax  equalization,  quarantine,  forestry, 
ete. 

Judicial.  The  highest  court  in  the  State  is 
the  Court  of  Appeals,  composed  of  a  Chief  Jus- 
tice and  six  associate  justices,  elected  singly  for 
terms  of  fourteen  years.  The  Supreme  Court 
is  composed  of  seventy-six  judges,  each  elected 
for  fourteen  years.  They  act  in  eight  judicial 
districts.  There  are  also  county  courts,  sur- 
rogates' courts,  and  city  courts. 

Loc.\i.  GovKUNMEN'T.  The  Legislature  provides 
for  the  organization  of  cities  and  incor- 
porated villages,  and  restricts  their  power  of 
taxation  assessment,  borrowing  money,  contract- 
ing debts,  etc.,  "so  as  to  prevent  abuses.  .  .  ." 
It  divides  all  cities  into  three  classes,  according 
to  size,  and  provides  that  all  special  legislation 
shall  be  submitted  for  tlie  approval  of  the  cities 
concerned,  altliough  they  may  be  passed  later 
over  the  city's  veto.  In  the  counties,  the  board 
of  supervisors,  elected  by  to\vii>  and  wards  of 
cities,  have  control  of  public  buildings  and  tlie 
care  of  the  poor,  and  they  audit  the  accounts  of 
county  otricers.  The  cities  are  governed  under 
special  charters,  varying  in  their  provisions. 

Since  1848  married  women  have  had  separate 
rights  to  real  and  personal  pro))ert3-  in  New  York 
State.  They  may  carry  on  business,  and  may  sue 
or  be  sued  on  their  own  account.  A  husband  may 
convey  directly  to  his  wife,  and  a  wife  to  her  lius- 
band.  .Absolute  divorce  is  granted  only  for  adul- 
tery. Women  may  practice  law.  Xo  youth  under 
eighteen  and  no  woman  under  twenty-one  may 
be  employed  in  a  faetoj-y  for  more  than  60  hours 
in  one  week,  nor  may  any  child  under  thirteen 
be  so  emploved  at  all. 

Militia.  "  In  1900  there  were  1,039,395  men  of 
militia  age.  The  militia  in  1901  numbered  14,- 
410. 

Porri.ATiox.  The  population  of  the  State  bv 
decades  has  been  as  follows:  IT'.tO,  .^40.120:  1800, 
589.051;  1810,  959,049:  1820,  1.372.111;  1830, 
1.918,1)08:  1840,2,428.921;  1850,  .•i.097 .394;  1860, 
3.880,735;  1870,  4,.382,759;  1880,5.082,871;  1890, 
5.997,853:  1900,  7.268,012.  Krimi  fifth  rank  in 
1790  the  State  advanced  to  first  place  in  1820, 
and  has  ever  since  held  this  position.  The  larg- 
est absolute  increase  and  the  largest  per  cent, 
of  increase  after  1S60  were  witnessed  from  1890 
to  1900.  In  that  decade  tlie  rate  of  increase  was 
slightly  greater  than  tliat  for  the  United  States, 
being  21.2  per  cent.,  as  against  20.7  per  cent. 
The  growth  during  that  time,  however,  was 
wholly  on  the  part  of  the  urban  population.  In 
1900  the  83  cities  of  the  State  with  a  population 
of  over  4000  each  contained  together  71.2  per 
cent,  of  the  total  popidation,  only  two  other 
States  having  a  higher  per  cent,  of  urban  popula- 
tion. The  large  urban  popubition  accounts  for 
the  high  average  density  per  mile — 1.52. G.  This 
figure  is  exceeded  in  only  three  States. 

The  location  nf  New  York  City,  as  the  gateway 
to  the  large  foreign  imniigration  tn  the  I'nited 
States,  has  resulted  in  giving  the  metropolis  an 
unusually  large  foreign  element.  In  1900  the  for- 
eignborn  in  the  State  numbered  1.900.42.5 — 
nearlv  twice  as  many  as  in  any  other  State.  The 
striking  characteristic  nf  the  foreign  element  in 
New  Yiirk  as  compared  with  the  country  in  gen- 
eral is  the  prominence  of  the  Irish.  .Tews,  and 
Italians.  The  Stale  contains  neiirly  four  times 
as  many  Irish  as  any  other  State  except  Massa- 
chusetts;  nearly  three   linii-s   us   many   Italians; 


and  nearly  as  many  Jews  as  all  the  rest  of  the 
country  combined.  Of  the  native  white  popu- 
lation, those  born  of  foreign  parents  numbered 
2,415,845  in  1900.  There  were  99.232  negroes, 
7170  Chinese,  and  5257  Indians.  The  female  sex 
slightly  outnumbers  the  male. 

Cities.  The  i)opulation  of  the  12  largest  cities 
in  1900  was:  New  York,  3,437,202;  Bullalo,  352,- 
387:  Rochester,  162.008:  Syracuse,  108,374:  Al- 
bany, 94.151;  Troy.  60,(151 :"  Utica,  56.383:  Yonk- 
ers,  47,931:  Uinghamton,  39,647;  Schenectady, 
31.682;  Auburn,  30.345.  The  State  sends  37 
members  to  the  National  House  of  Representa- 
tives. 

Religion.  The  large  immigration  into  New 
York  has  resulted  in  a  very  rajiid  increase  of  the 
Catholic  and  the  .Jewish  populations.  Particu- 
larly in  New  York  City  h;ive  these  two  elements 
become  prominent.  Ainiing  the  Protestant  de- 
nominations the  Methodists  are  the  most  numer- 
ous, followed  by  the  Presbyterians,  Baptists, 
Protestant  Episcopalians,  Lutherans,  and  Con- 
gregationalists.  Protestantism  in  New  York  City 
is  characterized  by  the  prominence  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church,  this  Church  being  much 
stronger  there  than  elsewhere  in  the  Union. 

Edicatiox.  Several  school  teachers  were 
brought  to  New  Netherland  by  the  Dutch  West 
India  Company,  but  under  the  English  rule  popu- 
lar education  was  neglected  by  the  Government. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  several  private  acad- 
emics were  established,  and  in  1754  King's  Col- 
lege was  founded,  and  was  reorganized  in  1784 
as  Columbia  College.  At  the  latter  date  the  Re- 
gents of  the  University  w'ere  constituted  a  super- 
visory authority  over  higher  education.  The 
first  step  toward  public  common  schools  was 
taken  in  1789,  when  two  lots  of  land  were  as- 
signed to  each  township  for  gospel  and  school 
purposes.  But  it  was  not  until  1812  that  an  ac- 
tive movement  set  in  to  establish  a  State  system. 
In  1854  a  State  Department  nf  Public  Instruction 
was  organized,  and  soon  afterwards  the  plan  of 
free  common  schools  was  adopted,  and  State  taxes 
for  schools  were  very  largely  increased.  The 
various  schools  are  under  the  immediate  direction 
of  district  trustees,  and  of  boards  of  education 
in  the  towns  and  cities.  The  State  superintend- 
ent exercises  a  general  supervision  over  the  com- 
mon sihiiols.  The  Regents  of  the  University,  a 
board  of  nineteen  members  elected  for  life,  with 
four  State  ollicers  cx-officio,  continue  to  super- 
vise secondary  education.  This  board  incorjH)- 
rates  all  higher  institutions,  distributes  the 
State  grants  to  academies  and  high  schools,  and 
for  this  purpose  conducts  a  system  of  secondary 
school  examinations  and  certificates  which  em- 
braces this  phase  of  public  education  throughout 
the  State. 

Seliool  attendance  is  compulsory  between  the 
ages  of  eiglit  and  sixteen  years.  The  illiterate 
populaticm  nf  the  State  is  5.5  per  cent,  of  the 
total  population  nf  ten  years  of  age  and  over. 
The  priipnrtion  nf  illiterates  is  1.2  per  cent,  for 
native  white.  14  per  cent,  for  foreign  white  (12.6 
in  1880),  and  12.8  per  cent,  for  colored,  .\ccord- 
ing  to  the  school  census  nf  1901  tlie  school  age 
(five  to  eighteen)  population  nf  the  State  was 
1.620.287.  of  whom  1.242.416  were  enrnlled  in  the 
public  schnols  in  the  same  year.  The  average  at- 
tendance in  1901  was  873.157.  as  against  642,984 
in  1890.  There  were  35.591  teachers  employed  in 
the  public  schools  nf  tin-  St:ite  in   1901.  of  whom 


£ 


NEW  YORK. 


501 


NEW  YORK. 


5147  were  males.  The  perceiitayp  of  male  teach- 
ers lias  shown  a  constant  ilcci-case  since  1880, 
when  it  amonntcd  to  2l>  per  cent.  Tlie  total  school 
revenue  was  $38,4(J'J.277  iu  liKJl.  of  whieli  .$2(!,- 
4.51,303  was  derived  from  local  taxes,  .$3,500,000 
from  State  taxes,  .$272,477  from  the  perma- 
nent school  fund,  and  .$8,245,437  from  other 
sources.  The  expenditure  ])er  pu]>il  of  average 
attendance  in  1901  was  $41.08 — the  highest  ex- 
penditure of  any  State  in  the  Union.  Normal 
edniation  is  provided  by  16  publie  normal  schools 
which  had  5420  stude'nts  in  1001.  The  State 
maintained  in  1001  383  liigh  schools,  with  03,549 
students.  There  were  besides  109  private  high 
schools  and  academies,  with  an  attendance  of 
about  11,000. 

The  most  important  as  well  as  the  oldest  uni- 
versity is  Columbia,  in  New  York  City.  There 
is  no  State  university,  but  CornelT University,  in 
Ithaca,  awards  certain  State  scholarsliips  on  ex- 
aminations. The  other  important  institutions 
are  Union  College,  in  Sclienectady ;  New  York 
University.  New  York  City;  Hamilton  College, 
Clinton;  universities  at  Syracuse,  Rocliester.  and 
BufTalo;  Colgate  University,  Hamilton;  Hobart 
College,  Geneva;  the  Catholic  colleges  of  Man- 
hattan, Saint  Francis  Xavier,  and  Saint  John's, 
all  in  New  Y'ork  City;  and  the  College  of  the 
City  of  New  York.  Vassar  College,  at  Pougli- 
keepsie,  and  Barnard  College,  now  jjart  of 
Columbia  University,  are  two  of  the  leading 
women's  colleges  in  the  country.  Among  the 
fifteen  theological  seminaries  the  most  notied  is 
the  Union,  in  New  York  City.  There  are  seven 
law  schools,  twelve  medical  schools,  tliree  dental, 
and  four  schools  of  pharmacy.  In  each  of  these 
]irofessions  there  are  systems  of  State  examina- 
tions required  of  all  who  wish  to  practice  in  New 
York.  The  New  York  Society  Library,  founded 
in  1700,  claims  to  be  the  first  in  the  State.  In 
1S38  the  Legislature  set  aside  part  of  the  income 
from  the  United  States  deposit  fund  for  the 
establishment  of  a  district  library  system,  and 
this  State  aid  is  now  distributed  by  the  Regents 
of  the  University. 

Charitable  and  Penal  Institutioks.  The 
State  boards  of  charities,  lunacy,  and  corrections 
are  each  appointed  by  the  Governor  and  Senate. 
The  board  of  charities  exercises  an  advisory 
supervision  over  the  State  and  local  charitable 
institutions  and  private  institutions  to  which 
public  charges  are  committed.  It  visits  and  in- 
spects over  500  institutions,  containing  more  than 
60,000  inmates.  A  law  of  1902  provides  for  the 
appointment  by  the  Governor  and  Senate  of  a 
fiscal  supervisor  of  State  charities;  and  another 
law  of  tlie  same  year  provides  that  the  Governor, 
the  president  of  the  State  Board  of  Charities, 
and  tlie  State  Comptroller  act  as  a  commission 
to  approve  plans,  specifications,  and  contracts  for 
the  construction  of  State  institutions.  These  in- 
clude an  industrial  school  at  Rochester,  an 
a.syhim  for  feeble-minded  children  at  Syracuse, 
one  for  feeble-minded  women  at  Newark,  a  custo- 
dial asylum  at  Rome,  an  asylum  for  orphan  In- 
dian chihlrcn  at  Iroquois,  houses  of  refuge  at 
Hudson  and  .Albion,  reformatory  for  women  at 
Bedford,  Craig  colony  for  epileptics  at  Sonyea, 
women's  relief  corps  home  at  Oxford,  soldiers' 
and  sailors'  home  at  Bath,  school  for  the  blind 
at  Batavia,  hospital  for  crippled  and  deformed 
children  at  Tarrytown,  and  a  hospital  for  the 
treatment  of  incipient  pulmonary  tuberculosis  at 


Raybrook.  There  are  a  number  of  private  insti- 
tutions which  receive  State  appropriations.  A 
total  of  15.780  persons  were  supported  in  the 
county  almshouses  during  tlie  year  ending  Octo- 
ber 1,  1900,  and  also  over  70,000  were  supported 
at  the  city  and  town  almshouses.  In  'addition 
more  than  209,000  persons  received  temporary 
relief  during  that  period.  The  various  institu- 
tions under  the  superA-ision  of  the  board  expended 
$10,107,000  during  tlie  year  ending  September 
30,  1900. 

The  board  of  lunacy  has  supervision  over  the 
State  insane  hospitals.  These  are  located  at 
Utica,Poughkeepsic,MiddIetown,  Buffalo,  Wil lard, 
Binghamton.  O'jdensburg,  Rochester.  Wards  Isl- 
and, Kings  Park,  L.  I.,  Klatbush,  L.  I.,  (iowanda. 
Matteawan,  and  Dannemora.  In  1900  their  in- 
mates numbered  23,267.  There  are  also  20  insti- 
tutions and  private  houses  authorized  to  receive 
the  insane.  These  had  in  the  same  year  934  pa- 
tients. The  maintenance  of  the  State  insane 
hospitals  for  the  year  ending  September  30.  1900, 
cost  $3,594,873,  or  $104.79  per  patient.  The 
State  penitentiaries  are  county  institutions,  of 
which  there  are  six,  located  respectively  in  the 
counties  of  New  York,  Kings,  Erie.  Albanv".  Mon- 
roe, and  Clinton.  These  receive  short-term  con- 
victs committed  for  minor  offenses.  Counties 
not  having  penitentiaries  of  their  own  send  this 
class  of  convicts  by  contract  to  the  penitentiary 
of  some  other  comity.  Convicts  sentenced  for 
terms  exceeding  one  year  are  sent  to  the  State 
prisons  at  Ossining  (Sing  >Sing),  Auburn,  and 
Clinton,  or  to  the  reformatories  at  Elmira  and 
Napanock,  and  to  the  one  for  women  at  Bedford. 
There  are  also  houses  of  refuge  for  women  at 
Hudson  and  .-Vlbion.  The  total  prison  population 
in  1902.  including  that  of  county  jails,  the  New 
York  City  prisons,  and  workhouses,  was  96,932, 
as  against  149,677  in  1898.  The  more  frequent 
application  of  the  law  of  suspended  .sentence  and 
the  abolition  of  the  fee  system  in  the  various 
counties  are  thought  to  have  been  largely  respon- 
sible for  this  decrease.  The  Elmira  Reformatory 
has  acquired  a  widespread  reputation  because  of 
its  system  of  instruction  and  trainng.  The  pris- 
oners committed  to  it  have  the  advantage  of  an 
indeterminate  sentenee  and  a  parole  law.  In  New 
York,  since  1888,  death  by  electricity  has  been 
substituted  for  hanging  as  the  penalty  for  mur- 
der. 

HISTORY. 

New  York  Bay  was  discovered  by  Verrazano  in 
1524,  but  though  Portuguese,  French,  and  Span- 
ish navigators,  in  all  probability,  visited  the  har- 
bor during  the  sixteenth  century,  no  important 
explorations  were  made  before  1609.  when  almost 
simultaneously  Samuel  de  Champlain.  the  found- 
er of  Quebec,  in  August,  and  Henry  Hudson,  sail- 
ing in  the  Half  Moon  under  the  Dutch  flag,  in 
September,  entered  the  limits  of  the  present 
State.  Champlain's  action  in  lending  the  Huron 
Indians  aid  against  the  Iroquois  inihued  the  Five 
Nations  with  an  implacable  hatred  for  the  French. 
and  to  a  great  extent  determined  in  advance  the 
fate  of  their  colonizing  schemes  in  America. 
Hudson's  account  of  New  Netherland,  as  he 
named  the  region,  and  of  the  great  river,  called 
at  first  JIauritius  and  then  North,  and  finally 
Hudson,  which  he  had  ascended  to  the  highest 
navig.able  point,  led  Dutch  merchants,  eager  for 
furs,    to    dispatch    trading    vessels    to    the    new 


NEW  yOEK. 


502 


NEW  YOBS. 


country  in  1010  and  subsequent  years.  Just  be- 
low Albany,  (.'aptain  Cllristiien^^en  built  Fort 
Nassau  in  1013  (abandoned  in  lUlTj,  and  about 
the  same  lime  a  number  of  traders  built  their 
posts  on  Manhattan  Ishuid.  A  trading  company, 
organized  in  1015,  concluded  two  years  later  at 
Tawasantba,  near  Albany,  a  treaty  with  the 
Iroquois,  wlio  reniaineil  to  the  last  friends  of 
the  Dutch.  With  the  founding  of  the  West  India 
Company  in  1021  a  fairly  active  immigration  be- 
gan. A  number  of  Walloons  brought  over  by 
tajitain  May  in  1023  were  settled  on  ilanhatlan 
Island,  on  Long  Island,  and  up  the  Hudson  at 
Fort  Orange  (later  Albany),  founded  in  1022. 
In  1020  Peter  Minuit  was  made  director-general 
of  the  company,  and  bought  Manhattan  Island 
from  the  Indians.  (See  Xew  York  City,  section 
on  History.)  The  greater  part  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Xew  Xetherland,  200  in  number  in 
1025,  were  agents  of  the  company,  whose  object 
in  the  main  was  trade  and  not  colonizaliou ; 
and  as  it  guarded  its  monopoly  jealously  and 
ottered  few  inducements  to  permanent  settlers, 
progress  for  a  few  years  was  slow.  Quickly, 
however,  individual  directors  discovered  the  ad- 
vantageous facility  with  which  the  Indians  might 
be  brought  to  part  with  their  lands,  and  in  1029 
the  patroon  system,  a  system  of  feuilal  tenure 
on  an  extensive  scale,  was  established.  Kilian 
Van  Rensselaer  ))urchascd  a  large  tract  of  land 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Albany. and  Michael  Pauw 
bought  Stalen  Island  and  I'avonia.  Ships  from 
Holland  stocked  these  great  estates  with  colo- 
nists, tools,  and  animals.  The  acquisition  of 
land  continued  under  Wouter  Van  Twiller  (q.v.), 
who  came  over  in  1033.  and  under  Kieft  (q.v.), 
who  succeeded  Van  Twiller  in  1638.  Tlie 
abandonment  of  the  company's  trade  monopoly 
was  followed  by  a  large  influx  of  colonists, 
among  whom  were  many  English  Puritans  and 
French  Huguenots.  The  population  was  cos- 
mopolitan even  in  1043.  when,  according  to 
Father  .Togues,  400  or  500  inhabitants  spoke 
eighteen  difTerent  languages  and  were  divided 
into  Calvinists.  Lutherans.  Catholics,  Puritans, 
Baptists,  and  other  more  minute  denominations. 
Wars  with  the  Algompiin  Indians,  caused  by  the 
greed  of  Kieft,  brcmght  the  colony  near  to  de- 
struction. The  settlements  around  Xew  Amster- 
dam were  wiped  out  and  the  town  itself 
was  threatened.  In  the  moment  of  highest  dan- 
ger Kieft  was  forced  by  ])opular  demand  to  ap- 
point a  council  of  eight  to  assist  him  in  carrying 
on  the  war.  This  was  the  beginning  of  represen- 
tative government  in  Xew  Vork.  Peter  Stuy- 
vesant  (1047-04)  appointed  a  council  of  nine  to 
advise  him  anil  acted  in  systematic  op|xwition 
to  it.  Sincerely  solicitous  for  the  welfare  of  the 
colony,  he  reserved  it  for  himself  to  determine  in 
what  that  welfare  cimsisted  and  how  it  was  to  be 
attained.  Defying  alike  the  [lopidnr  will  and  the 
orders  of  the  Slales(;eneral  in  Holland,  he  ruled, 
arrested,  confiscated,  silenced  public  speech,  and 
dictated  the  outline  for  the  Sunday  sermon.  Xew 
Amsterdam  received  a  burgher  government  in 
1053.  but  Stuyvesant  had  the  appointment  of 
the  magistrates.  He  upheld  liravely  the  rights 
of  the  company  against  the  Swedes  on  the  Dela- 
ware, whom  he  dispossessed,  and  the  Knglish  in 
Connecticut  and  Long  Island,  but  the  citizens 
grew  weary  of  him  ami  yielded  in  1004  tn  an  Eng- 
lish fleet  luider  Colonel  XieoUs.  which  had  cnmc 
to  enforce  the  Duke  of  York's  title  to  the  region. 


Xew  Xetherland  became  Xew  Y'ork,and  was  ruled 
by  the  Duke's  Governors  (a  Legislature  was  re- 
fused;, and  the  "Duke's  laws.'  i'akeu  by  the 
Dutch  in  1073,  it  was  returned  to  England  in  the 
following  year.  At  the  time  of  the  English  occu- 
pation Xew  Xetherland  had  a  population  of  about 
80U0,  comprising  many  nationalities,  with  the 
Dutch  predominant.  Life  in  the  colony  had  not 
that  deep  spiritual  tinge  which  it  bore  iu  Xew 
England,  but  it  was  more  gracious  and  more  free. 
The  churches  were  well  supported,  and  the  school 
system  was  excellent,  but  breweries  and  drinking- 
siiops  found  their  ])lace  in  the  order  of  things.  In 
religion  a  broad  toleration,  in  .social  life  a  hearty 
gayety  and  timely  hospitality  marked  this  cosmo- 
politan colony  of  well-fed  traders  and  farmers. 

The  Dutch  did  not  take  kindly  to  the  English 
rule  iu  the  beginning.  The  desire  of  the  people 
for  some  share  iu  the  government  renutined  uu- 
satislicd.  Complaints  against  the  arbitrary  im- 
position of  taxes  an<l  customs  culminated  in  a 
demand,  expressed  in  the  form  of  jietitions,  for 
a  popular  assembly,  and  this  was  finally  granted 
in  10S3,  when  a  provincial  assembly  summoned 
by  Governor  Dongan  passed  tlie  Charter  of  Lib- 
erties, granting  freedom  of  religion  to  all  Chris- 
tians, and  the  sutl'rage  to  all  freeholders.  An 
important  treaty  with  the  Iroipuas  iu  1084  con- 
firmed the  alliance  between  them  and  the  Eng- 
lish and  made  them  delinitcly  the  enemies  of 
the  French,  who  retaliated  with  punitive  expedi- 
tions into  the  country,  in  1087  under  Denonville, 
and  later,  repeatedly,  under  Frontenac.  In  1G8(} 
Xew  York  and  Albany  obtained  new  charters, 
but  in  the  following  year  the  provincial  assembly 
was  dissolved,  absolute  rule  was  restored,  and 
Xew  York  became  a  part  of  the  Dominion  of 
Xew  England,  under  Governor  Andros.  The 
Revolution  of  lOSS  in  England  found  two  parties 
in  the  colony,  the  richer  classes  who  were  loyal  to 
James  11.,  the  popular  majority  in  favor  of  W  il- 
liam  of  Orange.  Exaggerated  reports  of  Catliolic 
intrigues  caused  Jacob  Leisler  (q.v.)  to  seize  the 
fort  at  Xew  Amsterdam  in  the  name  of  William 
and  Mary.  A  committee  of  safety  made  him 
conunander-in-chicf,  and  the  popular  assembly 
in  1089  gave  him  autocratic  power.  He  held  the 
fort  against  a  force  of  troops  from  England,  but 
willingly  laid  down  his  authority  when  Governor 
Sloughter.  the  King's  appointee,  arrived.  The 
clergy  an<l  the  wealthy  merchants  hated  Leisler 
as  the  champion  of  poimlar  ideas,  and  l>rought 
about  his  death  on  a  charge  of  treason  in  1091. 

The  period  from  1090  to  the  Revolution  was 
marked  by  almost  continuous  disputes  between 
the  Governor  and  the  Assembly  on  the  questions 
of  the  Governor's  salary,  the  collection  and  the 
disposal  of  the  revenue,  the  control  of  the  courts, 
anil  the  establishment  of  an  endowed  Church. 
Of  the  Governors  the  larger  number  were  im- 
jiecunious  peers  sent  to  America  (o  grow  fat  as 
Ix'st  they  might.  They  bargained  with  tlie  .\b- 
senibly  for  an  increase  in  salary,  participated  in 
gigantic  land  frauds  in  common  with  minor  of- 
ficials and  prominent  citizens,  and  in  one  in- 
stance, the  notable  case  of  Governor  Fletcher 
( 1092-98) .  shared  in  the  profits  of  piracy.  There, 
were,  however.  Governors  of  a  far  higher  char- 
acter, men  like  Relloiiiont  (1098-1701).  to  whom 
the  rehabilitation  of  Leisler's  memory  is  due. 
Robert  Hunter  (171019).  or  William  Burnet 
(1720-28).  who  was  an  ardent  champion  of  the 
royal    power,   but   nevertheless   an   honest   man. 


i 


NEW  YORK. 


503 


NEW  YORK. 


and  zealous  for  the  welfare  of  tlie  province.  But 
in  .spite  of  political  turmoil  the  growth  of  tlie 
colojiy  was  rapid  and  uninterrupted.  In  1720  the 
population  consisted  of  31,(JU0  whites  and  4000 
negroes;  in  175G  it  comprised  .S3, 000  wliiles  and 
13,000  negroes,  and  in  1771  1U8,000  whites  and 
negroes.  The  first  newspaper,  tlie  Gazette,  a 
Government  organ,  was  published  in  17"23.  and 
the  second,  the  Wcelily  Jouriml,  an  opposition 
sheet,  appeared  in  1733.  For  his  criticism  of  the 
Governor's  conduct  the  editor  of  the  \\'cel:li/  Joiir- 
««/,  John  Peter  Zenger(q.v.)  .was  brought  to  trial 
for  libel  in  1734,  but,  supported  by  the  people 
and  the  Assembly,  he  won  his  case  and  vindicated 
the  freedom  of  the  press  in  New  York.  In  1740 
the  Asseiiibly  appropriated  £250  toward  the 
foundation  of  King's  College.  The  people  who 
fought  for  the  freedom  of  the  press  and  estab- 
lished King's  College  were  the  same  who  in  1741, 
thrown  into  a  paroxysm  of  fear  by  the  baseless 
rumors  of  a  negro  insurrection,  murdered  31 
negroes  and  drove  out  71  otliers  by  due  process 
of  the  law.  In  the  early  French  and  Indian  wars 
New  York  sufl'ered  heavily,  for,  owing  to  the 
factious  disputes  between  the  Governor  and  the 
Assembly,  the  border  was  left  without  any  troops 
and  the  frontier  settlements  were  swept  clean 
by  the  French  and  their  Indian  allies.  In  1690 
Schenectady  was  destroj'ed.  Sir  William  John- 
son kept  the  Iroquois  friendly  to  the  English,  and 
the  alliance  with  them  was  strengthened  at  the 
Albany  Convention  of  1754  (q.v.).  By  the  Treaty 
of  Fort  Stanwix  in  1768  a  definite  line  of  de- 
limitation between  the  English  and  the  Indian 
territory  was   traced. 

As  early  as  1702  petitions  and  remonstrances 
against  the  oppressive  commercial  laws  had  been 
submitted  to  Parliament  and  the  King.  In  1764 
the  Assembly  appointed  a  committee  to  corre- 
spond with  the  other  provinces  concerning  the 
common  cause,  and  in  October.  17C5,  a  colonial 
Congress  assembled  at  Xew  York.  The  imposi- 
tion of  the  stamp  duty  was  followed  by  the  out- 
break of  disorder,  in  which  the  Sons  of  Liberty 
(q.v.)  were  prominent,  and  non-importation 
agreements  were  entered  into  by  the  people. 
Though  the  commercial  interests  of  the  colony 
sull'ered  greatly,  the  Assembly  refused  to  vote 
supplies  for  the  troops,  and  on  January  IS.  1770, 
the  Sons  of  Liberty  and  the  British  soldiers 
fought  the  battle  of  Golden  Hill  on  .John  Street 
in  the  city  of  New  Y'ork.  There  was  peace  till 
1773,  when  the  arrival  of  tea  ships  aroused  the 
Sons  of  Liberty  to  renewed  activity.  By  1775 
the  Provincial  Assembly  had  become  devotedly 
Tory,  and  unre]iresentative  of  po]ndar  opinion. 
Its  last  session  occurred  on  April  3d.  On  April 
20th  a  Provincial  Congress,  comprising  repre- 
sentatives of  seven  coimties  outside  of  New 
York  City,  met  at  New  Y'ork.  and  elected  dele- 
gates to  the  Continental  Congress.  Ujion  the 
news  of  the  battle  of  Lexington  a  conunittee  of 
100.  in  which  the  more  conservative  element 
among  the  revolutionists  predominated,  took  pos- 
session of  the  Government  and  issued  a  call  for 
a  provincial  convention,  which  assembled  .July 
10,  1776.  at  White  Plains,  and  subsequently  re- 
moved to  Kingston,  where  it  adjourned  April  20. 

1777.  after  drawing  up  a  constitutiou  for  the 
State  of  New  York.  For  military  events  during 
the  War  of  the  Revolution,  see  United  St.vtes. 

The  Articles  of  Confederation  were  ratified  in 

1778.  Two  years  later  New  York  ceded  its  pub- 


lic lands  in  the  West  to  Congress,  and  in  1786  it 
termiiuited  its  dispute  with  Massachusetts  by 
granting  it  tlie  right  of  preemption  to  about 
6,000.000  acres  of  land  in  the  western  part  of 
the  State.  Of  this  vast  tract  more  than  3,500.000 
acres  came  by  purchase  into  the  possession  of 
Robert  Morris  (q.v.),  who  disposed  of  a  large 
area,  embracing  a  considerable  part  of  that  sec- 
tion of  the  State,  to  a  number  of  citizens  of  Am- 
sterdam, who  in  1708  were  authorized  by  the  Leg- 
islature to  hold  land  within  the  State.  This  tract 
came  to  be  popularly  known  as  the  Holland  Pur- 
chase. Land  siieculation  was  entered  into  on  an 
extensive  scale,  and  the  region  filled  up  rapidly 
with  immigrants  from  New  England.  The  dis- 
pute regarding  the  ])ossessiou  of  Vermont,  to 
which  Xew  Y'ork  laid  claim,  was  settled  by  the 
erection  of  an  independent  State,  Vermont  being 
admitted  into  the  L'nion  in  1701.  The  fear  of  too 
strong  a  central  government  and  the  desire  to 
retain  possession  of  its  rich  custom-house  made 
New  York  ill-inclined  toward  the  newly  framed 
Federal  Constitution.  Two  of  its  three  delegates 
withdrew  from  the  Federal  convention,  and  only 
after  ten  States  had  adopted  the  Constitution  did 
a  State  convention  ratify  it,  by  30  votes  to  27 
(July  26,  1788).  From  the  very  out.set  party 
lines  were  sharply  drawn  in  the  State.  The 
Federalists  were  led  by  Alexander  Hamilton, 
John  Jay,  and  General  Schujder.  Among  the 
leaders  of  the  various  factions  of  the  Republicans 
were  the  tw'o  Clintons — George,  and  after  him 
De  Witt — the  Livingstons,  and  Aaron  Burr.  Fed- 
eralist from  1705  to  1800,  the  State  became  Re- 
publican after  that  year,  and  passed  under  the 
domination  of  De  Witt  Clinton,  who  remained 
in  power  till  1822  except  for  a  brief  period  of 
eclipse  between  1815  and  1817.  Politics  during 
this  period  were  venal,  and  personal  ambitions 
determined  the  attitude  of  factions.  The  follow- 
ers of  the  ascendent  faction  were  rewarded  with 
the  grant  of  bank  charters  and  valuable  fran- 
chises, and,  favored  by  the  provisions  of  the  Con- 
stitution, which  gave  the  power  of  appointment 
to  office  and  removal  to  a  council  of  appoint- 
ment (in  1821  there  were  15.000  otfices,  military 
anil  civil,  at  its  disposal),  the  spoils  system  was 
devido])ed  to  perfection  and  was  introduced  later 
by  Van  Btiren  into  national  politics.  To  De  Witt 
Clinton  is  due  the  rise  of  the  canal  system  which 
lirought  such  prosperity  to  the  State.  The  project 
of  an  Eric  Canal  had  been  discussed  by  (iouver- 
neur  Morris  in  1777 ;  it  was  revived  by  Clinton  in 
1810,  and  work  on  the  Erie  Canal  was  begun  in 
1817  and  terminated  in  1825.  The  success  of  the 
undertaking  brought  about  Clinton's  election  to 
the  Governorsliip  in  1824  and  1826.  though  his 
jiolitical  following  had  really  been  shattered. 

Clinton  was  succeeded  in  ])ower  by  the  Albany 
Regency  (q.v.) .  a  gi'oup  of  men  headed  by  Martin 
Van  Buren.  Silas  Wright.  William  L.  Marcy.  and 
John  A.  Dix,  who  made  machine  politics  an  ex- 
act .science.  Personal  rivalries  and  short-lived 
popular  movements  determined  the  general 
course  of  events.  From  1836  to  1842  the  anti- 
]\Iasonic  agitation  (see  .\nti-M.\.sox.s)  .  assiduous- 
ly fanned  into  life  by  Thurlow  Weed,  was  power- 
ful enough  to  decide  the  outcome  of  State  elec- 
tions. The  anti-rent  troubles  originating  in  the 
grievances  of  the  farmers  against  their  land- 
lords— the  successoi's  of  the  patroons  and  the 
great  land  companies — lasted  from  1836  to  1846. 
when   feudal   tenure   was  abolished  by  the  new 


NEW  YORK. 


504 


NEW  YORK. 


I 


Constitution.  (See  Anti-Restism.)  The  atti- 
tude of  the  Democrats  toward  such  questions  as 
anti-AIasonrv,  State  and  national  banks,  and  the 
canal  system,  was  not  uniform.  Dissensions 
bctwei-n  the  Conservatives  (see  Hunicers  )  and 
the  liadicals  (see  Bak.nbukners)  enabled  the 
Whigs  to  carry  the  Slate  in  1838,  After  1840, 
when  the  Liberty  Party  arose,  tlie  anti-slavery 
feeling  was  strong  in  the  agricultural  parts  of 
the  State, and  in  1848  the  liarnburncr  Democrats, 
led  by  Van  liuren,  broke  away  to  aid  in  forming 
the  Free-Soil  I'arty,  The  Whigs  and  Know-Noth- 
ings gained  and  lost  jiower  in  swift  succession  be- 
fore the  Civil  War  broke  out.  The  mercantile 
and  manufacturing  classes  in  18l!0  advocated 
peace  at  any  price,  but  the  mass  of  the 
people  were  Unionist,  The  reaction  following 
upon  the  disasters  of  the  first  year  and  a  half  of 
the  war  put  the  Democrats  into  ])owcr.  In  July, 
1803,  occurred  the  draft  riots  in  New  York  City, 
(See  Draft  Riot.s  ix  Xew  York.)  The  war 
measures  of  President  Lincoln  were  denounced 
violently  by  the  Sliite  authorities,  and  tlie  elec- 
tion of  1864  was  bitterly  fought,  the  outcome 
being  decided  in  favor  of  the  Republicans  by  the 
votes  of  the  men  at  the  front. 

The  economic  deve1oi>ment  of  New  York  has 
continued  uninterrujitcd  after  the  war,  and  has 
fully  justified  its  title  of  the  'Empire  State.'  Its 
history,  however,  has  been  characterized  by  nuich 
of  that  corruption  which  has  markoil  the  post- 
bellum  politics  of  many  States.  Tlie  period  in 
general  jjresents  a  dead  level  of  partisan  rule 
relieved  by  occasional  spasmodic  upheavals  of 
civic  virtue.  The  gubernatorial  power,  neverthe- 
less, has  been  repeatedly  in  the  hands  (if  able 
men.  several  of  whom  attained  national  emi- 
nence. From  18C,3  to  1871  New  York  City 
was  ruled  by  the  notorious  William  Jl,  Tweed 
(q.v.).  In  18"o.  and  again  in  18!l!i,  frauds  in 
connection  with  the  management  of  the  State 
canals,  involving  higli  ollicials  and  others,  to- 
gether known  as  the  Canal  Ring,  were  discovered. 
In  the  assignment  of  public  contracts  much  dis- 
honesty was  displayed.  The  State  Capitol  at 
.\lhany  and  the  county  court  lionse  at  New 
York  are  monuments  of  what  patient  industry 
may  accomplish  in  the  way  of  nursing  a  modest 
estimate  into  an  enormous  defalcation,  ilany 
attempts,  however,  were  made  to  remedy  political 
evils  by  legislation.  Laws  were  jiasscd  to  cheek 
lobbying,  to  insure  honest  party  primaries,  and 
to  reform  the  civil  service.  The  f|ue>tiiin  of  tax 
reform  was  an  imjiortant  subject  of  legislation 
after  1880,  and  brought  the  State  into  conflict 
with  the  powerful  railway,  gas,  and  insurance 
corporations  upon  the  question  whether  their 
capital  stock  and  the  value  of  their  franchises 
were  subject  to  ta.\ati(m  or  7iot,  The  rise  of 
the  Labor  Party  in  1880  was  the  cause  of  much 
important  labor  legislation.  Laws  limiting  tlie 
hours  of  daily  work  and  protecting  women  and 
children  in  factories  and  shops  were  passed  in 
1802  and  subsequently.  Much  attention  has 
been  devoted  to  the  preservation  of  the  .\diron- 
dnck  forests.  In  18(i7  the  public  sibools 
of  the  State  were  made  entirely  free,  and  in  187,5 
prima rv  education  was  made  compulsory. 

The  Constitution  of  1777  was  revised  in  1821: 
the  '(luiiiil-  iif  rcvisidii  and  a|ppiiiMl Mient  were 
abolished,  and  the  fJovernor  receiveil  the  veto 
power.  Many  odices  formerly  tilled  by  ap- 
pointment   were   made  eUvtive,   and,    in   general, 


the  new  Constitution  represented  a  great  advance 
toward  democracy.  This  tendency  was  continued 
in  the  Constitution  of  \SH),  which  put  an  end 
to  feudal  tenure  in  lands,  abolished  the  court  of 
ehanceiy,  established  a  court  of  appeals,  and 
made  all  judges  of  the  higher  courts  elective. 
By  amendments  adopted  in  1869  (when  a  new 
Constitution  framed  in  1807  was  rejected  by  the 
people),  1874,  and  1882,  further  reforms  in  the 
judiciary  were  carried  out,  negro  voters  were 
freed  from  the  property  qualification  hitherto 
imposed  upon  them,  penalties  for  bribery  and 
corruption  in  ollice  were  established,  and  the 
canals  were  freed  from  toll.  Of  the  thirty-four 
amendments  submitted  to  the  people  by  the 
Constitutional  Convention  of  1804,  the  most  im- 
portant among  those  adopted  were  concerned  witli 
the  reform  of  the  judiciary,  the  shortening  of 
the  Governor's  term  to  two  years,  and  tlie  re- 
apportionment of  the  legislative  districts  of  the 
State. 

New  York  is  an  uncertain  State  both  in 
national  and  State  elections,  and  the  inlluenee 
exerted  by  its  large  electoral  vote  on  the  outcome 
of  Presidential  contests  has  given  it  the  well- 
earned  name  of  the  'pivotal  State,'  Notable 
cases  were  the  elections  of  1844,  1848,  and  1S84. 
In  the  Presidential  election  of  1844  James  K. 
Polk,  the  Democratic  candidate,  received  170  votes 
in  the  electoral  college  as  against  10,5  votes  east  for 
Henry  Clay,  the  Whig  candiilate.  Tlie  30  electoral 
votes  of  New  York,  which  Polk  carried  by  a  small 
plurality,  were  sulficient  to  decide  the  election. 
In  1848  the  dissensions  in  the  Democratic  Parly 
in  the  State  enabled  Taylor  to  secure  tlii'  Presi- 
dency, In  1884  Cleveland,  the  Democratic  can- 
didate, carried  the  State  by  a  plurality  of  ll'O 
and  secured  the  Presidency,  New  York  voted  for 
the  Repuldican  candichites  from  1700  to  1808.  In 
1812  it  cast  its  vote  for  De  Witt  Clinton,  who 
had  been  nominated  by  the  section  of  the  Repub- 
lican Party  opposed  to  the  domination  of  the 
Congressional  caucus,  and  had  been  indorsed  liy 
the  Federalists,  It  voted  for  -Monroe  in  1816 
and  1820.  divided  its  vote  among  .Adams,  Craw- 
ford, Clay,  and  Jackson  in  1824  (20  out  of  30 
for  .\dams),  and  between  Adams  and  Jackson 
in  1828  (20  out  of  30  for  .\dan)s).  It  was 
Democratic  in  1832,  1830,  1844,  and  18.52.  and 
Whig  in  1840  and  1848,  From  1850  to  1804  it 
was  Republican,  and  then  entered  on  a  course  of 
vacillation.  It  voted  for  Seymour  (Democrat) 
in  1808,  Grant  (Republican)  in  1872,  Tilden 
(Democrat)  in  187(i,  (farfield  (Republican)  in 
1880.  Cleveland  (Democrat)  in  1884,  Harrison 
(Republican)  in  1888,  and  Cleveland  (Democrat) 
in  18!I2,  The  State  went  decidedly  Republican 
on  the  money  question  in  181I0  and  IflOO,  The 
following  is  a  list  of  the  Governors  of  New 
York  as  a  colony  and  a  State: 

DIRF.CTOR8-OENERAL  OP   NKIV    .NETUKBLAKD 

rnniolix  Jncolizen  May UM-TS 

William  VerhulBt I(l'25-a6 

Ppt.T  Mliinit lr.-2fi-:i3 

Wout.T  Van  Twlller lKt:i-:i8 

Willlnm  Kl.'tt 1K»-H 

Peter  Stu.vveaniit 1047-64 

ENGLISH  COLONIAL  OOTERNOBS 

Rli-linnl  NIoolIa UM-tS 

FrniK'lB  Lovelace lefiB-TS 

nrTCH  occrPATios 

.\ntllon.v  Colve I673-74 


NEW  YORK. 


505 


NEW  YORK. 


KNGLIBQ   COLONIAL   GOVKKN0B8 

Edmund  Audros 1674-83 

Thuuias  Dcjugali 1083-88 

FraiiciH     Nicliolson    (Lieuteiiaut^Ciovernor    under 

Goveruor-Geiieral  Audrosj 1688-89 

(Jacob  LeiHlfl-l 1689-91 

Henrv  Slc.iii,'ln<T 1691 

Majii'r  Uiih^inl  lugoldeby  (acting) 1691-92 

Beiijaniiu  I'leti'lier lG9'J-98 

llk'Imrd  Cuote,  Earl  of  Bellomout 1698-1701 

John  .N'autan  (ac-tingl 1701-02 

Edward  Hvde.  Lord  Cornbury 1702-08 

John,  Lord  Lovelace 1708-09 

Kk'bard  Iimddsh.T  (acting) 1709-10 

Geranliis  Ht't-kniau  (acting) 1710 

Robert  Hunter 1710-19 

Peter  .Schuvler  (acting) 1719-20 

William  llurnet 1720-28 

John  .MontKonierie 1728-31 

Ri|j  van  Dam  (acting) 1731-32 

William  CosbT  (acting) 1732-36 

George  Clarke 1736-43 

George  Clinton 1743-53 

Dan  vers  (Jsborne 1753 

James  de  Lancey  (acting) 1753-55 

Charles  Hardy 1765-57 

James  de  Lancey  (acting) 1757-CO 

Cadwallader  Colden  (acting) 1760-61 

Robert  Monekton 17B1 

Cadwallader  (_'olden  (acting) 1761-65 

Henrv  Moore 1765-69 

Cadwallader  Colden  (acting) 1769-70 

John  Murray,  Lord  Dunmore 1770-71 

William  Tryon 1771-77 

STATE   OOVERNOBS 

George  Clinton 1777-95 

John  Jay 1795-1801 

George  Clinton Democratic-Republican 1801-04 

Morgan  Lewis '•  ■'  1804-07 

Daniel  D.  Tompkins....  "  "  1807-16 

John  Tavler  (acting)...  ■•  ■'  1816-17 

De  Witt  Clinton '■  "  1817-23 

Joseiih  C.  Yates •■  "  1823-25 

De  Witt  Clinton "  '•  1825-28 

'  Nathaniel  i'itcher  (acting)      "  "  1828-29 

Martin  Van  Buren Democrat 1829 

Enos  T.  Throop  (acting)  ■•  1829-31 

Enos  T.  Throop "  1831-33 

William  L.  Marcy "         1833-39 

William  H.  Seward Whig 1839-43 

William  C.  Boucli Democrat 1843-45 

Silas  Wright "         1845-47 

John  Young Whig 1847-49 

Hamilton  Fish •■     1849-51 

Washington  Hunt "     1851-53 

Horatio  Sevniour Democrat 1853-55 

Myron  H.  Clark Whig ^fi^^-•^^ 

John  A.  King Republican Is.'.T-.l'.t 

Edwin  D.  Morgan *'  |s,'',i-r>:{ 

Horatio  Seymour Democrat lhiio-65 

Reuben  E.  Fenton Republican 1865-69 

John  T.  Hottman Democrat 1869-73 

John  A.  Dix Republican 1873-75 

Samuel  J.  Tilden Democrat 1875-77 

Lucius  Robinson "         1877-79 

Alonzo  B.  Cornell Republican 1S79-83 

Grover  Cleveland Democrat 1883-84 

David  Bennett  Hill  (acting)        "  1884-86 

David  Bennett  Hill "         1886-92 

Roswell  P.  Flower •■  1892-95 

Levi  P.  Morton Republican 1895-97 

Frank  S.  Black "  1897-99 

Theodore  Roosevelt •■  1899-1901 

Benjamin  B.  Odell •■  1901— 

Bibliography-.  Tarr.  Phi/sical  Geofiraphy  of 
J^'ew  York  Htate  (New  York,  1003)  :  liew  York 
Geological  Hurcey  Reports  (Albany,  1838  et 
seq.)  ;  New  York  Academy  of  Heiences  Transac- 
tions (New  York,  1881  et  seq,)  ;  for  history,  Dun- 
lap,  Uistorii  of  the  'Scto  Netherlands  Province  of 
New  J'ocA- ' ( ib.,  1840):  O'Calla^jhan,  History  of 
New  Ncthcrland  (il).,  1848)  :  Hammond,  Political 
History  of  the  Htale  of  Neu-  York  (Syracuse, 
1849)  :  Broadhearl,  Histori/  of  the  State  of  New 
York  (New  Y'ork,  1871)  ;  Satterlee.  The  Political 
History  of  the  Province  of  New  York  (ib.,  188.5)  ; 
Schuyler,  Colonial  New  York  (ib.,  188.'j):  Rob- 
erts, New  York.  Plantint/  and  Ornwth  of  the  Em- 
pire State  (Boston.  1887)  :  Lossinj;.  The  Empire 
State  (Hartford,  1888)  :  Phisterer,  New  York 
in   the   War  of   the   Rebellion    (Albany,    1800); 


Koberts,  New  York  in  the  Revolution  (1897); 
Prentice,  New  York  State  History  ( I^ondon, 
1900)  ;  New  York  H  istorical  Society  Collect  ions 
(Albany)  ;  and  for  bibliography.  New  York 
Public  Library  Bulletin,  vol.  iv.  (New  York, 
1900)  ;  Flagg  and  .Jennings,  "Bibliography  ot 
New  York  Colonial  History,"  in  New  York  State 
Library  Bulletin  of  Bibliography,  vol.  ii.  (Al- 
bany, 1901). 

NEW  YORK.  The  chief  city  of  tlie  State 
of  New  York,  tlie  commercial  metropolis  of  tbe 
United  States,  the  largest  city  of  the  Western 
Hemisphere,  and  after  London  tbe  largest  city  in 
the  world.  It  i.s  situated  at  tlie  mouth  of  tbe 
Hudson  River,  which  enters  the  -Atlantic  Ocean 
through  New  York  Bay,  205  miles  in  a  direct 
line  northeast  of  Washington,  715  miles  east  by 
south  of  Chicago,  and  190  miles  southwest  of 
Boston;  latitude  of  the  Citv  Hall,  40°  42'  N., 
longitude  74°  \V. 

The  climate,  on  the  whole,  is  very  healthful 
and  enjoyable,  but  is  subject  to  great  extremes. 
As  the  continental  climate  extends  to  the  Atlan- 
tic coast  of  North  America,  the  temperatures  of 
New  York  City  depend,  to  an  important  extent, 
upon  the  meteorological  conditions  of  the  interior 
regions.  The  humidity  due  to  tlie  proximity  of 
the  sea  tends  to  increase  the  discomfort  both  of 
ojjpressively  hot  and  severely  cold  days.  The  av- 
erage annual  temperature  is  about  54°  Fahr.  The 
mean  temperature  of  the  three  winter  months 
is  about  34°  ;  spring,  52°  ;  summer,  75° ;  autumn, 
57°.  July  is  almost  invariably  a  little  warmer 
than  the  other  summer  months.  The  temperature 
of  the  hottest  day  ranges  from  90°  to  99°,  and 
the  mercury  sometimes  falls  to  zero  or  even 
below.  The  annual  precipitation  is  from  36  to 
42  inches,  the  amount  of  snow  being  from  20  to 
30  inches.  Cyclonic  storms  from  the  West  Indies 
occasionally  bring  very  high  winds,  accompanied 
with  a  heavy  fall  of  rain  or  snow. 

New  York  Harbor,  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
world,  has  an  entrance  about  a  mile  wide,  be- 
tween Fort  Hamilton,  the  southwest  corner  of 
the  Borough  of  Brooklyn,  and  Fort  Wadsworth, 
the  point  oppo.site  on  Staten  Island.  This  en- 
trance, known  as  the  Narrows,  leads  into  a  fine 
bay  bounded  by  New  .Jersey  and  Manhattan  Island 
on  the  north.  Long  Island  on  the  east,  Staten 
Island  on  the  southwest,  and  New  .Jersey  on  tlie 
west.  It  is  about  five  miles  wide  and  six  miles 
long  from  north  to  south.  The  bronze  statue, 
'Liberty  Enlightening  the  World,'  by  Bartholdi 
(see  Liberty,  Statue  of),  the  largest  statue  ot 
modern  times,  151.41  feet  in  height,  stands  uixm 
a  pedestal  155  feet  high  on  Bedloe's  Island  in  the 
bay.  The  torch  held  aloft  by  the  figure  is  lighted 
at  night  by  electricity.  Governor's  Island,  near 
the  Battery,  the  southern  point  of  JIanhattan 
Island,  containing  65  acres,  is  occupied  by  the 
United  States  Government  for  military  purposes. 
Ellis  Island,  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  Battery, 
architecturally  prominent,  with  a  fine  modern 
building,  also  belongs  to  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment and  is  used  as  a  landing  place  for  immi- 
grants. On  Swinburne  and  lloti'man  Islands,  in 
the  Lower  Bay,  are  institutions  of  the  Quarantine 
Station. 

Previous  to  1874  the  city  did  not  extend  be- 
yond Manhattan  Island.  At  the  beginning  of  that 
year  parts  of  Westchester  County  were  incorpo- 
rated with  it.  and  in  1895  more  territory  in  West- 
chester County  was  annexed.     In  1898  the  city's 


NEW  YORK. 


506 


NEW  YORK. 


boundaries  were  enlarged  to  include  Kings  Co\m- 
ty  and  i)<irt  of  Queens  County,  on  Long  Island, 
the  whole  of  Richmond  County  (.Staten  Island), 
and  part  of  the  towns  of  East  Chester  and  Pel- 
ham,  south  of  Westchester  County.  The  city, 
which  embraces  an  area  of  309  square  miles,  con- 
sists of  five  boroughs.  These,  in  order  of  area, 
rank  as  follows:  (Queens  (124  square  miles), 
Brooklyn  ((iU  square  miles).  Kichmond  I  .i"  square 
Tniles),  the  Bronx  (40  s(iuare  miles),  and  Man- 
hattan (22  S(|uare  miles).  The  Borough  of  Man- 
hattan consists  (if  -Manhattan  Island  (q.v.)  and 
several  small  islands  adjacent.  The  Borough  of 
Brookhii  is  coextensive  with  Kings  County.  (See 
Brooklyn.)  All  that  section  of  the  city  north- 
east of  the  Harlem  River,  with  a  number  of  is- 
lands, constitutes  the  Bonnigh  of  the  Bronx.  It  is 
nearly  bisected  by  the  Bronx  River,  and  is 
mainly  residential,  its  northern  portion  having  a 


WALL   BTRKET  AUOCT  IVf.''). 

distinctly  suburban  character, though  much  of  the 
southern  part  is  closely  liuilt  up.  The  Borough  of 
Queens  includes  that  portion  of  Long  Island 
within  the  nninici|)al  limits,  to  the  north  and 
east  of  Brooklyn.  It  comprises  Long  Island 
City,  Flushing,  .lamaica.  Newtown,  and  ])art  of 
Hempstead.  A  number  of  the  islands  in  .Jamaica 
Bay  belong  to  the  Borough  of  (Jucens.  Long 
Island  City  is  noted  for  its  great  industrial 
establishments.  The  remainiler  of  the  borough 
consists  of  many  pretty  suburban  villages  and 
not  a  few  tracts  of  farm  land.  The  Borough  of 
Richmond  is  coextensive  with  Richmond  County, 
the  wh(de  of  Staten  island.  It  is  largely  a 
district  of  residences,  although  it  contains  a  great 
number  of  establishments.  The  seaside  resorts  in 
the  boroughs  of  Brooklyn.  Queens,  and  Richmond 
are  freipiented  in  sunuiier  by  thousands.  New 
York  extends  over  a  ilistance  of  more  than  .'{0 
miles  from  the  Yonkers  line  on  the  northeast  to 
the  southwest  cxtremitv  of  Staten  Island. 


Manhattan  Island  (q.v.),  which  contains  the 
chief  ollices  of  the  city,  its  greatest  banks,  busi- 
ness houses,  nuiseums,  tenements,  and  jialaces, 
lies  between  the  Hudson,  East,  and  Harlem  rivers, 
and  is  LJio  miles  long,  with  a  greatest  breadth 
of  214  miles  at  Fourteenth  Street.  The  .southern 
end  of  the  island  is  laid  out  irregularly,  the 
early  settlers  having  built  their  houses  wlicrever 
they  saw  tit.  the  streets  being  laid  out  after- 
wards. Above  Canal  Street  there  is  greater 
regularity,  while  above  Tenth  Street  the  city  is 
laid  out,  with  a  few  exceptions,  in  blocks  aliout 
200  feet  in  length  from  north  to  south,  and  from 
about  400  to  about  900  feet  from  east  to  west. 
The  cross  streets  are  GO  feet  wiile,  as  a  rule,  al- 
though there  are  a  number  100  feet  wide,  placed 
at  an  average  distance  of  half  a  mile  apart,  in 
order  to  facilitate  heavy  tratlic.  The  avenues  run- 
ning north  and  south  are  generally  100  feet  wide. 
The  great  artery  of 
Xew  York  is  Broailway, 
which  unfortunately  is 
only  80  feet  wide  in  the 
business  section  of  the 
city,  its  width  being 
nearly  doubled  in  its 
northern  half.  On  the 
east  side  of  the  city 
along  the  avenues  D.  C, 
B.  A.  First,  Second,  and 
Third,  counting  west 
from  the  East  River, 
and  in  an  adjoining 
area  to  the  south,  are 
the  great  tenement 
house  districts.  On  the 
West  Side,  along  the 
Hudson,  and  inchuling 
the  district  between 
Seventh  and  Tenth  .\ve- 
nnes.  are  manufactur- 
ing plants.  lumlier 
yards,  gas  houses,  and 
also  many  cheap  tene- 
ments. In  the  central 
part  of  the  city,  toward 
the  southern  end  of  the 
island,  with  Broadway 
as  the  main  artery,  arc 
the  largest  banks  and 
great  c  o  m  m  e  r  c  i  a  I 
houses.  Farther  up  is 
retail  shopping  district,  and  above  that  arc 
homes  of  the  well-to-do  classes.  Fifth  Ave- 
which  but  a  few  years  ago  was  occ\ipied 
solely  by  the  homes  of  "rich  i)eople.  is  becoming 
more  aiid  more  a  business  thoroughfare  as  far 
as  Fiftieth  Street.  Above  Fiftieth  Street,  how- 
ever, the  character  of  the  present  structures — 
churches,  fine  club  houses,  and  the  spacious 
homes  of  the  rich — will  proliably  prevent  great 
changes.  In  ISli.").  when  Central  Bark  was  ap- 
proaching com|>letion.  the  ilistricts  on  both  sides 
of  the  park  east  and  west  were  entirely  unim- 
proved. Along  Fifth  .\  venue,  from  Sixtieth 
Street  to  One  Hundredth  Street,  there  were  not 
a  down  houses,  where  today  is  a  solidly  built 
line  of  handsome  dwellings.  On  the  west  side 
of  the  |>ark  the  change  has  been  still  >,'realer. 
but  in  addition  to  private  dwelling-  'here  are 
hundreds  of  apartment  houses.  On  Riverside 
Drive,  the  Uoulevard  which  skirts  tlie  Hudson 
River,    there    are    both    private    residences    and 


the 
the 
nue. 


^ 


NEW  YORK. 


L ,. 

^Htst  beautitul  avi'iuu's  in  tlie  world.  I  ptown 
flron^'  tho  West  Sitli'  there  are  miles  uf  small, 
jirtistio  private  houses  until  the  neighborhood  of 
110th  Street  is  reaehed,  where  over  larye  areas 
apartment  houses  are  again  the  rule.  The  upper 
part  of  the  island  along  the  East  Side  is  solidly 
built  up  with  tenement  houses.  A  roeky  ridge, 
rising  steeply  from  the  Hudson,  with  an  equally 
ahruiit  descent  toward  the  cast,  e.xtends  througli 


507 


NEW  YORK. 


^'m 


BROAD  STREET  IN  1796. 

the  upper  part  of  Manhattan  Island,  rising  finally 
into  hills  of  nearly  2.50  feet  elevation.  These 
■eminences,  in  part  known  as  Washington  Heights, 
■oflTer  charming  sites  for  dwellings,  and  are  in 
some  places  compactly  built  up,  while  extensive 
tracts  are  still  covered  with  woods,  presenting 
exquisite  bits  of  scenery  along  the  Hudson  and 
Harlem  rivers. 

Blackwell's,  Ward's,  and  Randall's  islands,  pic- 
turesquely situated  in  the  Kast  River,  are  used 
for  city  institutions  for  the  care  of  the  poor,  sick, 
and  disorderly.  Contagious  disease  hospitals  are 
maintained  by  the  city  on  the  small  islands  off 
Port  ilorris,  in  the  Borough  of  the  Bronx. 


a  canon  than  a  street.  Chief  among  the  build- 
ings here  are  the  great  banks,  and  the 
Sub-Treasury,  a  Doric  building  of  granite,  upon 
the  site  of  the  old  City  Hall,  from  the  bal- 
cony of  which  Washington  was  inaugurated 
as  first  President  of  the  United  States.  In  Broad 
Street,  which  runs  south  from  the  Sub-Treasury, 
is  the  new  Stock  K.xchange,  costing  .$2.000. oo'o. 
Opposite  the  Stock  Exchange  is  the  .Mills  liuild- 
ing,  erected  twenty  years  ago  at  a  cost  of  .'f4,000,- 

000.  It  was  the  tirst 
of  the  luxurious  of- 
lice  buildings  in  the 
financial  district.  On 
the  other  side  of  Ex- 
change Place  is  the 
Broad  -  Exchange,  a 
twenty-story  granite 
pile.  Trinity  Church, 
the  most  interesting 
of  X  e  w  York's 
churches,  stands  up- 
on land  granted  by 
the  English  Govern- 
ment in  1607.  The 
original  plot  em- 
braced a  tract  of 
many  acres  running 
down  to  the  Hudson 
River.  The  first 
e  h  u  r  c  h  was  com- 
pleted in  1007,  the 
present  one  in  1840. 
It  is  a  Gothic  structure  of  brown  stone.  In 
the  churcliyard  are  many  monuments  in  mem- 
ory of  well-knoun  persons.  On  Broadway,  from 
Trinity  Church  to  the  City  Hall,  are  .some  of  the 
most  imposing  of  the  insurance  buildings. 
That  of  the  Equitable  Life  Assurance  Society 
occupies  a  whole  block.  Here  also  is  the  build- 
ing of  the  American  Surety  Comjiany.  with  a 
cornice  307  feet  above  the  pavement  and  a 
foundation  extending  72  feet  below  the  street. 
On  the  o])posite  side  of  Broadway  is  the  main 
office  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company. 
In  Cedar  Street,  a  few  doors  from  Broadway,  is 
the  Clearing  House,  maintained  by  the  associated 


Buildings.    Viewed  froiu  the  bay,  the  business     banks  of  New  York.     It  is  a  beautiful  structure 

of  white  marble.  In  Liberty  Street  is  the  pala- 
tial home  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce.  At  the 
junction  of  Broadway  and  Park  Row  stands  the 
Post  Olfice,  a  large  and  imposing  composite  stiuc- 
ture,  of  Doric  and  Pvenaissance,  upon  a  triangular 
plot.  Opposite  the  Post  Office  is  Saint  Paul's 
Chapel,  where  Washington's  ])ew  is  shown.  Across 
the  way  is  the  old  Astor  House,  a  granite  hotel 
which  "fifty  years  ago  was  considered  the  most 
luxurious  "establishment  of  its  kind  in  the  coun- 
try. Above  the  Post  Office  is  the  City  Hall,  in 
City  Hall  Park.  Near  by  are  the  entrance  to  the 
Brooklyn  Bridge,  the  great  buildings  of  the 
WorUl^  Trihunr.  and  Tiiiiis  on  the  east,  an<l  the 
lofty  .structures  of  the  Postal  Telegraph  Build- 
ing and  Home  Insurance  Company  on  tlie  west. 
To  the  south  is  tlie  Park  Row  Building,  one  of  the 
tallest  in  the  country,  twenty-five  stories  high,  not 
counting  the  towers.  The  City  Hall  is  the  most 
beautiful  of  Xew  York's  earlier  buildings.  It 
was  begun  in  ISO.S  and  finished  in  1812  at  a  cost 
of  .$;)00.000.  White  marble  was  used  for  the 
front  and  sides,  but  brown  stone  for  the  back,  as 


part  of  the  Borough  of  Manhattan  presents  a 
most  extraordinary  conglomeration  of  towering 
-office  buildings,  varying  from  ten  to  twenty-five 
stories  in  height,  huddled  together  in  apparent 
■confusion  upon  a  strip  of  land  less  than  a  mile 
wide.  Beginning  at  the  Battery,  the  first  build- 
ing of  importance  is  the  Produce  Exchange,  a 
modern  Kenaissance  structure  of  brick  and  terra 
cotta,  with  a  tine  tower  225  feet  high.  Opposite 
the  Exchange,  on  Bowling  Green,  is  the  new 
Custom  House,  upon  the  site  of  the  official  resi- 
■dence  built  by  the  city  for  General  Washington. 
From  Bowling  Green  to  Wall  Street,  Broadway 
is  lined  with  immense  business  structures,  each 
of  them  costing  millions  of  dollars,  occupied  by 
the  Standard  Oil  Comjjany,  the  ilanhattan  Life 
insurance  Comjiany,  the  Commercial  Cable  Com- 
pany, the  Union  Trust  Comjiany.  and  other  large 
corporations.  Tha  Consolidated  Stock  and  Petro- 
leum Exchange  is  at  Broadway  and  Exchange 
Place.  From  Trinity  Church,  running  east  to 
the  river,  is  Wall  Street,  a  narrow  thoroughfare 
so  completely  lined  on  both  sides  with  buildings 


from  twelve  to  twenty  stories  high,  used  by  banks     it    was    supposed    that    the    city    would    not    ex- 
and  financial   institutions,  as  to   resemble   more     tend  beyond   it.     Back  of  the  City  Hall   is  the 

Vol.   XIV.— 33. 


NEW  YORK. 


508 


NEW  YORK. 


County  Court  House,  a  inaililc  building  in  Corin- 
thian style,  and  almost  opposite,  at  tlie  corner  of 
Clianiliers  and  Centre  ."Streets,  is  the  new  and  pala- 
tial Hall  of  Keeords.  The  Criminal  Courts  Build- 
ing, a  superb  structure  on  Centre  Street,  is  con- 
nected with  the  Tombs  Prison  by  a  covered 
bridge.  The  Tombs,  a  nickname  of  tlie  city  prison, 
suggested  by  its  original  gloomy  arcliitccture  in 
Egyptian  style,  rebuilt  in  ISllS  and  much  en- 
larged, is  now,  architecturally,  one  of  the  finest  of 
modern  prisons. 

Broadway,  from  Chaml)ers  Street  to  Tenth, 
is  largely  given  up  to  wholesale  trade,  one  of 
the  most  prominent  features  along  the  route, 
liowever,  being  the  massive  building  of  the 
New  York  Life  Insurance  Company.  West 
of  Broadway,  below-  Canal  .Street,  lies  the 
great  wholesale  dry  goods  centre  of  the  United 
States,  and  farther  uptown  are  the  wholesale 
dealers  in  straw  goods,  millinery,  feathers,  and 
ready-made  clothing.  Where  Broadway  changes 
its  direction  at  Tenth  Street,  the  character  of 
business  changes. 

Here  is  (irace  Church,  one  of  the  most  attractive 
ecclesiastical  edifices  in  Xew  York.  It  is  an  or- 
nate Gothic  structure,  built  of  white  limestone. 
There  are  other  buildings  connected  with  the 
church,  the  whole  forming  a  striking  group.  In 
this  neighborhood  are  tlie  Astor  Library,  longthe 
most  important  library  in  the  lity,  the  ^lercantile 
Library,  and  at  Fourtli  Aveiuio  and  F.iglith  Street, 
Cooper  Union  (q.v. ).  a  brownstone  building 
erected  in  18.">7.  l"nion  Square,  once  the  limit  of 
the  retail  b\isiness  of  the  city,  and  until  ISOO 
surrounded  by  private  houses,  is  now  wholly  given 
up  to  business.  At  the  lower  end  of  Fifth  Ave- 
nue, in  Washington  Square,  stands  the  Washing- 
ton -Vrch,  erected  by  ])opular  subscription  at  a 
cost  of  $12,S.(I()(I.  aiid  completed  in  IH'Ji.  It  is 
70  feet  high.  On  the  east  side  of  Washington 
Square  is  the  large  building  of  Xew  York  Uni- 
versity, housing  the  schools  of  Law  and  Pedagogy 
and  the  (iraduate  School,  and  various  business 
establishments.  It  occupies  the  site  of  the  cele- 
brated (Jothie  collegiate  structure  pulled  down  in 
1S!)4'.I.>.  In  the  district  north  by  east  of  Union 
Square  lies  (Iraniercv  Park.  and.  at  Second  Ave- 
nue. Stuyvesant  Scpuire.  on  whidi  stands  Saint 
George's  Church,  with  its  lofty  spires.  At  Elev- 
enth Street  and  Second  .Avenue  is  tlie  old  home  of 
the  Xew  York  Historical  Society,  built  in  1S.17. 
The  new  building  of  the  society,  at  Seventy- 
sixth  Street  anil  Central  Park  West,  will  cost 
.$l.non.noo.  The  new  Lying-in  Hospital  at  See- 
onil  Avenue  and  East  Seventeenth  Street  is  one 
of  the  handsomest  structures  of  its  class  in  the 
city.  Bellevue  Hospital,  founded  in  18'2(),  occu- 
pies two  blocks  extending  from  Twenty-sixth  to 
Twenty-eighth  street  on  First  Avenue  to  the 
East  Hiver:  the  City  Morgue  is  sitiuited  in  the 
grounds  at  the  foot  of  Twenty-sixth  Street. 
Broadway  from  Xinth  Street  to  Thirty-lifth 
Street.  Sixth  Avenue,  and  Fourteenth  and  Twen- 
ty-third streets  contain  most  of  the  great 
retail  shops  of  the  metropolis.  When  the  Herald 
Building,  copied  after  a  Venetian  palace,  was 
built  at  Thirty-fifth  Street  and  Broadway  in 
18!M,  there  were  but  few  large  retail  stores  in 
tlie  neighborhood.  To-day  the  vicinity  of  Broad- 
way and  Thirty-fourlli  Street  bids  fair  to  become 
the  centre  of  retail  trade.  One  of  the  largest 
department  stores  in  the  country  occupies  the 
block    on   the    we-t    siib-    of    Broadway    between 


Thirty-fourth  and  Thirty-fifth  streets.  Along  the 
line  of  Broadway,  from  Twenty-third  to  Fifty- 
ninth  street,  are  situated  a  number  of  important 
hotels,  apartment  houses,  and  the  leading  theatres 
of  the  city.  At  the  angle  of  Broadway  and  Fifth 
Avenue,  upon  a  triangle,  87  by  190  feet,  stands  a 
twenty-story  wedge-shaped  building  known  as  the 
'Flatiron,'  visible  for  miles,  and  presenting  a 
striking  architectural  contrast  with  the  Madison 
Square  Garden.  The  graceful  tower  of  the  bitter, 
copied  from  the  (iiralda  of  Seville,  is  surmounted 
by  a  gilded  statue  of  Diana.  On  the  east  side 
of  Madison  Square  is  the  handsome  office  building 
of  the  -Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  C!ompany. 
Another  beautiful  and  imposing  marble  building 
is  the  Court  House  at  Twenty-fifth  Street  and 
JIadison  Avenue,  used  by  the  Appellate  Division 
of  the  Supreme  Court. 

Saint  I'atrick's  Cathedral  (Roman  Catholi.  i 
on  Fifth  Avenue,  between  Fiftieth  and  Fifty-tir.->t 
streets,  ranks  among  the  most  imposing  (iotliic 
edifices  in  this  country.  It  is  built  of  white 
marble  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross,  and  its  two 
beautiful  spires  rise  to  a  height  of  332  feet.  It  cost 
.$2,000,000.  The  corner-stone  was  laid  in  1858, 
and  the  church  was  dedicated  on  May  2.5,  1879. 
At  Forty-second  Street  and  Fourth  .\venue  i.s 
the  Grand  Central  Station.  Above  Fifty-ninth 
Street,  on  I?loadway.  apartment  hotels  are  the 
great  feature  of  tliis  thormighfare.  The  first 
hotels  of  this  character,  in  which  the  tenants 
furnish  their  own  apartments,  but  take  their 
meals  in  a  cominon  dining-room,  appeared  in 
18S8.  To-day  there  are  more  than  one  hundred 
apartment  hotels  in  Manhattan,  each  housing 
from  40  to  200  families,  and  many  more  are  liein;^ 
built.  One  of  the  largest  groups  of  apartment 
houses  is  that  known  as  the  Xavarro.  at  Seventh 
Avenue  and  Fifty-ninth  Street,  built  about  six- 
teen years  ago  at  a  cost  of  $5,000,000.  Another 
noted  building  of  this  type  is  tlie  Dakota,  at 
West  Seventy-second  Street,  facing  Central  Park. 
One  of  the  largest  of  the  new  apartment  hotels 
is  the  Ansonia.  at  Seventy-fourth  Street  and 
Broadway,  which  covers  a  plot  of  land  200  X  400 
feet,  and  is  Hi  stories  high. 

At  lllith  Street  are  tlie  buildings  of  Columbia 
University,  including  a  magnificent  library,  cost- 
ing aliout  .'fl.ono.ono.  Near  by  are  Saint  Luke's 
Hospital  and  the  beginnings  of  the  great  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Catlicdral  of  Saint  .John  the 
Divine.  The  building  stands  upon  a  rocky  bluff 
overlooking  the  Harlem  plains  on  the  cast. 
Various  estimates  of  from  thirty  to  fifty  years 
as  the  time  required  to  finish  the  building  have 
been  made,  and  the  cost  may  be  anywhere  from 
ten  to  twenty  million  dollars.  In  vastness  of 
dimensions  and  beauty  of  design  it  will  take  its 
jdace  among  the  great  cathedrals  of  the  world. 
(In  .\msterdani  .\vcnue.  between  in9tli  ami  llOth 
streets,  the  new  buil.ling  of  the  National  .\cademy 
of  Design  is  approaching  completion,  the  well- 
known  Venetian-Gothic  building,  formerly  occu- 
pied by  the  Acailemy.  at  the  corner  of  Twenty- 
third  Street  and  Fourth  .\venue.  having  been  de-' 
molished  in  lilOl.  l'"acing  Central  Park  on  the 
west  siilc  of  Seventy-seventh  St»eet  is  the  .Museum 
of  Natural  History,  one  immense  wing  of  which, 
the  southern  facade,  is  already  complete.  On  the 
east  side  of  the  jiark.  and  within  it.  facing  on 
Fifth  .\veniie  at  F.ighly-secoiid  Street,  is  the  .Met- 
ropolitan Museum  of  .\rt.  The  Lenox  Library  oc- 
cupies a  massive  limestone  building  fronting  Cen- 


ll 


CE 
O 

> 

in 

z 


o    _■ 


NEW  YORK. 


509 


NEW  YORK. 


tral  Park,  betwppn  yevciiticth  and  Spvpnty-firsfc 
sticpts.  FaitluT  up  Kiftli  Avcmip  at  Oiip  Uun- 
ilii'iltli  Strc'pt  is  tlu'  iii'w  Mount  Sinai  Hospital. one 
of  tlip  lar^'cst  anil  must  pprfi-ptly  appointpil  in  the 
country.  At  12;iil  Street  and  Kiversidc  Drive  is  the 
tomb  of  (ieneral  (irant.  a  mausoleum  in  classic 
style,  covering  an  area  about  100  feet  sipiare  and 
rising  100  feet  from  the  ground.  It  stands  upon 
a  blulV  overlooking  the  Hudson.  The  corner- 
•stone  was  laid  in  1802  and  the  building  was 
dedicated  on  April  27,  1807.  The  bodies  of  Gen- 
eral Grant  and  his  wife  lie  in  twin  granite 
sarcopbagi  in  the  crypt  under  the  dome.  Far- 
tbpr  nortli,  in  the  Borough  of  the  Bronx,  are  the 
handsome  library  and  other  buildings  of  New 
York  University. 

Parks.  The  first  proposal  to  make  a  public 
])ark  for  Xew  York  was  about  the  beginning 
of  the  last  century.  In  1802  some  citizens  ad- 
vocated the  setting  aside  for  this  purpose  of 
twenty  acres  around  the  Collect  Pond,  a  sheet 
of  water  situated  where  the  Tombs  prison  now 
stands,  which  was  used  in  summer  for  boating 
and  in  winter  for  skating.  The  scheme  was 
rejected,  on  the  ground  that  the  proposed  park 
would  be  too  far  from  the  city.  Washington 
S(|uare,  at  the  begimiing  of  the  century  tlie 
Potter's  Field,  was  redeemed  about  1840,  and  a 
little  later  Union  Square  and  Madison  .Square 
were  cleared  of  squatters  and  laid  out  as  parks. 
It  was  William  Cullen  Bryant  who  trrst  proposed 
to  make  a  large  public  park  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  city.  In  1840  he  suggested  the  appropria- 
tion of  a  strip  of  land  known  as  the  Goose 
Pasture  at  Sixtieth  Street.  .His  plan  W'as  to 
take  a  section  running  across  the  island  from 
river  to  river.  A  strip  of  land  was  finally  ap- 
propriated for  a  public  park,  but  running  north 
:ind  south  instead  of  east  and  west.  Work  was 
liigun  in  18.57.  Central  Park  is  now  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  pleasure-grounds  in  the  world. 
It  contains  840  acres.  About  400  acres  are 
wooded,  this  areii  including  specimens  of  nearly 
everj"  tree  and  shrub  that  can  be  made  to  grow 
herp.  There  are  nine  miles  of  drives,  with  thirty 
miles  of  foot-paths  and  other  roads;  many 
bridges,  archways,  and  tvinnels ;  several  lakes;  a 
large  reservoir  a  mile  and  a  half  in  circuit:  an 
imposing  mall,  lined  with  superb  trees;  and  a 
large  number  of  statues.  Zoological  and  botanical 
gardens  are  also  among  its  attractions.  On  tine 
days  in  summer  from  fifty  to  sixty  thousand  per- 
sons visit  the  park.  Lawns  are  provided  for  free 
tennis  courts,  and  there  is  a  field  for  baseball 
and  other  games.  One  of  the  chief  curiosities  of 
Central  Park  is  the  Obelisk  (sec  Cleopatra's 
Needles  and  Obelisiv)  presented  to  the  city  by 
the  late  Khedive  .of  Egypt,  Ismail  Paslia,  whicli 
was  brought  here  in  1880. 

In  Central  Park  are  an  equestrian  statue  of 
Simon  Bolivar,  the  gift  of  Venezuela:  a  bronze 
statue  of  Burns,  presented  by  resident  Scotch- 
men:  a  granite  statue  of  .\lexander  Hamilton:  a 
life-size  bronze  statue  of  Morse,  erected  in  1871  by 
the  telegraphers  of  the  country ;  a  bronze  statue 
of  Sir  VN'alter  Scott  by  John  Steele;  a  bronze 
statue  of  Shakespeare  by  J.  y.  A.  Ward,  unveiled 
on  .May  23,  1872,  commemorating  the  poet's  birth 
over  300  years  previous;  a  bronze  statue  called 
"The  Pilgrim,"  by  Ward,  commemorating  the 
landing  of  the  Pilgrims  in  1620;  an  heroic  bronze 
statue  of  Daniel  Webster,  by  Thomas  Ball; 
and    busts    of    Beethoven,    Cervantes,    Humboldt, 


Schiller,  and  Thomas  Moore.  At  the  entrance 
to  the  park  at  Fifty-ninth  Street  and  Eighth 
.\veiuip  stands  a  marlde  monument  to  Columbus, 
a  shaft  surmounted  by  a  statue,  unveiled  in 
1S02.  At  the  Sixth  Avenue  and  Fifty-ninth 
Street  entrance  is  a  bronze  statue  of  Thorwald- 
sen,  erected  in  1804  by  the  Danes  of  Xew  York. 
On  the  Plaza  at  Fiftli  Avenue  and  Fifty-ninth 
Street  is  an  imposing  equestrian  statue  of  (ien- 
eral  Sherman  by  Augustus  Saint  (Jaudens.  Op- 
posite the  Lenox  Library,  at  Seventieth  Street 
and  Fifth  Avenue,  is  a  memorial  to  Richard  M. 
Hunt,  the  architect,  consisting  of  a  semicircvilar 
bench  with  a  bronze  bust  of  Hunt,  by  French,  and 
ornamental  figures.  The  most  notalile  statues 
in  other  parts  of  the  city  are  the  bronze  figure 
of  Peter  Cooper,  south  of  the  Cooper  Union, 
by  Saint  Gaudens ;  the  bronze  statue  of 
John  Ericsson,  by  J.  Scott  Hartley,  at  the  Bat- 
tery; the  statue  of  Farragut,  by  Saint  Gaudens, 
in  Madison  Square  Park;  the  bronze  statue  of 
Garibaldi,  in  Washington  Square,  by  Turini, 
iwesented  to  the  city  by  the  Italian  residents; 
the  colossal  bronze  statue  of  Horace  Greeley,  in 
Greeley  Square,  by  Alexander  Doyle:  the  bronze 
statue  of  Lafayette,  by  Bartholdi,  in  Union 
Square,  presented  by  French  residents  in  1870; 
the  bronze  statue  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  in  Union 
S((uare,  modeled  by  H.  K.  Browne,  and  erected 
by  popular  subscription  in  1807  ;  the  equestrian 
statue  of  Washington,  in  Union  Square,  also  by- 
Browne;  and  the  colossal  bronze  figure  of  Wash- 
ington, by  J.  Q.  A.  Ward,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Sub-Treasury  in  Wall  Street. 

The  most  imi)ortant  park  of  the  city  after 
Cential  Park  is  I'.rooklra's  pleasure-ground. 
Prospect  Park.  (For  description,  see  Brooklyn.) 
The  third  in  interest  is  Bron.x  Park,  which  in- 
cludes an  area  of  061  acres  on  both  sides  of  the 
Bronx  River.  It  has  superb  botanical  and 
zoological  gardens,  opened  to  the  public  in  1899. 
Van  Cortlandt  Park,  north  of  Kingsbridge,  is 
even  larger  in  extent  (1132  acres),  but  is  as  yet 
largely  undeveloped.  The  old  Van  Cortlandt 
mansion  here,  erected  in  1784,  now  serves  as  an 
historical  museum.  There  are  golf  links,  grounds 
for  baseball,  tennis,  and  polo,  and  a  lake  fre- 
quented in  winter  by  thousands  of  skaters.  Pel- 
ham  Bay  Park,  on  thp  Sound,  near  Baychester, 
is  the  largest  of  the  New  Y'ork  City  parks,  con- 
taining 1756  acres.  It  is  diversified  by  lakes  and 
islands,  and  has  a  shore  line  of  nine  miles.  These 
three  suburban  parks,  the  Bronx.  Van  Cortlandt, 
and  Pelham,  are  connected  by  ii  driveway,  main- 
tained liy  the  Park  Department.  On  Manhattan 
Island  millions  of  dollars  have  been  spent  in 
reclaiming  and  beautifying  the  strip  of  land 
along  the  edge  of  the  Hudson  River  from  Seventy- 
.second  Street  to  130th  Street,  known  as  River- 
side Park,  and  since  1001  a  handsome  viaduct 
and  driveway  across  Manhattan  Valley  connects 
the  Park  with  the  nortlu'rn  heights.  Morningside 
Park,  the  blulV  at  Columbus  Avenue,  between 
110th  and  123d  Streets,  has  also  been  laid  out 
with  excellent  taste.  The  Harlem  River  Speed- 
way, extending  for  two  miles  along  the  western 
bank  of  the  river  from  1.5.")th  Street  to  208th 
Street,  was  completed  in  1898.  .\bove  Manhattan 
Island  are  Crotona  and  Claremont  Parks,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Tremont.  and  Saint  Mary's  Park 
(28  acres)  at  149th  Street.  There  are  nuiny 
squares  and  small  parks  throughout  the  city. 
The  playgrounds  and  recreation  piers,  of  which 


NEW  YORK. 


510 


NEW  YORK. 


there  are  several,  should  be  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  this  phase  of  municipal  activity.  The 
Park  Department  has  also  under  its  care  a  well- 
stocked  aquarium  (q.v.)  in  the  old  Castle  Garden 
at  the  Battery. 

I'urKCHES.  There  are  over  800  churches  in 
Manhattan  and  the  Bronx,  ranging  in  seating 
capacity  from  200  to  2,000.  The  Dutch  Reformed 
Clivirch  (.32  societies)  has  the  oldest  church 
organization  in  Xew  York.  The  finest  of  its 
churches  is  the  Tliird  Collegiate,  at  Fifth  .\venue 
and  Fortj'-eighth  Street,  wliich  owes  its  ample 
endowment  to  fortunate  real  estate  investments. 
Other  handsome  buildings  of  tliis  ilenoniination 
are  the  Bloomingdale  Church,  at  Broadway  and 
Sixty-eighth  Street,  and  the  Marble  Church,  at 
Fiftii  Avenue  and  Twenty-ninth  Street.  Xext 
in  antiquity  is  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
1114  parishes).  Something  has  already  been  .said 
of  the  parent  church.  Trinity,  of  the  new  cathe- 
dral of  Saint  .lohn  tlie  Divine,  and  of  Grace 
Church.  Thi.»  denomination  possesses  a  number 
of  notable  buildings,  several  of  which  are  chapels 
of  Trinity,  built  and  supported  out  of  its  endow- 
ment. Saint  George's,  the  Transfiguration  (in 
Twenty-ninth  Street  near  Madison  Avenue), 
Saint  Thomas's,  and  Saint  Bartholomew's  are  all 
fine  examples  of  ecclesiastical  architecture.  The 
most  noted  Presbyterian  church  (71  churches)  is 
that  known  as  the  Fifth  .\venue,  at  Fifty-fifth 
Street.  The  Madison  Square  Church  and  the 
Brick  Church,  at  Fifth  Avenue  and  Thirty-sev- 
enth Street,  are  among  the  strongest  organiza- 
tions of  the  denomination.  The  .John  Street 
^Methodi.st  Episcopal  Churcli  (G2  Methodist  Epis- 
copal churches)  occupies  the  site  of  the  first  of 
this  denomination  in  .\mevica,  and  is  known  as 
the  ciadle  of  American  .Methodism.  The  most 
noted  Baptist  church  (49  churches)  is  that  at 
Fifth  Avenue  and  Forty-sixth  Street.  Among 
the  Congregational  churches  is  the  Tabernacle, 
whose  trustees,  having  solil  the  old  churcli  build- 
ing at  Broadway  anil  Thirty-fourth  Street,  are 
now  building  at  Broadway  and  Fifty-sixth  Street, 
All  Souls',  at  Fourth  Avenue  and  Thirty-fourth 
Street,  is  the  oldest  of  the  Unitarian  cliurc'ies, 
while  the  Divine  Paternity,  at  Central  Park  West 
and  Seventy-sixth  Street,  holds  a  similar  [msi- 
tion  among  the  Universalist  churches.  There 
are  114  parishes  of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith, 
the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Patrick,  at  Fifth  .\venue 
and  Fiftieth  Street,  being  one  of  the  finest 
church  buildings  of  the  city.  The  oldest  of  its 
churches  is  Saint  Peter's,  in  Barclay  Street, 
which  stands  upon  the  site  of  a  chapel  btiilt  in 
1786.  The  first  .Jewish  synagogue  of  the  city  ( 136 
societies)  was  the  Shearith  Israel,  founded  about 
1I17.'>.  and  now  possessing  a  beautiful  tempi"  at 
Central  Park  West  and  Seventieth  Street.  The 
Temple  ?^nanu-El.  at  Fifth  Avenue  and  Fortv- 
third  Street,  the  Beth-El.  at  Fifth  .\venue  atid 
Seventy-sixth  Street,  and  the  Temple  Israel,  in 
Harlem,  are  all  fine  buildings.  .\lso  noteworthy 
are  the  temples  of  the  First  Church  of  Christ 
(Scientist),  Central  Park  West  and  Xinety-sixth 
Street,  and  of  the  Second  Chtirch,  Centr.il  Park 
West  and  Sixty-eighth  Street.  The  Young  Men's 
Christian  .\Hsncintion.  which  for  30  years  had 
its  headquarters  at  Fourth  .\venue  and  Twenty- 
third  Street,  has  now  finished  a  new  house  on 
the  same  street,  west  of  Seventh  .\ venue.  The 
a.ssociation  has  fifteen  branch  buililings.  That 
at  Madison   Avenue  and   Fortv-fifth   Street,   for 


railroad  employees,  was  erected  by  tlie  late  Cor- 
nelius Van<lerbilt.  _  The  Young  Women's  Chris- 
tian Association  has  a  beautiful  home  at  7  East 
Fifteenth  Street. 

EuicATioxAL  IxsTiTUTio.NS.  The  nimiber  of 
schools  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  city,  omit- 
ting the  Xautical  School,  exceeds  500.  Of  cor- 
porate schools,  orphan  asylums,  and  indu.strial 
schools  there  are  above  50,  with  an  average  at- 
tendance of  some  18.000.  The  College  of  the 
City  of  Xew  York  (q.v.),  at  Lexington  Avenue 
and  Twenty-third  Street,  was  established  in  1847 
under  the  name  of  the  X'ew  Y'ork  Free  Academy. 
It  will  soon  move  to  handsome  buildings,  esti- 
mated to  cost  $4,000,000.  at  138th  Street  and 
Convent  Avenue.  The  Xormal  College,  at  .Sixty- 
ninth  Street  and  Park  Avenue,  has  accouunoda- 
tions  for  1600  students.  There  is  also  a  State 
Xormal  School  at  Jamaica,  in  the  Borough  of 
Queens.  An  important  work  of  the  Department 
of  Education  is  the  lecture  system,  under  which 
free  evening  lectures  are  given  in  a  number  of 
places  from  October  to  May.  The  Board  of  Edu- 
cation also  provides  free  night  schools.  The  most 
important  of  the  private  eilueational  institutions 
is  Columbia  University  (([.v.),  on  Morningside 
Heights.  Barnard  College  i  q.v. ),  for  women,  and 
tlie  Teachers  College,  for  both  se.xes.  are  alfiliated 
with  the  university.  The  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  (the  medical  department  of  the 
university)  occupies  extensive  buildings  on  Six- 
tieth Street,  near  Roosevelt  Hospital.  Barnard 
College  and  the  Teachers  College,  with  which 
is  incorporated  the  Horace  Mann  School,  also 
have  suitable  buildings  of  their  own  on  Jlorn- 
ingside  Heights.  X'ew  York  University  (q.v.) 
maintains  professional  departments  in  the  Bor- 
ough of  Manhattan,  and  undergraduate  and  en- 
gineering schools  at  University  Heights,  in  the 
Borough  of  the  Bronx.  Its  main  site,  in  the 
Bronx,  on  the  heights  overlooking  the  Harlem, 
is  one  of  singular  beauty.  Here  is  the  Hall  of 
Fame  (q.v.).  The  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
which  has  academic  relations  with  Xew  York 
and  Columbia  universities,  is  at  Fourth  Avenue 
and  Sixty-ninth  Street.  It  is  one  of  the  chief 
training  schools  for  ministers  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church.  The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
maintains  its  General  Theological  Seminary  in 
a  group  of  beautiful  buihlings,  modeled  after  the 
Oxford  college  type,  at  Xinth  .\veiuie  and  Twen- 
tieth Street.  Tlie  new  building  of  the  Jew- 
ish Theological  Seminary  of  America,  in  123d 
Street,  between  Amsterdam  Avenue  and  Broad- 
way, was  dedicated  in  1903.  CoojM-r  Union 
occupies  a  prominent  place  among  the  educa- 
tional in.stitutions  of  the  city.  Its  classes, 
with  very  few  exceptions,  are  entirely  free.  The 
attendance  is  large.  Saint.  John's  College,  at 
Fordham.  in  the  Borough  of  the  Bronx,  the 
College  of  .Saint  Francis  Xavier,  and  Manhat- 
tan College  are  important  institutions  under 
control  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Cornell  Uni- 
versity (q.v.)  maintains  part  of  its  medical 
department  in  Xew  York  City.  .\mong  inde- 
pendent professional  institutions  arc  the  New 
York  Law  School:  the  N'ew  York  Homeopathic 
Medical  College  and  Hospital. the  N'ew  York  Med- 
ical College  and  Ho.ipital  for  Women,  and  the 
Eclectic  .Medical  College;  the  X'ew  ^ork  College 
of  Dentistry  and  the  N'ew  York  Dental  School: 
and  the  College  of  Pharmacy  of  the  City  of 
New   York. 


JUOM  UOJ 


NEW  YOBK. 


511 


NEW  YORK. 


Libraries  and  Museums.  For  many  years 
the  Astor  Library,  founded  under  the  will  of 
John  Jacob  Astor,  who  died  in  1848,  leaving 
$400,000  for  the  purpose,  was  the  only  free 
library  of  importance  in  the  city.  The  Mer- 
cantile Library,  which  was  founded  in  1S20,  is 
a  subscription  library  with  more  than  230.000 
volumes.  The  Astor  Library,  in  Lafayette  Place, 
is  entirely  for  reference,  and  is  visited  by  about 
125.000  readers  every  year.  The  Lenox  Library 
(reference),  at  Fifth  Avenue  and  Seventieth 
Street,  the  gift  of  the  late  .James  Leno.x,  was 
opened  to  visitors  in  1877.  In  1805  the  Astor  and 
Leno.x  libraries  and  the  Tilden  trust  fund  were 
consolidated  as  the  New  York  Public  Library 
(q.v. ).  The  number  of  volumes  is  now  over 
785.000.  The  new  building  for  the  Public  Li- 
brary, a  vast  structure  of  white  nuirble,  3li0  feet 
lung  and  240  feet  wide,  is  upon  the  site  of  the  old 
resi'rvoir  at  Fifth  Avenue,  between  Fortieth  and 
Forty-second  streets.  Its  estimated  cost  is  about 
$5,000,000.  It  has  shelving  capacity  for  1,250,- 
000  volumes.  The  first  circulating  library  dates 
from  1880.  There  are  now  si.xteen  circulating 
liliraries  and  reading  rooms,  which  form  a  part 
of  the  general  system,  the  New  York  Public 
Library,  the  New  York  Free  Circulating  Li- 
brarv.  and  other  libraries  having  been  eon- 
soliifated  in  1901.  In  the  same  year  Andrew  Car- 
negie offered  the  city  $5,200,000  for  the  pur- 
pose of  building  branch  libraries  on  condition 
tliat  the  city  furnish  sites.  Some  si.xty  libraries 
will  be  built  under  this  gift.  The  first  one  was 
opened  in  January,  1903.  The  library  of  Colum- 
bia University  contains  about  325,000  volumes, 
of  which  10,000  are  in  the  reference  room  open 
to  the  public.  The  Cooper  L'nion  Library  con- 
tains about  32.000  volumes,  the  chief  feature  of 
whieli  is  a  complete  set  of  patent  office  reports. 
Among  the  private  libraries  of  importance  are 
those  of  the  Historical  Society,  the  Ceographical 
Society,  and  the  New  Y'ork,  Society  Library.  The 
last,  founded  in  1754.  has  about  100,000  volumes. 
There  are  also  special  collections  of  books  be- 
longing to  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engi- 
neers, the  New  York  Academy  of  Medicine,  with 
4(),000  volumes,  the  New  Y'ork  Law  Institute, 
having  about  the  same  number,  and  the  Bar 
Association. 

The  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  the  most 
important  in  this  countrj',  for  which  a  superb 
series  of  buildings  on  the  east  side  of  Central 
Park  is  projected,  and  partly  completed,  is 
the  outcome  of  a  public  meeting  held  in  18G9. 
Gifts  came  in  so  rapidly  from  citizens  that  the 
Legislature  authorized  the  building  of  a  fire-proof 
structure  in  Central  Park  at  a  cost  of  .$500,000. 
This  was  formally  opened  in  1880.  During  the 
last  twenty-five  years  a  collection  of  art  objects 
of  every  description,  to  the  value  of  several  mil- 
lion dollars,  has  been  gathered,  chiefly  by  gifts 
from  public-spirited  citizens.  There  are  paint- 
ings, statuary,  porcelains,  ivories,  tapestries, 
musical  instruments,  and  Greek.  Roman,  and 
Egyptian  antiquities.  In  1902  a  handsome  en- 
trance wing  facing  on  Fifth  Avenue  was  finished. 
The  Rogers  bequest  of  $0,000,000  will  enable  the 
Museum  to  make  great  progress.  The  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  on  Central  Park 
West,  contains  vast  collections  of  stuffed  ani- 
mals, birds,  reptiles,  fishes,  shells,  and  fos- 
sils. The  main  lecture  hall  will  seat  1000  per- 
sons.    Museums  of  great  interest  are  maintained 


also  by  the  Historical  Society,  Columbia  L'niver- 
sity,  and  the  Leno.x  Library,  the  last  named  hav- 
ing a  flue  picture  gallery. 

Theatres,  Clubs,  Hotels.  New  York  has 
about  40  theatres,  in  addition  to  almost  as  many 
more  variety  houses  and  concert  halls.  The  larg- 
est is  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  (jpened  in 
1883,  which  occupies  the  block  bounded  by  liroad- 
way.  Seventh  Avenue,  Thirty-ninth  and  Fortieth 
streets.  It  seats  3200  per.sons.  Among  the 
largest  and  most  luxurious  of  the  theatres,  most 
of  which  are  on  or  near  Broadway,  are  the  Broad- 
way, at  Forty-first  Street;  the  Casino,  at  Thirty- 
ninth  Street;  tlie  Criterion,  at  Forty-fourth 
Street;  Daly's,  at  Thirtieth  Street;  the  Knicker- 
bocker, at  Thirty-eighth  Street;  the  Empire,  at 
Fortieth  Street;  the  Herald  S(|uare,  at  Thirty- 
fifth  Street;  the  Garrick,  in  Thirty-fifth  Street; 
the  Manhattan,  at  Thirty-third  Street;  \Val- 
lack's,  at  Thirtieth  Street;  the  Savoy,  in  Thirty- 
fourth  Street;  the  Victoria  and  Belasco's,  at 
Forty-second  Street;  the  New  York,  at  Forty- 
fifth  Street;  and  the  Majestic,  at  Fifty-ninth 
Street.  In  other  parts  of  the  town  should  be 
mentioned  the  American  Theatre,  at  Eighth 
Avenue  and  Fort.y-second  Street;  the  Garden 
Theatre,  at  Madison  Avenue  and  Twenty-sev- 
enth Street;  and  the  Irving  Place  The- 
atre, a  German  high-class  theatre,  at  Fif- 
teenth Street  and  Irving  Place.  Among  the  newest 
theatres  are  the  Lyceum,  in  Forty-fifth  Street, 
and  the  Hiulson,  in  Forty-fourth  Street.  The 
most  important  music  hall  of  the  city  is  that 
built  by  Andrew  Carnegie  at  Fifty-seventh 
Street  and  Seventh  Avenue,  which  is  known  by 
its  founder's  name.  It  was  opened  in  May.  1891. 
It  is  one  of  the  finest  concert  halls  in  the  world, 
and  cost  more  than  $1,000,000.  The  main  hall 
seats  3000  people,  and  there  are  two  smaller 
concert  rooms.  The  most  important  concerts  of 
the  .season,  such  as  those  of  the  Philharmonic 
Society,  the  Boston  Orchestra,  and  the  Oratorio 
Society,  are  given  here.  Mendelssohn  Hall,  a 
beautiful  music  room  occupied  by  the  Jlen- 
delssohn  Glee  Club,  in  We.st  Fortieth  Street,  is 
used  for  many  of  the  smaller  concerts,  recitals, 
etc.  The  total  seating  capacity  of  New  Y'ork's 
places  of  amusement  has  been  estimated  at  over 
80,000.  The  Harlem  section  also  has  several  fine 
theatres,  among  which  are  the  Harlem  Opera 
House,  near  Seventh  Avenue  on  125th  Street,  and 
the  West  End  Theatre,  on  125th  Street  west  of 
Manhattan  Avenue.  The  Star  Theatre,  at  Lex- 
ington Avenue  and  107th  Street,  is  also  a  large 
house. 

The  clubs  of  New  Y'ork  number  more  than  200. 
The  oldest  and  most  conservative  of  the  non- 
political  clubs  is  the  L'nion,  at  Fifth  Avenue  and 
Fifty-first  Street,  organized  in  1830.  The  Union 
League  Club,  at  Thirty-ninth  Street  and  Fifth 
Avenue,  is  the  largest  political  club.  The  most 
important  club  of  artists  an<l  literary  men  is  the 
Century  Association,  organized  in  1847,  which 
possesses  a  beautiful  building  in  West  Forty- 
third  Street.  Among  other  noted  clubs  may  be 
mentioned  the  Army  and  Navy.  City,  Calumet, 
Colonial, Grolier.  Knickerbocker,  Lawyers'.  Lotus. 
Metropolitan.  New  York,  Players',  Progress.  Re- 
form, and  L'niversity.  The  Players'  Club,  as  its 
name  implies,  has  a  membership  largely  composed 
of  theatrical  people.  Its  lieavitiful  home  on 
Gramercv  Park,  costing  .$250,000,  was  jiresented 
to  the  club  by  the  distinguished  tragedian  Edwin 


NEW  YORK. 


512 


NEW  YORK. 


Booth.  The  University  Club  membership  is  re- 
stricted to  graduates  of  colleges.  Its  club  house, 
an  iinpusinj;  structure  of  granite,  opened  in  May, 
18'Jll.  at  1-itlh  Avenue  and  Fifty-fourth  Street,  is 
one  of  the  finest  in  the  city.  The  Xew  York 
Yacht  Club  also  has  a  niagnilicent  club  house  on 
West    forty-fourth   Street. 

Xew  York  has  about  40  hotels  that  may  be 
ranked  as  lirst-class,  with  as  many  more  iu  the 
second  class,  and  perhaps  100  of  a  lower  grade. 
The  largest  and  best-known  is  the  Waldorf- 
Astoria.  It  is  built  upon  the  .site  of  the  family 
mansions  in  which  lived  for  many  years  John 
Jacob  .Astor  and  William  Astor,  his  brother. 
This  structure  covers  the  block  between  Thirty- 
third  and  Thirty-fourth  streets,  bordering  Fifth 
.\venue,  and  having  a  depth  of  500  feet.  It  is 
111  stories  in  height,  and  contains  over  1000 
rooms  for  guests,  a  large  ballroom,  and  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  apartments  used  for  public  din- 
ners, concerts,  etc.  The  Buckingham,  at  Fifth 
Avenue  and  Fiftieth  Street:  the  Holland  House, 
at  Fifth  .\venue  and  Thirtieth  Street:  the  Mur- 
ray Hill,  at  Park  Avenue  and  Forty-first  Street : 
the  Manhattan,  at  Madison  Avenue  and  Forty- 
second  .street;  the  Xetherland  and  the  Savoy, 
at  Fifth  .\vcnue  and  Fifty-ninth  Street,  are 
large  and  luxurious  hostelries.  which  accommo- 
date from  800  to  2000  guests.  Farther  down- 
town, a  number  of  the  Broadw.ty  hotels,  such  as 
the  Fifth  .Avenue,  at  Twenty-third  Street,  the 
llolliiian  House,  at  Twenty-fifth  Street,  and  the 
Imperial,  at  Thirty-second  Street,  are  equally 
popular.  Several  immense  hotels,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  the  Plaza,  at  Fifty-ninth 
Street  and  Fifth  Avenue,  and  the  ^Majestic,  at 
Seventy-second  Street  and  Central  Park  West, 
are  known  as  family  hotels  of  the  liest  type.  The 
most  luxurious  restaurants  in  the  city  are  Del- 
nmnico's,  at  Forty-fourth  Street  and  I'ifth  .\ve- 
nue,  and  Sherry's,  almost  opposite.  In  the  busi- 
ness ilistrict  the  Cafe  Savarin,  in  the  F.cpiitable 
Building,  is  well  known. 

CiiAHiTiKS.  The  great  number  of  immigrants 
laniling  at  the  port  of  Xew  York,  the  poorest  of 
whom  reiiiain  in  the  city,  tends  to  increase  the 
dependent  class.  The  administration  of  public 
charities  is  under  a  separate  department  gov- 
erned by  a  commissioner,  who  appoints  two 
deputies  and  other  subordinate  oflicors.  Xew 
York  City  ditlers  from  other  large  American 
cities  in  that  it  grants  large  subsidies  to  private 
charitable  institutions,  the  amount  spent  in 
this  way  exceeding  that  apportioned  to  public 
charities.  In  1001  the  city  maintained  three 
almshouses,  with  .'?r>4(>  inmates,  and  11  hos]iitals, 
two  of  which  arc  asylums  for  idiots,  with  .5.'?.n01 
patients.  Xearly  all  of  the  city  institutions  and 
some  of  the  Stale  and  private  in-^titulions  are 
located  on  Handall's.  Ward's,  and  liliickwell's 
islands,  in  the  Fast  River.  Sailors'  Snug  Ilarbrir, 
a  home  for  aged  seamen,  is  on  Statcn  l-hind.  Tliis 
institution  derives  an  income  of  $2.")0.000  from 
valuable  Broadway  real  estate,  with  which  it  is 
endowed.  The  orphan  asylums  of  X'ew  York  are 
under  private  control.  Private  charity  is  active 
and  thnrnuglily  organized :  and  much  has  been 
clone  to  correl.nte  the  difTerent  agencies  by  the 
Charitv  (Irganixation  Societv  of  Xew  York  Citv. 
The  soniefv  has  n  number  of  s\ib-committees  in 
charge  of  (be  dilTerent  di-striets  into  which  (be 
city  is  diviiled.  The  Brooklyn  Bureau  of  Charities 
performs    a    similar    function    in    that    borough. 


Among  the  more  important  organizations  which 
give  attention  to  charitable  work  are  the  United 
Hebrew  Charities,  Children's  Aid  Society,  Saint 
\incent  de  Paul  Society,  and  the  Association  for 
Improving  tlie  Condition  of  the  Poor.  The  condi- 
tions in  the  crowded  sections  of  the  city  have  been 
greatly  improved  by  the  work  of  Social  Settle- 
ments and  similar  institutions,  of  which  there  are 
a  large  number,  some  denominational,  others  non- 
sectarian.  Manhattan  alone  has  some  2'),  the 
best  known  of  which  are  University  Settlement 
and  the  Educational  Alliance. 

IXTEBCoMMLSiCATiox.  The  problem  of  pas- 
senger transportati(m  within  the  limits  of  Xew 
York  City  and  its  residential  areas  olfers  peculiar 
dilhculties.  The  wholesale  business  is  at  the 
lower  end  of  Manhattan  Island,  and  the  shopping 
districts  in  the  middle,  while  the  dwelling  dis- 
tricts are  at  the  upper  end,  and  across  the  water- 
wavs  in  the  surrounding  regions.  The  crowding 
and  discomfort  on  the  various  car  and  ferry  lines 
during  the  'rush'  hours  surpass  anvthing  of 
the  kind  known  in  any  other  city  of  the  world. 
There  are  car  lines  on  almost  all  the  thorough- 
fares leading  north  from  the  business  district, 
the  limit  of  surface  transportation  in  this  direc- 
tion having  been  practically  reached.  The  first 
elevated  railroad  was  oiiened  on  Xinth  Avenue  in 
1870.  from  the  Battery  to  Fifty-ninth  Street.  The 
Sixth  Avenue  line,  opened  in  1878.  extended  from 
the  Battery  to  the  Harlem  Biver,  the  ui)i)er  half 
being  on  the  line  of  Xinth  and  Eighth  avenues. 
Similar  lines  were  built  on  Third  and  Second 
avenues  to  the  Harlem  Kiver,  and  later  the  Third 
Avenue  line  was  carried  across  the  Harlem  River 
into  the  northern  suburban  districts.  The  ele- 
vated roads,  on  which  it  was  foinid  practicable  to 
run  trains  by  steam  at  a  hi.sh  rate  of  speed  and 
at  very  short  intervals,  with  a  minimum  of  dan- 
ger, soon  proved  utterly  inadci|uatc  for  the  traffic. 
In  188(i  the  first  calde  line  in  .Manhattan  was 
establishe<l  on  12.5th  Street.  In  1S!)S  the  under- 
groiuid  electric  trolley  system  was  introduced  and 
rapidly  supplanted  the  cable  all  over  Manhattan. 
The  overhead  trolley  system  still  prevails  in  other 
portions  of  Greater  Xew  York.  In  1002  the  ele- 
vated roads  began  to  riui  their  trains  by  electri- 
city. A  contract  was  awarded  in  .January,  1000, 
by  a  commission  created  for  the  purpose,  for  an 
undergroimd  rapid  transit  railway  system  run- 
ning from  one  end  of  Manhattan  to  the  other, 
with  a  branch,  starting  at  104th  Street,  to  the 
Bronx.  Work  upon  the  subway  was  begun  in 
February  of  that  year.  The  time  fixed  by  the 
contract  for  the  completion  of  the  system  was 
fiuir  years  and  a  half,  and  the  original  price  was 
.*;!(!. oOO. 000.  The  contractors  were  conceded  the 
right  to  operate  the  road  for  fifty  years.  Thirty- 
live  stations  are  provided  for  on  the  main  line 
and  l.*?  on  the  Bron.v  branch.  .\n  extension  of 
the  subway  to  lirooklvn  was  decided  on  in  May, 
1001.  The  cars  are  operated  and  lighted  wliolly 
by  electricity.  Express  trains  run  on  two  cen- 
tral tracks. 

There  is  a  very  extensive  ferry  system  between 
Manhattan  and  the  surrounding  region.  Besidea 
the  ferries  to  Brooklvn  (q.v.l.  lines  connect  with 
.Jersey  City.  Hoboken.  Weehawken.  Fort  I.ee, 
Stalen  Island,  and  other  points.  During  the  win- 
ter months  the  ferry  trnflic  is  somewhat  impeded 
by  occasional  fojrs  and  llontini;  ice.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  Brooklyn  Briilge  (see  RRinoE)  in 
ISS.'J    greatly     facilitated     communication     with 


]\ 


x^y 


^ 


NEW  YORK. 


513 


NEW  YORK. 


Brooklju ;  but  in  recent  years  the  bridge  has 
been  wholly  inadequate.  A  second  bridge  was 
begun  in  1890,  extending  from  Delancey  Street, 
JIanhattan,  to  Broadway,  Brooklyn ;  three  other 
bridges  are  projected:  from  Grand  Street,  Jlan- 
hattan,  to  Williamsburg,  Brooklyn;  from  Cor- 
lears  Hook,  Manhattan,  to  the  Xa\y  Yard,  Brook- 
lyn: and  from  Fifty-ninth  Street,  Manhattan,  to 
Long  Island  City,  by  way  of  Blaekwell's  Island. 
Furthermore,  two  tunnels  to  connect  ilanhattau 
with  Brooklyn  have  been  planned,  one  liy  private 
railroad  companies  (also  connecting  with  the 
New  Jersey  Shore),  and  the  other  by  the  city 
through  the  extension  of  the  subway.  The  Har- 
lem Kiver  is  spanned  by  a  number  of  costly 
bridges,  Washington  Bridge  being  perhaps  the 
finest  structure  of  its  kind  in  tlie  country,  and 
High  Bridge,  which  carries  the  old  Croton  Aque- 
duct at  an  elevation  of  over  100  feet,  being  un- 
oqualed  among  American  stone  bridges. 

NEWSP.\PEns.  There  are  forty-eight  daily  news- 
papers published  in  Xew  York  Cit.y,  with  ninety- 
five  weekly  papers,  and  seventy-two  monthly  ]jub- 
lications,  not  including  trade  organs  and  religious 
journals.  The  oldest  of  the  daily  newspapers  are 
the  Commrrciiil  Adrertiser,  founded  in  1707,  and 
the  Evening  Post,  founded  in  1801,  of  which  Wil- 
liam C'ullen  Bryant  was  for  nearly  fifty  years  the 
editor.  The  Sun,  founded  in  183.3;  the  Herald, 
founded  in  1835  by  James  Gordon  Bennett;  the 
Tribune,  founded  in  1841  by  Horace  Greeley;  the 
Times,  founded  in  1850  by  Henry  J.  Raymond; 
the  World  (IStiO),  the  Journal,  the  Press,  the 
Daihj  Xeu-s,  and  the  Htaats-Zeitung  are  the  most 
important  of  the  morning  newspapers.  The  Even- 
ing Post,  the  Commercial  Advertiser,  the  Mail 
and  Express,  the  Telegram,  the  Evening  Sun,  the 
Evening  World,  and  Evening  Journal  are  the 
chief  afternoon  publications.     See  Newspaper. 

Commerce  and  Indlstry.  New  Y'ork  did  not  rise 
to  commercial  preeminence  until  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  Its  rise  is  due  to  its  central 
location  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  especially 
to  its  excellent  harbor,  which  lies  at  the  entrance 
to  the  fine  natural  waterway,  the  Hudson  River 
and  the  Jlohawk  Valley,  leading  to  the  highly 
productive  North-Central  portion  of  the  United 
States.  The  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal  in  1825 
was  the  most  important  event  in  the  business  his- 
toiy  of  the  city.  New  York  was  already  far  in 
advance  of  its  rivals  before  the  building  of  rail- 
roads began,  a  fact  which  tended  to  make  it  a  great 
focal  point  in  their  construction.  It  is  difficult 
to  overemphasize  the  importance  of  New  York 
as  an  entrepot  of  trade.  It  is  without  a  rival  as 
the  centre  of  the  wholesale  dry  gooils  and  whole- 
sale grocery  business.  Not  only  does  it  market 
its  own  manufactures  and  the  greater  part  of  its 
imports,  but  the  trade  in  many  varieties  of  do- 
mestic goods,  produced  outside  of  the  city,  cen- 
tres here. 

Harbor.  The  harbor  proper  consists  of  the 
lower  and  upper  bays,  the  former  covering  about 
88  square  miles  of  anchorage,  and  the  latter  14 
square  miles.  Between  the  two  is  Staten  Island. 
The  principal  passage  from  one  to  the  other  is 
by  way  of  the  east  channel  called  the  Narrows. 
which  at  one  point  is  only  a  mile  in  width.  Smalt 
vessels  may  pass  also  on  the  west  side  of  the 
island.  The  harbor  is  ap])roachcd  from  the  ocean 
from  two  directions,  the  )irincipal  one  being  from 
the  southeast.  The  Sandy  Hook  Bar  stretches 
across  this  entrance,   .about  20  miles   from   the 


lower  end  of  Manhattan,  the  deepest  channel 
having  been  originally  lU  feet  at  mean  low  water. 
In  1884  the  National  Government  provided  for 
dredging  this  channel  to  a  width  of  1000  feet  and 
a  depth  of  30  feet.  In  18'J'J  a  provision  was 
made  for  the  dredging  of  another  entrance  chan- 
nel farther  to  the  east,  2000  feet  wide  and  40 
feet  deep,  requiring  an  excavation  about  7  miles 
in  length.  Work  upon  this  cliannel  is  still  in 
progress.  The  other  entrance  into  the  harbor  is 
from  Long  Island  Sound.  From  tlie  Sound,  the 
passage  leads  through  Hell  Gate,  at  Ward's  Isl- 
and, into  the  East  River,  which  is  about  half 
a  mile  in  width.  The  tide  flows  very  swiftly 
through  the  river,  especially  the  ebb-tide.  Ex- 
tensive improvements  were  begun  on  this  course 
about  18(18  and  are  still  going  on.  The  channel 
has  been  made  amply  deep  and  safe  for  coast- 
wise traffic.  In  lUOl  the  battleship  Massachu- 
setts, drawing  27  feet  of  water,  successfully 
passed  through  it.  The  great  strength  of  the 
ebb-tide  current  serves  to  keep  the  port  open  in 
winter,  and,  in  a  measure,  to  prevent  the  deposit 
of  sediment.  The  North  River  (Hudson),  which 
is  about  one  mile  in  width,  does  not  carry  as 
much  sediment  as  most  rivers.  Some  dredging, 
however,  has  been  necessary. 

The  Sandy  Hook  entrance  to  the  southeast  ia 
guarded  by  elaborate  fortifications  on  Sandy 
Hook.  (See  Fort  Hancock.)  The  passage  through 
the  Narrows  is  protected  by  Fort  Hamilton  on 
the  east  ( Long  Island )  shore  and  by  Forts  Tomp- 
kins and  Wadsworth  on  the  west  (Staten  Island) 
shore.  Besides  the  works  at  the  east  entrance  of 
Long  Island  Sound,  the  approach  from  that  di- 
rection is  defended  by  fortifications  on  the  close- 
ly approaching  points,  Throggs  Neck  and  Willets 
Point,  within  the  limits  of  the  city,  and  on 
Davids  Island,  a  few  miles  to  the  north.  Ciov- 
ernor's  Island,  just  south  of  Manhattan,  is  also 
fortified. 

Almost  the  entire  water  front  of  Manhattan, 
about  22  miles,  is  deep  enough  to  admit  of  heavy 
shipping,  and  the  total  frontage  within  the  limits 
of  the  greater  city  is  several  times  this.  The 
docks  already  constructed  occupy  but  a  small 
part  of  the  available  space.  Docks  and  piers 
naturally  were  built  first  on  the  lower  end  of 
Manhattan,  the  line  gradually  being  extended 
northward  on  both  sides  of  the  island.  The  line 
is  almost  unbroken  on  the  west  side  for  a  distance 
of  about  four  miles,  and  many  piers  are  still  far- 
ther north.  On  the  east  docks  are  less  numerous. 
In  Brooklyn  the  docks  extend  along  that  portion 
of  the  shore  opposite  the  lower  end  of  Manhattan 
and  farther  south  in  CJowanus  Bay.  A  part  of 
the  water  front  of  JIanhattan  was  acquired  by 
the  city  from  the  Crown  of  England  and  subse- 
quently State  laws  added  to  the  portion  belong- 
ing to  the  city.  The  greater  jiart  of  the  entire 
frontage,  inchuiing  in  IflOl  170  whole  and  12 
half  piers  out  of  a  total  of  224,  is  controlled  by 
the  city.  The  Brooklyn  water  front  is  owned 
mainly  by  private  persons. 

Transportation.  New  York  City  has  profited 
immensely  from  the  advantages  of  internal  trans- 
])ortation  afl'orded  by  the  Hudson  River  and  the 
Eric  Canal.  In  recent  years  the  canal  traffic  has 
decreased.  The  canal  is  still  of  great  importance, 
however,  owing  to  its  competition  with  the  rail- 
way lines.  .-Ml  the  railroads  which  approach 
New  York  from  west  of  the  Hudson  River  have 
their  terminals  in  New  Jersey.     These  lines  are 


NEW  YORK. 


514 


NEW  YORK. 


the  Pennsylvania,  the  West  Shore,  the  Erie,  tlie 
Xcw  York,  Ontario  and  Wostern.  the  Lacka- 
wanna, the  I'liihulclphia  and  Headinj;.  tlie  Le- 
high \'alley,  the  Central  Railrim<l  of  New  .Jersey, 
and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio.  The  Pennsylvania 
Company  has  jirojeeted  a  tunnel  from  the  New 
Jersey  shure  luider  North  and  East  Kivers  to 
Lonj;  Island,  with  a  jrreat  station  in  Manhattan. 
Tlie  lines  which  approach  from  the  north,  the 
NcW'  York  Central  and  Hudson  River,  and  the 
New  Y'ork,  New  Haven  and  Hartford,  have  a 
union  passenger  station,  the  Grand  Central  Sta- 
tion, under  the  control  of  the  New  York  Central. 
The  Lonj;  Island  Kailroad  maintains  terminals  in 
Long  Island  City  and  Brooklyn.  The  daily  trallic 
on  all  these  lines  to  the  suburbs  is  enormous. 

Trade.  The  port  of  New  York  includes  all 
the  municipalities  on  New  York  Harbor  and 
the  Hudson  Kiver.  In  1901  G4  per  cent,  of  the 
total  imports  and  .35.ti0  per  cent,  of  the  total 
exports,  or  45.73  i)er  cent,  of  the  total  foreign 
trade  of  the  I'nited  States,  passed  through  New 
York,  its  commerce  being  live  times  that  of 
the  next  largest  American  jjort.  The  imports 
for  that  vear  were  valued  at  .■f.')i;7.i'>''.!lO(; 
and  the  exports  at  .$529,.5i)2.()7S.  While  the  trade 
is  rapidly  increasing,  there  has  lieen  in  recent 
years  a  relative  decrease,  the  port  in  1882  having 
had  nearly  57  per  cent,  of  the  total  trade  of  the 
country.  New  York  has  practically  a  monopoly 
in  the  trade  between  tlie  European  countries  and 
the  Great  Lake  and  Northwest  region.  On  the 
other  hand,  its  location  places  it  at  a  disadvan- 
tage with  the  more  southern  Atlantic  Coast  ports 
in  the  trade  with  the  Lower  Mississippi  and  the 
Ohio  Valley  regions.  Some  of  the  leading  im- 
ports of  the  country,  such  as  rubber  and  elastic 
goods,  silk  goods  and  furs,  are  received  almost 
wholly  through  New  York.  It  also  imports  the 
bulk  of  manufactured  goods  generally,  including 
manufactures  of  cotton,  linen,  and  jute  goods, 
jewelry  and  precious  stones,  ehcnueals.  colfee, 
cocoa,  and  tobacco.  It  leads  in  imports  of  sugar. 
The  relative  rank  of  the  city  is  much  lower  in 
respect  to  the  principal  exiiorts  of  the  country. 
It  exports  less  than  one-half  of  the  animal  [irod- 
ucts,  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  breadstulfs,  corn, 
wheat,  flour,  etc..  the  shipments  of  the  latter  class 
having  decreased  in  recent  years,  and  only  about 
one-tenth  of  the  cotton.  It  exports  a  large  part 
of  the  copper  an<l  most  of  the  machinery.  In 
lilOl  878  sail  and  21145  steam  vessels  engaged  in 
the  foreign  trade  cleared  the  port  of  New  York. 
Their  aggregate  tonnage  was  8.118.427.  The 
volume  of  the  coastwise  traile  greatly  transcends 
that  of  the  foreign  trade.  The  transfer  of  freight 
at  the  port  of  New  York  is  done  almost  wholly 
through  the  use  of  barges,  lighters,  etc..  as  there 
are  no  railroad  tracks  along  the  docks. 

MyVNlFACTCRES.  The  value  of  the  manufac- 
tured products  of  New  York  is  considerably  more 
than  50  per  cent,  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
American  city.  .Manhattan  and  Hninx  alone 
rank  first.  Brooklyn  alone  ranks  fourth.  Of  lif- 
teen  industries  selected  by  the  censu-i  of  IdOO 
for  comparison  between  the  great  manufacturing 
centres.  New  York  City  held  first  rank  in  eight. 
The  total  capital  invested  in  manufactures  in 
that  year  was  .$021,870,000.  and  the  value  of 
products  aggregated  .•?  1.37 1. 358.000.  The  indus- 
trial prominence  of  the  eitv  is  not  due  to 
large  iron  and  steel,  textile  or  meat-packing 
interests — the    indu-trlcs    which    have    been    re- 


sponsible for  the  growth  of  many  American  cities 
— but  rather  to  a  large  group  of  manufactures 
peculiar  to  city  life  and  mainly  of  local  interest. 
The  city's  most  important  industry  is  the  manu- 
facture of  clothing.  In  the  census  year  1!KU)  the 
value  of  women's  clotliiii:;  (factorv  product)  wa& 
.$102,711,604,  and  of  men's  clothing,  $103,220,- 
201,  besides  a  great  amount  of  custom  work  and 
repairing,  and  dressmaking.  The  aggregate  out- 
put of  all  industries  in  but  two  other  cities  ex- 
ceeded the  value  of  the  clothing  product  of  New 
York.  The  abundance  of  cheap,  unskilled  labor, 
in  consequence  of  the  large  immigrant  popula- 
tion, partially  explains  the  growth  of  this  in- 
dustry. Much  of  the  work  is  done  in  tenement 
houses  and  small  workshops,  and  com])aratively 
little  in  large  factories.  Sugar  and  molasses  re- 
fining ranks  second  in  value  of  the  product,  which 
in  11)00  was  $88,598,113.  In  the  printing  and 
publishing  business,  the  value  of  which  in  190O 
was  $78,73G,Ot)9,  New  York  ranks  far  above  other 
American  cities.  Among  other  industries  are 
the  manufacture  of  foundry  and  machine-shop 
products,  malt  lifjuors,  tobacco,  cigars  and  ciga- 
rettes; the  roasting  and  grinding  of  cofl'ee  and 
spices;  the  manufacture  of  millinery  and  lace 
goods,  men's  furnishing  goods,  fur  goods,  shirts, 
furniture,  musical  instruments,  paints,  and  elec- 
trical apparatus  and  supplies.  New  York  ha* 
hardly  a  rival  in  the  variety  of  its  highly  iinislied 
manufactured  articles.  The  sugar  and  molassea 
refining  industry  is  confined  mainly  to  Brooklyn. 
There  are  also  in  Brooklyn  extensive  foundries 
and  machine  shops,  and  establishments  for  the 
roasting  and  grinding  of  coffee  and  spices. 

GovEUXMENT.  The  first  charter  of  Greater 
New  York  went  into  cll'ecl  January  1,  1898.  But 
it  was  found  defective  in  several  important  re- 
spects, and  in  1901  the  Legislature  made  radical 
changes.  L'nder  the  amended  charter,  the  Mayor 
is  elected  for  two  years.  Much  power  and  re- 
sponsibility is  given  him.  especially  in  the  ap- 
pointment and  removal  of  administrative  ollicers. 
The  heads  of  14  of  the  15  administrative  depart- 
ments— law;  police;  fire;  water  supply,  gas, 
and  electricity;  street-cleaning:  bridges:  ])arks; 
docks  and  ferries;  health;  public  charities;  cor- 
rections; education;  taxes  and  assessments;  and 
tenement  houses — are  appointed  by  the  Mayor, 
as  are  also  certain  other  officers,  including  three 
civil  service  commissioners.  He  may  remove 
any  of  these  ollicers  except  members  of  the  board 
of  education,  aqueduct  commissioners,  trustees 
of  tlw  College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  trustees, 
of  Bellevue  and  allied  hospitals,  and  judicial  of- 
ficers. Legislation  is  in  the  hands  of  a  single 
body,  the  board  of  aldermen,  consisting  of  73 
members  elected  for  two  years,  the  president  of 
the  board  being  elected  by  the  whole  city.  The 
aldermanie  districts  generally  coincide  with  the 
districts  into  which  the  city  is  divided  for  the 
election  of  members  of  the  State  Legislature. 
The  Mayor's  veto  is  final  when  placed  upon 
grants  of  franchise,  but  in  other  matters  it  may 
be  overrid<len.  Many  interests  are  provided  for 
through  local  government,  the  five  boroughs 
being  divided  into  25  IrH'al  improvement  dis- 
tricts, in  each  borough  a  president  is  elected, 
in  whom  important  powers  are  vested.  The 
borough  presidents  control  such  matters  as 
the  grading  and  paving  of  streets,  sewers, 
public  baths,  etc.,  and  the  presidents  of  Queens 
and   liichmond  have  control  also  of  street-clean- 


NEW  YORK 

THE  TOMB  OF  GEN.   U    S.   GRANT  (UPPER' 

THE   LIBRARY  OF  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY   (LOWER) 


NEW  YORK. 


515 


NEW  YORK. 


ing.  Each  borough  has  a  bureau  of  buihlinf;s,  the 
supeiinteiident  of  wliii'h  is  a[H)ointe(l  by  the 
borough  president,  and  is  subject  to  removal  l)y 
him.  lu  the  smaller  districts  there  are  local 
boards  of  improvement,  consisting  of  the  presi- 
dent of  the  borough  as  cliairman  and  those  mem- 
bers of  the  board  of  aldermen  who  represent  the 
districts  within  the  area  subject  to  improvement. 
The  resolutions  of  the  local  board  upon  certain 
subjects  must  be  submitted  to  the  !Mayor.  Jlost 
of  the  offices  in,  the  departments  are  tilled  in  ac- 
cordance with  civil  service  requirements. 

Police.  Fike,  and  Health  Departiients.  The 
police  commissioner  appoints  all  members  of  the 
force  from  the  eligible  lists  furnished  by  the 
civil  service  commission,  and  has  power  of  dis- 
missal. He  is  assisted  by  three  deputies.  The  de- 
partment includes  also  15  inspectors  and  one 
captain  to  each  50  patrolmen.  The  total  force  in 
February,  1903,  of  men  and  officers  was  7679. 
For  patrol  service  the  city  is  divided  into  80  pre- 
cincts, each  having  its  owni  building  with  quar- 
ters for  the  men.  cells  for  prisoners,  and  lodgings 
for  homeless  persons.  Each  precinct  is  in  com- 
mand of  a  captain  under  whom  are  several  ser- 
geants. 

On  January  1,  1902,  the  fire  department  of 
New  York  City  had  an  active  force  of  2602  men. 
There  were  137  engine  companies,  including  5  fire 
boats,  and  44  hook  and  ladder  companies.  The 
companies  constitute  battalions,  each  under  the 
command  of  a  chief  of  battalion.  The  chief  of 
department  is  at  the  head  of  the  entire  force. 

Tlie  health  department  is  administered  by  a 
board  of  health,  consisting  of  a  commissioner  ap- 
pointed by  the  Mayor,  the  commissioner  of  police, 
and  the  health  officer  of  the  port.  The  sanitary 
superintendent  is  chief  executive  officer  of  the 
board.  A  corps  of  medical  inspectors  is  employed 
for  the  detection  and  prevention  of  disease,  the 
inspection  of  tenement  houses,  and  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  sanitary  code.  There  are  also  a  vac- 
cinating corps,  a  corps  for  disinfection,  and  one 
for  the  inspection  of  milk,  meat,  and  other  food 
products. 

Water  Sitply.  IManhattan  and  the  Bronx 
have  an  excellent  water  supjily,  derived  from 
the  Croton  River  (q.v. ),  supplemented  by  the 
Bronx  River.  The  Croton  Ri\er.  which  is  nearly 
40  miles  north  of  the  City  Hall,  includes  in  its 
basin  a  number  of  small  natural  lakes  and  three 
artificial  reservoirs,  the  largest  of  the  latter 
being  Croton  Lake,  in  the  main  stream  of  the 
river.  From  this  lake  the  aqueducts  lead.  There 
are  a  small  receiving  and  a  large  retaining 
reservoir  in  Central  Park,  and  a  'high  service' 
reservoir  at  High  Bridge.  Another  large  res- 
ervoir is  under  construction  on  tlie  site  of  Jerome 
Park,  and  plans  have  been  made  for  a  large 
distributing  reservoir  at  135th  Street  and  Tenth 
Avenue.  The  storage  system  has  a  total  capacity 
of  more  than  40,000.000.000  gallons.  A  new 
dam,  the  central  masonry  portion  of  which  is 
600  feet  long  and  260  feet  high,  is  being  con- 
structed across  the  Croton  River.  This  dam  will 
add  21  square  miles  to  the  drainage  area  and 
increase  enormously  the  storage  capacity.  There 
are  also  three  smaller  dams  in  course  of  con- 
struction. The  supply  reaches  the  city  through 
two  aqueducts,  an  old  one  with  a  capacity  of 
75.000,000  gallons  a  day  and  a  new  one  with  a 
capacity  of  318,000.000  gallons  a  day.  The 
average  consumption  of  water  in  1902  was  more 


than  250,000,000  gallons  a  day.  The  Brooklyn 
water  supply  is  obtained  from  small  local 
streams,  ponds,  and  wells.  There  is  a  large 
reservoir  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Borough  of 
Bi'ooklyn  and  a  small  one  near  the  entrance  to 
Prospect  Park.  The  daily  consumption  in  this 
borough  is  about  100,000,000  gallons. 

Finance.  The  budget  of  New  York  is  con- 
siderably more  than  three  times  that  of  any 
other  American  city,  and  greater  tlian  that  of 
any  other  city  in  the  world.  The  actual  income 
for  1901  \sas  .$118,740,590,  including  .$1,2S5.821 
received  from  the  State  for  schools.  (tf  this 
amount,  $76,880,091  was  collected  from  ])roperty 
taxes;  .$5,557,593  from  liquor  licenses;  .$5,048,788 
from  special  assessments;  $8,050,900  from  water 
rates;' and  $2,571,584  from  docks  and  wharves. 
The  total  expenditures  for  the  same  year  were 
$102,946,573  for  maintenance  and  operation,  and 
$53,451,000  for  construction  and  capital  outlay 
other  than  loans  repaid.  The  principal  items  of 
expenditure  for  maintenance  and  operation  were: 
schools,  $19,731,629;  interest  on  del)t,  $13,093,- 
155;  police  department,  $10,199,200;  fire  depart- 
ment, $4,739,993:  hospitals,  asylums,  almshouses, 
and  other  charities,  $4,754,380;  water-works, 
$3,000,990.  The  principal  items  for  construction 
were:  streets,  $8,109,494;  schools,  $5,471,400; 
ferries  and  bridges,  .$4,458,739;  water-works, 
$3,450,870;  docks  and  wharves,  $3,322,938.  There 
is  a  bonded  debt  of  $426,174,823  and  a  floating 
debt  of  $6,300,472.  Against  this  indebtedness 
there  is  a  sinking  fund  of  $121,340,920.  The 
city's  legal  borrowing  limit  (exclusive  of  the 
water  debt)  is  10  per  cent,  of  the  assessed  valua- 
tion. The  basis  of  assessment  is  legally  100  per 
cent,  of  the  value  of  both  real  and  personal 
property.  The  valuable  franchises  which  have 
been  granted  to  private  companies  return  an 
entirely  disproportionate  income  to  the  city  treas- 
ury. 

The  expenses  of  Greater  New  York  are  much 
larger  than  were  the  combined  expenses  of  the 
various  component  municipalities  before  con- 
solidation. The  increase  in  the  first  year  after 
consolidation  amounted  to  $15,000,000.  This  is 
due  largely  to  the  creation  of  more  salaried 
offices  and  to  increases  in  .salaries.  The  salaries 
paid  are  the  highest  prevailing  in  any  city  of 
the  world.  There  is  a  board  of  estimate  and 
apportionment,  consisting  of  the  Mayor,  Comp- 
troller (elected  by  popular  vote),  president  of 
the  board  of  aldermen,  and  the  five  Ijorough 
presidents  (the  presidents  of  Manhattan  and 
Brooklyn  having  two  votes  each),  which  an- 
nually submits  the  budget  to  the  board  of  alder- 
men. The  board  of  aldermen  cannot  insert  new 
items,  increase  the  amount  specified,  or  vary 
the  stipulated  terms  and  conditions ;  but  there 
are  certain  items  which  it  may  reduce.  The 
financial  department  is  in  charge  of  the  Comp- 
troller, and  is  divided  into  five  bureaus.  All 
officers  in  the  department  except  two,  one  of 
whom  is  the  city  chamberlain,  or  treasurer,  are 
appointed  by  the  Comptroller. 

PopuLATiox.  Greater  New  York  has  about 
twice  the  population  of  any  other  American  city, 
and  is  exceeded  only  by  London  among  the  cities 
of  the  world.  This  has  come  about  almost 
wholly  in  the  nineteenth  century,  during  which 
time  the  city  grew  at  a  rate  never  equaled. 
Li  the  colonial  period  New  York  ranked  below 
Boston  and  Philadelphia.     In  1790  there  was  a 


NEW  YORK. 


516 


NEW  YORK. 


population  of  3;i.i:jl;  in  ISOO,  60.515;  1810, 
'.tG.373:  1820,  123.706;  1830,  202.589;  1840,  312,- 
710;  1850,  515.477;  1860.  805.658;  1870,  042,- 
292;  1880,  1.206,299;  1890,  1,515,301;  and  in 
1900  (after  the  creation  of  a  Greater  New  York), 
3.437,202,  inehiding  1,850,093  in  the  Borough  of 
Manhattan,  200.507  in  the  Uoro>ij.'h  of  the  Hronx, 
1,166,582  in  the  Borough  of  Brooklyn,  152.999  in 
the  Borough  of  Queens,  and  67,021  in  tlie  Bor- 
ough of  Riclimond.  The  suburbs  on  the  New 
Jersey  shore  of  the  Hudson  (Jersey  City,  Ho- 
boken,  ete. )  contain  about  300.000  inhabitants. 
Beyond  these  inmiediate  suburbs  we  come  to  a 
section  of  New  Jersey  embracing  Elizabeth,  the 
Oranges,  ilontclair,  llorristown,  Plaintield.  and 
many  other  places  whicli  are  mainly  suburbs  of 
New  York,  in  addition  to  the  two  great  manu- 
facturing centres  of  Newark  and  Paterson.  also 
the  homes  of  great  numl)ers  of  New  Y"ork  business 
men.  These  places  have  a  total  population  of 
about  half  a  million.  On  the  northeast  the 
cluster  of  towns  largely  inhabited  by  jjersons 
doing  business  in  New  York  extends  beyond  the 
boundary  line  of  Connecticut.  Among  these  may 
be  mentioned  New  Rochelle.  Rye,  Portchester, 
Greenwich,  and  Stamford.  The  total  population 
embraced  within  a  radius  of  25  miles  from  the 
New  York  City  Hall  is  not  far  from  five  millions. 
As  the  city  grew,  the  population  of  New  York 
naturally  tended  to  centre  about  the  lower  end  of 
Manhattan,  the  business  district.  Inconveniences, 
too,  incident  to  transportation  across  the  river 
have  aided  in  confining  the  population  with- 
in the  narrow  limits  of  Manhattan  Island, 
where  the  density  of  population  is  greater 
than  in  any  other  city  whatsoever.  The  dis- 
tril)Ution  of  the  population  in  Brooklyn  is 
more  normal.  In  1900,  66.70  per  cent,  of 
the  population  of  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx 
lived  in  dwellings  containing  twenty-one  or  more 
persons,  while  in  Brooklyn  the  corresponding 
percentage  was  only  25.70  per  cent.  In  Chi- 
cago it  was  16.63.  The  density  per  acre  in 
the  Borough  of  Manhattan  was  129.2.  The 
region  of  greatest  density  is  the  lower  East  Side, 
where  in  the  Eighth  Assembly  District,  covering 
98  acres  of  area,  there  was  in  1900  a  population 
of  735.9  to  the  acre.  In  the  densely  populated 
section,  tenement  houses  having  an  average  height 
of  five  or  si.\  stories,  inadequately  lighted  and 
ventilated,  and  otherwise  lacking  in  sanitary 
facilities,  arc  the  rule.  Several  large  model 
tenement  houses  have  recently  been  built,  nota- 
bly tho.se  of  the  City  and  Suburban  Homes 
Company.  The  housing  problem,  therefore,  is 
one  of  the  most  diflicult  with  which  the  city  has 
to  deal,  and  presents  phases  almost  unknown  in 
other  large  centres  of  populati(m.  A  radical  tene- 
ment house  law.  which  went  into  efTcct  in  1902. 
is  efl'eeting  a  great  imprnvement.  The  prol)lem 
of  congestion  is  closely  related  to  that  arising 
from  the  presence  in  the  city  of  large  classes 
of  mostly  poor  foreigners.  The  various  foreign 
elements  tend  to  form  distinct  colonies.  In  the 
Eighth  District,  above  mentioned.  67.2  per  cent, 
of  the  [lopubition  in  1900  were  foreign  born,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  remainder  were  children 
of  foreign-burn  parents.  In  1900  the  foreign 
born  niunbired  1.270.OSO.  or  37  per  cent,  of  tlie 
total  population  of  the  city.  In  M:inhat(an 
alone.  41.5  per  cent,  of  the  total  population  was 
foreign  born.  New  York  has  li<>en  always  a 
strikingly  cosmopolitan  city.     During  the  middle 


of  the  nineteenth  century  there  was  a  very  heavy 
German  and  Irish  immigration  to  the  city,  but 
before  the  end  of  the  century  the  immigration 
of  these  nationalities  had  greatly  declined,  and 
there  had  begun  a  heavy  immigration  from  the 
south  and  east  of  Europe.  According  to  the 
census  of  1900,  the  principal  foreign  countries 
represented  in  the  inunigration  to  New  York  City 
in  order  of  prominence  were  Germany,  Ireland, 
Italy,  Russia,  Bohemia,  Hungary  and  Austria, 
Poland,  England,  Scotland,  and  \Vales.  Few  of 
the  many  Scandinavian  immigrants  to  the  Cnited 
States  have  settled  in  New  York.  The  large 
immigration  from  Austria-Hungary,  Russia,  and 
Polanil  consists  almost  wholly  of  Jews.  Nearly 
one-fourth  of  the  pojiulation  of  Manhattan  are 
Jews.  A  large  ]>nip(irtion  of  New  York  im- 
migrants represent  a  class  of  unskilled  laborers. 
The  German  immigrants,  howo\'cr,  have  always 
contained  a  large  class  of  skilled  artisans,  who 
have  participated  in  the  more  advanced  industrial 
life  of  the  city,  and  have  contributed  greatly 
to  its  social  and  artistic  life.  A  much  larger 
percentage  of  the  Irish  have  lieen  unskilled 
laborers.  The  Italians  have  come  mainly  from 
the  poorer  districts  of  southern  Italy,  and  al- 
most all  arc  laborers,  ilost  of  the  coarser  labor 
of  tile  metropolis  is  done  by  them.  The  .Tewish 
innnigrants.  like  the  Italians,  are  extremely 
poor  and  mostly  unskilled.  The  majority  are 
ein|)loved  in  the  manufacture  of  clothing:  many, 
however,  are  small  merchants.  Both  of  these 
elements  keep  to  themselves.  It  is  in  the  [larts 
of  the  city  occupied  by  them  that  the  density 
of  ])opulation  is  greatest.  The  negro  population 
in  1900  numbered  60.tj66.  of  whom  nearly  two- 
thinls  were  born  outside  of  New  York  State. 
Of  the  total  population  of  the  city,  1.705.705 
were  males  and  1.731.497  females. 

History.  Proliably  the  first  European  to  visit 
the  vicinity  of  New  York  was  Giovanni  ^"er- 
razano,  who  came  in  1524;  in  1525  the  Spanish 
navigator  Gomez  sailed  into  the  harbor:  and 
by  1600  the  French  seem  to  have  begun  an  ex- 
tensive trade  with  the  Indians  along  the  Hudson. 
In  September,  1609,  Henry  Hudson  (q.v. )  ex- 
plored the  harbor  and  tlic  river;  in  1613  four 
trading  liouses  were  l)uilt  on  Manhattan  Island — 
"Jlanhat;uiis"  (meaning  'those  who  dwell  ujion 
an  island")  being  the  name  applied  to  the 
aboriginal  Delaware  inhabitants;  and  in  1614 
Adriaen  Block,  preparatory  to  exploring  the  New 
England  coast,  built  here  his  little  vessel  the 
Otini.-it.  or  Hcstlcss.  proliiilily  the  second  ship  to 
be  built  in  America,  In  1614  the  States  General 
of  Holland  chartered  the  Cnited  New  Netherland 
Company  of  Amsterdam,  and  in  1621  this  was 
succeeded  by  the  West  India  Company,  cliartered 
with  power  to  make  treaties,  maintain  courts, 
and  employ  soldiers.  In  1623  jiermanent 
colonists,  sent  out  by  the  Dutch  West  India 
Company,  arrived  under  Cornelis  May  as  Di- 
rector-General or  (^ivernor.  In  1624  May  was 
superseded  by  Verhulst.  who  in  turn  was  replaced 
in  1626  by  Peter  Mintiit.  ^lintiit  in  this  year 
bought  the  island  from  the  Indians  for  gooila 
valued  at  60  guilders,  or  $24.00  (about  $120.00  in 
present  values),  and  liuill  near  the  present  Bowl- 
ing Green  a  small  fort.  Fort  Amsterdam  —the 
settlement  itself,  then  having  a  population  of 
200.  being  called  New  .\msterdam.  In  162S  a 
church  was  oryanizeil  and  the  first  elerg\'man.  Rev. 
Jonas   Michaelius,   arrived   at   New   Amsterdam. 


r^ 


NEW  YOEK. 


517 


NEW  YORK. 


Woutcr  Van  Twiller  was  Governor  of  the  colony 
from  1U33  to  lti38,  William  Kieft  from  1038  to 
l(i4T.  and  Peter  Stuyvesant  from  1047  to  ItiUnt. 
In  1043  the  Dutch,  without  provocation,  mas- 
sacred 120  Algonquin  Indians,  who  had  come  to 
them  for  protection,  and  a  bloody  Indian  war 
ensued,  lasting  fur  two  years,  and  almost  de- 
populating the  settlement.  In  1053  New  Amster- 
dam, Willi  a  population  of  about  800,  was  in- 
corporated as  a  city,  and  in  the  same  year  a 
wall  2340  feet  long  was  built  along  the  site  of 
the  present  Wall  Street  as  a  protection  against 
the  English   and  the   Indians. 

In  Jl'arcli,  1004,  Charles  II.  granted  Xew  Neth- 
erland  to  his  brother  James,  Uuke  of  York,  and 
on  September  Sth  Col,  Kichard  XicoUs  with  an 
English  force  took  possession  of  the  cit.v  and  re- 
named it  New  York.  Nicolls  was  Uovernor  initil 
1008,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Francis  Lovelace. 
On  August  y,  1673,  the  Dutch  regained  posses- 
sion, and  the  province  became  New  Netlierland  as 
before,  the  citv  becoming  New  Orange,  and 
Anthon.v  Colve  replacing  Lovelace  as  Governor. 
On  November  10,  1074,  the  Dutch  again  gave 
■vvay  to  the  English,  Edmund  Andros  becoming 
Governor;  in  1080  the  first  city  charter,  known 
as  the  Dongan  Charter,  from  Thomas  Dongan, 
Governor  in  10S1-8S,  was  issued  (though  it  was 
never  conlirmed  bv  James  II.)  :  and  in  1080, 
Andros  being  overtlirown,  Leisler  usurped  control 
and  held  it  until  early  in  1001,  when  he  was 
e.\ecnled  for  trea.son.     See  Lelsler,  J.\cob. 

In  lOIJO  the  first  intercolonial  Congress  (called 
to  consider  an  attack  on  Canada )  was  held  in  New 
York — IMassachusetls,  Plymouth,  Connecticut, 
Maryland,  and  New  York  being  represented — and 
in  tlie  same  year  the  only  Mayor  elected  by  the 
people  until  after  1S32  was  chosen,  Slaver.v  had 
been  introduced  in  1025:  in  1712  a  negro  insur- 
rection was  put  down  with  much  cruelt.v,  twenty- 
one  negroes  being  executed  (some  bv  burning, 
others  by  hanging,  and  one  by  breaking  on  the 
wheel)  :  and  in  1741  the  discovery  of  a  supposed 
jdot,  'The  Great  Negro  Plot,'  caused  a  panic, 
during  which  four  whites  were  executed,  and 
154  negroes  were  arrested,  of  whom  13  were 
burned  at  the  stake,  18  were  hanged,  and  71  were 
transported.  In  1693  William  Bradford  set  up 
the  lirst  printing  press  in  New  York;  in  1703 
the  first  free  school  was  opened;  and  in  1725  the 
first  newspaper,  the  New  York  Gazette,  was 
founded.  A  city  library  was  organized  in  1729, 
and  a  classical  academy  was  opened  in  1732. 
In  1731  a  new  charter,  known  as  the  'Mont- 
gonierie  Charter,'  was  granted  to  the  city.  In 
1  1732  a  monthly  stage  was  established  between 
I  New  York  and  Boston,  the  trip  taking  two  weeks 
each  way,  and  in  1750  a  Philadelpliia  stage,  tak- 
ing 'three  days  through  onl.y,'  began  numing. 
John  Peter  Zenger.  who  had  founded  the  Netv 
I  York  Weekly  Journal  in  1733.  was  arrested  and 
prosecuted  for  libel  by  the  authorities  in  1734,  but 
he  was  acquitted  in  the  following  year  after  a  fa- 
I  mous  trial — his  acquittal  being  regarded  as  the 
\  greatest  vindication  in  the  colonial  period  of  the 
\  freedom  of  the  press.  See  Zenger,  John  Peter. 
In  1705  the  Stamp  Act  Congress  (See  Stamp 
Act)  met  in  New  York,  and  on  Januar.v  18. 
1770.  nearly  seven  weeks  before  the  Boston  ilassa- 
cre,  British  soldiers  killed  one  citizen  ami  wounded 
three  in  a  riot  caused  bv  the  destruction  by  the 
soldiers  of  a  liberty  pole  set  up  bv  the  'Sons 
of    Liberty,'     This  'riot,    called    the'   'Battle    of 


Golden  Hill,'  is  ranked  by  some  writers  as  "the 
first  contlict  of  the  \\  ;>r  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion." In  1774,  during  the  excitement  over  the 
tea  tax,  a  ship  loaded  with  tea  was  sent  back  to 
England,  and  the  cargo  of  another  was  thrown 
overboard.  When  news  of  the  battle  of  Lexing- 
ton reached  New  York,  a  'Committee  of  Safety' 
assumed  control  of  the  citv,  and  (iovernor  Tryon 
took  refuge  on  a  British  man-of-war.  In  the 
early  summer  of  1770  a  large  part  of  the  Ameri- 
can troops  were  quartered  in  New  York.  On 
Jul.v  Sth,  in  the  presence  of  Washington,  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  was  for  the  first 
time  publiel.y  read  to  them,  and  on  the  9th  the 
equestrian  statue  of  George  III.,  erected  on 
Bowling  Cireen  in  1770.  was  torn  down.  On 
September  14.  1770,  a  short  time  after  the  battle 
of  Long  Island  (q.v. ),  the  city  was  evacuated 
by  the  Americans  and  was  occupied  on  the  fol- 
lowing day  by  the  British,  who  held  it  until 
November  25.  1783 — 'Evacuation  Dav,'  On  Sep- 
tember 15,  1776,  a  large  portion  of  the  cit.v  was 
destroyed  by  fire.  During  the  British  occupation 
the  city  was  the  refuge  of  Lovalists.  who  came 
from  all  quarters  to  take  advantage  of  British 
protection,  many  of  the  more  wealth.y  and  inHu- 
ential  residents  joining  their  ranks.  From  1785 
to  1790  Congress  met  in  New  York  in  the  old  City 
Hall,  at  the  corner  of  Wall  and  Nassau  streets, 
and  here  Washington  was  inaugurated,  April  30, 
1789. 

In  1785  a  manumission  societ.y  was  formed 
and  the  Bank  of  New  York  was  organized.  In 
1789  the  Tamman.v  Society  (q.v.)  or  C(dumbian 
Order  was  organized.  During  an  epidemic  of 
yellow  fever,  from  October,  1794,  to  .July,  1795, 
more  than  000  jiersons,  and  during  another  in 
1798  more  than  2000  persons,  died.  In  1790 
the  population  numbered  33.131,  and  the  city 
limits  were  extended  to  the  lower  line  of  the 
present  Cit.v  Hall  Park.  In  1805  the  population 
was  78,770,  and  since  then,  especiallv  after  the 
War  of  I8I2,  when  immigration  greatl.v  in- 
creased, the  growth  has  been  ver.v  rapid.  In 
1807  Fulton's  steamboat,  the  Clermont,  began 
running  regularl.v  between  New  York  and  Albany. 
In  1812  a  steam  ferry  to  Long  Island  was  opened, 
and  a  line  of  Sovuul  steamers  was  established  in 
1818,  while  in  1819  the  .S'l/fOii/ia/i,  built  in  New 
Y'ork,  successfully  crossed  the  Atlantic.  The 
Erie  Canal,  begun  in  1817,  was  completed  in 
1825 — the  first  boat,  iS'ejieco  Chief,  reaching  New 
Y'ork  on  November  4th — and  gave  an  extraor- 
dinarv  ini])etus  to  the  growth  of  the  city.  In 
1832  an  epidemic  of  cholera  caused  the  death 
of  4000  persons,  and  another  two  .years  later 
caused  the  death  of  nearly  1000."  In  1835, 
December  10-19.  occurred  the  most  disastrous 
fire  in  the  history  of  tlie  citv.  tlie  entire  east 
side  below  Wall  Street,  including  about  ti5()  stores, 
the  Merchants'  Exchange,  an<l  the  South  Dutch 
Church,  being  destroyed,  with  a  loss  of  almost 
.$10,000,000.  The  fin;incial  panic  of  1837  caused 
many  failures,  and  the  great  destitution  and 
snfl'ering  in  the  cit.v  led  to  the  Bread  Kiots  of 
>that  year.  From  1820  to  1870  riots  were  fre- 
quent, one  of  the  most  serious  being  the  Astor 
Place  Riot  (q.v.)  of  May  10.  1849.  in  which 
141  soldiers  were  wounded,  while  34  rioters  were 
killed  and  nianv  more  were  wounded.  In  the 
same  year  more  than  500r^  persons  died  of  the 
cholera.  Another  riot  occurred  in  1857.  growing 
out  of  a  conflict  between  two  police  organizations. 


NEW  YORK. 


518 


NEW  YORK  BAT. 


when  the  Seventh  Regiment  of  militia  was  called 
out  to  preserve  the  peace.  The  Croton  aqueduct 
was  completed  in  1842:  and  on  July  14,  1853, 
the  Crystal  Palace  Industrial  E.vhibition  was 
opened  on  what  is  now  Bryant  Square.  Another 
severe  financial  panic  occurred  in  1857.  followed  by 
suspension  of  banks  and  business  failures. 

On  the  approach  of  the  Civil  War  nianv  in  the 
city  seemed  to  favor  the  South,  and  in  January, 
18G1.  the  Mayor,  Fernando  Wood  (q.v.).  pro- 
claimed secession  to  be  "a  fi.xed  fact.'  and  pro- 
posed that  an  independent  commonwealth,  to  be 
called  "Tri-lnsula,'  be  formed  out  of  Manhattan, 
Long,  and  Staten  Islands.  The  city,  however, 
loyally  supported  the  Union  during  the  war, 
sending  to  the  front  116.382  soldiers  at  a  cost 
of  about  .^14,500.000.  In  July,  ISCS.  occurred 
the  Draft  Riots  (q.v.),  lasting  three  days, 
during  which  business  was  siispended.  prop- 
erty worth  more  than  $1,500,000  was  de- 
stroyed, and  more  than  1000  lives  were 
lost.  Tlie  city  sufTered  for  several  years 
from  frauds,  perpetrated  by  the  "Tweed  Ring,' 
which  controlled  municipal  affairs,  but  in 
1871  the  ■Ring'  was  convicted  of  having  robbed 
the  city  of  more  than  $20,000,000,  and  was  ef- 
fectually broken  up.  (See  Tweed.  Wili.i.\m  M. ) 
In  1869  a  financial  panic,  caused  by  the  effort  to 
'comer'  gold,  culminated  on  "Black  Fridax-* 
(Septemlier  24th).  gold  then  being  at  162'-!.. 
The  financial  panic  of  1873  caused  the  greatest 
suffering  in  Xew  York  City,  although  its  growth 
continued  unabated.  On  ilay  24,  1883,  the  Brook- 
lyn Bridge  was  formally  opened,  and  in  1886  the 
Bartholdi  Statue  of  Liberty  was  unveiled.  Xew 
York  has  been  the  scene  of  many  imposing  pro- 
cessions and  celebrations:  On  the  occasion  of 
Lafayette's  visit  in  1824:  the  celebration  of  the 
opening  of  the  Erie  Canal  in  1825:  the  funeral 
processions  of  Lincoln.  April  25.  1865.  and  of 
Oeneral  Grant.  August  8.  1885:  the  laying  of  the 
Atlantic  cable,  1858:  the  opening  of  the  Brook- 
lyn Bridge;  the  centennial  celebration  of  Wash- 
ington's inausniration  as  President  of  the  L'nited 
States,  in  1880  (from  April  29th  to  May  1st)  : 
the  Columbian  celebrations  of  October.  1892,  and 
April.  1893:  the  reception  to  the  Santiago  fleet 
in  1898:  and  the  Dewey  reception  in  1899. 

BiKUOGR.\pnv.  Lamb.  His/on/  of  the  City  of 
Yrir  York  (  Xew  York.  1880  >  :  Lossing.  History  of 
.Yrir  York  City  (ib..  1885)  :  Roosevelt.  History  of 
Xeir  York  (ib.,  18911  :  Wilson.  }frmorial  History 
of  the  City  of  Sew  York  (ib..  1891-93)  :  Janvier. 
In  Old  Xeir  York  ( ib..  1894 )  ;  Goodwin.  Royce.  and 
Putnam,  Historic  Seic  York  (ib..  1898)  :"  Leslin, 
History  of  (Ireatrr  Sew  York  ( ib..  18991:  Wil- 
son. .Yric  VorA-.OWanrfYrir( Philadelphia.  1903). 
Special  periods  are  treate<l  in  Guernsey.  .Yeir 
York  City  nnii  Vicinity  Diirintj  the  War  of  lSt2- 
lo.  vol.  i.  (Xew  York,  1890);  Phisterer.  .Y«-ir 
York  in  the  War  o(  the  Krhillion  (Albany, 
1890)  ;  Colton,  Annals  of  OW  Manhalttin.  IGOb- 
€i  ( ib..  1902);  Inness.  .Yrir  Amsterdam  and  Its 
People  (ib..  1903).  Consult,  also,  for  a  popular 
treatment  of  the  city  government.  Coler.  .l/ii- 
nieiiial  Government  .(Xew  York.  1900)  ;  for  the 
financial  history.  Durand.  The  Finances  of  Sew 
York  City  ( ib..  1898)  ;  and  for  the  economic  im- 
provement, Riis,  Hotr  the  Other  Half  Lives  (ib., 
18901  :  id..  The  Battle  tcith  the  Slum   (ib.,  1902). 

NEW  YORK,  Cou-EHF.  of  the  Citt  of.  A 
pulilic  institution  of  learning  in  Xew  York  City, 


established  by  the  Board  of  Education  of  the 
city  in  1848,  and  originally  known  as  the  Free 
Academy.  Collegiate  powers  were  granted  to  it 
in  1858,  and  in  1866  it  assumed  its  present 
name.  The  members  of  the  Board  of  Education 
were  ex-oflicio  trustees  of  the  college  until  in 
1900  a  separate  board  of  trustees  was  created, 
composed  of  nine  members  appointed  by  the 
Mayor,  with  the  president  of  the  college  and 
the  president  of  the  Board  of  Education  as  ex- 
officio  members.  In  1SS2  the  requirement  of  one 
year's  previous  attendance  at  the  public  schools 
of  the  city  was  repealed,  and  the  college  was 
thrown  open  to  all  young  men  of  the  city.  In 
1900  the  length  of  the  course  was  increased  from 
five  years  to  seven,  comprising  three  years'  at- 
tendance in  the  preparatory  department  and  fotir 
years  of  collegiate  work.  There  are  five  courses 
of  study,  leading  to  the  degrees  of  B.A.  or  B.S. 
The  M.A.  and  M.S.  degrees  are  conferred  after 
two  years  of  additional  study.  Instruction  and 
the  use  of  text-books  and  apparatus  are  free  to 
students.  The  college  was  one  of  the  first  in- 
stitutions to  establish  a  separate  chair  of  Eng- 
lish and  to  make  manual  training  a  part  of 
the  curriculum.  In  1902  the  process  of  securing 
a  new  site  for  the  college,  then  situated  at. 
Lexington  Avenue  and  Twenty-third  Street,  wns 
completed.  The  new  home  of  the  college  is  lo- 
cated in  the  block  bounded  by  138th  and  l40tli 
streets.  Saint  Xicholas  Terrace,  and  Convent 
Avenue.  Ground  was  broken  on  March  10.  1903, 
and  the  erection  of  new  buildings,  estimated  to 
cost  .$4,000,000.  was  begun.  In  1903  the  collegiate 
department  had  an  attendance  of  817.  and  the 
preparatory  department  997.  The  instructors 
numbered  110.  The  buildings  and  grounds  on 
the  old  site  were  valued  at  .?846.500.  and  the  new 
grounds  at  .?S00.000.  the  total  value  of  the  college 
property  being  .$1,646,500,  and  its  income  $299.- 
362.  The  library  contained  34.911  volumes  and 
2000  pamphlets.  During  the  first  half  century 
of  the  history  of  the  institution  there  were  but 
two  presidents.  Horace  Webster  (1848-69)  and 
Gen.  Alexander  S.  Webb  (1869-1901).  both 
graduates  of  West  Point,  and  the  discipline  and 
curriculum  have  been  greatly  influenced  by  that 
institution.  In  1903  John  Uuston  Finley.  pro- 
fessor of  politics  at  Princeton  L'niversity.  be- 
came president. 

NEW  YORK  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES, 
The.  .\n  a— u<  {.ntion  incorporated  in  Hl^^  as 
The  Lyceum  of  Matural  History  in  the  City  of 
Xrtc  York^  which  was  exchanged  in  1876  for  the 
present  name.  In  1902  the  Academy  was  em- 
powered by  legislative  enactment  to  obtain  fimds 
and  erect  a  building  for  scientific  uses,  and  to 
exercise  such  other  powers  as  apiwrtain  to  the 
s<'oi>e  of  such  institutions.  Meml>ersliip  in  the 
Academy  consists  of  four  classes:  active  mem- 
bers, fellows,  corresponding  meml>ers,  and  hon- 
orary members.  Fellows  are  chos«"n  from  the 
active  members  in  virtue  of  their  scientific  at- 
tainments. The  numlier  of  correspfinding  mem- 
l>ors  is  limited  to  two  hundred,  and  honoraiy 
memliers  to  fifty.  The  following  sections  of  the 
Academy  are  in  active  operation:  astronomy, 
phytic*,  and  chemistry;  biology:  gt'ologj"  and 
mineralogv-;  anthropology  and  psychology".  The 
Aca.l.iny  iuilili-lii<  Annals  and  Memoirs. 

NEW  YORK  BAT.     See  Red  Bat. 


NEW  YORK  HISTORICAL  SOCIETY.       51!) 


NEW  YORK  UNIVERSITY. 


NEW  YORK  HISTORICAL  SOCIETY.     A 

society  t'liiiui'd  tor  thu  cDllwtiuii  ami  [Husci  \utioii 
of  niati'rials  relating  to  tlie  national,  I'ivic,  or 
ecclesiastical  history  of  tlie  United  States  in 
general,  and  tlic  State  of  New  York  in  particu- 
lar. The  idea  of  such  a  society  was  first  agitated 
in  ilassacluisetts  in  1789  by  .John  Pintard,  but  it 
was  not  until  Xoveiubcr  20,  1804,  that  the  New 
York  Historical  Society  was  organized  by  a  num- 
ber of  leading  citizens,  among  them  De  Witt 
Clinton.  Anthony  Bleecker.  and  Peter  G.  Stuy- 
vesant.  The  history  of  the  .society  since  that 
time  ha.s  been  one  of  earnest  elTort  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  library  and  museum,  a  gallery  of  paint- 
ings, a  de|)artment  of  antiquities,  and  other  fea- 
tures in  whieli  it  has  been  eminently  successful. 
The  library  has  a  choice  and  valuable  collection 
of  books,  lithographs,  maps,  manuscri])ts.  en- 
gravings, etc..  besides  a  collection  of  works  on 
heraldry.  The  picture  gallery  contain.s  889  paint- 
ings, of  which  about  200  are  portraits,  and  600 
pieces  of  sculpture,  mostly  portrait  busts  and 
medallions.  The  collection  includes  the  New 
Y'ork  Gallery  of  Fine 'Arts,  the  works  of  the 
American  Art  Union,  the  Bryan  Gallery  of  Old 
Wasters,  the  Durr  Collection,  and  the  original 
water  colors  prepared  by  Audubon  for  his  work 
on  natural  history.  In  the  department  of  an- 
tiquities there  is  the  Abbott  collection  of  Egyp- 
tian anti(|uities,  considered  one  of  the  greatest  in 
the  world.  The  society  spent  the  first  five  years 
of  its  exi.stence  (1804-09)  in  old  Federal  Hall, 
on  Wall  Street.  It  occupied  rooms  in  tlie  Gov- 
ernment House  from  1809  to  1810;  in  the  New 
York  Institution  from  181G  to  1832;  in  Remson's 
Building.  Broadway,  from  1832  to  1837;  in  the 
Stuyvesant  Institute  from  1837  to  1841  ;  and  in 
the  New  Y'ork  Univer.sity  from  1841  to  1857. 
Since  18.57  it  has  been  installed  in  the  building 
at  170  Second  Avenue. 

NEW  YORK  PUBLIC  LIBRARY.  Tlie 
New  Y'ork  I'ulilic  Library.  Astor,  Leno-\,  and  Til- 
den  foundations,  was  formed  by  the  consolidation 
on  ilay  23,  1895,  of  the  A"stor  Library,  the 
Leno.x  Library,  and  the  Tilden  Trust. 

The  Astor  Library,  incorporated  Januaiy  18, 
1849,  was  founded  by  John  Jacob  Astor,  who 
bequeathed  $400,000  to  establish  a  free  public  li- 
brary; gifts  from  other  members  of  the  Astor 
family  trebled  its  buildings,  added  largely  to  its 
book  collections,  and  increased  its  endowment  to 
$941,000  in  1895.  Opened  February  1,  1854.  with 
about  80.000  volumes,  in  1895  it  had  207,147 
volumes. 

The  Leno.x  Library,  incorporated  January  20, 
1870,  received  from  James  Lenox  his  library,  art 
collection,  its  site  and  building,  and  an  endow- 
ment amounting  to  $505,500  in  1895.  It  was  not 
a  general  reference  library,  but  an  institution  for 
the  exhibition  and  scholarly  use  of  book  rarities. 
In   1895  it  contained  80,000  volumes. 

The  Tilden  Trust  was  incorporated  March  20. 
1887.  Toil  (before  incorporation )  Samuel  .Jones 
Tilden  had  be(|ueatlied  his  private  library.  20.000 
vohimes,  and  the  bulk  of  his  estate,  over  $5,000.- 
000.  to  estalilish  a  free  public  library.  The  will 
was  contested  and  the  trust  provisions  declared 
invalid.  By  a  compromise  agreement  the  execu- 
tors secured  for  the  trust  about  $2,000,000.  part 
of  the  share  of  one  of  the  heirs. 

The  new  corporation  had  an  endowment  of 
about  $3,44G..500,  owned  the  Astor  and  Lenox  li- 


brary sites,  and  posses.sed  353,147  volumes  and 
pamphlets.  Through  an  address  to  the  Mayor 
legislative  permission  was  secured  May  19,  1897, 
for  an  issue  of  bonds  by  the  city  to  construct  a 
building  on  the  reservoir  site  at  Forty-second 
Street  and  Fifth  Avenue,  and  to  contract  with 
the  library  for  its  occupancy.  Plans  were 
adopted  November  10,  1897,  and  the  corner  stone 
was  laid  November  10,  1902. 

On  December  11,  IflOO,  the  New  Y'ork  Free 
Circulating  Library  oH'ered  to  consolidate;  the 
otter  was  accepted  and  on  February  25,  1901,  re- 
organization was  completed.  The  following  li- 
braries also  came  into  the  system :  Saint  Agnes 
Free  Library  on  Augu.st  1.  1901;  Washington 
Heights  Free  I^ibrary  on  Deccmlier  1,  1901;  the 
New-  Y'ork  Free  Circulating  Library  for  the  Blind 
on  February  21,  1903;  and  the  Aguilar  Free  Li- 
brary on  I'"ebruary  28,  1903.  By  these  accessions 
the  circulation  department  consisted  on  March  1, 
1903,  of  18  branch  libraries,  owning  320.816 
volumes. 

On  March  12,  1901,  Andrew  Carnegie  offered  to 
give  about  $5,200,000  to  erect  branch  libraries  in 
New  Y'ork  City,  if  the  city  would  furnish  sites 
and  maintain  the  branch  libraries  when  built. 
An  act  passed  April  20,  1901,  permitted  the  city 
to  accept  such  a  gift,  and  in  a  contract  executed 
July  17,  1901,  between  the  city  and  the  library 
acting  as  Carnegie's  agent,  the  city  agreed 
to  provide  42  (later  increa.sed  to  65)  sites  in 
Manhattan,  Bronx,  and  Kichmond,  on  which  the 
library  agreed  to  ^rect  buildings  with  funds  pro- 
vided by  Carnegie,  the  city  agreeing  to  pay 
annually  for  their  maintenance  one-tenth  of  the 
sum  expended  by  Carnegie.  The  first  build- 
ing so  erected,  on'  East  Seventy-ninth  Street,  for 
the  Y'orkville  branch,  was  opened  December  13, 
1902;  the  second,  for  the  Chatham  Square  branch, 
was  opened  in  the  summer  of  1903;  four  more 
will  be  ready  by  the  end  of  the  year. 

In  the  new  institution  the  500  periodicals  re- 
ceived in  1895  have  increased  to  4500  in  1903; 
the  annual  receipts  of  12.483  volumes  and  2599 
pamphlets  in  1895  increased  to  65,381  volumes 
and  87,808  pamphlets  in  1902;  the  94,331  readers 
consulting  260,694  volumes  in  1895  increased  to 
165,434  readers  consulting  410,671  volumes;  and 
the  total  of  353,147  pieces  available  to  readers  in 
1895  amounted  to  1,131,901  on  March  1,  1903. 

NEW  YORK  UNIVERSITY.  An  institu- 
tion of  higher  learning  in  New  Y'ork  City.  It 
had  its  inception  at  a  meeting  of  citizens  of  high 
business  and  professional  standing  in  the  rooms 
of  the  New  York  Historical  Society.  January  4, 
1830,  when  a  committee  of  nine  was  elected  to 
proceed  in  the  establishment  of  a  new  university 
on  a  liberal  and  comprehensive  foundation.  The 
committee  secured  a  long  list  of  subscribers  to 
the  undertaking  and  finally  merged  its  existence 
into  that  of  the  first  L^niversity  Council  elected 
by  the  subscribers.  October  16.  1830.  and  char- 
tered April  18,  1831.  The  original  university 
building  was  erected  in  1835  on  Washington 
Square.  The  I'niversity  College  w-as  opened  in 
1832;  the  Law  School  in  1835;  the  Medical  School 
in  1841;  the  School  of  .Ajiplied  Science  (formerly 
Civil  Engineering)  in  1862;  the  Graduate  School 
in  1886;  the  School  of  Pedagogy  in  1890;  the 
Veterinary  College  (incorporated  w^ith  the  uni- 
versity) in  1898:  and  the  School  of  Commerce  in 
1900.     The  greatest  era  of  development   in  the 


NEW  YORK  UNIVERSITY. 


520 


NEW  ZEALAND. 


history  of  the  university  was  the  period  between 
ISIIO  and  lUOO.  In  ISltl  the  grouiuis  on  Univer- 
sity Heiglits  overlooking  the  Harlem  Kiver  were 
acquired,  and  in  1894  the  College  of  Arts  and 
Pure  Science  and  the  School  of  Applied  Science 
were  removed  to  the  new  site,  the  schools  of  Law 
and  PcdagofTi-  and  a  part  of  the  Graduate  School 
remaining  iii  a  new  structure  un  Washington 
Square.  The  various  schodls  hitherto  IcHisely  con- 
nected were  now  reorganized  into  one  university 
system.  The  university  in  I'Mi  comprised  si.x 
faculties  besides  the  School  of  Commerce,  the 
Woman's  Law  Class,  and  the  Summer  School, 
having  in  all  212  professors  and  instructors,  and 
2101  students.  (1)  University  College  confers 
the  degrees  of  B.A.  and  P..S.  (2)  The  University 
Law  School  (coeducational)  confers  the  degrees 
of  LL.B.,  LL.M.,  and  J.D.  (3)  The  Medical 
College,  together  with  the  Veterinary  Col- 
lege, confers  the  degrees  of  iLD.,  D.S.,  and  D.V.S. 
(4)  The  School  of  Applied  Science  confers  the  de- 
grees of  C.E.  and  M.E.  (5)  The  CJraduate  School 
confers  the  degrees  of  M.A.,  M.S.,  Ph.M.,  and 
Ph.D.  (6)  The  School  of  Pedagogy  confers  the 
degrees  of  Pd.JI.  and  Pd.D.  The  School  of  Com- 
merce, Accounts,  and  Finance  confers  the  degree 
of  B.C.S.  (bachelor  of  commercial  science).  The 
Summer  School  had  in  1002  12  instructors  and 
11.3  students.  The  library  of  the  university  con- 
tained in  1002  over  .5.5.000  volumes,  including 
the  Oswald  Ottendorfer  Collection.  The  campus 
covers  about  22  acres,  and  its  chief  architectural 
feature  is  the  librarj-  building,  completed  in 
1000.  at  a  cost  of  .$7.50.000.  An  open  colonnade 
known  as  the  Hall  of  Fame  (q.v.)  extends  partly 
around  the  library,  overlooking  the  Harlem.  The 
total  value  of  the  buildings  and  grounds  in  1002 
was  .$2.045,:542;  the  endowment  was  $2,080,179; 
the  gross  income  $407.8.30,  and  the  total  value  of 
the  college  property  $.5,02.5.522.  The  government 
of  the  university  is  vested  in  a  Senate  consisting 
of  the  chancellor,  the  deans  of  the  several  schools, 
and  six  professors  elected,  one  from  each  school, 
together  with  advisory  members.  The  chancellors 
of  the  university  have  been  .James  Matthews, 
Theodore  Frelinghuysen.  Isaac  Ferris,  Howard 
Cro-liy.  .loliM  Hall,  lliiuy  M.  >LacCracken. 

NEW  YORK  WEASEL.     See  Weasel. 

NEW  ZEALAND,  ze'h/nd.  .\  liriti-h  col- 
onv  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  situated  between 
latitudes  34°  2.5'  and  47°  17'  S.,  and  lM>tween 
longitudes  Ififi"  26'  and  178°  .36'  E.,  n  little  more 
than  1000  miles  sotitheast  of  the  Australian  con- 
tinent. New  Zealand  proper  consists  of  two  large 
islands.  North  Island  and  South  or  iliddlc  Island, 
separated  by  Cook  Strait,  from  16  to  100  miles 
wide,  and  of  a  smaller  island,  Stewart  Island, 
lying  25  miles  south  of  South  Island,  from  wliich 
it  is  separated  by  Foveaux  Strait.  Several  of  the 
outlying  groujis.  known  as  the  Auckland.  Chat- 
ham, Cook,  Kermadee  islands,  and  other  small 
islets,  are  also  attached  to  the  colony.  The  area 
of  North  Island  is  44.468  square  mijes.  of  South 
Island  58.52ri,  and  of  Stewart  Island  665  square 
miles.  The  totnl  area  of  the  colony  is  estimated 
at  104.471  square  miles,  being  nearly  equal  to 
that  of  Italy,  to  which  penins\ila  the  shape  of 
New  Zealand  bears  a  striking  resemblance. 

TopocBAPiiv.  The  surface  of  North  Island  is 
in  the  main  gently  umliilating.  with  low  hills  and 
tablelands  densely  forested.  There  are,  however, 
several  volcanic  peaks  in  this  island,  from  4000 


to  over  9000  feet  high.  Of  these  Tarawera  and 
Tongariro,  on  the  mainland,  and  Whakari,  in  the 
Bay  of  Plenty,  are  active  volcanoes,  while  the 
highest  extinct  cones  are  Ruapehu(0715  feet) and 
Mount  Egmont  or  Taranaki.  The  latter  is  a  soli- 
tary peak  standing  at  the  west  entrance  to  Cook 
Strait.  It  is  8270  feet  high,  and  its  summit  is 
covered  with  perpetual  snow.  South  Island  dif- 
fers in  a  marked  degree  from  North  Island.  It 
has  no  volcanoes,  but  along  its  whole  western 
coast  runs  a  lofty  and  rugged  mountain  range 
known  as  the  Southern  Alps,  which  rivals  the 
European  Alps  in  its  wild  mountain  scenery.  It 
has  a  height  of  from  8000  to  over  12.000  feet, 
Mount  Cook,  the  highest  ])oint,  lieing  12,340  feet 
above  the  sea.  It  is  deeply  cleft,  with  numerous 
ravines  and  precipices,  while  on  the  western 
slope  there  are  great  glaciers,  in  some  places 
reaching  within  a  few  hundred  feet  of  the  sea. 
The  range  is  generally  covered  with  forests  to 
the  snow  line.  On  the  eastern  tlank  of  the  Alps 
is  a  plateau  hounded  by  a  lower  range  nmning 
through  the  centre  of  the  island,  from  which  the 
land  descends  in  terraced,  grassy  plains  to  the 
eastern  coast. 

The  coast-line  of  New  Zealand  measures  about 
3000  miles,  two-thirds  of  which  forms  the  coast 
of  North  Island,  which  is  mucl\  indented  with 
bays,  two  of  them  almost  separating  the  north- 
western peninsula  from  the  mainland.  Really 
good  harbors,  however,  are  few,  as  most 
of  the  bays  are  obstructed  l)y  liars.  The 
best  harbors  are  those  of  Auckland  and 
Wellington.  The  rivers  are  .small  and  un- 
important, the  largest  being  the  Waikato,  in 
North  Island.  The  lakes  by  contrast  are  inter- 
esting. Those  in  North  Island  are  of  volcanic 
origin.  The  largest  is  Lake  Taupo,  with  a  di- 
ameter of  22  miles  and  an  enormous  depth.  The 
region  surrounding  it  is  full  of  hot  springs  and 
geysers,  among  which  rose  the  famous  pink  and 
white  terraces  of  siliceous  deposits  which  were 
destroyed  by  an  eruption  in  1886.  In  South  Isl- 
and, along  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Alps,  extends 
a  series  of  elongated  mountain  lakes  supposed  to 
be,  like  the  deep  fiords  of  the  southwest  coast, 
of  glacial  origin.  The  largest  is  Wakatipu.  which 
is  said  to  rival  Lake  Lucerne  in  beauty.  Though 
its  surface  is  1060  feet  above  sea-level,  its  bottom, 
is  in  some  places  .500  feet  below. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  varied,  but  in  gen- 
eral equable,  with  no  intense  heat  or  cold.  The 
mean  temperature  for  .lanuary  is  08°  in  the 
north  and  58°  in  the  south:  for  .Tune  it  is  51° 
in  the  north  and  40°  in  the  south.  Frost  is  al- 
most tmknown  in  North  Island.  The  rainfall 
varies  from  28  inches  in  the  east  to  over  100 
inches  on  the  west  coast.  The  coast  districts  are 
very  windy,  which  fact  contributes  toward  ren- 
dering the  climate  healthful. 

Flora.  The  flora  is  poor  in  species,  but  two- 
thirds  of  the  indigenous  forms  are  entirely  pe- 
culiar to  the  islands,  and  20  of  its  genera  are 
represented  nowhere  else.  The  forests  as  well  as 
the  vegetation  generally  are  characterized  by  a 
dull  monotonous  green,  there  being  very  few 
plants  with  conspicuous  flowers.  Though  the 
flora  is  related  to  that  of  .\ustralia.  as  well  as 
to  South  .America  and  the  .\ntarctic  islands, 
some  of  the  most  common  .■\ustralian  genera, 
such  as  F.urnhiptuft  and  Araria,  are  absent. 
The  ferns,  mosses,  and  hepatieas  are  especially 
ab\indant    and    characteristic,    large    tracts    of 


NEW  ZEALAND. 


521 


NEW  ZEALAND. 


open  land  on  the  lower  hills  ami  plateaus  being 
covered  with  ferns,  among  whieli  the  palm-like 
tree-ferns,  reaching  a  height  of  30  to  40  feet, 
are  prominent.  The  Xikau  palm  { IlliopalastyUs 
sapida)  is  found  in  North  Island,  this  being  the 
extreme  southern  limit  of  true  palms.  One  of 
the  most  common  forest  trees  is  the  magnificent 
kauri  pine  (Daimiuira  auslralis) .  It  yields  fine 
timber  and  a  valuable  gum,  and  has  been  reck- 
lessly cut  bv  settlers.  The  output  of  this  gum 
in  litOO  was 'll, 116  tons,  valued  at  £007,910. 

FACN-i.  The  fauna  is,  like  the  flora,  character- 
ized by  a  great  paucity  of  species.  There  is  prob- 
ably not  a  single  indigenous  mammal,  the  dogs 
ami  rats  found  by  the  European  discoverers  hav- 
ing been  almost  certainly  introduced  by  the  na- 
tives. There  are  few  reptiles,  and  no  snakes, 
but  several  peculiar  lizards.  Insects  are  also 
few,  as  are  the  fresh-water  fishes ;  and  birds 
form  almost  the  only  group  of  animals  that  is 
well  represented.  There  are  about  150  species  of 
birds,  most  of  which  are  aquatic,  and  nearly  all 
are  peculiar  to  the  islands.  They  include  many 
beautiful  foi'ms,  pigeons  and  parrots  being  espe- 
cially numerous.  Tlie  kiwi,  a  wingless  and  tail- 
less bird  of  the  size  of  a  hen,  is  the  sole  sur- 
vivor of  a  large  group  of  similar  birds,  including 
the  gigantic  moa,  which  formerly  inhabited  New 
Zealand.  A  considerable  number  of  European 
forms,  both  plants  and  animals,  have  been  intro- 
duced, wild  pigs  being  very  common. 

Geology  and  Miner.^ls.  North  Island  is  es- 
sentially volcanic  in  structure  and  origin,  while 
South  Island  consists  largely  of  ancient  meta- 
morphic  and  sedimentary  rocks,  slates,  granites, 
and  Silurian  sand  and  limestones,  with  small 
areas  of  Jlesozoic  and  Tertiary  strata.  Coal  is 
found  under  a  considerable  area  in  South  Island, 
and  to  some  extent  in  North  Island.  Gold  exists 
chiefly  under  the  glacial  drift  and  in  the  sands 
along  the  seashore.  Silver,  copper,  tin,  anti- 
mony, manganese,  and  chrome-iron  are  also 
found. 

Mining.  Up  to  the  end  of  the  year  1900  the 
total  mineral  product  amounted  to  £75,997,890, 
of  which  £57,400.100  was  gold.  The  most  pro- 
ductive gold  districts  are  Otago.  which  yielded 
over  £22.000.000,  Westland.  nearly  £18,000.000, 
Auckland,  and  Nelson.  As  compared  with  other 
Australasian  States.  New  Zealand  ranks  second 
in  the  total  gold  and  third  in  the  total  mineral 
output.  The  most  productive  period  of  gold-min- 
ing was  from  1802  to  187-3,  in  which  period 
nearly  one-half  of  the  whole  yield  was  secured. 
There  was  some  revival  in  the  industry  from 
1890  to  1900.  The  gold  exported  in  1901  amounted 
to  £1.753.784.  The  mining  of  gold  by  the  dredg- 
ing method  has  developed  extensively  in  the 
Chitha  River  bed  and  other  streams  of  that  dis- 
trict. Most  of  the  gold  from  South  Island 
was  secured  either  from  this  metliod  or  from 
hydraulic  sluicing.  Gold  from  the  Auckland  dis- 
trict was  secured  from  quartz  only,  as  was  also 
much  of  the  Westland  product.  The  cyanide 
process  is  being  adopted,  thus  resulting  in  a 
greatly  increased  per  cent,  of  the  ore  saved.  The 
next  most  important  mineral  mined  is  coal,  the 
total  production  of  which  through  1900  was  val- 
ued at  £7.088.393.  The  output  has  increased 
steadily  from  299,923  tons  in  1880  to  1,093.999 
in  1900.  In  1900  the  vield  of  kauri-tmni  (resin) 
was  11,110  tons,  valued  at  £007,919.  Tlie 
total  yield  to  the  end  of  1900  amounted  to  £10,- 


329,831.  Small  quantities  of  silver  and  silver- 
lead,  and  a  few  other  minerals  also,  are  mined. 

Agriculti'RE.  Agricultiire  together  with  graz- 
ing is  the  leading  occupation.  The  climatic  con- 
ditions are  more  favorable  for  general  agriculture 
than  in  any  of  the  States  of  the  Australian  Com- 
monwealth. The  rainfall  is  more  adecjuate,  and 
the  per  acre  yield  of  all  crops  much  greater.  The 
largest  farm  district  is  on  the  east  coast  of 
South  Island.  In  1902  there  were  in  the  colony 
02,780  agricultural  holdings,  with  a  total  of 
34.911,573  acres  occupied  (over  one-half  the 
total  area),  of  which  20.982,480  acres  are  under 
private  ownership,  the  balance  being  held  by  the 
Government.  About  two-thirds  of  the  total  area 
is  supposed  to  be  adaptable  to  agriculture  or 
grazing.  The  total  area  under  crops  increased 
from  08,.500  acres  in  1861  to  1,044,777  in  1891, 
and  to  1,578,958  in  1900-01.  Nearly  one-half 
of  the  acreage  i.s  under  green  crops,  mainly  tur- 
nips and  rape.  The  principal  other  crops  in  the 
last-mentioned  vear  were  oats,  449.534  acres; 
wheat,  200,405;  barley,  30,831 ;  hay,  68,023 ;  pota- 
toes, 28,524;  and  maize,  14,232  acres.  English 
grasses  grow  much  better  in  New  Zealand  than  in 
Australia,  and  the  acreage  sown  in  grass — 10,- 
244,739  in  1899 — was  14  times  more  than  that  of 
the  Australian  Commonwealth.  The  ])er  acre  yield 
of  the  artificial  grasses  is  many  times  that  of  the 
natural  grasses  in  Australia.  In  1900  there 
were  in  addition  to  the  sown  pasture  land  21,- 
857,909  acres  of  improved  land  in  the  occupied 
holdings  that  were  available  for  stock  feeding. 

Stock-R.\isixg.  Probabl.v  no  other  country 
of  similar  area  equals  New  Zealand  in  the  ex- 
tent of  its  sheep-grazing  interests.  The  number 
of  sheep  increased  steadilv  from  2.701,583  in 
1801  to  20,230,829  in  1894,  and  has  since  re- 
mained at  a  little  below  this  figure.  Recent 
years  have  shown  a  rapid  increase  in  the  niiniber 
and  a  decrease  in  the  size  of  flocks.  Another 
change  has  been  the  tendenc.v  to  raise  sheep  for 
meat  rather  than  for  wool  exclusivel.v.  Both  cat- 
tle and  horses  ai-e  steadil,v  increasing  in  number, 
the  former  numbering  in  1900  1,250.680  and  the 
latter  260,245.  In  the  same  year  there  were 
250.975  swine.  In  recent  years  dairying  has 
rapidl.v  developed  and  there  is  an  extensive  pro- 
duction of  butter  and  cheese.  The  industry  is 
carried  on  by  tlie  factory  method  through  the  co- 
operation of  small   farmers. 

MANUF.^CTrRiNG.  The  number  of  hands  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacturing  industry  increased 
from  22,095  in  1885  to  25,633  in  1890.  and  27,- 
389  in  1895.  The  value  of  the  products  increased 
.still  more  rapidly,  being  £9,549.300  in  the  last- 
named  year.  The  largest  item  in  tliis  amount 
was  frozen  and  preserved  meats,  followed  by 
the  tanning  and  wool-scouring  products,  and 
the  products  of  saw-mills,  grain-mills,  clothing 
and  boot  factories,  butter  and  cheese  factories, 
iron  and  brass  \vorks, 

TRAN.SPOKTATION  AND  COMMERCE.  In  1902  there 
were  2235  miles  of  railway  in  operation,  the  total 
cost  of  construction  being  £18.170.722.  The  prov- 
ince owns  and  operates  nearly  the  entire  railway 
system.  In  1901-02  the  net  earnings  amovinted 
to  £622.349.  In  1901-02  there  were  7.350,130 
passengers  carried,  or  more  than  twice  the  num- 
ber carried  in  1891-92.  There  are  tramwa.y  sys- 
tems in  all  the  principal  towns.  The  extensive 
insular  coast  line  and  many  harbors  nfi'nrd  excel- 
lent facilities  for  water  transportation  from  one 


NEW  ZEALAND. 


522 


NEW  ZEALAND. 


part  of  the  country  to  anutlier.  Considering  the 
smallness  of  the  population,  the  foreign  coninierce 
is  hirge.  In  I'JOO,  Gl(j  vessels  entered  New 
Zeahmd  ports,  with  a  tonnage  of  854,t)32.  Of 
these  372  were  from  the  Commonwealth  States, 
83  from  the  United  Kingdom  direet,  and  llil  from 
other  eountries.  The  total  tonnage  has  more 
than  doubled  sinee  1881.  Tlie  value  of  im'\)ort3 
increased  from  £U.-2()U.523  in  18'J0  to  £10,U4(i,0yij 
in  I'JOO.  and  tlie  value  of  exports  increased  during 
the  same  period  from  i'J.Sl  1,720  to  £13,240,101. 
Almost  tlie  whole  of  the  imports  is  for  home 
consumption  and  the  domestic  exports  are  of 
domestic  origin.  Xearly  three-quarters  of  the 
total  exports  are  eontrilmled  by  the  agricultural 
and  pastoral  industries,  wool  being  the  largest 
item,  followed  by  frozen  meat,  butter  and  cheese, 
and  grain.  The  export  of  frozen  meat  began  in 
1882  and  increased  steadily  until  1900.  when  it 
was  estimated  at  £2,123,881,  almost  the  whole 
of  which  went  to  England.  Cold  and  kauri-gum 
are  also  im])ortant  exports.  Al)Out  three-liftlis  of 
the  imports  arc  from  the  I'nited  Kingdom,  and 
over  three-fourths  of  the  exports  are  to  that  coun- 
try. In  the  trade  of  the  colony  the  Australian 
States  rank  second  and  the  United  States  third. 
The  imports  from  the  United  States  are  much 
in  excess  of  the  exports  to  the  United  States. 
Auckland,  Wellington.  IJlulV  Harbor,  Littleton, 
and  Dunedin  are  the  largest  ports. 

BaiNK.s.  Owing  to  the  active  participation  of 
the  colonial  Covi-rnment  in  the  economic  life  of 
the  comnuinily,  tlie  liehl  of  ])rivate  banking  is  a 
comparatively  limited  one.  In  18fl0  there  were 
five  commercial  banks,  and  in  I'JOO  the  same 
number.  The  deposits  have  increased  from  £343,- 
310  in  1857  to  £1.5.570.610  in  1900.  Of  the  five 
banks  two  are  New  Zealand  institutions  proper 
and  the  other  three  arc  branches  of  the  .Vustra- 
lian  banks.  The  Bank  of  Ni-w  Zealand  is  the 
mo>t  important  institution  and  is  semi-govern- 
mental in  its  nature.  Four  out  of  the  six  direct- 
ors are  (according  to  the  act  of  1898)  ajipointcd 
by  the  fiovernnient.  which  is  both  a  heavy  share- 
holder and  depositor.  Of  the  total  deposits  this 
bank  has  almost  50  per  cent.  The  whole  amount 
of  loans  ma<le  by  all  five  banks  in  1900  was  £12.- 
084,744,  of  which  30  per  cent,  were  made  by  the 
Hank  of  New  Zealand.  These  five  banks  are  also 
banks  of  issue.  Their  notes  are  not  legal  tenders, 
but  can  be  made  so  for  a  limited  time  by  a 
proclamation  of  the  Covernor.  In  1860  there 
were  six  private  savings  banks.  These  still  ex- 
isted in  1900.  with  31.475  depositors  and  £855.- 
792  deposits:  but  the  law  of  1867,  wliich  estab- 
lished the  postal  savings  system,  prohibited  the 
organization  of  other  ]irivate  savings  banks. 

Forty-six  banks  were  established  under  the 
postal  system  in  1807.  and  in  1900  there  were 
445.  The  number  of  accounts  increased  from 
2150  in  1807  to  197.408  in  1900.  and  the  sum  of 
dep<i.-its  from  £71.197  to  £5.809.5.52.  Nearly 
every  family  has  an  account.  The  public  trustee 
does  the  work  usually  done  in  the  t"nited  Slates 
by  the  private  trust  companies.  Also,  the  land 
registration  ofTiees  compete  with  the  private 
banks  in  holding  real  estate  mortgages.  The 
high  development  of  the  cooperative  s|)lrit  in 
New  Zealand  has  also  made  the  buildinj;  societies 
and  frien<lly  societies  successf\il.  The  cnvem- 
mental  iniurance  system  attracts  a  considerable 
amotint   of  the  people's  savings. 

Government.    The  Parliament  13  composed  of 


two  bodies,  the  Legislative  Council  and  the  House 
of  Representatives.  The  former  consists  (1902) 
of  44  and  the  latter  of  80  members.  They  hold 
ollice  for  seven  years  except  such  as  were  elected 
prior  to  September,  1891,  who  hold  for  life,  as  all 
members  did  before  that  date.  There  are  80  mem- 
bers in  the  other  House.  They  are  elected  for  three 
years.  All  registered  adults  of  either  .sex  who  have 
resided  in  the  colony  one  j'ear  and  three  months 
in  tlie  electoral  district  can  vote.  There  are  four 
native  ilaoris  in  the  Lower  House,  elected  by  the 
adult  (male  and  female)  native  population.  The 
administrative  function  is  in  the  hands  of  a  Gov- 
ernor, appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  the  Ministry 
of  eight  members.  The  tiovernor  has  the  power 
of  veto  over  bills  or  can  sulnnit  bills  for  con- 
sideration. He  summons,  prorogues,  and  dissolves 
Parliament.  For  ])ur|Hises  of  local  government 
the  country  is  divided  into  counties  and  boroughs, 
road  districts  and  town  districts. 

Fi.vANC'E.  The  participation  of  the  Government 
in  industrial  activities  resulted  in  large  annual 
receipts  and  expenditures  anil  in  a  heavy  debt. 
The  receipts  from  taxation  increased  from  £1.755,- 
414  in  1880-81  to  £3,042,890  in  1900-01,  and  re- 
ceipts from  other  sources  increased  during  the 
same  jieriod  from  £1.529,028  to  £2,804,020.  In 
the  fiscal  year  ending  in  1901  the  receipts  from 
the  custoius  amounted  to  £2.180.802,  being  the 
most  important  single  source  of  revenue.  In  the 
same  year  tlie  receipts  from  the  railroads  were 
£1.720.041  ;  frinn  stamps,  including  |)ost  and  tele- 
graph, £903,935;  from  land  tax,  £294,584;  and 
from  the  income  tax,  £173,809.  The  total  ex- 
penditure increased  meanwhile  from  £4.019.850  to 
£5.479,704.  and  the  public  delit  from  £28.185.711 
to  £49.591,245.  There  was  a  sinking  fund  in  1901 
of  £1.033.494.  The  largest  items  of  expenditure 
are  the  public  debt  charges,  £1.745,610,  and  rail- 
ways, £1,144,832.  Other  important  items  are 
education.  £481.087;  post  and  tidcgraph.  £410.- 
304:  and  the  constabulary  ami  defense.  £347.448. 
The  rate  of  increase  of  the  debt  of  the  colony  has 
not  been  nearly  so  rapid  as  that  of  its  wealth. 

Dkfexse.  All  the  principal  ports  are  stningly 
defended  by  means  of  batteries,  torpedo-boats, 
and  submarine  mines.  All  males  between  seven- 
teen anil  forty  years  and  unmarried  men  between 
sev<>nleen  and  forty-five  are  liable  to  military 
service.  In  1901  there  was  a  volunteer  force  of 
17.000   men. 

Sr.vTE  .\CTIVITIES.  New  Zealand  has  become 
well  known  because  of  the  various  ways  in  which 
the  functions  of  the  State  have  been  extended. 
The  tendency  in  this  direction  was  well  devel- 
oped prior  to  1890,  but  became  especially  marked 
about  that  time.  The  movement  has  been  the 
outgrowth  largely  of  the  inlluence  exerted  by  or- 
ganized labor  upon  legislation.  The  power  of 
this  element  has  been  exercised  through  the  exist- 
ing political  parties,  and  not  tliroiigh  the  agency 
of  any  |)oliti<-o-socialistic  organizations  such  as 
have  generally  sought  to  ailvancc  radical  niovc- 
menls  in  other  countries.  The  experiment,  for 
instance,  has  been  made  of  preventing  strikes 
and  lockouts  and  adjusting  questions  at  issue 
between  labor  and  capital  by  compulsory  con 
eiliation  and  arbitration.  Provisions  are  made 
I 
1 
t 

reached   the  question   can   lie  carried   to  the  cen- 
tral   court    of   arbitration.      The   decision   made 


eiliation   and   arbitration.      Provisions   are   made  1 

by  which  either  employers  or  trade  unions  may  f 

bring    the    dispute    before    a    board    of    concilia-  j 

tion.    and    if    a    satisfactory    aL'reement     is    not  ( 


NEW  ZEALAND. 


523 


NEW  ZEALAND. 


by  thi.s  court  is  final  and  is  enforced,  tlie  award 
against  an  assoeialiun,  however,  Ijeing  subject 
to  a  maximum  limit  of  £500.  In  practice  tlie 
plan  has  accomplished  the  purpose  intended, 
strikes  and  lockouts  having  been  wholly  pre- 
vented. A  number  of  other  measures  allecting 
labor  liave  been  carried  into  effect,  such  as  fae- 
tor.v  inspection,  prevention  of  child  laI)or,  speci- 
fication of  hours  of  labor,  and  the  occurrence  of 
holidays.  A  .system  of  old-age  pension  provides 
that  all  persons  of  good  elu^raeter  who  are  over 
si.\ty-five  years  of  age  and  have  been  twenty-five 
years  in  the  colony  may  be  pensioned  if  their 
income    falls   below    specified    limits. 

Another  phase  of  State  activity  receiving 
much  attention  has  lieen  the  public  land  polic}'. 
The  attempt  is  being  made  to  secure  and  retain 
the  public  ownership  of  the  land,  and  freehold 
is  gradually  giving  way  to  perpetual  lease.  The 
policy  of  eom|nilsory  purchase  has  resulted  in 
the  breaking  up  of  many  large  holdings  held 
largely  for  si)eculative  purposes,  and  has  secured 
a  genuine  settlement  upon  such  lands.  Ordi- 
narily purchases  are  afi'ected  by  friendly  negotia- 
tions, and  compulsion  is  not  often  necessary. 
Prior  to  JIarch,  1002.  £2. 117, .3.52  had  been  paid 
for  107  estates.  In  order  to  make  a  settlement 
and  improvement  of  the  land  possible  by  per- 
sons of  small  means,  the  Government  advances 
loans  to  the  settlers.  The  interest  charged  is 
5  per  cent.  Over  £3.000.000  has  been  lent 
in  this  way.  Lands  that  are  leased  are  leased 
for  090  years  subject  to  certain  conditions  of 
residence  and  improvements.  The  annual  rent.al 
is  fixed  at  4  per  cent,  on  the  cash  price  or 
'prairie  value'  of  the  land,  and  there  is  at 
no  time  a  right  to  purchase  the  freehold.  Dis- 
trict land  Imards  have  charge  of  the  transfer 
of  lands.  The  State  has  assumed  the  owner- 
ship of  a  number  of  utilities,  including  railroads, 
telegrajihs.  and  telephones,  and  engages  in  the 
life  insurance  and  the  banking  business.  The 
results  have  been  generally  satisfactory  to  the 
advocates  of  the  system.  The  colony  has  also 
taken  an  advanced  position  in  regard  to  taxation. 
The  colonial  property  tax  consists  solely  of  a 
progressive  land  tax.  The  system  exemjjts  small 
farmers  entirely.  Local  communities  have  the 
privilege  also  of  restricting  tax  levies  to  their 
land  values.  There  is  a  progressive  income  tax. 
\cw  Zealand  has  created  the  office  of  puVdic 
trustee,  whose  incumbent  has  care  of  intestate 
estates,  certain  private  trust  estates,  etc.  Any 
property-owner  has  the  right  of  appointing  him 
executor.  A  local  option  law  provides  that 
licensed  liquor  houses  may  be  abolished  by  a 
vote  of  three  to  two  in  any  district,  and  that 
the  mimber  of  them  must  be  reduced  if  de- 
manded by  a  majority  of  the  electors.  The 
question   is  voted  upon  ever\'  three  years. 

Population.  The  population  of  Xew  Zealand 
(exclusive  of  Maoris)  increased  from  70.711  in 
ISfiO  to  020,0.50  in  ISOO,  and  to  772,710  in  1001, 
the  density  of  population  being  7,30  to  the  square 
niile.  The  males  numbered  40.5,002,  females  360,- 
727,  Since  1841  the  per  cent,  of  increase  has 
exceeded  that  of  .Australia  for  evcrv  decade 
except  lSSl-01,  In  the  decade  1801-1000  the 
excess  of  arrivals  over  departirt'es  was  27,211. 
The  popidation  of  North  Island  slightly 
outnumbers  that  of  South  Island,  The  popu- 
lation is  qviite  homogeneous,  being  almost 
wholly  from  the  United  Kingdom.  There  are, 
Vol.  XIV,— 3t. 


however,  not  a  few  Germans  and  Scandinavians. 
The  immigration  of  colored  races  has  been  checked 
by  restrictive  governmental  measures.  The  Chi- 
nese have  decreased  in  number  and  were  only 
2702  in  1901.  The  Maoris  have  decreased  from 
70.000  (estimated)  in  1840  to  40,518  in  1901, 
including  5702  half-castes,  but  the  decrease  seems 
to  have  been  checked.  The  natives  are  allowed, 
within  limitations,  to  manage  and  dispose  of 
their  land  (about  5,000.000  acres),  and  they 
liave  a  measure  of  local  self-government.  They 
welcome  the  advantages  of  education  for  their 
children  and  engage  to  some  extent  in  agricul- 
ture. The  population  of  the  largest  cities  in 
1901  was  as  follows:  Auckland.  34,213.  with 
suburbs,  67,220;  Wellington,  the  capital.  43.038, 
with  suburbs,  49,344;  Christchnrch,  17,5,38,  with 
suburbs,  57,041 ;  Dunedin,  24,879,  with  suburbs, 
52,390. 

Religion.  The  principal  ehurehes  are  the 
Church  of  England,  predominating  in  Canter- 
bury; the  Presbyterian,  which  dominates  in 
Otago  and  Southland;  the  Wesleyan  and  the  Ro- 
man Catholic. 

Education.  The  public  system  of  education  i? 
in  charge  of  a  Government  departmcnt.with  a  min- 
ister at  its  head.  School  attendance  is  compul- 
sory between  the  ages  of  seven  and  thirteen.  The 
schools  are  secular  and  the  primary  grades  are 
free,  small  fees  being  charged  for  secondary 
courses.  In  1900  there  were  132,897  pupils  en- 
rolled at  the  State  schools.  Of  them,  107,912  were 
in  average  attendance.  There  were  in  the  same 
year  15,550  pupils  enrolled  in  private  schools, 
mainly  Roman  Catholic.  The  Government  main- 
tains 85  village  schools,  which  had  an  attendance 
of  3109.  Besides  a  number  of  art  schools,  there  aro 
mining,  agricultural,  and  engineering  institu- 
tions. In  1900-01  the  Government  expended 
£481.087  on  education.  The  Xew  Zealand  Uni- 
versity is  an  examining  body,  which  has  five 
affiliated  colleges  located  respectively  at  Dune- 
din,  Christchurch,  Auckland.  Wellington,  and 
Canterbury.  Each  of  these  has  the  advantage  of 
land  grants,  the  income  from  which  is  annually 
supplemented  by  colonial  firants. 

Hlstory.  New  Zealand  was  discovered  by  Tas- 
man  in  December.  1042,  In  October,  1700,  Captain 
Cook  landed  at  Poverty  Bay,  and  in  1773  and 
1777  explored  the  shores  of  the  islands.  The 
period  before  European  colonization  was  charac- 
terized by  fierce  wars  among  the  native 
tribes,  marked  by  extensive  conquests  on  the 
part  of  the  celebrated  chieftain  Hongi  (1820-28). 
In  1814  Rev.  Samuel  ^Marsden  estal)lished  a  mis- 
sion in  the  Bay  of  Islands.  Other  missionaries 
rapidly  followed,  and  the  natives  were  speedily 
converted  to  the  outward  forms  of  Christianity. 
A  British  resident  was  appointed  at  the  Bay  of 
Islands  in  1833.  and  in  the  following  year  British 
troops  were  employed  against  the  natives.  In 
September.  1839.  an  expedition,  under  the  au- 
spices of  the  New  Zealand  Company,  arrived  at 
Port  Nicholson, the  first  body  of  innnigrants  reach- 
ing that  place  in  .Tanuai'v  of  the  following  year. 
In  February  a  number  of  native  chiefs,  in  the 
Treaty  of  Waitangai.  placed  themselves  under 
the  authority  of  the  British  Oovcriuuent.  and  in 
May  the  sovereignty  of  Great  Britain  over  the 
islands  was  proclaimed.  Colonization  was  rapid 
and  the  alienation  of  the  IMaori  lands  proceeded 
steadily.  In  18.i0  the  New  Zealand  Company 
surrendered  all  of  its  interests  in  the  colony  to 


NEW  ZEALAND. 


524 


NEXT  FRIEND. 


the  British  Government,  and  in  1S53  a  con- 
stitutional act  was  proniulffated  for  the  colony, 
the  first  representative  assembly  being  opened 
in  1S5.5.  From  1860  to  18GU  there  were  formi- 
dable native  uprisings,  and  spasmodic  outbreaks 
did  not  cease  imtil  about  1870.  Since  tliat  date 
the  relations  with  the  native  population  have 
been  almost  uniformly  peaceful,  and  the  Maoris 
have  made  rai>id  strides  in  civilization,  attaining 
even  a  share  in  the  government.  In  1870  an  act 
was  passed  establisliing  tlie  Xew  Zealand  Uni- 
versity. About  this  time,  too.  occurs  the  first 
beginnings  of  the  policy  of  State  participation  in 
economic  adairs,  with  the  commencement  of  rail- 
way construction  under  public  supervision  in 
1871,  and  the  establishment  of  a  Public  Trust 
Office  in  1872.  An  educational  act  providing  for 
the  free  and  compulsory  instruction  of  all  chil- 
dren was  passed  in  lS7t>.  In  187(1  a  measure  was 
enacted  hniking  toward  the  establishment  of  man- 
hooil  sutirage,  although  the  one-man  one-vote 
principle  was  not  in  complete  operation  until 
181I0.  In  September,  1803,  the  franchise  was  ex- 
tended to  women. 

The  movement  toward  State  socialism  came 
prominently  to  the  front  in  1890,  in  which  year  the 
labor  element  exercised  an  important  influence  on 
the  elections  to  the  General  Assembly,  Since  that 
year  tlie  progress  in  that  direction  has  been  rapid. 
Numero\is  labor  laws  have  been  passed,  looking 
toward  the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the 
working  classes,  while  land  legislation  has  been 
carried  on  with  a  view  of  bringing  the  soil  into 
the  possession  of  small  owners.  Thus,  in  accord- 
ance with  an  act  of  1892,  large  areas  of  Govern- 
ment land  have  been  leased  in  perpetuity  to  small 
tenants,  the  right  of  purchase  being  denied.  In 
the  same  year  the  Government  was  authorized  to 
acquire  land  for  the  purpose  of  settlement,  and 
in  1894  this  power  of  the  Government  was  made 
compulsory.  In  the  same  year  an  act  was  passed 
autliorizing  Government  loans  to  farmers  on 
mortgage;  in  189.5  a  Family  Homes  Protection 
Act  prohibited  homesteads  from  being  mort- 
gaged or  sold  for  debt.  As  early  as  1891  the 
property  tax  had  been  repealed,  and  a  graduated 
tax  on  incomes  and  unimproved  land  values 
substituted,  the  income  tax  not  being  levied  on  in- 
comes derived  from  land.  Labor  legislation  cul- 
minated in  the  Industrial  Conciliation  and  Ar- 
bitration Act  of  August  31.  18!)4,  by  which 
disputes  between  employers  and  employees  were 
subjected  to  the  decision  of  State  tribunals.  In 
1898  an  Old  .\ge  Pensions  Bill  was  passeil.  In 
1900  a  form  of  workingmen's  accident  in-^urance 
was  adopted.  New  Zealand  rendered  loyal  sup- 
port to  the  British  Empire  in  the  South  African 
War,  its  moimted  contingents  constituting  a  very 
useful  part  of  the   British  forces, 

Bim.lor.RAlMlY,  Bramall.  Tlir  Mhirriil  Rr- 
smirrr.i  itf  \rir  7.Kihitu1  (London.  1888)  :  Hook- 
er. Hdiulhook  tn  the  Flora  of  .Vrie  Zrahind  (ib., 
1867)  ;  GrifTin,  \rtr  Zrahnul.  Ihr  Commrrcr  and 
Rciniircrs  (Wellin.iton,  1884)  :  (Jrey.  Pobinrsian 
Miilholopu  (ib..  1883)  ;  Bradshaw.  \cw  Zrahmd 
ofTriDiiii  (ib„  1888)  :  Biiller,  Itirds  of  yew  Zen- 
land  (ib.'.  1888)  ;  Green.  The  Hifih  Mp.i  of  yew 
Zentniid  (ih.,  1883):  Payton.  h'oiiiid  and  About 
AVir  Zealand  (ib..  ISSS)";  llarp.-r.  I'ioneer  Work 
in  the  Alps  of  yew  Zealand  ( ib.,  1896)  :  Gisborne, 
The  Colonii  of  .Yeic  Zealand  (ib..  1891)  ;  Wilson, 
In  the  Land  of  Tui  (London,  1894)  ;  Sievers,  4ms- 
tralicH   und   Oxeanien    (Leipzig,   1895)  ;   Lenden- 


feld,  yctisccland  (Berlin,  n.  d. )  ;  Australasia,  in 
"British  Empire  Series"' I  London.  1900);  Schanz, 
"Neuseeland,"  in  Australicn  and  die  Siidsce  (  Ber- 
lin, 1901);  Loughman,  Scic  Zealand:  .Vo/cs  on 
Its  Geography,  ,statistics,  etc.  (Wellington, 
1901);  Reeves,  .Yen-  Zealand  (London.  1808); 
id.,  >State  Kxperiments  in  Australia  and  Xew 
Zealand  (ib.,  1902)  ;  Irvine  and  Alpers.  I'rofiresx 
of  yew  Zealand  in  the  Centurii  ( ib.,  1902)  ;  .Vcio 
Zealand  Official  Year-Hook  (Wellington,  annual- 
ly) ;  Chalmers,  History  of  Currenri/  in  the  liritish 
Colonies  (London,  1893)  ;  Sherrin,  Early  History 
of  yew  Zealand  (Auckland,  1800)  :  Rusden.  His- 
tory of  yeie  Zealand  (ilell)ourne,  1S9G)  ;  Ilocken, 
Contributions  to  the  Early  History  of  yew  Zru- 
land  (London,  1898)  ;  The  Literature  h'clating  t,, 
yen-  Zealand :  A  Hihliofrraphy  (  Wellington,  1889  i , 

NEW  ZEALAND  FLAX,     See  Flax,  New 

Zkai.am). 

NEW  ZEALAND  SITBREGION.  lii  llie 
Sclater-Wallace  system  ul  zoiigeograiiliy,  a  sub- 
region  of  the  Australian  Province,  including  New 
Zealand  and  all  the  surrounding  islamls  south  of 
New  Caledonia.  Its  faunal  characterisiics  are 
delineated  in  the  article  New  Zeala.nu.  para- 
graph Fauna.  Other  views  have  been  held  in 
regard  to  the  faunal  relations  of  this  isolated 
archipelago.  Huxley  made  it  a  primary  subdi- 
vision of  his  hemispherical  region  'Notoga'a* 
(q.v. ).  Recent  zoologists  have  l)een  inclined  to 
consider  its  features  so  distinct  as  to  elevate  it 
to  primary  rank  and  make  it  a  full  'region,'  co- 
ordinate with  the  Australian  and  other  'prov- 
inces.'   Sec  DisTiiiiuTiON  OK  Animals. 

NEXT  FRIEND.  An  adult  person,  other 
than  a  giianlian  ad  litem,  who  represents  in  an 
action  another  person  who,  by  reason  of  infancy 
or  other  disability,  is  not  legally  competent  to 
maintain  the  suit  in  his  own  belialf.  The  prac- 
tice of  permitting  an  incompetent  person  to  sue 
by  his  next  friend  originated  in  England,  where 
it  was  first  authorized  by  the  'Statute  of  West- 
minster' passed  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  Pre- 
vious to  that  time  an  action  in  favor  of  an  in- 
fant or  other  incompetent  person  could  only  be 
conducted  by  his  regularly  appointed  guardian. 
T)ie  Norman-French  term  prorhein  ami.  of  which 
'next  friend'  is  the  English  eipiivalent.  was  em- 
ployed in  the  above  statute,  and  continues  in  use 
in  many  jurisdictions  to-day.  There  is  very 
little  diirerence  between  the  functions  of  a  guar- 
dian ad  litem  and  a  person  who  sues  as  next 
friend,  except  that  the  latter  usually  represents 
a  plaintitT,  and  in  some  jurisdictions  the  former 
is  only  appointed  to  represent  a  defendant. 

A  next  friend  is  not  a  party  to  an  action,  but 
acts  solely  in  a  representative  and  advisory  ca- 
pacity, it  fidlows.  therefore,  that  most  of  the 
rules  governing  parties,  as  that  the  admissions 
of  a  party  bind  him,  etc..  do  not  apply  to  a  next 
friend.  He  is,  however,  subject  to  such  rules 
as  relate  to  the  conduct  of  the  case.  .\  next 
friend  is  considered  as  an  officer  of  the  court 
where  he  is  appointed  to  protect  the  interests  of 
an  incompetent  defendant.  In  some  States 
where  an  infant  is  otherwise  represented  by  a 
guardian,  he  may  sue  by  a  next  friend  to  compel 
an  accounting  by  the  guardian  where  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  latter  is  guilty  of  a 
breach  of  trust.  In  a  few  jurisdictions  married 
women  and  persons  of  unsound  mind  may  sue 
bv  a  next  friend.    Usually,  however,  lunatics  and 


NEXT    FRIEND. 


525 


NEZ  PERCE. 


those  who  are  mentally  incompetent  are  repre- 
sented by  committees  or  guardians.  An  action 
eonnnenced  by  a  next  friend  cannot  l)e  discon- 
tinued or  settled  without  the  consent  of  the 
court.  A  ne.xt  friend  only  represents  tlie  incom- 
petent during  the  litigation,  which,  however,  is 
not  considered  as  ended  until  an  appeal  is  de- 
termined or  the  right  to  appeal  has  expired.  See 
Co.^rMITTEE;  Guaediax  ;  Infant;  Lunatic; 
Markied  Womex  ;  Parties;  and  authorities 
where  referred  to  under  these  titles. 

NEY,  na,  Michel,  Duke  of  Elchingen  and 
Prinec  of  the  Moskva  ( 1709-1815) .  One  of  Napo- 
leon's most  celebrated  marshals.  He  was  born 
.January  10,  1709.  at  Saarlouis,  the  son  of  a  poor 
cooper."  He  had  but  little  education  and  worked 
as  clerk  to  a  notary  and  as  foreman  in  a  mine 
until  178S.  when  he  joined  a  hussar  regiment  at 
Jletz.  He  made  the  campaign  of  1792  with  the 
Army  of  the  North  and  rose  to  be  lieutenant.  In 
April,  1794,  he  became  captain  in  the  Army  of  the 
Sambre  and  Meuse,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  energy  and  his  cool  intrepidity.  He  was 
wounded  at  the  siege  of  Mainz,  fought  bravely  in 
179.5  at  Altenkirchen,  and  for  his  services  in 
storming  the  citadel  of  Wiirzburg  and  forcing  the 
passage  of  the  Rednitz  was  made  in  1790  brig- 
adier-general. His  capture  of  ilannheim  (March 
28,  1799)  gained  him  the  rank  of  general  of  di- 
vision, and  after  being  severely  wounded  at  Win- 
terthur  in  JIay.  he  was  placed  in  September  in 
temporary  command  over  the  Army  of  the  Rhine, 
and  carried  on  a  skillful  game  of  strategy  against 
the  Arcliiluke  Charles  of  Austria,  whom  he  pre- 
vented from  uniting  with  Suvaroff  against  Mas- 
sena.  He  fought  subsequently  under  Lecourbe 
and  Moreau  at  Engen,  Moiiskirch,  and  Hohenlin- 
dcn.  Ney's  republican  principles  could  not  with- 
stand the  blandishments  of  Napoleon,  who  per- 
suaded him  to  marry,  in  1S02.  Mile.  Auguio,  a 
friend  of  Hortense  Beauharnais,  made  him  in- 
spector-general of  cavalry,  and  sent  him  on  a 
diplomatic  mission  to  Switzerland,  where  he 
V-our,'ht  about  the  Act  of  ilediation  of  February, 
180,3.  In  the  same  year  he  received  command 
of  the  Sixth  Corps  of  the  Grand  Army  rai.sed  for 
the  invasion  of  England,  but  soon  to  be  turned 
against  Austria.  In  1804  he  was  made  a  marshal 
of  the  Empire.  In  the  following  year  he  defeated 
the  Austrians  at  Giinzburg  (October  9th)  and 
by  his  successful  assault  on  the  intrenchmcnts  of 
Klchingen  brought  about  the  capitulation  of  Ulm 
and  gained  for  himself  the  ducal  title  (conferred 
in  1808).  He  fought  at  .Jena  in  1800,  reduced 
the  cities  of  Erfurt,  Magdeburg,  and  Tliorn,  and 
by  his  timely  arrival  on  the  battlefield  of  Eylau 
(q.v. )  prevented  a  possible  defeat  for  the  Frencli. 
On  .Tune  14,  1807,  Ney  took  the  village  of  Fried- 
land  from  the  Russians  after  a  bloody  combat, 
and  thus  decided  the  outcome  of  tlie  battle.  He 
now  became  the  idol  of  the  army,  while  Napoleon 
bestowed  on  him  the  title  of  Urate  ihn  hrnrc.i.  In 
1808  he  was  sent  with  the  Sixth  Corps  to  Spain. 
He  overran  Galicia.  maintained  an  energetic  war- 
fare against  the  Spanish  guerrillas,  and  added  to 
his  reputation  for  audacity  and  skill.  In  1810  he 
was  placed  miiler  the  command  of  ilassi'na.  to 
whom  was  intrusted  the  invasion  of  Portiigal. 
Ney  resented  what  he  conceived  a  slight  toward 
himself,  and.  though  he  fought  with  splendid 
courage  on  the  retreat  from  Torres  Vedras  as 
commander  of  the  rear  guard  ( one  of  the  greatest 


incidents  in  his  career),  he  was  guilty  of  gross 
insuljordination,  and  in  Jlarch,  1811,  returned 
to  France  in  semi-disgrace.  His  talents,  however, 
made  him  invaluable,  and  in  the  Russian  cam- 
paign (1812)  he  held  command  of  the  Third 
Corps.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Smolensk 
and  commanded  the  centre  at  Borodino  (q.v.), 
where  his  efforts  achieved  the  victory,  his  ser- 
vices being  rewarded  with  the  title  of  Prince  of 
the  Moskva.  He  commanded  the  rear  guard  on 
the  retreat  from  Moscow,  and  l)y  vigorous  disci- 
pline and  devoted  heroism  saved  the  remnants  of 
the  Grand  Army  from  utter  disorganization, 
notably  at  the  disastrous  passage  of  the  Bere- 
sina.  In  the  campaign  of  1813  he  won  a  victory 
over  the  Allies  at  Weissenfels  (May  1,  1813), 
fought  at  LUtzen  and  Bautzen  in  May.  but  was 
defeated  by  Bulow  at  Dennewitz  (September 
eth).  He  held  the  left  of  the  French  line  in  the 
battles  around  Leipzig  and  was  with  Napoleon  in 
the  defensive  campaign  of  1814  in  France.  After 
the  taking  of  Paris  by  the  Allies  he  insisted  on 
Napoleon's  abdication  and  hastened  to  offer  his 
services  to  the  Bourbons.  He  was  made  a  peer 
of  France,  and  a  member  of  the  council  of  war, 
and  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  sixth  military 
division.  On  news  of  Napoleon's  return  from 
Elba  he  was  ordered  to  Besancon  to  resist  the 
Emperor's  advance,  but  on  the  night  of  March 
13th  he  went  over  to  Napoleon,  summoning  his 
troops  to  follow  him",  and  on  the  I7th  he  joined 
the  Emperor  at  Auxerre,  moved  to  this  act,  no 
doubt,  hj  the  magic  influence  of  his  old  com- 
mander, but  influenced  too  by  the  humiliations  to 
which  he  had  been  subjected  by  the  returned 
nobles  of  the  old  regime.  At  the  head  of  the 
First  and  Second  Corps  of  the  new  army  raised 
by  Napoleon,  he  fought  on  June  lOth  at  Quatre- 
bras  ( q.v. ) .  and  led  the  last  charge  of  the  Old 
Guard  at  Waterloo.  After  the  battle  he  returned 
to  Paris  and  advocated  the  recall  of  the  Bour- 
bons. Proscribed  on  July  24th.  he  remained  in 
hiding  in  the  country  till  August  .5th,  when  he 
was  discovered  and  brought  to  Paris  and  ar- 
raigned (December  5th)  before  a  court-martial 
containing  many  of  his  old  companions  in  arms. 
The  court  declared  Ney  out  of  its  jurisdiction  as 
a  peer  of  France,  and  handed  him  over  to  the 
Chamber  of  Peers,  wdiich  on  December  0,  1815, 
by  139  votes  against  17  found  him  guilty  of  trea- 
son and  condemned  him  to  death.  He  was  shot  the 
following  day  in  the  gardens  of  the  Luxembourg. 
Consult:  Dumoulin,  HiMorrr  complete  du  proces 
(111  marechal  Xeij  (Paris,  1815)  ;  Rouval,  Vie  du 
marechal  Nei/  (ib.,  1833)  ;  Welschinger,  Le  mare- 
chal Xey.  1813   (ib.,  1893). 

NEZHIN,  nye'zhen.  or  NEJIN.  A  town  in 
the  Government  of  Tchernigov.  Little  Russia, 
situated  on  the  Oster.  about  80  miles  northeast 
of  Kiev.  It  has  a  7)hilologieal  institute,  a  gym- 
nasium, and  a  Greek  school.  It  is  noted  for  the 
tobacco  cultivated  in  its  vicinity.  Vegetables 
and  fruit  are  also  important  products.  The 
trade,  formerly  of  great  extent,  has  decreased 
since  the  rise  of  Taganrog  and  Rostov-on-the-Don. 
It  was  under  Chmielnicki.  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, that  CJreek  merchants  settled  at  Nezhin. 
where  they  received  special  privileges.  Pop- 
ulation, in  1897,  32,100,  including  a  number  of 
Greeks. 

NEZ  PERCE,  nft  par'sA'.  The  leading  tribe 
of    Shahaptian   stock    (q.v.).      They   call    them- 


NEZ  PERCE. 


526 


NIAGARA  FALLS. 


selves  Shaptin,  whence  the  stock  name,  but  they 
vvei'e  known  as  L'hopuimish  to  some  of  tlie  neigli- 
boring  tribes,  and  were  calleii  Sez-perci-,  "Pierced 
Nose,'  by  the  !•  reiich,  in  allusion  to  their  forniir 
custom  of  wearing  nose  jjundants.  They  formerly 
claimed  a  large  territory  in  eastern  W  asliington 
and  Oregon  and  central  Idaho,  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  main  divide  of  the  Bitter  lioot 
Alountaius  and  including  the  lower  Cirande  Konde 
and  Salmon  rivers,  with  a  large  part  of  the 
Snake  and  all  of  the  Clearwater  River  districts. 
Lewis  and  Clark  traversed  their  country  in 
1805.  In  1S32  they  sent  a  delegation  to  Saint 
Louis  to  ask  for  Christian  missionaries  and 
teachers.  In  response  to  their  request  a  Prot- 
estant mission  was  established  among  them  at 
Lapwai,  Idaho,  in  1837.  Soon  afterwards  they 
entered  into  governmental  relations,  and  they 
made  their  tirst  treaty  with  tlie  United  States  in 
1855.  By  this  they  ceded  the  greater  portion  of 
their  territory  and  were  conhrmed  in  the  pos- 
session of  a  reservation  including  Wallowa  Val- 
ley in  Oregon.  On  the  discoveiy  of  gold  in  the 
country,  however,  the  miners  rushed  in.  and  in 
consequence  a  new  treaty  was  forced  upon  the 
Indians  by  which  they  agreed  to  surrender  all 
but  a  reservation  at  Lapwai  in  Idalio.  Joseph, 
who  occupied  Wallowa  VaUey  with  his  band, 
refused  to  recognize  the  treaty  or  remove  to 
Lapwai.  This  refusal  led  to  the  Nez  Perce  War 
in  1877,  in  which,  under  .Joseph's  leadership,  sev- 
eral severe  defeats  were  inflicted  upon  succes- 
sive detachments  of  regular  troops.  .Joseph  final- 
ly almost  accomplished  a  masterly  retreat  to- 
ward Canada  through  Idaho  and  Jlontana,  wliich 
was  frustrated  only  by  the  arrival  of  Colonel 
(General)  ililes,  when  the  Indians  were  within 
50  miles  of  the  British  line.  Joseph  surrendered 
on  assurance  of  being  allowed  to  return  to  his 
own  country,  but  the  promise  was  not  kept.  He 
and  his  band  were  deporteil  to  the  Indian  Ter- 
ritory, where  in  seven  years  they  were  leduced 
by  disease  from  about  450  to  :i80.  Their  condi- 
tion compelled  attention,  and  in  1884  they  were 
returned  to  the  north,  not  however,  to  tlieir  old 
country. hut  to  the  Colville  reservation  in  northern 
Washington,  where  tliey  now  reside.  From  an 
estimated  total  population  of  2800  in  18G3  the 
tribe  has  decreased  to  less  than  1700,  of  whom 
about  1570  are  on  the  (allotted)  I.ajiwai  agency, 
in  northwestern  Idaho,  the  rest  under  .loscph  be- 
ing at  Colville.  Wash.  The  general  report  of  cundi- 
tions  in  either  band  is  not  encouraging.  Consult 
Mooney,  ""Ghost  Dance  Religion,"  in  Fnnrlcruth 
.\»»ual  Ucporl  of  the  liiirenu  of  Ethnoloi/y 
(V\ashington,  KSOG).  See  Plate  of  AmebiCAN  Ln- 
DlA.ws,   under   Indians,  Amekican. 

NGAMI,  n'g;i'm,\  Lake.  .\  lake  in  SouthCen- 
tral  Africa,  situated  in  Western  Rhodesia,  north 
of  the  Kalahari  Desert  (Map:  Africa,  G  7).  It 
is  one  of  the  last  remnants  of  the  great  inland  sea 
which  formerly  seems  to  have  occupied  the  vast 
lacustrine  basin  of  which  the  Kalahari  is  a  part. 
A  gradual  desiccation  is  still  going  on  in  this 
region,  and  Lake  N'gami  has  diminished  consid- 
erably since  it  was  discovered  by  Livingstone 
in  1S40.  It  is  now  little  more  than  a  marsh 
in  the  dry  .season,  while  during  floods  it  "may 
reach  the  dimensions  of  10  by  30  miles.  It  re- 
ceives the  waters  of  the  Kubanga,  and  discharges 
periodically  castwanl  into  the  JIakarikari  Salt 
Basin. 


NGAN-HWEI,  n'giin'hwa'e  ("Chin.,  peace, 
l)lciit\  ).  Uue  of  the  eastern  provinces  of  China, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Province  of  Kiang- 
su,  on  the  east  by  Kiang-su  and  Che-kiang,  on  the 
south  by  K.iaug-si,  and  on  the  west  by  llu-peh  and 
Ho-nan  (Map:  China,  K  5).  Its  area  is  esti- 
mated at  from  53.000  to  55,000  square  miles.  It  is 
divided  into  three  parts,  the  hilly  region  in  the 
soutli  around  Hwei-chow  and  Ning-kwoh  witli  the 
Tsieu-tang  River,  the  central  plain  of  the 
Yang-tse,  and  the  northern  part,  drained  by  the 
River  Hwai.  The  southern  districts  are  famed 
for  climate,  fertility,  and  productions.  The 
staples  are  fruits,  cotton,  hemp,  silk,  and  iron. 
The  numerous  streams  are  used  for  navigation 
and  for  irrigation,  their  control  showing  great 
engineering  ability.  The  province  contains  some 
of  the  most  productive  and  beautiful  jiarts  of  the 
Empire  and  is  >mder  a  high  state  of  cultivation. 
It  sulfered  greatly  in  the  Tai-ping  rebellion,  los- 
ing nearly  half  its  population.  Us  ju-esent  popu- 
lation is  estimated  at  over  20,000,000.  Capital, 
Xgan-kiug-fu    (q.v.). 

NGAN-KING-FU,  ngiin'klng'foo'.  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Province  of  Ngan-hwei  (q.v. ),  China, 
situated  on  the  Yang-tse  river,  about  175  miles 
east  of  Hankow  (ilap:  China,  E  5).  It  still 
shows  traces  of  its  occupation  during  the  Tai- 
])ing  Rebellion.  It  was  opened  to  foreign  trade 
in  1807.     Its  population  is  estimated  at  40,000. 

NGORNXJ,  n"gor'nnr;,  or  ANGORNTJ,  an-gor'- 
niiTi.  A  town  of  Bornu,  Cctitral  .\frica,  on  the 
southwest  bank  of  Lake  Chad,  15  miles  south- 
east of  Kuka.  Owing  to  its  low  position,  the 
town  is  occasionally  ll(]0(led  by  the  rising  waters 
of  the  lake.  Ngornu  is  an  important  commercial 
place  and  through  its  fairs  an  extensive  trade  is 
carried  on  in  cotton,  amber,  and  metals.  Its 
population  is  estimatcil  at  from  20,000  to  50.000. 

NIAG'ARA,  B.VTTLE  of.  See  Lundy's  L.vne, 
Baiti,!';  of. 


FALLS. 
FALLS. 


See    Niagara    Riveb 


NIAGARA 

AMI    l'".\I.I.S. 

NIAGARA  FALLS.  A  city  in  Niagara 
County.  \.  v.,  22  miles  imrtli  by  west  of  Buffalo; 
on  the  Niagara  River,  and  on  the  lOrie,  the  Mielii- 
gan  Central,  the  Li'high  N'alley,  the  New  York 
Central  and  Hudson  Kiver,  the  West  Shore,  the 
(irand  Tr\mk,  and  the  Wabash  railroads  (Map: 
New  York,  B  2).  It  is  the  seat  of  Niagara 
Cniversity  (Roman  Catholic),  opened  in  ISSO, 
and  De  Veaux  College  (Protestant  Episcopal), 
and  has  a  public  library,  for  which  a  .$511.1100 
building  was  given  by  .\ndrew  Carnegie.  The 
New  York  State  Reservation  here,  which  includes 
Prospect  Park,  is  107  acres  in  e\tent :  and  there 
are  tliree  notable  bridges  connecting  with  Canada, 
one  cantilever  and  two  steel  arch  bridges.  (See 
Bkidce.)  The  vicinity  possesses  much  of  historic 
interest.  Niagara  Falls  has  long  been  noted  as 
the  foremost  scenic  resort  of  .\merica.  It  is  de- 
veloping also  into  an  im])ortant  manufacturing 
centre,  its  growth  being  <lue  to  the  utilizallnn  of 
the  extra(U'dinarv  power  of  (he  Niagara  River 
anil  Falls  (q.v.).  .Among  the  industrial  e-tab- 
li-hments  are  Hour  and  jiaper  mills,  idniiiiig 
mills,  a  foundry  ami  machine-shop,  a  plant  for 
the  prodiietioM  of  wlieat  bi-^euit.  aliiminnm.  enr- 
bide.  and  carborundum  works,  and  electro  chemi- 
enl  works.  Niagara  Falls  was  chartered  as  a 
citj-  in  1802,  the  former  villages  of  Niagara  Falls 


NIAGARA  FALLS. 


527 


NIAGARA  RIVER  AND  FALLS. 


and  Suspension  Bridge  being  eonsolidated.  The 
government,  under  tlie  uriginul  eliarter,  is  vested 
in  a  niaycir.  eleeted  biennially,  and  a  common 
council,  and  in  administrative  officers  who  are 
appointed  by  the  mayor.  The  water-works  are 
owned  and  operated  by  the  municipality.  Popu- 
lation, in  I'JUO,  19,457. 

NIAGARA  FALLS,  fonnerly  Cufton,  or 
Svsi'E.NSiox  Bridge.  A  town  of  W'elland  County, 
Ontario.  Can.,  on  the  west  bank  of  Niagara 
River,  below  the  falls.  20  miles  northwest  of 
Bnllalo.  It  is  opposite  Niagara  Falls  City,  U.  S., 
witli  which  it  is  connected  by  three  bridges  and 
electric  railways,  and  is  the  junction  of  the  main 
lines  of  railways  entering  that  city  with  the 
Grand  Trunk  Line  of  Canada.  Its  chief  features 
are  Wesley  Park  and  Queen  Victoria  Niagara 
Falls  Park,  which  covers  an  area  of  154  acres, 
extends  along  the  river  for  two  and  a  half  miles, 
and  commands  the  finest  views  of  the  falls.  Ex- 
tensive works  similar  to  those  on  the  United 
States  side  are  in  course  of  construction  to  utilize 
the  water  power.     Pupulation.  in  1001,  4244. 

NIAGARA-ON-THE-LAKE.  A  town  in 
Lincoln  County.  Ontario.  Can.,  on  Lake  On- 
tario, at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Niagara,  36 
miles  distant  by  water  from  Toronto  (Map:  On- 
tario. D  4).  Burned  down  in  December,  1813,  by 
the  American  General  McClure  on  his  retreat,  it 
was  rebuilt,  and  is  known  as  a  summer  and 
pleasure  resort  with  good  bathing,  boating,  and 
fishing.     Population,  in   lllOl.   1258. 

NIAGARA  RIVER  AND  FALLS  (Iroquois 
■Jorakarc.  thundering  water) .  The  Niagara  River 
flows  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontario,  and  is 
the  outlet  for  the  whole  drainage  of  lakes  Su- 
perior, Huron.  Michigan.  Saint  Clair,  and  Erie. 
The  surface  of  Erie,  where  the  river  begins,  is 
.320  feet  higher  than  the  level  of  Ontario,  where 
it  ends.  The  water  is  clear  and  pure.  The  river 
is  33  miles  long,  its  general  direction  is  from 
south  to  north,  and  it  forms  the  boundary  be- 
tween New  York  State  and  the  Canadian  Prov- 
ince of  Ontario.  The  volume  of  water  which  en- 
ters Niagara  is  280.000  cubic  feet  a  second.  In 
its  upper  course  it  is  very  wide  (below  Grand 
Island  from  214  to  3  miles)  ;  just  above  Niagara 
Falls  it  is  less  than  a  mile  in  width,  and  below 
the  falls  it  rushes  headlong  through  a  deep 
and  narrow  gorge  to  the  clifl'  at  Lewiston.  where 
it  emerges  on  the  plain  of  Lake  Ontario,  and 
is  again  a  broad  and  peaceful  river. 

As  it  emerges  from  Lake  Erie  and  enters  the 
plain,  it  is  crossed  by  a  low  ridge  of  rock,  in 
passing  which  the  river  is  swift  and  troubled  for 
about  two  miles.  Then  it  is  smooth  again,  flows 
slowly  over  the  plateau,  has  an  average  depth 
of  25  feet,  and  its  surface  is  interspersed  with 
many  small  islands.  For  nearly  three-fourths  of 
its  length  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  a  valley,  for 
it  flows  upon  the  surface  of  the  plateau,  and 
its  fall  from  the  lake  to  the  rapids  above  the 
cataract  is  only  20  feet.  Then  .a  sudden  and 
complete  change  in  its  aspect  occurs.  It  is 
dropjied  by  the  short  rapids  beginning  a  little 
above  Goat  Island  52  feet,  which  is  the  prehide 
to  the  fall  over  the  majestic  cataract,  where  it 
plunges  160  feet  down  into  the  plain,  a  total 
descent  of  212  feet  from  the  head  of  the  rapids. 
At  the  foot  of  the  American  Falls  there  is  no 
great  depth  of  water,  massive  and  broken  rock- 
in  the  bed  having  prevented  the  deep  excavation 


that  would  othcrwi.'^e  occur;  but  the  enormous 
mass  of  water,  20  feet  deep  at  the  centre  and 
about  nine-tenths  of  the  whole  volume,  which 
thunders  over  the  Canadian  or  Horseshoe  Falls, 
has  excavated  a  basin  extending  from  shore  to 
shore  for  1%  miles  below  the  falls  that  is  fully 
as  deep  as  the  height  of  the  falls.  The  effect 
of  this  deep  basin  or  reservoir  is  to  retard  and 
smooth  the  waters  so  far  that  rowboats  cross 
the  river  and  the  little  steamer  Maid  of  the  Mist 
is  able  to  approach  the  cataract.  The  basin  is 
succeeded  by  the  narrow  gorge  which  continues 
to  Lewiston,  its  width  rarely  eciualing  one-fourth 
of  a  mile,  and  its  depth  to  the  bottom  of  the 
river  varying  from  200  to  500  feet.  Its  walls 
are  so  steep  that  they  can  be  climbed  only  at 
a  few  places,  and  they  reveal  the  geologic  struc- 
ture of  the  plateau — the  bedded  rocks  of  lime- 
stone, shale,  and  sandstone  lying  almost  hori- 
zontally. The  fall  of  the  river  in  the  gorge, 
seven  miles  long,  is  about  100  feet.  The  confined 
waters  pour  tumultuously  along  at  an  estimated 
speed  of  30  miles  an  hour,  and  the  terrific  onrush 
and  battle  of  the  waters  make  a  spectacle  that 
is  equal  to  that  of  the  falls  themselves.  About 
midway  in  the  gorge  the  channel  makes  an 
abrupt,  short  turn  to  the  left,  and  here  the 
onslaught  of  the  torrent  has  worn  out  a  vast 
circular  basin  forming  the  celebrated  Whirlpool. 
From  the  \\'hirlpool  the  channel  is  broader  and 
less  steep.  The  plateau  ends  abruptly  at  Lewis- 
ton,  and  its  edge,  where  it  steeply  descends  to 
the  littoral  plain  of  Ontario,  is  marked  l)y  a  long 
escarpment  parallel  with  the  shores  of  the  lake, 
known  to  geologists  as  the  Niagara  Escarpment, 
which  rises  to  about  250  feet  above  the  level  of 
Ontario.  The  last  seven  miles  of  the  journey 
is  over  the  littoral  plain  with  a  fall  of  only 
about  three  feet. 

The  position  of  Niagara  Falls  marks  the  pres- 
ent extension  of  the  work  of  the  river  in  cutting 
this  great  gorge.  It  is  not  known  by  wliat  chan- 
nel or  channels  Lake  Erie  may  have  discharged 
its  waters  in  pre-glacial  times ;  but  geologists 
have  proved  that  the  Niagara  River  began  its 
existence  during  the  final  retreat  of  the  great 
ice  sheet ;  in  other  words,  most  students  of 
glacial  geology  agree  that  the  history  of  the 
river  covers  only  a  small  part  of  the  period 
since  the  beginning  of  the  age  of  ice. 

The  great  work  of  the  river  has  been  in 
excavating  the  gorge  from  Lewiston  back  to  the 
present  position  of  the  cataract.  The  falls  first 
poured  over  the  edge  of  the  escarpment  at  Lewis- 
ton  and  began  to  dig  their  way  back  through 
hard  limestone  and  sandstone,  interbedded  with 
a  coherent  though  softer  shale,  and  for  a  part 
of  the  distance  the  material  was  incoherent 
drift.  The  process  of  excavation  may  be  ob- 
served at  the  falls.  The  rocks  lie  in  layers  and 
the  upper  covering  of  loose  drift  yields  readily 
to  the  wash  of  the  waters.  I'nder  the  drift  is 
hard  limestone,  called  the  Niagara  limestone,  80 
feet  in  tliickness:  beneath  the  limestcme  lies  the 
softer  Niagara  shale,  with  a  thickness  of  50  feet; 
then  for  35  feet  is  the  Clinton  group,  an  alter- 
nation of  limestone,  shale,  and  sandstone,  the 
whole  resting  upon  a  bed  several  hundred  feet 
in  thickness  of  soft  sandy  shale,  which  is  not 
known  to  be  interrupted  except  by  a  single  hard 
layer  of  sandstone  from  10  to  20  feet  thick. 
These  shales  and  sandstone  are  called  the  Medina 
formation.      The    hard    top    layer    of    limestone 


NIAGARA  RIVER  AND  FALLS. 


528 


NIAGARA  RIVER  AND  FALLS. 


projects  like  a  shelf  over  the  edge  of  the  falls 
so  that  the  water  leaps  from  it  and  strikes  the 
surface  of  the  pool  below.  Xow  and  then  large 
blocks  of  the  upper  limestone  break  away  and 
fall  into  the  pool,  due  doubtless  to  the  erosion  of 
the  softer  shale  beneath,  the  limestone  thus  being 
deprived  of  its  support.  .Just  how  the  shale  is 
eroded,  and  how  the  harder  rock  beneath  it  is 
atfeeted.  is  in  doubt.  It  is  observed  in  the  Cave 
of  the  Winds,  where  visitors  may  pass  behind  one 
of  the  thinner  segments  of  the  falls,  that  spray 
and  water  are  constantly  dashing  against  the 
shale  and  probably  wear  it  away.  The  shale  is 
also  calcareous,  and  this  element  in  it  being 
soluble,  it  is  likely  that  solution  has  a  part  in 
the  work  of  destruction.  As  tlie  water  contains 
no  sediment,  the  Niagara  Kivcr  cannot  use  this 
agency,  as  most  rivers  do,  to  scour  out  its  bed; 
but  tile  broken  pieces  of  rock  that  fall  into  the 
river  below  the  cataract  are  undoubtedly  [)otent 
in  iligging  out  and  deepening  the  channel.  Oov- 
erinncnt  engineers  have  discovered  de|>ths  of  200 
feet  a  half  mile  below  the  falls,  and  (Mlbert 
and  other  geologists  assume  that  the  falls  are 
scouring  the  river  bed  as  deeply  now  as  they 
did  when  they  were  situated  farther  down  the 
stream.  This  is  occurring  in  front  of  the  Horse- 
shoe Falls,  but  not  at  the  American  Kails,  where 
the  volume  of  water  is  comparatively  small. 
The  broken  rock  here  piles  up  as  a  talus  at  the 
foot  of  the  fall,  and  u])on  it  the  force  of  the 
descending  water  is  spent. 

The  edge  of  the  American  Falls  is  retreating 
much  less  rapidly  than  that  of  the  Horseshoe 
Falls.  The  average  annual  recession  on  the  Amer- 
ican side  has  been  only  about  a  halt  foot  for 
the  past  fifty  years;  but  the  Horseshoe  Falls 
have  receded  in  fifty-two  years  from  1.50  to  2.S0 
feet  along  the  western  half  of  its  edge,  and  270 
feet  at  tlie  apex  of  its  curve,  making  a  recession 
of  from  four  to  six  feet  a  year.  If  this  rate  of 
recession  were  constant,  the  proof  would  be  con- 
clusive that  the  gorge,  from  the  Niagara  escarp- 
ment to  the  falls  of  today,  had  been  excavated 
in  about  7000  years.  But  the  thickness  of  the 
resistant  bed  at  the  crest  of  the  falls  is  far 
from  uniform :  and  there  is  evidence  that  at 
one  period  after  the  retreat  of  the  ice  the  upper 
lakes  founil  outlets  througli  other  rivers,  and 
only  l,ake  F.rie  was  drained  by  the  Niagara, 
whose  small  volume  of  wati'r  then  must  liave 
been  greatly  inferior  to  that  of  to-day  in  its 
ability  to  excavate  the  gorge.  The  assured  fact 
is  that  the  gorge  is  gradually  being  cut  back 
toward  Lake  F^rie. 

About  a  half  mile  above  the  brink  of  the 
falls,  (ioat  Island  divides  the  river  into  two 
une<|Ual  streams,  the  one  on  the  .American  si<le 
being  comparatively  shallow  and  narrow,  and 
discharging  over  the  American  Falls,  while  most 
of  the  river  swings  around  to  the  left  of  Goat 
Island  and  discharges  over  the  Horseshoe  or 
Canadian  Falls.  The  resemblance  of  the  outline 
of  these  falls  to  a  horseshoe  has  been  destroyed 
by  the  more  rapid  recession  of  the  central  part 
of  the  cataract  edge.  The  American  Falls  are 
lOfiO  feet  wide,  and  the  water  is  very  shallow 
ns  it  plunge*  over  the  edge,  falling  1(>7  feet.  The 
Horseshoe  Falls  have  a  total  width  of  .'iOlO  feet, 
measured  along  the  curve,  or  1230  across  the 
chord,  a  maximum  estimated  depth  of  20  feet, 
and  a  vertical  height  of  l.iS  feet.  .As  the  water 
13  derived   from   the   immense   reservoirs  of  the 


lakes,  there  is  little  variation  in  the  ijuantity, 
the  dill'erences  in  volume  depending  not  so  much 
ujion  precipitation  as  upon  the  strong  winds 
which  slightly  retard  or  accelerate  the  movement 
of  the  surface  waters  of  Lake  Erie  to  the  mouth 
of  the  river.  The  normal  How  pouring  over  the 
cataract  is  about  500.000  tons  a  minute. 

The  falls,  being  one  of  the  great  scenic  attrac- 
tions of  the  world,  are  visited  every  year  by  many 
thousands  of  tourists.  From  the  time  when 
Father  Hennepin  discovered  them  in  lli78.  and 
wildly  estimated  that  they  were  over  500  feet  in 
height,  they  have  never  been  adequately  de- 
scribed. A  realizing  sense  of  the  grandeur  of 
this  prodigious  green  flood  pouring  into  an  abyss 
where  it  is  half  lost  in  the  masses  of  ascending 
mist  can  be  obtained  only  by  personal  observa- 
tion. Sightseeing  has  been  greatly  facilitated, 
and  visitors  protected  from  imposition  since  1885, 
by  the  conversion  of  the  land  on  both  sides  of  the 
falls  into  public  parks.  The  New  York  State 
Reservation  contains  107  acres,  and  the  Queen 
Victoria  Niagara  Falls  Park  on  the  Canadian 
side  154  acres.  Since  these  banks  became  Gov- 
ernment properties,  the  mean  industrial  struc- 
tures that  marred  them  have  been  torn  down, 
and  the  wonilerful  spectacle  may  now  be  enjoyed 
at  leisure  from  shady  avenues,  artificial  ]>lat- 
forms,  and  other  advant.ageous  points  of  view. 
Trains  on  the  Canadian  side  wait  for  a  few 
minutes  to  give  the  passengers  a  glimpse  of  the 
vast  sheet  of  water  curving  over  the  Horseshoe 
Falls.  An  electric  trolley  line  has  been  built 
through  the  gorge  along  the  brink  of  the  river  on 
the  American  side  and  connects  by  the  (Jueeiis- 
town  Ijridge  with  the  electric  line  skirting  tlie 
Canadian  lieights  along  the  gorge  and  extending 
past  the  Horseshoe  Falls  to  Chijipawa;  a  railroad 
also  skirts  the  United  States  edge  of  the  gorge, 
so  that  visitors  may  see  its  entire  length  and 
take  in  the  terrific  features  of  the  rapids 
and  the  whirlpool.  JIany  visitors  enter  the 
Cave  of  the  Winds,  approach  the  falls  on 
the  steamer  Maid  of  the  Mist,  or  enjoy  the  superb 
general  view  from  the  middle  of  the  upper  arch 
bridge  or  the  high  terrace  below  the  Horseshoe 
Falls  on  the  Canadian  side.  Several  days  are  re- 
(juired  even  for  a  cursory  exaniiiiat ion  of  all  the 
attractions  of  the  place.  The  bridge  thrown 
across  the  river  a  little  below  the  falls  was  long 
regarded  as  a  wonder  of  engineering.  This  sus- 
pension bridge  for  pedestrians  and  carriages, 
built  of  steel  about  250  yards  below  the  .American 
Falls,  had  a  span  of  821  feet.  It  has  been  re- 
placed by  an  arch  bridge.  The  cantilever.  HIO 
feet  long,  spanning  the  gorge  some  distance  above 
the  Whirljiool,  was  the  lirst  briilge  of  the  kind 
to  be  built  in  .America;  the  railroad  steel  arch 
bridge,  300  feet  below  the  cantilever,  has  a  car- 
riageway below  the  track. 

It  is  only  in  recent  years  that  important 
attempts  have  been  made  to  utilize  the  encrgv"  of 
Niagara  Falls  for  industrial  purposes.  The 
largest  plant  is  that  of  a  power  company  which 
generates  electricity  by  leading  water  through  a 
canal  from  above  the  falls  to  a  wheel  ]iil  in  which 
are  turbines,  the  water  discharging  through  a 
tunnel  into  the  river  below  the  falls.  >Iany  in- 
dustries at  the  falls  are  using  the  electricity, 
and  Buffalo,  22  miles  distant,  takes  it  for  its 
city  railroads  and  other  power  purposes.  Over 
three-fourths  of  the  power  generated,  however, 
is  consumed  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  falls. 


NIAGARA  FALLS 
FROM  THE   AMERICAN   SIDE 


I 


NIAGARA  KIVEB  AND  FALLS. 


529 


NIBELUNGENLIED. 


BliiLloGRAPHV.  Holley,  History  of  llic  Falls 
of  Mui/ara  (New  York,  1882);  Harrison,  The 
Condition  of  Niagara  Falls  (ib.,  1882);  Gil- 
bert, "The  History  of  the  Niagara  Kivcr,"  in 
Smithsonian  Report  for  1890  (Washington)  ;  id.. 
Xiai/aro  Falls  and  Their  Histori/  (New  York, 
1895);  The  Xiagara  Book,  by  several  antliors 
(Buffalo,  1893)  ;  Grabau,  Guide  to  the  (leoloyy 
and  Paleontology  of  Niagara  (New  York,  1901)  ; 
also  Kibbe's  account  of  the  various  surveys  and 
maps  of  tlie  falls  in  the  Seventh  Annual  Report 
of  the  commissioners  of  tlie  New  York  State 
Reservation  at  Niagara  (Albany,  1891). 

NIAGARA  SERIES.  The  lowest  division  of 
tlie  I'ljper  Silurian  (or  Silurian)  system  of 
rocks.  It  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  sandstones, 
limestones,  and  shales,  which  are  grouped  to- 
gether under  the  Medina,  Clinton,  and  Niagara 
stages.  The  rocks  of  tlie  Niagara  series  are 
found  in  central  and  eastern  New  York,  and 
extend  soutliward  through  Ohio.  Pennsylvania, 
Virginia,  eastern  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee,  and 
westward  through  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Iowa. 
They  are  also  known  westward  in  Illinois,  \Vis- 
consin,  and  Indiana.  Many  of  the  beds  are  very 
persistent.  The  Oneida  conglomerate  at  the  base 
forms  the  bold  scenery  of  the  Shawangunk 
Mountains,  iu  New  Y'ork;  the  Clinton  division 
carries  a  bed  of  red  hematite  iron  ore  wliieh  is 
found  from  New  Y'ork  to  Biriiiingliam.  Ala., 
where  it  forms  the  basis  of  a  large  steel  in- 
dustry. The  limestone  and  shale  of  the  Niagara 
opocli  are  seen  at  Niagara  Falls,  where  it  is 
the  undermining  of  the  limestone,  due  to  the 
wearing  away  of  the  shale,  wliicli  has  caused  tlie 
falls.  Fossils  are  found  in  great  abundance  in 
most  of  the  rocks.  See  Siluri.^n  Sy.stem  ;  Clin- 
ton Stage. 

NIAM  NIAM,  ne-ilm'  ne-iim',  or  Zandeii.  A 
numerous  people  of  Negro-Ham  ite  blood  on  the 
Nile-Congo-Chad  water-shed  north  of  the  Welle 
Eiver,  Southeastern  Suihiii,  between  4°  and  7' 
north  latitude  and  25°  and  29°  east  longitude. 
They  are  negroes,  brachyeephalic,  muscular,  of 
medium  lieiglit.  and  brown  color.  They  are  noted 
for  their  cannibalism.  Their  houses  are  conical, 
with  clay  walls  and  thatclied  roofs;  the  kitchen 
hut  and  sleeping  hut  for  boys  form  part  of  the 
dwelling  group.  They  are  hunters  and  agricul- 
turists, excel  in  textile  work  and  handicraft  in 
cl.iy,  wood,  and  iron,  and  play  on  .a  five-stringed 
harp.  They  fight  with  throwing  knives,  swords, 
assegais,  clubs,  and  shields.  Numbering  over 
two  millions,  they  are  divided  into  small  sov- 
sreignties,  partly  independent,  partly  under  tlie 
Congo  Free  State.  Consult:  Stanford,  Afriea 
(London,  1895)  ;  Deniker.  Raees  of  Man  (Lon- 
•don.  1900). 

NIAN'TIC,  or  NEHANTIC.  A  small  Al- 
gonquian  tribe,  formerly  occupying  the  south- 
western coast  of  Rhode  Island,  adjoining  the 
Narraganset  (q.v.).  who  claimed  dominion  over 
them.  Tlieir  principal  village  was  at  Fort  Neck, 
■on  the  Great  Pond  in  Charlestown.  Bv  refusing 
to_join  the  hostiles  in  King  Pliilip's  War  of 
1075-70.  they  were  able  tn  preserve  their  terri- 
tory and  tribal  organization,  and  at  the  close 
of  the  war  the  Narraganset  who  submitted  to 
the  English  were  settled  with  the  Nianlic.  and 
the  whole  body  thenceforth  took  the  name  of 
Narraganset.  A  detached  body,  supposed  to  have 
been  cut  off  from  the  main  tribe  by  an  invasion 


of  the  Pequot,  resided  on  Niantic  Bay,  in  Con- 
necticut. They  were  subject  to  the  Pequot,  and 
with  them  were  nearly  destroyed  in  the  war  of 
1037,  the  few  survivors  gradually  wasting  away 
by  emigration  and  disease  until  none  were  left 
in  the  original  territory.  The  present  Narra- 
ganset of  Rhode  Island  are  chietly  of  Niantic 
(iescent,  so  far  as  their  Indian  blood  is  con- 
cerned. 

NIAS,  ne'iis'.  An  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
belonging  to  the  Netherlands,  and  situated  05 
miles  from  the  west  coast  of  Sumatra  (Map:  Aus- 
tralasia, B  2).  It  is  05  miles  long,  20  miles  wide, 
and  has  an  area  of  about  1800  square  miles.  It  is 
mountainous  and  surrounded  by  coral  reefs,  and 
the  soil  is  very  fertile,  the  chief  products  being 
rice,  sugar,  and  pepper,  the  latter  amounting  to 
over  100,000  pounds  annually.  The  inhabitants, 
whose  number  is  estimated  at  200.000.  are  a 
Malay  people  closely  akin  to  the  Battaks.  They 
are  somewhat  lighter  in  color  of  skin  than  many 
of  the  Malayan  tribes,  and  are  sometimes  classed 
as  Indonesians.  In  head-form  they  tend  toward 
dolichocephaly.  The  island  has  suffered  much 
from  intertribal  wars,  and  the  slave  trade  con- 
tinued here  with  unusual  persistency.  Consult: 
Modigliano,  Vn  riaggio  a  Xias  (Milan.  1890)  ; 
Sundermann,  "Kleine  niassische  Chrestomathie." 
in  Bijdragen  voor  de  taal-  land-  en  rolkenlcunde 
ran  Xederlandseh  Indie,  ser.  v.,  vol.vii.  ( 'sGraven- 
hage,  1S92)  ;  id.,  Kur;:gefasste  niussiselie  ilrum- 
matik  (Mors,  1892)  ;  id.,  Oeutsch-niassisches 
Worterbuch   (ib.,  1892). 

NIATA,  nyit'ta.  or  NATA,  nii'ta.  A  breed 
of  deformed  cattle,  long  existent  in  Argentina, 
but  now  very  rare.  These  animals  greatly  inter- 
ested Darwin  as  an  example  of  a  variation,  be- 
lieved to  have  originated  early  in  the  eighteenth 
century  among  the  Patagonian  Indians,  and  to 
have  remained  constant  for  a  long  period.  They 
have  very  short,  broad  foreheads,  upturned  noses, 
lips  withdrawn,  showing  the  teeth,  and  a  ludi- 
crous facial  resemblance  to  pug  dogs.  They  are 
remarkable  for  "breeding  true,'  and  the  amount 
of  inrtuence  exerted  on  the  hybrid  otTspring  when 
crossed  with  other  cattle.  Consult  Darwin.  A 
Xaturalist's  Voyage  (London,  3d  ed.,  1800;  New 
Y'ork  reprint,  1899).    Compare  Prepotency. 

NIBELXJNGEN,  Ring  ues.     See  Ring  of  the 

NlUliLUNGEN. 

NIBELUNGENLIED,  ne1)e-li.ing'cn-let'  (Ger., 
Song  of  the  Nibelungs).  A  great  German 
epic,  composed  by  an  unknown  poet  on  the 
basis  of  earlier  German  songs,  traditions,  and 
possibly  Latin  poems,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
tliirtecnth  century.  The  original  form  of  the 
poem  is  probably  in  none  of  the  ten  complete 
MSS.,  but  that  known  as  15  seems  closest  to 
the  original.  A  seems  an  abridgment,  C  an  en- 
largement of  B,  and  to  one  of  these  three  types  all 
the  MSS.  and  fragments  belong.  The  song  falls 
into  two  parts,  the  first  dealing  with  the  woo- 
ing, marriage,  and  murder  of  Siegfried,  the  sec- 
ond with  the  vengeance  of  his  widow.  Kriem- 
hild.  The  scene  of  the  former  is  the  Burgundian 
court  of  Gunther  and  his  wife,  Brunhilda,  at 
Worms,  of  the  latter  the  Hunnish  court  of  Etzel 
or  Attila;  but  both  parts  appear  to  have  .sot 
their  present  form  among  the  Franks,  whence 
the  legends  spread  over  Germany  and  to  Scan- 
dinavia, where  we  find  them  much  modified  in 
the  Edda  and  the  Thidreksaga.     The  outline  of 


NIBELUNGENLIED. 


530 


NIC^A. 


the  story  is  this:  Siegfried,  Kinj;  of  the  Nibe- 
lungs  in  Nether  Germany,  wooes  Krienihild,  sis- 
ter of  tile  BurgiinUian  King  tiiinther,  for  whom 
lie  procures  to  wife  Jinmhilda,  Queen  of  Icehmd, 
by  wearing  a  magic  cloak,  and  is  rewarded  with 
Kriemhild"s  hand.  Brunhilda  discovers  the  decep- 
tion and  procures  the  murder  of  Siegfried  by 
JIagen.  To  avenge  herself,  Krienihild  accepts  the 
suit  of  Elzel  and  invites  (iuntlier  with  his 
brothers  and  courtiers  to  visit  her.  llagcn  per- 
ceives her  intent,  buries  the  Nibelungen  treasure 
in  the  Rhine,  and,  after  vain  ett'orts  to  dissuade 
the  King,  accompanies  him.  The  liurgundians 
are  attacked  in  a  hall  and  all  are  finally  killed, 
not  without  loss  to  Etzel  of  Krienihild,  of  their 
son,  and  of  all  his  warriors,  save  only  Dietrich 
von  Bern  (Theodoric  of  Verona)  aii<l  his  com- 
panion. Ilildcbrand.  hero  of  the  tlililtiimnclslicd. 
Then  follows  in  all  .MSS.  a  Ltinirnt  {Die  Klucir) 
ohier  than  the  SaiKj  and  also  anonymous.  The 
historical  snb>tratuiii  of  the  legend  is  the  defeat 
of  the  Hiirgiuidian  King  (iundahari  by  Attila  in 
437.  Krienihild  seems  identical  with  the  girl 
lldico  (Hilde),  who  was  with  him  at  his  death, 
according  to  .Jordanes,  but  the  actual  Theodoric 
belongs  to  a  later  period,  and  if  Siegfried  be,  as 
many  have  thouglit,  identical  with  Arniinius, 
he  is  more  than  four  centuries  earlier.  Others 
regard  Siegfried,  with  Urunhilda.  as  mythi- 
cal. The  poem  derives  such  unity  as  it  has 
from  various  forms  of  tlie  eonllieting  claims 
of  double  allegiance.  In  Krienihild  there  is  the 
conllict  between  wife,  sister,  and  mother;  in 
Siegfried  between  husband  and  vassal ;  in  Hagen 
between  chivalrie  honor  and  allegiance;  and  in 
Riidiger,  Etzel's  great  vassal,  between  hospitality 
and  loyalty.  Thus  in  one  form  or  another  that 
faithfulness  (Trciic)  that  Heine  said  was  the 
strongest  characteristic  of  the  (ieriiian  nation  is 
the  main-spring  of  tragic  action.  But  the  >S'oh(/ 
lacks  unity  of  inner  structure.  Passages  of  deep 
feeling  and  pathos  alternate  not  alone  with  those 
of  fierce,  rugged  strength,  but  with  others  trivial, 
grotesque,  or  even,  as  iu  (lunther's  wedding, 
downright  biirlesipie.  The  episodes,  too,  are  so 
inartistically  welded  that  a  school  of  critics, 
Laeliniann  at  their  head,  even  thought  they  could 
distinguish  the  elenients  of  compilation;  but  this 
position  is  now  generally  aliandoned.  The  his- 
tory of  the  Xibelnngcniied  is  not  without  in- 
terest. l'"or  centuries  it  was  quite  forgotten. 
Uodmer  (q.v. )  printed  fragments  of  it  in  17.")7, 
but  it  was  received  with  in<lifVereiice  by  scholars 
and  with  contempt  by  King  Krederick  II.  The 
national  sjiirit  roused  by  the  War  of  Liberation 
was  more  favorable  to  the  legend.  A  soldiers' 
edition  was  printed  in  181i).  and  in  the  next  year 
Karl  I.achiiiann  published  his  epoch-making 
study.  Since  llicii  the  Xiliiduiigenlied  has  grown 
steadily  in  seliola>tic  and  popular  favor  till  its 
contents  have  become  part  of  (iernian  literary 
consciousness.  It  has  been  the  subject  of 
critical  studies  by  the  (Jrimms,  Miillenhon", 
Zarnckc.  Bartsch,  and  Scherer;  has  been  edited 
several  times  in  its  three  versions,  and  well  trans- 
lated into  modern  fiermair  by  Simrock,  Bartsch, 
and  Freytag.  There  are  English  versions  by 
l.ettsom  "  (  1«.50),  Foster- Barham  (1887),  and 
Birch  (ISK7). 

BiiiLiocBAniY.  Tlic  history  of  the  Xibelungen 
controversy  is  told  in  Fischer,  Die  Furnrhuniirn 
iihir  (las  yihclunficnlied  srit  K.  Lnchmann 
(Leipzig.    1874).      Consult,    also,    Mutli,    Einlei- 


tuiig  (Paderborn,  1S77);  Willmanns,  Bvitrdge 
zitr  Krkluniiiy  unci  Geschivkte  lies-  Sibtiumjvidwi 
(Halle,  1877)  ;  Kenning,  Mbilungeiistudkn 
(ib.,  1SS3)  ;  \V.  Grimm,  Die  dcutsche  llilden- 
tiugc,  3d  ed.,  by  Steig  (Giitersloh,  18110)  ;  Hein- 
zel,  Leber  die  Xibeltiiiyeiisuye  (Vienna.  188.5)  ; 
Miiller,  Mijlhologie  der  deutschen  Heldensage 
(Heilbroiin,  188U)  ;  Liclilciibergcr,  Le  poeme  et 
la  leyetide  des  Xibelungen  (Paris,  1891);  and, 
Gaston  Paris,  in  I'oitnes  et  legenden  <lu  nuiyen 
ugc  (ib.,  1001).  There  is  a  poetical  analysis  in 
Carl_vle"s  Miseelluneuiis  Essugs.  Tlie  Xibelungen- 
lied  has  furnished  Jordan  the  material  for  his 
epic.  Die  yibelungen,  and  Wagner  the  subject  for 
the  \ihelungen  TriUjgy,  which  has,  however,  more 
Xorse  than  German  elements.  Siegfried  ])lays  a 
prominent  part  in  other  Middle  High  tierman 
epics,  eg,  liilcrolf  and  Der  Rosengurten. 

NIB'LO'S  GARDEN.  A  former  Xew  York 
theatre  on  Broadway,  near  Prince  Street,  estab- 
lished in  18"28  under  the  name  of  the  Sana 
Souei,  and  later  the  property  of  William  X'iblo. 
It  was  famous  as  the  home  of  the  spectacular 
drama  during  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  It  was  twice  burned  and  rebuilt,  ami 
was  finally  torn  down  in  1900. 

ISICJEA.,  ni-se'a,  or  NICE,  nes  (Gk.  N/kij, 
.Vi7,r,  Xinat'o,  yH.aia.  city  of  victory).  A  city  of 
Bithynia.  iu  Asia  ilinor,  situated  at  the  ea.stcrn 
end  of  Lake  Ascania.  It  was  built  on  the  site 
of  an  older  town  by  Antigonus  (B.C.  31G)  , 
and  received  the  name  of  Antigoneia.  which  i 
Lysimaclius  changed  to  Xica-a,  in  honor  of 
his  wife.  It  was  a  handsome  town  and  of 
great  importance  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  and 
Byzantine  emiicrors;  all  the  streets  crossed 
each  other  at  right  angles,  and  from  a  mag- 
nificent monument  in  the  centre  the  four  gates 
of  the  city  were  visible.  It  was  early  the  resi- 
dence of  a  Christian  bishop,  later  of  an  arch- 
bishop. In  1078  it  was  captured  by  the  Sel- 
juks.  In  1097  it  was  taken  by  the  Crusaders. 
Theodore  Lasearis  (q.v.)  made  it  the  capital  of 
his  dominions  in  Asia  Minor  in  l'2no.  and  it  re- 
mained tlie  seat  of  an  iiidr'])eiideiit  Greek  State 
until  12(J1,  when  Michael  Pala'ologus.  Emperor  of 
Xicica,  restored  the  Byzantine  Enijiire.  It  fell 
into  the  power  of  the  Osmaiilis  in  132t).  Nicira's 
chief  importance  in  history  is  in  connection  with 
the  two  church  councils  held  there.  (See  Xlc.EA, 
CoiMii.s  OF.)  At  the  present  time  it  is  a  small 
village  called  Isnik,  with  many  interestilig 
ruins.  The  church  in  which  the  council  is  said 
lo  have  been  held  is  now  a  mosque. 

NICffiA,  roiNCiLS  OF.  Two  ccunienical  coun- 
cils (if  the  Christian  Church,  held  at  Xicira  ia': 
Bithynia.  (  \)  The  first  was  convened  by  the  Em- 
peror Constantine  ill  32.'>  to  settle  the  .\rian  con- 
troversy. Of  some  1800  bishops  in  the  Emjiire,  318 
attended  the  council.  The  total  number  of  dele- 
gates, including  presbyters  and  others,  was  jiroba- 
Illy  more  than  l.'iOO.  The  eastern  )Movinces  wer». 
laigi'ly  represented.  Many  of  the  members  werw 
venerable  and  illustrious  men.  among  whom  were 
Eusebius  (if  Ca'sarea,  eminent  for  learning:  .\tha- 
nasius,  then  only  a  young  deacon,  attendant  OD 
the  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  small  and  insignifi- 
cant in  person,  but  conspicuous  f(U'  intellect,  elo- 
quence, and  zeal;  Arius.  a  parish  priest  of  Alex- 
andria. tiO  years  old,  tall  and  emaciated  in  per- 
son, wild,  sometimes  almost  to  madness,  in  man- 
ner ascetic,  and  negligent  in  dress,  yet  having  A 


i 


1 .1 


NIC^A. 


531 


NICARAGUA. 


sweet  voice,  and  fiisuinaling  speech;  Paphnutius, 
a  martyr  of  llie  L  ppcr  Tliebaid,  whose  riyht  eye 
had  been  dug  out  with  a  sword,  and  the  empty 
socket  seared  with  a  liut  iron;  Paul  of  Neo- 
C'a'sarea,  also  a  martyr,  scarred  by  the  brand  of 
hot  iron  which  had  crippled  both  his  hands; 
Jacob  of  Xisibis,  wlio  had  spent  years  as  a  hermit 
in  forests  and  caves,  subsisting  on  plants  and 
roots ;  .Spiridion  of  Cyrus,  continuing,  even  after 
his  ordination,  a  literal  shepherd;  Hosius  of 
Cordova,  the  ablest  and  best  of  the  Western  dele- 
gates; two  Roman  presbyters,  influential  as 
representing  Pope  Sylvester,  who  was  kept  at 
home  by  the  infirmities  of  age;  a  Persian 
bishop  from  the  eastern  frontier,  and  a  Gothic 
bishop  from  the  north.  Constantine's  object 
in  convening  the  council,  as  announced  in  his 
opening  address,  was  to  heal  the  divisions  in  the 
Church.  At  the  opening  of  the  discussions  on  the 
nature  of  Christ  there  seemed  little  prospect  that 
the  Emperor's  prayer  for  harmony  among  the 
delegates  would  be  answered.  Accusations  and 
recriminations  were  bandied  to  and  fro  without 
regard  to  his  presence.  The  first  sessions  were 
devoted  cliiefly  to  a  discussion  of  the  Arian  views, 
accompanied  witli  an  examination  of  Arius  him- 
self. He  maintained  that  the  Son  of  God  was  a 
creature,  though  indeed  the  most  exalted  of  all ; 
that  He  had  been  made  out  of  nothing;  that  there 
was  a  time  when  He  did  not  exist;  and  that,  in 
His  own  free  will.  He  w'as  ca-pable  of  right  and 
wrong.  The  first  attemi)t  to  reach  a  decision  was 
made  by  producing  an  ancient  creed  of  Palestine, 
the  basis  of  that  which  was  ultimately  adopted, 
but  opposed  at  first  by  the  orthodo.x — the  more 
violently  because  the  Arians  were  willing  to 
adopt  it.  A  letter  having  been  read  from  Euse- 
bius  of  Xicomedia,  in  which  he  declared  that  to 
assert  the  Son  to  be  uncreated  would  be  to  say 
that  He  was  of  one  substance  (oiwoiaiot)  with 
the  Father,  the  expression  was  laid  hold  of  as  fur- 
nishing the  very  test  for  which  they  were  seeking. 
For  the  confession  of  faith  adopted  at  the  end  of 
the  deliberations,  see  Xkene  Creed. 

Another  controversy  determined  had  reference 
to  the  time  for  observing  Easter.  The  question 
was.  Ought  the  Christian  passover_  to  be  cele- 
brated on  the  same  day  as  the  Jewish — the  14th 
day  of  the  month  Xisan — or  on  the  following 
Sunday?  On  the  one  side  were  the  apostolic 
traditions,  and  on  the  other  the  Catholic  spirit 
seeking  separation  from  Jewish  ideas.  At  the 
date  of  the  council  the  Judaic  time  was  observed 
by  the  principal  Eastern  churches,  and  the  Chris- 
tian time  by  the  Western  churches,  with  a  part 
of  the  Eastern.  The  decision  was  in  favor  of  the 
Christian  time.  Some  smaller  matters  also  were 
decided  by  the  council,  and  20  canons  passed  on 
various  subjects  pertaining  to  morality  and  re- 
ligion. For  a  minute  and  picturesque  description 
of  this  council,  consult:  Stanley,  Hislory  of  ilie 
Eastern  Chiirrh  (London.  1861);  also  Boyle, 
A  Historical  ^'i<'w  of  the  Council,  of  yice,  iiHh  a 
Translation  of  Documents,  in  Cruse's  translation 
of  Eusebius  (New  York,  1S56). 

(2)  The  second  council  of  Niesea  was  convened 
in  786  by  the  Empress  Irene  and  her  son  Con- 
stantine,  dissolved  because  of  the  tumults  raised 
by  the  image-breaking  party,  and  reassembled 
the  following  year.  Three  htmdred  and  seventy- 
five  bishops  attended  from  Greece,  Thrace,  the 
isles  of  the  Archipelago,  Sicily,  and  Italy.  The 
council    was    occasioned    by    the    Emperor's    ill- 


judged  severity  in  forbidding  tlie  use  of  images 
for  any  purpose,  and  causing  them  everywhere  to 
be  removed  and  destroyed;  and  by  the  violent 
opposition  to  his  course.  For  the  history  of  this 
controversy,  see   lM.\(iE- WORSHIP. 

NICAIJ'DER  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  yUavSpos.  M- 
kandrosj.  A  Greek  physician  and  poet,  born  at 
Colophon,  in  Asia,  about  B.C.  150.  Of  his  numerous 
works  only  two  poems  are  extant:  the  B-npiaKi 
(nearly  one  thousand  hexameter  lines),  on  reme- 
dies against  the  wounds  infiicted  by  venomous  ani- 
mals; and  'AXfJt0d/);naKa  (more  than  six  hundred 
hexameter  lines),  on  poisons  and  tlieir  antidotes. 
Among  his  lost  works  was  the  'ET(poiovij.(ua,  which 
is  said  to  have  been  one  of  Ovid's  sources  for 
his  Metamorphoses.  He  is  frequently  quoted  by 
Pliny,  Galen,  and  other  ancient  writers  as  an 
avithority  on  all  matters  relating  to  to.xicology. 
Consult  the  edition  by  Schneider,  revised  by  Keil 
(Leipzig,   1850). 

NICANDEB,  nekiin'der,  Karl  ArouST 
(1790-1839).  A  Swedish  poet,  born  at  Streng- 
nils.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Upsala. 
A  prize  from  the  Swedish  Academy  for  his  poem 
Tassos  dod  (1826)  gave  him  an  opportunity  to 
go  to  Italy  (1827).  After  his  return  he  lived  in 
want  almost  to  the  day  of  his  death.  His  earlie.st 
important  poem  was  Runesnirdet  (1821);  this 
was  followed  by  a  collection  of  poems  and  tales, 
Hesjierider,  and  the  poem  Minnen  frdn  Sodern 
(18.31),  containing  his  recollections  of  Italy,  a 
land  which  appealed  strongly  to  his  imagination. 
His  best  iK)em,  Lejonet  i  okiien  ( 1838 ) ,  is  a  eulogy 
of  Napoleon.  A  collection  of  his  poems  appeared 
at  Stockholm  in  1839-41    (4  vols.;  5th  ed.  1883). 

NICARAGUA,  ne'kA-rii'gwa  (from  Xic/iiirao, 
Xicariio,  a  Nahua  tribe  inhabiting  the  country 
in  the  si-xteenth  century)-  The  largest  of  the 
Central  American  republics  excepting  Guate- 
mala. It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Honduras 
and  on  the  south  by  Costa  Rica.  Its  frontage  on 
the  Caribbean  Sea  is  about  300  miles ;  that  on  the 
Pacific,  200  miles.  It  extends  between  lati- 
tudes 10°  41'  and  15"  N.  and  longitudes  83°  15' 
and  87'  40'  W.  (Map:  Central  America,  E  4). 
Civilization  is  centred  in  the  western  third  of 
the  country.  The  settlements  extend  scarcely 
100  miles  inland  from  the  Pacific.  The  wide 
Caribbean  slope  has  no  towns  of  importance  ex- 
cepting Bluefields  and  Greytown  ( San  .Juan 
del  Norte).  The  low  and  hot  Caribbean  plain 
is  under  the  infiuence  of  the  moist  trade  winds 
which  nurture  the  most  luxuriant  tropical 
vegetation.  Almost  impassable  virgin  forests,  in- 
habited by  scattered  bands  of  Indians,  spread 
from  the  western  mountains  to  the  Caribbean; 
but  though  this  larger  part  of  the  country  is  rich 
in  valuable  timber  and  its  higher  lands  contain 
the  centres  of  gold-mining,  it  is  the  home  of  few 
white  men.  The  higher  and  drier  regions  of  the 
western  mountain  ranges  with  the  plain  between 
them  are,  on  the  other  hand,  adapted  for  plant- 
ing and  other  industries,  and  have  attained  con- 
siderable development.  The  estimated  area  is 
about  40.000  square  miles,  about  the  same  as  that 
of  Louisiana. 

Topography.  The  Caribbean  coast  is  low  and 
poorly  supplied  with  harbors.  It  has  three  ports, 
none  of  them  adapted  for  large  ships.  Grey- 
town,  in  the  delta  of  the  San  .luan  River,  former- 
ly had  a  splendid  harbor  with  30  feet  of  water 
at  low  tide,  but  during  a  flood  in  1855  the  river 


NICARAGUA. 


532 


NICARAGUA. 


widened  and  deepened  the  Colorado  branch  of  tlie 
delta  so  tliat  most  of  the  river  now  discharges 
south  of  Crejtown  in  Costa  Kii-a,  leaving  Grey- 
town  harborj  which  has  also  been  silted  by  tlio 
sea,  very  shallow.  The  port  of  Gracias 
fi  Dies  is  also  shallow.  Bluefields,  on  a  large 
lagoon,  is  the  most  important  east-eoast  port. 
The  Pacific  coast  is  liigh.  and  tlic  water  is  deep 
close  to  the  sliore.  The  harljor  of  Corinto  is  one 
of  the  licst-|)r()lected  ports  on  tlio  I'acific.  ami 
•San  Jvian  del  Sur  has  a  small  but  deep  and  safe 
harbor.  Saint  Andrews.  Old  Providence,  and 
Great  and  Little  Corn  islands,  near  the  Carib- 
bean coast,  are  centres  of  banana  and  cocnanut 
growing. 

Geographically  Nicaragua  is  divided  into  dis- 
tinct zones  by  two  chains  of  mountains,  which, 
more  or  less  broken,  and  with  numerous 
llanl;ing  spurs,  traverse  tlie  Republic  in  a  north- 
west and  southeast  direction  parallel  with  the 
Pacific  coast.  The  western  or  coast  range  is  a 
part  of  the  mountain  system  extending  through 
most  of  Central  America.  In  Nicaragua  it 
is  only  ten  to  twenty  miles  from  the  Pacific,  and 
its  nearness  to  the  ocean  accounts  for  the  fact 
that  no  considerable  streams  discharge  from  that 
sloi)e  into  the  Pacific.  This  western  range,  with 
the  depressed  plain  lying  between  it  and  the 
eastern  range,  forms  the  principal  line  of  volcanic 
energy-  and  is  marked  by  a  numlxr  of  extinct 
and  active  volcanoes  built  up  by  outpouring 
lava.  None  of  them  reaches  7000  feet  al)ove  sea- 
level.  Masaya  (2072  feet)  was  violently  active 
at  different  jieriods  from  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
Conquest  until  1772.  when  a  vast  mass  of 
lava  was  ejected  from  its  crater,  covering  a 
tract  of  land  eight  miles  long  by  two  wide.  It 
was  dormant  belwwn  1861  and  May.  1002.  when 
it  resumed  activity.  Coseguina  (over  .'iOOll  feet) 
had  a  terrific  eruption  period  in  18:!.">.  I)ut  has 
since  been  inactive.  The  Spaniards  founded  the 
city  of  Leon  Viejo  at  the  foot  of  Momotombo,  but 
the  eruption  of  IfiOO  so  alarmed  the  citizens  that 
they  removed  en  masse  2."!  miles  from  the  town 
they  had  fo\inded  and  established  new  Leon  on 
its  present  site.  In  recent  years  this  volcano  has 
<?jected  dust  and  scoria  without  inllicting  dam- 
age. Other  wcil-known  volcanic  summits  are 
Telica.  Las  Pilas.  Mi)mbachi>.  Za|iaterii.  OiiU'tepe, 
etc.  The  severe  earthipiakis  re<orde(l  in  Nica- 
ragua are  associated  with  its  v(dcanic  phenomena. 

The  eastern  range  enters  Nicaragua  from 
Honduras  and  extends  in  a  general  southeastern 
direction  to  the  coast  north  of  the  San  Juan 
River,  about  50  miles  from  its  month.  It  sends 
out  numerous  spurs  toward  the  Caribbean,  be- 
tween which  flow  the  many  rivers  of  the  coun- 
try, lictween  the  ea-^tern  and  wislcrn  ranges 
lies  the  gri'at  interior  basin,  aliout  'MM  miles  long 
and  100  miles  wide,  where  the  pupulatinn  and 
industries  are  in  great  part  centred,  chiefly 
near  the  west  shores,  or  a  little  to  the  north  and 
west  of  the  two  great  lakes  of  the  country.  The 
dominating  topographic  features  are  thus  the 
wide.  low.  rolling  plain  of  the  east,  interspersed 
with  mountains  and  spurs,  and,  toward  the 
northwest,  with  highlands;  the  two  eorililleras; 
the  depressed  plain  between  them  with  its  two 
large  lakes;  and  the  steep,  narrow  Pacific  slope. 

HvmtocRAPllv.  In  the  plain  nr  basin  between 
the  ranges  are  two  large  lakes,  Managua  and 
Nicaragua,  connected  by  the  river  Tipitapa  and 
■collecting  the  drainage  of  the  basin,  which  has 


an  area  of  about  12,000  square  miles.  The  larger 
lake,  Nicaragua,  comprises  over  3000  square 
miles,  and  is  110  miles  long.  Its  longer  axis  is 
parallel  with  the  Pacific,  from  which  it  is  only 
eleven  miles  distant  at  the  nearest  point.  It  is 
from  12  to  200  feet  deep,  with  its  surface  al)out 
100  feet  above  the  sea-level.  It  receives  the  waters 
of  the  shallower  Lake  Managua  (,32  miles  long  ay 
IG  wide).  The  waters  of  these  lakes  are  carried 
to  the  Caribbean  by  the  San  .Juan  River,  whicli  has 
an  average  width  of  1.300  feet,  and  a  minimum  dis- 
charge of  aljout  10,000  cubic  feet  per  sei'ond.  Its 
course  is  120  miles,  and  it  is  navigable  for  small- 
drauglit  steamers  except  at  a  few  rapids,  vhich 
ofi'er  obstruction  in  the  dry  season.  The  river 
has  recently  played  little  part  in  the  commerce 
of  the  country,  but  in  the  construction  of  tlie 
Nicaragua  Canal  it  was  proposed  to  use  its  wa- 
ters for  many  miles.  The  otlier  rivers  are  mainly 
to  the  north  of  the  San  Juan,  east  of  tlie  nmun- 
tain  ranges,  and  drain  the  wide,  forested  plain. 
Most  important  among  them  are  the  .Segovia  or 
Wanks,  about  300  miles  in  length,  but  with  a 
narrow  drainasre  basin,  which  does  not  carry  a 
volume  of  water  proportionate  to  its  length;  the 
Rio  Grande,  about  230  miles  long,  navigable  for 
small  ves.sels  for  100  miles  from  the  sea  if  a  chan- 
nel were  cut  through  its  bar:  and  the  Bluefields 
P.iver,  navigable  for  Go  miles,  its  banks  lined 
witli  banana  plantations,  whose  crop  is  carried 
on  the  river  to  Bluefields  for  shipment  to  the 
Ciiited  States.  The  Pacific  coast  rivers  are  un- 
important. 

Ci.iM.^TE.  The  climate  is  very  warm,  but  not 
unhcalthful,  the  prevailing  trade  winds  mitigat- 
ing the  discomforts  of  the  temperature,  which 
varies  little,  seldom  rising  above  85°  or  falling 
below  70°.  The  seasons  are  divided  into  the  wet 
and  the  dry.  Init  on  the  Carilibcan  side  they  are 
lint  well  defined,  as  rain  falls  nearly  every  day 
in  the  year.  The  precipitation  at  Greytown  is 
200-2.J0  inches  annually,  while  in  the  west,  in 
the  higher  land,  the  ])iecipitation  is  only  (i.»-80 
inches.  The  soil  is  very  productive.  On  the  Ca- 
ribbean slope  it  is  mainly  reddish  clay  covered 
by  leaf  humus,  and  the  cultivated  regions  of  the 
west  have  a  deep,  black  soil,  in  which  fertilizing' 
lavas  and  volcanic  dust  are  large  constituents. 

Fl.OR.\.  The  eastern  plain  is  covered  with  trees 
of  great  size,  beneath  which  is  a  thick  growth 
of  buslies  and  vines.  There  are  .t4  varii'ties  of 
trees  suitable  for  hardwood  lumber;  40  varieties 
supplying  industrial  or  medicinal  gums,  balsams, 
resins,  fibres,  oils,  extracts,  food,  drink,  and 
spices;  and  74  varieties  of  fruit  trees,  of  which 
17  are  wilil  and  .57  cultivated.  Rublier  abounds, 
but  the  supply  has  been  depleted  by  ruinous 
methods  of  collection.  For  this  reason  rubber- 
collecting,  except  in  the  Bluefields  ilisfrict.  has 
been  prohiliited  until  1007.  though  it  may  be 
gathered  from  cultivated  trees  on  rubber  plan- 
tations which  are  now  being  ojiened.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  the  cultivation  of  rubber  will  be  svic- 
cessful.  The  resources  of  the  forest  are  enor- 
mous, but  as  yet  are  little  utilized.  Citr\i9 
fruits  flourish,  especially  in  the  western  part  of 
the  country.  The  cultivation  of  most  tropical 
crops  is  considerably  developed  and  has  a  great 
future. 

F.MXA.  Animal  life  is  very  rich  and  varied, 
particularly  in  the  moist  eastern  regions.  The 
principal  mammals  are  the  jaguar,  cougar, 
wild  swine,  deer,   monkeys,  squirrels,  and  epos- 


NICARAGUA. 


533 


NICARAGUA. 


sums.  Alligators  are  found  in  the  rivers  and 
along  their  shores,  and  turtles,  snakes,  some  very 
poisonous,  and  insect  life  are  superabundant. 

Geolociy  and  Mineral  Resoikces.  The  Ca- 
rilihean  plain  is  alluvial.  Far  inland  behind  the 
plain  are  the  liighlands  of  Segovia.  Matagalpa, 
and  Cliontales,  composed  of  Paleozoic  and  ileso- 
zoic  strata,  with  granite  and  basalt  intrusions. 
The  gold  diggings  are  found  chielly  in  these 
highlands.  The  broad  depression  between  the 
mountains  extending  from  near  the  Gulf  of  Fon- 
seca  to  the  lakes  and  the  valley  of  the  8an  .Juan 
is  mainly  Paleozoic,  with  a  deep  covering  of 
volcanic  dust  and  tufa.  The  country  west  of  the 
lakes  is  formed  to  a  great  dcptli  of  matter 
ejected  from  the  line  of  volcanic  fissures  and 
cones,  which  pass  through  or  ajipear  above  it. 
On  this  erupted  mass  are  situatc<l  most  of  the 
larger  towns,  and  here  is  the  dwelling  place  of 
over  seven-tenths  of  the  population.  American 
and  British  companies  do  most  of  the  mining. 
At  present  only  gold  mines  are  worked  in  Nic- 
aragua, though  silver-mining  yielded  great  re- 
turns in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 
The  gold  mines,  about  ,"50  in  number,  have  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  wealth  of  the  Republic. 
Those  of  Chontales  yield  from  one-fourth  of  an 
ounce  to  two  ounces  of  gold  to  the  ton  of  ore ; 
those  of  Nueva  Segovia  from  one  and  a  half 
ounces  to  three  ounces.  The  total  production  in 
the  past  ten  years  has  been  from  20.000  to  70.000 
ounces  a  year.  Tin,  nickel,  antimony,  arsenic, 
and  other  metals  and  minerals  liave  been  located, 
hut  as  yet  are  not  economically  important. 

Agriculti:be.  The  rich  farming  regions  of  the 
west  are  capable  of  vastly  greater  development 
than  has  yet  been  attained.  The  coffee  planta- 
tions (many  of  them  belonging  to  Germans) 
yield  the  principal  crop,  the  berry  being  grown 
throughout  the  highlands  of  the  north  and  north- 
west. The  largest  crop  was  produced  in  1902 — 
30.000,000  pounds.  Cocoa  is  of  superior  quality, 
but  not  enough  is  produced  for  the  home  market. 
The  sugar  industry  is  extending.  Sugar-cane 
supplies  the  coarse  brown  sugar  made  at  home 
ami  i-;  used  in  the  manufacture  of  aguardiente, 
a  kind  of  rum.  Cotton  is  indigenous,  and  of 
excellent  quality,  but  is  grown  wholly  for  home 
consumption.  Three  crops  of  maize  a  year  are 
raised  on  the  same  ground.  Large  areas,  well 
adapted  for  tobapco  farming,  are  still  unfilled. 
The  rubber  industry  has  latterly  been  waning. 
Rice  is  important,  and  the  yam  and  sweet 
pntato  are  the  principal  farinaceous  crops.  Bread 
fruit  grows  to  perfection,  and  is  an  important 
article  of  diet.  The  banana  industrv  is  large 
and  increasing.  The  cocoanut  and  black  beans 
are  produced  abundantly,  and  the  vegetables  of 
the  temperate  zone  thrive  in  the  more  elevated 
districts.  Cattle-raising,  particularly  in  the 
northwestern  provinces,  is  one  of  the  chief  sources 
of  wealth.  Large  haciendas  are  devoted  to  this 
industrv.  and  many  hides  are  exported. 

Maxlf.\ctures.  Manufacturing  enterprises 
are  little  developed.  Coarse  cotton  fal)rics  are 
ina(h'.  and  most  of  the  house  furniture  is  sup- 
plied by  local  factories.  Large  quantities  of 
cigars  are  produced  and  also  roofing  tiles  and 
other  forms  of  pottery.  The  Indian  industries 
include  the  making  of  hammocks,  superior  straw 
hats,  jewelry  of  gold  and  silver,  potteries  and 
carvings.  The  country  depends  for  its  manufac- 
tures chiefly  upon  imports. 


Commerce.  Trade  statistics  are  not  published, 
but  the  consular  reports  give  an  ajiiiroxiniate 
idea  of  the  \olume  of  foreign  commerce.  The  im- 
ports in  I'JOl  were  approximately  .$3,240,000; 
the  exports,  .$2,736,000.  Of  the  former,  the  lead- 
ing items  are  cotton,  food  materials,  and  their 
products;  of  the  latter,  the  leading  items  are 
coffee,  bananas,  gold,  cattle,  and  woods.  In  1901, 
GO  per  cent,  of  the  imports  came  from  the  United 
States,  and  00  per  cent,  of  the  exports  went  to 
the  United  States.  Great  Britain  and  then 
Germany  came  next  in  the  trade.  In  1902  the 
imports  from  Nicaragua  to  the  United  States 
were  about  $2,000,000;  the  exports  to  Nicaragua, 
$1,350,000. 

Transportation.  About  two-thirds  of  the  for- 
eign trade  pas.ses  thi'ough  Corinto.  The  Ciovern- 
ment  has  planned  for  rcsnilar  direct  steamship 
connection  with  New  Orleans  and  Europe.  Nine- 
teen small  vessels,  including  one  steamship  owned 
by  Nicaraguans,  aie  in  the  merchant  trade,  and 
four  steamers  ply  on  Lake  Managua.  There  are 
very  few  good  roads.  The  railroads  are  confined 
to  the  Pacific  coast,  and  with  the  completion  of 
the  Central  Division  of  the  system  in  November, 
1902,  there  is  now  a  continuous  railroad  line 
from  Corinto  on  the  Pacific  to  Granada  on  Lake 
Nicaragua,  with  a  branch  to  Diriamba  in  the 
cofi'ee  region.  The  total  system  in  operation  is 
about  200  miles,  and  practically  all  belongs  to 
the  Government.  The  latest  addition  to  the  ser- 
vice greatly  improves  the  facilities  for  shipping 
coft'ee. 

Banking.  The  Bank  of  London  and  Central 
America  and  the  Agriculture  and  Mercantile 
Bank  at  Leon  have  brandies  in  all  the  impor- 
tant cities,  and  transact  most  of  the  banking 
business,  though  many  private  capitalists  also 
carry  on  banking. 

GiovEBNMENT.  Nicaragua  has  a  repulilican 
form  of  government.  The  Constitution  (adopted 
in  1894  and  amended  in  1890)  vests  the  law- 
making power  in  a  Congress  of  one  House,  with 
forty  members,  elected  for  two  years.  The 
session  of  Congress  is  ninety  days,  opening  with- 
out special  convocation  at  the  beginning  of  Au- 
gust. The  President  and  Vice-President  must  be 
at  least  twenty-five  years  of  age.  and  citizens  of 
Nicaragua  or  of  one  of  the  Central  American 
republics.  They  are  elected  for  four  years  by 
direct  suffrage.  The  President  exercises  admin- 
istrative functions  through  a  council  of  minis- 
ters, composed  of  the  heads  of  the  five  depart- 
ments of  the  Interior  (.Justice,  Police,  and  Re- 
ligion), Wur  and  Marine,  I<"oreign  AtTairs,  Fi- 
nance, and  Public  Works.  The  Republic  is  di- 
vided into  13  departments,  2  eomarcas,  and  3 
districts,  each  of  which  is  inider  a  Governor,  who 
is  also  commander  of  the  military  forces  in  his 
department  or  district.  There  are  a  Supreme 
Court  of  Justice  and  two  courts  of  second  in- 
stance. The  military  forces  comprise  the  active 
army,  the  reserve,  and  the  national  guard.  The 
number  of  active  troops  varies;  in  1900  the 
number  was  2000;  in  time  of  war  it  niav  be 
20,000. 

Finance.  The  Government  derives  most  of  its 
revenue  from  the  customs,  in  addition  to  which 
the  liquor  and  tobacco  duties  yield  a  consider- 
able amount.  The  largest  items  in  expenditure 
are  for  the  Departments  of  War  and  JIarine, 
and  of  Fomento  (exploitation).  In  1902  the 
estimated      revenues      and      expenditures      each 


NICARAGUA. 


634 


NICARAGUA  CANAL. 


amounted  to  al)out  $2,12J,U00.  The  foreif.m 
debt,  iiK-uned  cliietly  in  tne  development  of  tlie 
railroad  system,  was  al)out  $1,312,000  in  .July, 
lyU2.  It  is  held  in  Great  Britain,  and  is  in  ar- 
rears. The  internal  debt  at  tlie  beyinniiij,'.  of 
lltOl  was  abdut  .$;i,300.000.  Jletric  weifzhts  and 
measures  and  al.so  the  old  Spanish  denominations 
are  employed.  The  sjstem  of  money  is  the  same 
as  in  Mexico,  silver  being  the  standard  value. 
The  silver  peso  was  worth  30.1  cents  in  L'nited 
States  coin  on  January  1,  1903. 

PorULATiON.  The  census  returns  are  largely 
estimates,  the  census  of  UKIO  giving  a  total  of 
500.000.  which  is  80,000  more  than  the  estimate 
for  1S'J5.  and  may  be  exaggerated.  Managua  is 
the  capital,  with  30.000  inhabitants.  Other  large 
towns  are  Leon  (4.5,000),  (iranada  (25.000), 
jMasaya  (20.000),  and  thinandega  (20.000). 
The  number  of  ilescendants  of  Spanish  settlers  is 
only  about  17,000,  the  great  mass  of  the  popula- 
tion consisting  of  Indians,  negroes,  and  mi.\ed 
bloods.  The  Indians  su]iply  most  of  the  lal)or 
and  are  docile  and  industrious.  Most  of  the 
country  people  live  in  villages,  many  of  them 
traveling  several  miles  to  their  fields.  The 
efforts  to  induce  immigration  have  not  been  suc- 
cessful. 

Education  and  Religion.  Education  is  in  ii 
very  backward  condition,  and  the  majority  of  the 
people  are  illiterate.  Less  than  20.000  pujiils 
attend  the  elementary  schools.  The  universities 
at  Leon  and  Granada,  with  instruction  in  law  and 
medicine,  have  been  consolidated.  There  are  ten 
colleges.  The  only  public  library  is  supported  b\- 
the  Government  at  Jlanagna,  and  is  free  to  the 
public.  A  National  Industrial,  Commercial,  and 
Scientific  Museum  has  also  been  establi>hed 
there.  The  Roman  Catholic  faith  is  recognized 
in  the  Constitution  as  the  State  religion,  but 
other  forms  of  faith  are  not  molested. 

History.  The  coast  of  Nicaragua  was  first 
seen  by  Columbus  in  1502  or  1503.  In  1522  Gil 
Gonzales  Davila  discovered  Lake  Nicaragua,  and 
in  I52(;  Pedrarias  Davila  led  an  expedition  into 
the  country.  It  was  organizeil  as  an  intendencia 
of  the  Captain-Generalcy  of  Guatemala  in  152S. 
In  1821  Nicaragua,  in  common  with  the  other 
Central  .American  States,  revolted  from  Spain, 
and  was  annexed  to  the  Mexican  Empire  of  Itur- 
bide.  Upon  the  downfall  of  that  leader  Nica- 
ragua l)ecanie  an  independent  State,  but  joined 
the  Confederation  of  Central  .\nierica  in  1823. 
That  federation  dissolved  in  1839.  and  Nicaragua 
became  once  more  in(le[)endcnt.  '  The  strife  of 
parties,  however,  and  the  play  of  personal  ambi- 
tion gave  the  country  little  peace.  In  184!  a  dis- 
pute arose  with  (ireat  Britain  concerning  the 
rights  of  a  native  chief  on  the  Mosijuito  Coast. 
This  threatened  at  one  time  to  lead  to  hostilities, 
but  the  matter  was  finally  settled  by  a  clause 
inserted  in  the  Clayton-Iiulwer  Treaty  of  1850 
and  by  a  separate  treaty,  in  which  Great  Brit- 
ain ceded  all  rights  of  a  protectorate  over 
the  disputed  territory  to  Nicaragua.  The  year 
1855  was  sigmilized  by  the  famotis  filibuster- 
ing expedition  of  William  Walker  (q.v.).  whose 
attempt  to  establish  a  slavelidbling  State  in  Cen- 
tral -America  for  once  impelleri  the  ditfercnt 
.States  to  common  action.  Walker  was  driven 
out  in  lS5ti,  and  upfpn  his  renewin"  his  attempt 
was  captured  and  shot  (ISfiO).  There  followed 
for  Nicaragua  a  loni;  period  of  peace,  broken  in 
1893  by  a  struggle  for  the  Presidency,  which  in 


turn  led  to  war  with  Honduras,  owing  to  the 
unwarrantable  interference  of  that  State.  Under 
the  energetic  administration  of  President  Zelaya 
Nicaragua  proceeded  to  annex  the  Mosquito  Ter- 
ritory in  1894,  and  entered  thereby  into  strained 
relations  with  Great  Britain,  which  demanded 
comjiensation  for  its  subjects.  In  1895  Nica- 
ragua, Salvador,  and  Honduras  united  to  form 
the  Greater  Republic  of  Central  America,  with 
provisions  for  the  subsequent  admission  of  Gua- 
temala and  Costa  Rica.  A  constitution  was 
adopted  and  went  into  efTect  on  November  1, 
1898;  but  one  month  later,  owing  to  the  dissatis- 
faction of  Honduras,  the  lunon  was  dissolved. 

BiiiLioGHAi'iiy.  Squier,  A  icaraijua.  Its  People, 
Scciuri/,  Monuments,  and  the  I'rojioaed  Inter- 
oceanic  Canal  (2d  ed.,  London,  1871):  Levy, 
yotas  (jeograficas  y  cconomicas  soltrc  la  rr/n'iblica 
de  Sicaragua  (Paris,  1873)  ;  Belt,  The  Xatural- 
ist  in  yicaragua  (London,  1873)  ;  Bancroft,  His- 
tory of  the  Pacific  States,  vols,  i.-iii.,  Cintral 
Anici-ica  (San  Francisco,  1882);  Bovallius, 
Xiearaguan  Antiquities  (Stockholm.  1886)  ; 
Chilli,  Tlie  Spanish-American  I'epiililics  (New 
Y(U'k.  1891);  Kalb,  "Nicaragua."  in  American 
(leiigraiihieal  Society  (New  York,  1893)  :  Pector, 
Etude  eeonomirjuc  sur  la  rcpublirjuc  de  \icaragua 
(Neuchatel,  1893);  Ortega,  yicaragua  en  los 
priniervs  aiios  de  su  emancipacidn  pohtica  (Paris, 
1894)  ;  Colquhoun,  The  Key  of  the  Pacific  (Lon- 
don. 1895)  ;  Lucas,  yicaragua,  Mar  of  the  pili- 
husters  (New  York,  1890);  Niedcrlein,  The 
Stale  of  yicaragua  (Philadelphia.  I89S):  Jledi- 
na,  Le  yicaragiia  en  lUdit  (Paris,  1900)  ;  l'nited 
States  Consular  Peports  (Washington,  1900); 
Walker,  Ocean  to  Ocean:  An  Account.  Personal 
and  Historical,  of  yicaragua  (Chicago,  1902). 
Consult  also  the  authorities  referred  to  under 
NiCAiiAciiA  Canal. 

NICARAGUA,  L.\KE.  The  largest  lake  of 
the  -American  continent  between  Lake  Michigan 
in  the  north  and  Lake  Titicaca  in  the  south.  It 
lies  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  Republic  of 
Nicaragiui,  and  is  separated  from  the  Pacific 
coast  by  an  isthmus  II  miles  wide  at  its  narrow- 
est iioint  (Map:  Central  -America.  E  5).  The 
lake  is  oval  in  shape,  with  a  length  of  110  miles, 
a  maximum  width  of  45  miles,  and  an  area  of 
over  3000  square  miles.  Its  depth  is  from  50  to 
120  feet  ;  its  greatest  depth  is  about  200  feet.  It 
discharges  southeastward  into  the  Caribbean  Sea 
through  the  San  .Tuan  River,'  and  receives  the 
water  of  Lake  Managua  through  the  Tipitapa 
River.  The  mean  elevation  of  its  surface  above 
the  sea  is  now  about  100  feet,  but  seemingly  it 
was  considerably  greater  70-100  years  ago.  .An- 
cient bcaclu's  show  that  in  jiast  ages  it  was 
continuous  with  Lake  -Managua,  and  ilischarged 
into  the  Pacific  Ocean  thro\igh  the  Gulf  of 
Fonseea.  The  shores  of  the  lakr  are  lined  with 
densely  wooded  mountain  ranges,  and  the  lake 
itself  is  studded  with  hundreds  of  islands,  the 
largest  of  which,  Ometepe,  has  two  aitive  vol- 
canoes. For  the  proposed  interoceanic  water- 
way througli  Lake  Nicaragua,  see  Nicaragua 
Canal. 

NICARAGUA  CANAL.  A  proposed  ship 
canal  across  tlie  territory  of  Nicaragua,  by  way 
of  Lake  Nicaragua,  connecting  the  .\tlantic  and 
Pacific  Oceans.  The  question  of  intrroreanic 
conununication  across  Central  -America  first  be- 
gan to  occupy  the  attention  of  the  United  States 
shortlv    after    the    establishment    of    the    inde- 


I 


NICARAGUA  CANAL. 


535 


NICARAGUA  CANAL. 


pendciicc  of  the  Spanish  American  republics.  It 
fornu'd  one  of  the  proposed  subjects  of  discussion 
at  the  Panama  Congress  of  1820,  Henry  Clay, 
then  Secretary  of  State,  instructing  the  Com- 
missioners from  the  United  States  to  investi- 
gate "tlie  practicability  and  the  prolialih'  expense 
of  tlie  undertaking  on  tlie  routes  which  offer  the 
greatest  facilities."  In  March.  1835,  the  Senate 
instructed  the  President  to  open  negotiations 
with  the  governments  of  Central  America  and 
New  Granada  with  a  viejv  to  atTonling  protection 
to  any  individuals  or  companies  that  should  un- 
dertake to  construct  a  eanal  connecting  tlie 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  and  for  insuring  the 
free  and  e(|ual  navigation  of  the  canal  by  all 
nations.  During  the  administrations  of  Presi- 
dents Jackson  and  Van  Buren  commissioners 
for  the  purpose  were  successively  appointed,  one 
of  whom  reported  in  favor  of  tlie  Nicaragua 
route.  The  interest  of  the  UnitecJ  States  in  the 
project  was  increased  by  the  establishment  of  a 
British  protectorate  over  the  Mosijuito  Coast 
(q.v. )  and  the  acquisition  of  California  and 
the  subsequent  discovery  of  gold  there.  In 
1849  the  Government  of  Nicaragua  granted  to 
a  company,  of  which  Cornelius  Vanderbilt  was 
the  chief  member,  the  right  to  construct  a 
ship  canal  across  the  territory  of  that  State. 
This  concession  lapsed  in  IS.jO  on  account  of  the 
non-fulfillment  of  the  conditions.  In  the  same 
year  in  wliich  the  Vanderbilt  concession  was 
granted,  Mr.  Hi.se,  the  charge  d'affaires  of  the 
United  States  in  Nicaragua,  concluded,  without 
authority  from  his  Government,  a  treaty  with 
Nicaragua,  by  which  the  United  States  received 
a  grant  of  perpetual  and  exclusive  right  of  way 
for  the  construction  of  a  canal  across  the  Isth- 
mus, and  with  full  jurisdiction  over  the  same, 
in  spite  of  the  British  claim  to  the  Mosquito 
Coast.  In  return  the  United  States  agreed 
to  guarantee  the  integi'ity  of  Nicaragua  and 
forever  protect  her  in  the  exercise  of  all  her 
sovereign  rights.  The  treaty  did  not  meet  with 
the  approval  of  President  Taylor,  and  accord- 
ingly was  not  submitted  to  the  Senate,  although 
it  was  held  for  a  time  as  a  means  of  influencing 
the  action  of  Great  Britain  in  the  negotiations 
then  in  progress  for  .settlement  of  the  contro- 
versy in  regard  to  the  Mosquito  protectorate.   , 

Itwas  now  generally  believed  that  the  Nicaragua 
route  was  the  most  feasible  for  the  construction 
of  a  ship  canal,  but  the  claim  of  Great  Britain 
to  the  territory  around  the  mouth  of  the  San 
Juan  River,  the  proposed  eastern  terminus, 
was  an  obstacle  to  the  United  States.  It 
was  felt  to  be  too  serious  an  undertaking  to 
dislodge  her  from  this  position,  and  it  was  there- 
fore resolved  to  negotiate  with  a  view  to  securing 
her  cooperation  in  guaranteeing  the  neutrality  of 
the  proposed  canal.  This  was  accomplished  by 
the  so-called  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty  (q.v.)  of 
18.50.  (For  the  abrogation  of  this  treaty  in 
1001.  see  H.w-P.^uxcEFOTE  Tre.\ty  and  P.\>rAMA 
C.VNAL. )  In  the  same  year  Orville  Childs,  a 
civil  engineer,  completed  the  survey  of  a  route 
for  the  proposed  ship  canal,  and  made  a  favor- 
able report  on  the  feasibility  of  the  undertaking. 
The  Vanderbilt  Company  in  the  meantime  had 
secured  a  new  concession  for  the  construction 
of  a  canal  in  accordance  with  the  survey  made 
by  Colonel  Childs :  but  this  was  soon  revok-ed  by 
the  Government  of  Nicaragua,  chicfiy  on  account 


of  the  Walker  filibustering  expedition,  which 
had  for  its  object  the  conquest  of  Central 
America.  The  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
arrested  further  progress  toward  the  con- 
struction of  the  canal,  but  in  1867  the 
project  was  again  taken  up,  and  in  June  a 
treaty  was  •  concluded  between  the  govern- 
ments of  the  United  States  and  Nicaragua,  by 
which  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  ac- 
quired the  right  of  free  transit  over  any  canal 
constructed  under  the  authority  of  the  (Jovern- 
nient  of  Nicaragua,  but  the  right  of  the  United 
States  or  its  citizens  to  construct  the  canal  was 
not  conceded.  During  the  ten  years  following  1S72 
almost  every  possible  route  across  the  Isthmus  was 
carefully  surveyed  by  olliccrs  and  engineers  of  the 
United  States  Navy.  In  March,  1872,  President 
Grant  appointed,  in  compliance  with  a  resolu- 
tion of  the  Senate,  a  commission  of  three  eminent 
military  and  naval  engineers  to  investigate  the 
subject  of  an  Isthmian  canal,  and  these  unani- 
mously reported,  February  7.  1870,  in  favor  of  the 
Nicaragua]!  route,  by  way  of  the  San  Jiuin  River 
from  Greytown  and  Lake  Nicaragua,  terminating 
at  Brito  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

In  May,  1879,  an  international  congress  was 
held  at  Paris  to  determine  the  location  of  the 
interoceanic  canal.  The  merits  of  the  Nicara- 
guan  route  were  ably  advocated  by  the  delegates 
from  the  United  States,  but  the  Congress  decided 
in  favor  of  the  Panama  route.  (See  Panama  Ca- 
N.\L.)  In  1884  a  treaty  was  concluded  between 
the  United  States  and  Nicaragua,  by  which  the 
United  States  agreed  to  build  a  canal  to  be 
owned  jointly  by  the  two  powers,  the  United 
States  agreeing  furthermore  to  "protect'  the 
integrity  of  Nicaragua.  When  Cleveland  be- 
came President,  the  treaty  was  still  unratified, 
and  he  withdrew  it  from  further  consideration 
by  the  Senate.  He  declined  to  resubmit  it  on 
the  ground  that  the  construction  and  o\^^lership 
of  the  canal  under  such  circumstances  would  be 
"inconsistent  with  its  dedication  to  universal  and 
neutral  use"  and  would  "entail  measures  for  its 
realization  beyond  the  scope  of  our  national 
polity  or  present  means."  In  the  meantime  a 
scheme  had  been  set  on  foot,  chiclly  by  leading 
capitalists  of  New  York,  to  construct  by  private 
enterprise  a  canal  through  Nicaragua.  In  April, 
1887,  under  the  name  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal 
Association,  they  secured  from  the  Government 
of  Nicaragua  a  concession  granting  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  constructing  and  operating  the  canal. 
Surveys  were  at  once  begun  by  a  corps  of  compe- 
tent engineers,  and  the  final  location  of  the  route 
was  soon  determined  upon.  In  February.  1889, 
Congress  granted  the  company  a  charter  of 
incorporation  with  a  capital  of  $100,000,000, 
with  authority  to  increa.sc  the  amount  to  .$200,- 
000.000.  In  June,  1889,  the  preliminary  work 
of  construction  was  begun  at  Gre^-town,  and  in 
the  following  October  the  actual  work  of  exca- 
vation began.  The  route  finally  determined  upon 
was  to  begin  at  Greytown  on  the  Atlantic  and 
end  at  Brito  on  the  Pacific  coast,  about  170  miles 
distant.  The  company  erected  large  storehouses, 
hospitals,  and  other  buildings  at  Greytown,  es- 
tablished the  necessary  railroad  and  telegraph 
service,  and  landed  large  quantities  of  machinery, 
tools,  lumber,  and  other  materials.  Within  a 
period  of  about  one  year  $2,000,000  had  been  ex- 
pended. In  ISO.*?  the  company  ceased  operations 
owing  to  lack  of  funds,  a  fruitless  effort  having 


NICARAGUA  CANAL. 


536 


NICCOLINI. 


been  made  to  iinluce  Congress  to  {.'uarantee  the 
principal  and  interest  at  4  per  cent,  of  an  issue  of 
$100,000.0(10  of  canal  company  boii«ls.  to  be  is- 
sued for  construction  purposes.  In  1S!I.5  Congress 
provided  for  the  appointment  of  three  engineers, 
namely,  Colonel  W  in.  Ludlow.  I'.S.A. ;  M.  F. 
Endicott.  C.E. ;  and  Alfred  Noble,  collectively 
known  as  the  Ludlow  Commission,  to  investigate 
and  report  upon  the  feasibility  and  cost  of  com- 
pleting the  work  already  begiin  by  the  company. 
They  reported  in  favor  of  the  feasibility  of  the 
project,  estimating  the  cost  at  $1.33,472,8!).3,  as 
against  the  company's  estimate  of  about  half  that 
amount.  In  view  of  the  small  appropriation 
made  by  Congress,  and  the  consequent  impossi- 
bility of  making  an  exhaustive  investigation,  the 
commission  advised  a  more  thorough  investiga- 
tion with  a  view  to  the  possible  discovery  of  a 
more  advantageous  route. 

Congress  then  provided  for  a  new  commission, 
popularly  known  as  the  Walker  Commission,  to 
continue  the  investigation,  with  a  view  of  mak- 
ing comi)lete  plans  for  the  entire  work  of  con- 
structing the  canal.  The  members  selected  were 
Kear-Ailmiral  .John  G.  Walker,  U.S.N. ;  Prof. 
Lewis  M.  llaupt,  C.K.:  and  Col.  P.  C.  Hains, 
L^S.A.  With  a  large  corps  of  engineers,  geolo- 
gists, and  other  experts,  the  commission  visited 
Nicaragua  in  December.  18!)",  and  made  a  full 
examination  of  the  topographical,  geological,  and 
hydrographic  conditions  of  the  country,  reporting 
in  May,  1809,  that  in  their  judgment  the  cost  of 
constructing  the  canal  from  (ireytown  to  Brito, 
by  way  of  the  Lull  route  east  of  the  lake  and 
by  way  of  the  Childs  route  west  of  it,  would 
not  exceed  $118.113,7!I0.  Colonel  Hains,  who 
concurred  in  the  report,  estimated  the  cost 
at  .$134,818,308.  In  the  meantime,  interest  in 
the  old  Panama  canal  project  having  been  aroused 
on  account  of  the  favorable  report  of  an  interna- 
tional commission  of  experts,  it  was  decided  that 
nothing  further  should  be  done  toward  the  con- 
struction of  a  canal  by  way  of  the  Nicaraguan 
route  until  the  whole  question  of  canal  possibili- 
ties had  been  investigated  by  a  larger  commission 
of  experts.  Congress  accordingly,  in  March, 
180!),  provided  for  a  new  commission  to  imdcr- 
takc  the  task  of  'finding  the  route'  The  mem- 
bers appointed  by  President  McKinley  were  Kear- 
.•\dniiral  Walker,  Colonel  Hains,  and  Professor 
llaupt  of  the  Nicaragua  Commission;  ex-Senator 
Pasco  of  Florida,  Alfred  Noble  C.E..  George  S. 
Morrison  of  New  York,  Prof.  W.  H.  Burr  of 
Columbia  L'niversity.  Lieut.  Col.  O.  H.  Ernst, 
U.S.A.,  and  Prof.  Emory  R.  Johnson  of  Penn- 
sylvania. After  an  exhaustive  investigation  of 
all  the  proposed  routes  on  the  entire  Isthmus 
from  Nicaragim  to  Colombia,  the  commission  re- 
ported, Novendier,  1!I01.  unanimously  in  favor  of 
the  Nicaraguan  route  as  "the  most  practical>le  and 
feasible."  chiefly  on  account  of  the  financial  dif- 
ficulties in  the  way  of  ac(|uiring  the  property  and 
franchises  of  the  Panama  Canal  Company.  The 
Panama  Company  now  removed  this  dilTieulty  by 
otfering  to  sell  its  property  and  franchises  to  the 
United  Slates  for  .$40.0'00,000,  the  valuation 
which  the  Canal  Commission  had  placed  upon  the 
work  already  done  on  the  Panama  route.  The 
eonunission  thereupon  in  a  supplementary  re[)ort 
recommended  the  acceptance  of  the  otTer.  .M- 
ready  in  .May.  I!I00,  the  Ilo\ise  of  Representatives 
had  liy  a  vote  of  2"2.')  to  35  passed  a  bill  for  the 
construction  of  a  canal  by  way  of  the  Nicara- 


guan route,  which,  however,  the  Senate  had  re- 
fused to  accept.  In  .January.  1002,  the  House 
repassed  this  bill  by  a  vote  of  307  to  2.  Shortly 
thereafter  came  the  supplementary  report  of  the 
Canal  Connnission  recommending  the  purchase  of 
the  Panama  Company's  property  and  franchises. 
This  led  the  Senate  to  hold  up  the  House  bill 
for  further  consideration  of  the  Panama  scheme. 
Finally  it  refused  to  accept  the  Nicaragua  plan, 
and  after  three  months  of  debate  the  two 
Houses,  largely  influenced  by  the  volcanic  occur- 
rences in  the  Caribbean  region,  agreed  upon  the 
Panama  route,  with  the  understanding  that  the 
Nicaraguan  route  should  be  reverted  to  in  case 
a  satisfactory  title  could  not  be  secured  to  the 
Panama  property  and  the  necessary  territory 
from  the  (Jovernmcnt  of  Colombia,  In  such  case 
the  President  was  authorized  to  begin  negotia- 
tions with  the  (iovernment  of  Nicaragua  for  the 
neces.sarv  concessions,  and  to  construct  the  canal 
at  a  cost  not  exceeding  .$180,000,000. 

Bini.looR.M'HY.  Keasby,  EnrJij  Diplomatic  His- 
tory of  the  Xicitragua  Cannl  (Newark,  1800); 
Snow,  Topics  in  American  Diplomacy  (Boston, 
1S04);  Report  of  Xicarn'iiia  Cnnal  Commission 
IS!n-l>l9;)  (Baltimore,  1800);  licport  o/  Isth- 
minn  Canal  Commission  IX'.IU-lilOl  (Washington, 
1901):  Moore.  Digest  of  International  Lau> 
(ib.,  1003)  ;  and  Reports  of  Explorations  of  Sur- 
veys, by  T.  0.  Set  fridge  (ib..  1874).  See  Map  of 
Centr.\l  America;  see  also  P.\xama  Canal. 

NICAKIA,  ne'kare'a  or  ICARIA.  A  Turk- 
ish island,  situated  off  the  western  coast  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  a  short  distance  west  of  Samos 
(Jlap;  Balkan  Peninsula.  F  0).  Area,  .about  53 
square  miles.  It  is  mostly  mountainous,  rising 
o\er  3000  feet  above  the  sea.  Wood  is  one  of 
the  chief  products.  The  inhabitants,  who  num- 
ber about  8000.  are  chiefly  engaged  in  the  pro- 
ihiction  of  cliarcoal  and  in  sponge  fishing. 

NICASTRO,  ne-ka'strA.  A  city  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Catanzaro,  Italy,  beautifully  situated 
near  the  sea.  IG  miles  west-northwest  of  Catan- 
zaro (Map:  Italy,  L  9).  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop. 
It  has  the  ruins  of  a  mediaeval  castle.  The  town 
has  a  trade  in  wine  and  oil.  There  are  hot 
springs  in  the  vicinity.  Population  (commune), 
1001,   I7..V24. 

"NICCOLINI,  nik'kA-le'm*-,  Giovanm  B.\ttista 
(17s2  1si;ii.  An  Italian  poet,  born  at  San 
(iiuliano.  near  Pisa,  October.  1782.  He  studied  at 
Florence  ami  took  his  degree  in  law  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pisa.  In  1802  he  took  a  Government 
clerkship:  from  1804  to  1807  he  was  in  the  office 
of  the  Archivio  delle  Riferinagioni,  and  from 
1807  until  his  death  he  was  jirofcssor  of  history 
and  mythology,  secretary  and  librarian  in  the 
Acca<lemia  di  Helle  .\rti  at  I'loretice,  an<l  for  a 
while  also  librarian  of  tlie  Palatine  I.ilirary.  His 
critical  and  historical  treatises,  many  of  them 
Iiroduced  in  connection  with  his  academic  labors, 
constitute  the  less  important  jiart  of  his  work. 
.\s  a  poet  he  attained  to  greatest  excellence  in 
tragedy,  but  he  also  revealed  no  little  force  in 
his  lyrics  ( I'nesir  nazionnli.  18.59;  Pcnsieri  poeti- 
ci,  1800:  Canzoniere  nii:ionale  e  poesie  rarie, 
18113;  Canzmiiere  cirilr.  1884;  Versi  inrrliti, 
IS8S1,  and  in  his  translations  from  .'Eschylus, 
Euripides,  and  Dviil,  In  bis  original  dramas  of 
the  earlier  period  he  adhrTcd  to  the  classic  Greek 
model,  wherein  we  find  the  norm  of  his  Pnlissena, 
Ino  e  Tcmisto,  Kdipo,  and  Medea.    The  Xabucco 


I 


NICCOLINI. 


537 


NICE. 


(1816;  published  at  London  1819)  was  his  first 
political  drama,  and  it  assailed  absolute  power 
of  all  kinds.  Another  manifesto  against  absolute 
power  is  tlie  Antonio  Foscarini  {performed  in 
1827),  the  most  popular  of  hi?  tragedies.  The 
plays  of  his  second  period  show  his  tendencies  to 
romanticism.  His  Beatrice  Cviici  is  based  on 
that  of  Shelley.  The  Giovanni  da  Procida  (1817: 
performed  in  1830)  was  a  protest  against  th<, 
anti-Italian  sentiments  of  the  French  dramatist 
Casimir  Delavigne,  and,  like  the  Lodovico  ^forza 
(1834),  advocated  the  unity  and  indejiendence  of 
Italy.  There  is  no  political  intention  discernible  in 
the  liosmunda  d'lnghiltrrra  (performed  in  1838), 
but  his  masterpiece,  the  Arnaldo  da  Brescia 
(1843),  again  proclaims  the  sovereignty  of  the 
people  over  imperial  and  ecclesiastical  power, 
and  attacks  especially  the  temporal  power  of  the 
Pope.  The  fundamental  ideas  of  the  Arnaldo 
reappear  in  Filippo  l^tro::zi  (1847).  His  plays, 
with  all  their  merits,  are  rather  lyric  than  genu- 
inely dramatic  in  spirit.  Consult  the  edition  of 
his  Opcre  prepared  by  himself  and  first  published 
at  Florence,  1844;  also  the  Opere  edite  e  inedite, 
an  ed.  by  Gargiolli  (Milan,  10  vols.,  1863-1880)  ; 
Vannucci,  liicordi  delta  vita  e  dclle  opere  di  Gio- 
vanni Battisda  Xiccolini    (Florence,  1866). 

NTCCOLO  DE'  NICCOLI,  nek'ko-lO'  da  nJk'- 
ku-le  (or.  more  often.  XICCOLI  NiccoLd)  ( 1363- 
1437 ) .  An  Italian  scholar,  born  in  Florence. 
He  was  a  collector  of  coins,  and  particularly  of 
Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts.  These  he  procured 
from  evei"v  possible  source,  and  often  copied  them 
with  his  own  hand.  In  his  fine  house  in  Flor- 
ence he  entertained  the  #lite  of  the  literary  and 
artistic  societ}-  of  the  day,  as  well  as  humble 
students,  and  was  looked  upon  as  the  supreme 
authority  in  all  matters  of  letters.  Even  the 
most  famous  scholars  feared  his  caustic  tongue. 
After  his  death,  Cosmo  de'  ^Medici  bought  his 
manuscripts,  and  made  them  the  foundation  of 
the  present  Laurentian  Library  of  Florence. 

NICCOLO  OF  AREZZO,  a-ret'so  (also  called 
NiccoLo  Lambehti,  and  Xiccolo  di  Piero) 
(1350-1417).  An  Italian  sculptor  and  architect, 
born  at  Arezzo.  His  master  was  probably  5Ioc- 
cio  of  Siena.  He  was  first  employed  in  Florence 
on  minor  works  in  the  cathedral.  After  the 
plague  (1383)  he  returned  to  Florence  and  exe- 
cuted two  statues,  believed  to  be  those  of  Saint 
Gregory  and  Saint  Augustine,  for  the  Campanile. 
He  also  did  some  decorative  carving  on  the  north- 
ern door  of  the  Duomo.  and  at  Or  San  Jlichele. 
These,  like  his  other  carvings,  show  a  marked 
gain  in  freedom  and  elegance  over  the  work  of 
former  sculptors.  He  executed  a  relief  of  the 
Virgin  on  the  facade  of  the  Santa  !Maria  della 
Misericordia,  .Arezzo,  and  the  mausoleum  of 
Pope  .Alexander  V.  in  the  Certosa.  Bologna;  and 
was  employed  as  architect  on  the  Castle  of  Sant' 
Angelo.  Rome,  and  to  restore  the  w'alls  of  Borgo 
San  Sepolcro. 

NICE,  nes.     A  city  in  Bithynia.     See  Nic.ea. 

NICE.  The  capital  of  the  Department  of  Alpes- 
Maritimes.  France,  situated  on  the  Mediterranean, 
at  the  foot  of  the  .Alps,  and  at  the  western  ex- 
tremity of  the  Riviera,  140  miles  by  rail  ea*t- 
nortlieast  of  JIarseilles.  and  640  miles  from  Paris 
(Map:  France.  O  8K  Xice  is  far-famed  as  a 
place  of  sojourn  for  health-seekers,  some  1.5.000 
of  whom  visit  it  yearly.  The  city  and  its  bay 
are   protected   by  the   mountains   on   the   north. 


The  climate  is  dry,  mild,  and  invigorating.  It 
is  warm  in  winter  and  not  hot  in  summer.  Mean 
annual  temperature  58.6°  F. — -January  45.4°, 
July  73.8°.  Frost  and  snow  are  rare.  The 
rainy  period  is  in  the  fall.  The  fashionable 
season  begins  soon  after  January  1st  and  lasts 
till  .June  1st.  The  situation  of  Xice,  where  the 
small  Paglione  empties  into  the  sea,  is  splendid. 
There  is  a  circle  of  forts  in  the  rear,  and  the 
city  is  important  strategically  to  France.  On 
the  left  bank  of  the  covered-over  stream  is  the 
little  old  town,  with  narrow,  crooked  streets. 
In  this  section  a  mixture  of  Provencal  and  Ital- 
ian is  spoken.  .Along  the  sea  front  here  extends  a 
fine  boulevard.  At  its  east  end  rises  Castle  Hill, 
on  which  runs  a  promenade,  whence  an  immense 
and  admirable  view  of  the  coast  may  be  had. 
Beyond  the  hill  lies  the  city's  small  harbor,  called 
Limpia. 

On  the  western  bank  of  the  Paglione  is  the 
more  important  foreigners'  quarter,  wliere  French 
is  the  universal  language.  In  this  section  the 
avenues  are  spacious  and  beautiful,  with  plane 
trees  and  eucalypti,  and  the  city  pi-esents  the 
delightful  appearance  of  a  southern  sea  resort. 
The  centre  of  life  in  this  part  is  the  Square  Mas- 
sena,  on  which  stands  the  bronze  statue  to  Mas- 
s^na,  who  was  born  in  Xice.  Adjacent  is  the 
Casino,  an  attractive  modern  municipal  struc- 
ture, containing  gaming  rooms,  a  theatre,  and 
an  entertainment  garden.  From  the  Casino  the 
Public  Garden,  exceptionally  attractive  with  its 
palm,  pepper,  myrtle,  and  laurel  trees,  reaches 
to  the  sea,  and  terminates  in  the  splendid  iron 
and  glass  pier  promenade.  From  this  point  west 
along  the  bay  for  a  distance  of  over  two  miles 
is  the  wide,  magnificent  Promenade  des  Anglais, 
flanked  by  villas  and  spacious  hotels,  and  having 
gardens  of  orange  and  lemon  trees  and  acies  of 
flowers.  Among  the  objects  of  interest  in  the 
city  are  a  marble  cross,  commemorating  the  meet- 
ing here  of  Francis  I.  and  Charles  V.  in  1538; 
the  modern  centenary  obelisk  in  honor  of  the 
union  of  Xice  with  France  in  1792;  a  pyramid 
to  the  memory  of  Garibaldi,  a  native  of  Xice; 
also  a  statue  of  him,  and  a  bust  of  President 
Carnot. 

The  public  library  has  nearly  100.000  volumes. 
The  iluseum  of  Xatural  Histcyy  is  noteworthy 
for  its  collection  of  mushrooms.  The  municipal 
museum  contains  mediocre  works  of  modern 
French  artists.  Nice  has  a  nunnery,  a  lyceum, 
a  priests'  and  a  teachers'  seminary,  a  charity 
hospital,  and  an  important  astronomical  observa- 
tory (on  IMont  Gros).  with  one  of  the  largest 
refractors  in  the  world.  The  municipal  theatre 
has  good  opera  in  the  season.  The  carnival — an 
elaborate  fete  of  flowers,  confetti,  and  ^loccoletti 
— is  an  annual  occurrence  which  attracts  pleas- 
ure-seekers from  all  countries.  To  the  north  of 
Nice  lies  Cimiez,  with  its  interesting  Roman 
remains.  Xice  exports  oranges,  lemons,  flowers 
(for  which  it  is  celebrated),  perfumes,  olives, 
oils,  and  liquors.  It  also  manufactures  ivory 
joods.  furniture,  silk,  dyes,  etc.  Some  marble  is 
quarried  near.  The  city  shows  a  marked  increase 
in  commercial  importance  and  in  population.  Its 
inhabitants  numbered   105.109  in   1901. 

Xice  was  the  Xica>a  of  the  ancients,  and  dates 
from  the  fourth  century  B.C..  when  it  was  settled 
by  Phocfeans  from  Marseilles.  It  suffered  in 
many  wars  and  at  the  hands  of  many  races.  It 
belonged  in  the  late  Middle  Ages  to  Provence,  and 


NICE. 


538 


NICETAS  CHONIATES. 


finally  passed  to  Savoy.  The  French  took  it  in 
1792;  it  was  given  back  to  Sardinia  after  the 
fall  of  Napoleon,  and  became  again  a  ])art  of 
France  in  1800.  It  suffered  severely  from  an 
earthquake  in  1877.  Consult:  Hole,  Xice  and 
lUr  \>ighhvrs  (London,  1881);  Lee,  A  ice  and 
Jts  Climate  (ib.,  1854);  Moris,  ]^'ice  (Paris, 
1899). 
NICE,  Councils  of.     See  Xicea,  Councils 

NICENE   CREED,    The.      Frequently   called 

the  XIC.ENO-CONSTANTIXOPOLITAN  C'BEEU.  The 
most  iniixjrtant  ancient  fornuila  of  the  Christian 
faith,  and  the  only  one  wliich  approaches  ecu- 
menical autliority.  '  Since  tlie  fifth  century  it  has 
commonly  been  believed  that  this  creed  was 
adopted  at  the  Council  of  Xica?a  (325),  and 
reatlirmed  at  Constantinople  (381)  :  but  this  view 
is  certainly  wrong.  The  creed  in  question  is 
practically  identical  with  one  given  by  Epipha- 
nius,  in  his  Ancorntus  (37-t),  which  in  turn 
draws  its  material  from  Cyril  of  Jerusalem 
{Catechetical  Lectures.  347),  and  from  the 
eymbol  actually  adopted  at  Xicaea.  This  origi- 
nal Xiccne  fornuila  was  drawn  up  to  combat  Ari- 
anism  (q.v.).  and  was  based  upon  a  creed  which 
had  long  been  vised  in  C;esarca.  Its  leading  char- 
acteristic was  tliat.  in  defining  the  orthodox  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity,  it  asserts  the  consubstan- 
tiality  of  the  Son  with  the  Father,  i.e.  that  both 
are  of  the  same  essence  or  substance.  (See  Ho- 
MoousiON.)  Our  so-called  Xicene  Creed  is  longer 
and  more  symmetrical  in  construction  than  the 
one  actually  adopted  at  Xica'a.  In  the  article 
on  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  Eastern  Church  has  al- 
ways used  the  form  which  reads  "And  [I  believe! 
in  the  Holy  Ghost,  .  .  .  who  proceedeth 
from  the  Fatlier,"  whereas  the  Western  Church 
says.  "Who  proceedeth  from  the  Father  and  the 
Son."  This  diflerence  has  proved  a  prolific 
source  of  controversy.  (See  FIUOQUE.)  The 
Nicene  Creed  finds  a  place  in  the  liturgies  of  the 
Greek.  Roman,  and  Anglican  churches,  and  its 
doctrinal  teaching  has  been  accepted  by  most 
Protestants. 

Consult:  Hahn,  Bibliotek  der  Symbole  (3d  ed., 
Breslau,  1897)  :  SchafT,  Creeds  of  Christendom 
(New  York.  187,7);  Hort,  Tiro  Dissertations 
(London.  1870)  ;  Swainson,  The  Xicene  and 
Apostles'  Creeds  (ib.,  1S75)  :  Hefele.  Historii  of 
the  Councils,  vol.  i.  (Edinburgh.  1871)  ;  Bindley, 
Ecumenical  Documents  of  the  Faith  (London, 
1899  K 

NICEPH'ORUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  XtitT)(^«pot, 
A'i/.-.7)/io?-,si  (C.758-C.828).  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinnple.  He  was  born  in  Constantinople,  the 
son  of  Theodore,  Imperial  secretary  of  Constan- 
tius  Copronynuis.  He  first  held  high  office  at 
court.  In  787  he  was  present  as  Imperial  com- 
missioner at  the  X'icene  Council,  where,  in  de- 
fense of  image-worship,  he  opposed  the  icono- 
clasts. This  zeal  for  image-worship  he  inherited 
from  his  father.  Soon  after  his  return  to  the 
capital  he  retired  to  a  convent,  whence  in  SOfi 
he  was  called  to  l)e  Patriarch  of  Constantimiple. 
I>eo  the  Armenian,  who  became  Emperor  in  813. 
passed  an  edict  in  814  against  the  wnr-ibip  of 
inincea.  Rut  neither  menaces  nor  entreaties 
could  induce  Xicephorus  to  assent  to  it.  He  be- 
came unpopular  at  court,  and  in  the  ensiling  year 
was  deposed,  and  withdrew  to  the  convent  of 
Saint  Theodore,  which  he  himself  had   founded. 


and  remained  there  till  his  deatli  in  820  (or 
828).  He  publislied  several  valuable  ecclesiasti- 
cal works,  characterized  by  great  beauty  of  style, 
and  historical  jj^oductiuns  distinguished  fur  ac- 
curacy, disccrniiiciil.  and  erudition.  The  most 
important  are  Jireviarium  Historicum,  an  histori- 
cal abridgment,  and  Chronographia  Brevis,  a 
short  chronicle  of  events  from  the  beginning  of 
the  world  to  the  author's  time,  with  the  series 
of  kings,  emperors,  patriarchs,  bishops,  etc.  The 
best  edition  of  both  treatises  is  liy  De  Boor, 
yieephori  Coustantinopolitani  Opuscula  Bis- 
turica  (Leipzig.  1880).  Xicepliorus  is  numbered 
among  the  saints  in  both  tlie  Greek  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  cliurches. 

NICEPHORTJS  I.  (died  811).  Byzantine 
Emiieror  from  802  to  811.  He  overthrew  the 
Empress  Irene,  whose  mini-ter  of  finance  he  had 
been.  He  was  cruel  and  tyrannical,  and  the 
hea\-j'  taxes  he  imi)osed  made  him  unjiopular. 
He  waged  war  against  Harun  al-Rashid,  Ijut 
was  unsuccessful,  and  had  to  conclude  a  dis- 
graceful peace  in  806.  He  also  tried  to  check 
the  Bulgarians,  and  though  successful  at  first, 
was  finally  defeated  and  slain  at  Marcellae  on 
.July  25th',  811.  Consult  Gilibon.  Decline  and 
Fall  of  ttie  Roman  Empire,  ed.  Ijy  Bur}'  (London, 
1890-1000). 

NICEPHORtrS  II.  PHOCAS  (c.913-909). 
Byzantine  Emperor  from  903  to  969.  He  was 
tlie  dcscendaot  of  an  illustrious  race,  and  distin- 
guished himself  during  the  reigns  of  Constantino 
\II.  and  Romanus  11.  In  961  he  recaptured 
Crete  from  the  Saracens,  and  after  the  death 
of  Romanus  was  ])roclaimed  Emperor  and  mar- 
ried Theophano,  the  widow  of  his  predecessor. 
As  Emperor.  Xicephorus  vagcd  successful  war 
against  the  Mohammedans,  and  in  969  captured 
Antioch,  and  brought  home  as  a  trophy  the 
sworil  of  Mohammed.  He  was  also  successful 
against  the  Bulgarians.  Tlie  numerous  wars, 
however,  necessitated  increased  taxes,  and  Xi- 
cephorus speedily  became  unpopular.  He  was 
finallv  murdered  by  his  wife's  lover.  John  Zimis- 
ces,  who  ascended  the  throne.  It  was  during  this 
reign  that  Liudprand  (q.v.)  came  to  Constanti- 
nople on  an  embassy  from  Otho  I.  Consult : 
Schlumberger,  Un  cmprreur  hti~antin  au  dixiime 
.^■icele.  Xicephirc  I'hocas  (Paris,  1870)  ;  Gibbon, 
Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  ed.  by 
Hury  (London.  1S90-1900). 

NICEPHORTJS  III.  BOTANIATES  (died 
lOSl).  Byzantine  Emperor  fnim  107S  to  lOSl. 
He  belonged  to  the  same  family  as  Niceplioriis 
II..  and  had  distinguished  himself  as  general 
under  Constantinc  X.  (XL).  Ducas  and  Romanus 
IV.  When  during  the  reign  of  the  weak  Mi.hael 
VII.  Xicephorus  Bryennius  was  proclaimed  Em- 
peror by  the  European  legions.  X^iceplionis  Bo- 
taniates  immediately  liad  himself  nominated  as 
Emperor  by  the  Asiatic  troops.  The  latter  was 
successful,  through  the  aid  of  the  Sultan  Soly- 
nian.  and  was  crowned  on  .Vpril  3.  107S.  His 
reign  was  fairly  successful,  but  he  quarreled  with 
bis  general.  Alexius,  and  in  consequence  he  had 
to  alidicate  and  retire  to  a  monastery  in  .\pril, 
1081.  where  he  died  a  few  months  later.  Con- 
sult Gibbon.  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pin  .  ed.  by  Bury    (London.   18901900). 

NICE'TAS  CHONIATES,  ko'nT-a'tez  (Lnt., 
from  C,k.  Xiki}toj  XundTTij,  \ih-etas  Chnniatfs), 
or    ACOMIXATUS     (c.l  1451215).      A    Byzantino 


I 


NICETAS  CHONIATES. 


539 


NICHOLAS. 


hi-itorian.  born  at  Clioiia!,  the  ancient  ColossiE.  He 
liild  liigli  otiice  under  the  Byzantine  eniperora 
during  the  last  years  of  tlie  twelfth  century. 
Xicetas  was  in  Constantinople  when  the  city  was 
captured  by  the  Latins  (1204)  and  escaped  to 
Nica'a.  His  history  of  the  Greek  emperors  from 
1118  to  1201)  completes  Zonaras.  and  is  an  excel- 
lent authority.  It  is  best  edited  by  Bekker  ( Bonn, 
is;i.5).  A  valuable  description  of  the  statues  in 
Constantinople  destroyed  by  the  Latins  may  have 
been  originally  composed  by  Nieetas;  in  its  pres- 
ent state  it  seems  to  have  sufTered  additions  by  a 
Inter  author.    It  was  edited  bv  Wilken  (Leipzig, 

is.'sn). 

NICHE,  nich  (Fr.  niche,  from  It.  nicchia, 
nidie  in  a  wall  like  the  hollow  of  a  shell,  from 
■iiicchio.  shell,  niche,  from  Lat.  mitiilus,  7)n)tiliis, 
vujiulus,  mussel,  from  Gk.^yriXos,  inytilos,  /nfruXos, 
mitylos,  mussel,  from  iivt,  nii/s.  mouse).  A  recess 
formed  in  a  wall,  comuionly  for  the  purpose  of 
containing  a  statue  or  some  ornamental  figure 
or  piece  of  furniture.  In  classical  archi- 
tecture, the  niches  are  generally  square  re- 
cesses with  canopies  formed  by  small  pedi- 
ments. In  Gothic  architecture,  the  niche  is  one 
of  the  most  frequent  and  characteristic  fea- 
tures, the  doorways,  buttresses,  and  every  part 
of  the  buildings  being  in  many  instances  orna- 
mented with  niches  and  statues  in  endless  va- 
riety, the  openings  being  arched  and  decorated 
with  colonnettes,  gables,  pinnacles,  and  intri- 
cated  detailed  ornament.  In  the  Mohammedan 
mosque  the  direction  of  Mecca  (called  Kiblah), 
the  sacred  city,  is  marked  by  a  niche  called 
Mihrab.  In  early  and  mediitval  churches  niches 
were  frequently  built  to  receive  pieces  of  ecclesi- 
astical furniture. 

NICHIREN,  nich'iren  (1222-82).  A  Japan- 
ese religious  teacher,  and  the  founder  of  an  in- 
fluential sect  of  Buddhists,  the  Hokkes.  He  was 
born  in  Kominato,  the  Province  of  Awa.  Ho  was 
devoted  to  the  priesthood  from  his  birth,  for 
his  mothef  had  dreamed  that  the  sun  had  entered 
her  body.  He  completed  the  prescribed  studies  at 
an  early  age.  was  admitted  to  tlie  priesthood  and 
became  a  violent  and  bitter  sectarian.  So  severe 
were  liis  attacks  upon  all  other  forms  of  Bud- 
dhism that  he  was  banished  for  a  time,  and  later 
was  condemned  to  death  on  the  charge  of  teach- 
ing doctrines  subversive  of  the  Government.  His 
life  was  saved  by  a  miracle,  but  he  was  again 
banished.  Possessed,  as  it  is  said,  of  miraculous 
powers,  he  gained  large  numbers  of  followers,  and 
founded  the  sect  which  is  popularly  known  by  his 
name.  He  added  nothing  to  the  doctrinal  develop- 
ment of  Buddhism,  being  dependent  upon  Chinese 
sources  for  his  ideas.  But  he  brought  to  Bud- 
dhism a  spirit  of  intolerance  and  bitter  persecu- 
tion far  other  than  the  spirit  of  its  founder.  The 
sacred  book  of  the  sect  is  the  Sanskrit  Saddhar- 
ma  Pundarika,  which  has  been  translated  into 
English  by  Kern  in  Jtiiller,  fiacrcd  Bootes  of  the 
East,  vo\.  xxi.    (Oxford,   1884). 

NICHOL,  nik'ol,  .Tonx  (18.33-94).  An  Eng- 
lish scholar,  son  of  .John  Pringle  Nichol.  the  as- 
tronomer. He  was  born  in  Montrose.  Scotland,  and 
educated  at  the  Universitv  of  Glasgow  (1848-5.5), 
and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford  ( 18.5.'')-.';0) .  In  18G.5 
he  visited  the  United  States,  where  hf  became  ac- 
quainted personally  with  Emerson  andXongfellow. 
He  was  made  LL.D.  by  Saint  Andrews  (ISV.*!)  ; 
professor  of  English  literature  at  Glasgow 
VuL.   XtV.— :15. 


( 1801-89)  ;  he  lectured  in  Scotland  and  England; 
advocated  broad  Church  doctrines,  and  look  the 
side  of  the  Xortli  in  the  American  ('ivil  War.  He 
died  October  11,  1804.  Nichol  contributed  to  the 
Westminster,  Xurth  Britistt,  and  other  reviews; 
was  one  of  the  writers  on  the  Encyctopivdia  liri- 
tannica  ;  and  published  Frar/iiirnts  of  Criticism,  a 
volume  of  essays  (1800):  Ilrntiiilial.  a  classical 
drama  (1872):  Byron,  in  the  "English  Men  of 
Letters  Scries"  (1880)  :  American  Literature :  An 
Historical  Kevieic  (1882)  :  Landmarks  of  English 
Literature  ( 1882)  ;  Lord  Bacon's  Life  and  I'hilos- 
ophy  (1887-89)  ;  and  several  educational  treaties. 
Consult  the  Memoir  by  Knight  (tJhisgow, 
1890). 

NICHOL,  .John  Pringle  (1804-59).  A  Soot- 
ish  astronomer,  born  at  Huntly  Hill,  near 
Brechin,  in  Forfarshire.  He  received  his  educa- 
tion at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  where  he  highly 
distinguished  himself  in  mathematics  and  phys- 
ics. He  engaged  in  preaching  before  he  was  of 
age,  but  his  fondness  for  scientific  studies  led 
him  to  give  up  the  ministry.  He  was  for  some 
time  editor  of  the  Fife  Herald,  and  later  head- 
master of  Cupar  Academy,  which  position  he  re- 
signed to  become  rector  of  Jlontrose  Academy 
(1827).  Having  declined  the  chair  of  political 
economy  in  the  Coll&ge  de  France.  Paris,  he  was 
appointed,  in  1830,  regius  professor  of  astronomy 
in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  In  this  capacity 
he  effected  the  equipment  and  transference  of  the 
Glasgow  Observatory  to  its  ])resent  site  on  Dowan- 
hill.  His  astronomical  work  was  directed  chiefly 
to  the  physical  features  of  the  moon,  and  to  the 
nebular  theory.  In  one  of  his  w^orks  he  made  the 
earliest  suggestions  for  the  study  of  sun-spots  by 
photography.  He  visited  the  United  States  in 
1848  and  lectured  publicly  on  scientific  subjects. 
He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  So- 
ciety and  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society.  Among 
his  works  may  be  mentioned:  Views  of  the  Ai'chi- 
tecture  of  the  Hearens  (1838  and  nine  sub- 
sequent editions)  ;  Contemplations  on  the  >S'o- 
lar  System  (1844)  ;  Exposition  and  History 
of  the  Planet  yeptune  (1848);  The  Stel- 
lar Universe  (1848)  ;  The  Planetary  System,  Its 
Order  and  Physical  Structure  (1851)  :  .4  Cyclo- 
pccdia  of  the  Physical  Sciences  (1857).  Consult 
Maclehose's  Hundred  Glasgow  Men,  and  Stew- 
art's Vniversity  of  Glasgow;  Old  and  New. 

NICHOLAS,  nlk'6-las.  The  name  of  five 
popes.  Nicholas  I.,  Saint,  Pope  858-07.  He 
was  of  a  noble  Roman  family,  and  was  employed 
in  important  affairs  by  Benedict  III.,  whom  he 
succeeded,  being  crowned — the  first  recorded  in- 
stance of  the  coronation  of  a  pope — in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Emperor  Louis  IT.  The  most  im- 
portant events  of  his  pontificate  are  those 
connected  with  his  conflict  with  Photius,  who 
had  been  illegally  intruded  into  the  See  of  Con- 
stantinople. (See  Photius;  Greek  Church.) 
Throughout  his  reign  he  was  one  of  the  most 
uncompromising  upholders  of  the  claims  of  the 
Roman  See  to  universal  jurisdiction.  A  pro- 
longed contest  in  practical  matters  with  a  West- 
ern prelate  of  great  power  and  individuality, 
Hincmar.  Archbishop  of  Rheims,  was  terminated 
by  Hincmar's  submission.  The  matrimonial  af- 
fairs of  the  German  princes  also  gave  him 
much  trouble:  and  his  firmness  in  upholding  the 
sanctity  of  the  marriage  tie  brought  him'  into 
conflict  with  the  Emperor,  who  nuirdied  upon 
Rome  and  held  the  Pope  a  prisoner  witliout  food 


NICHOLAS. 


540 


NICHOLAS  I. 


for  two  days  in  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  iiiiti!. 
terrilied  by  a  siukleii  illness  and  by  some  fatali- 
ties which  befell  his  followers,  he  drew  oft'  his 
forces  and  made  peace.  Nicholas  brought  the 
new  Slavonic  Church,  just  growing  up  through 
the  preaching  of  Cyril  and  Methodius  (q.v. ), 
under  the  control  of  the  Papacy.  Altogether  he 
was  one  of  the  most  vigorous  of  the  early  popes, 
one  who  laid  the  foundations  upon  which  Gregory 
Vll.  could  build:  an  im|)r(ssive  figure,  who  may 
stand  witli  Charlemagne  to  close  the  centuries  of 
formation  and  preparation,  and  open  the  Middle 
Ages.  Consult:  Leroy,  Saint  yicholas  I.  (Paris, 
1808;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1901)  ;  Hergenruther, 
Plioliiis,  Patriarch  roti  Coiintaiitinopcl  (Kegens- 
burg,  1867 )  ;  Liimmer,  Papst  Xikolaus  I.  und  die 
hyzuntinischc  iilaalsLirche  seiner  Zeit  (Berlin, 
1857);  Sehriirs,  Uincmar,  Erzbischof  von  Reims 
(Freiburg,  1SS4). 

Nicholas  II..  Pope  1059-01,  Gerhard  by  name, 
a  Burgundian  by  birth.  He  was  a  canon  of 
Li&ge,  and  in  104G  became  Bishop  of  Florence. 
When,  on  the  death  of  Stephen  X.  in  1058,  the 
so-called  Tusculan  faction  of  the  Roman  nobility 
chose  the  Bishop  of  ^'elletri  Pope  under  the 
name  of  Benedict  X..  Hildebrand  induced  an 
assembly  at  Siena  in  December  to  elect  Gerhard. 
The  Empress  Agnes  espoused  his  cause,  and  he 
entered  Rome  in  .January.  Hildebrand  became 
archdeacon  of  the  Roman  Church  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  same  year  (1059).  and  was  the  soul 
of  the  entire  Pontificate  of  Nicholas.  (See  Greg- 
ory VII.)  Under  his  inlluence  and  that  of  Peter 
Damiani  stringent  measures  were  enforced  against 
simony  and  concubinage;  the  Papal  election  was 
also  definitely  restricted  to  the  college  of  car- 
dinals, and  the  whole  tendency  of  Nicholas's  ad- 
ministration was  to  free  the  Church  from  the 
invasion  of  external  inlluences.  He  died  in  Flor- 
ence, .July  19,  lOCil,  and  was  buried  in  his  former 
cathedral. 

NicnoL.\s  ni..  Pope  1277-80,  Giovanni  Gac- 
tano  dcgli  Orsini.  lie  was  made  cardinal  by 
Innocent  IV.  in  1244,  and  employed  by  several 
popes  ill  important  diplomatic  missions.  On  the 
death  of  .John  XXI..  he  was  elected  at  Viterbo 
after  a  prolonged  ilivision  in  the  conclave,  which 
was  only  terniin;ited  by  the  citizens  locking  the 
cardinals  up  in  the  town  hall.  He  had  already 
acted  as  mediator  1.  'tween  Charles  of  Anjnu  and 
Rudolf  of  Ilajisburg.  and  now  employed  his  in- 
fluence with  them  to  strengthen  materially  the 
temporal  power  of  the  Church  in  Italy.  He  is 
described  as  a  man  of  strict  morals  and  consid- 
erable learning,  though  the  reproach  of  nepotism 
is  brought  against  him. 

Nlcnoi..\s  IV..  Pope  1288-92,  Geronimo  by 
name.  He  entered  the  Franciscan  Order  at  an 
early  age.  and  in  1272  was  sent  to  Constanti- 
nople to  invite  the  Greeks  to  the  Council  of 
Lyons.  Two  years  later,  on  the  death  of  Saint 
Bonaventura,  he  was  elected  general  of  his 
Order.  Nicholas  III.  maik'  him  a  cardinal,  and 
Martin  IV.  Bishop  of  Palestrina.  After  nearly  a 
■year's  interregnum  he  was  chosen  to  succeed 
honorius  IV..  and  was  the  first  Franciscan  Pope. 
In  his  time  Acre,  the  last  stronghold  of  the 
Christians  in  the  East,  fell  intrt  the  hands  of  the 
Moslems;  and  he  made  vigorous  attempts  to  stir 
up  Christendom  to  renewed  efforts  against  them, 
also  making  strenuous  endeavors  to  convert  the 
Tatars. 

N1CI101.A.S  v..  Pope  1447-5.T,  Tommaso  Paren- 


tucelli.  Born  probably  at  Sarzana,  near  Pisa,  in 
1397,  he  was  educated  at  Bologna  and  Florence. 
In  1420  he  came  to  Rome  and  was  employed  iu 
the  ecclesiastical  service.  In  1444  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  Bologna  and  cardinal  two  years  after- 
wards in  recognition  of  his  skill  in  conducting 
dillicult  negotiations  in  tlermany.  On  succeed- 
ing three  months  later  to  the  Papal  throne,  he  ad- 
dressed himself  first  to  the  settlement  of  the 
troubles  growing  out  of  the  Council  of  Basel,  and 
])revailed  upon  the  Antipope  Feli.x  V.  to  resign 
his  claims,  thus  securing  universal  recognition  in 
1449  and  restoring  peace  to  the  Church.  In  1452 
he  crowned  Frederick  III.  as  Emperor — the  last 
Imperial  coronation  to  take  place  in  Rome.  He 
sought  to  stir  up  Christendom  to  oppose  the  ad- 
vance of  the  Turks.  He  reproached  the  Greeks 
with  their  dilatory  postponement  of  the  agree- 
ments made  at  the  Council  of  Florence,  and  upon 
the  Greek  Emperor  finally  accepting  his  condi- 
tions, sent  Cardinal  Isidore  to  Constantinople 
with  troops  and  money.  The  submission  of  the 
Greeks  was,  however,  only  feigned ;  and  on 
May  29,  1453,  Constantinople  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Mohammedans.  In  the  icvival  of 
classical  learning  which  preceded  and  followed 
that  event  X'icholas  was  actively  concerned.  He 
dis])atched  agents  in  all  directions,  east  and  west, 
to  purchase  or  to  copy  every  important  Greek 
and  Latin  manuscript.  The  number  collected  by 
him  was  about  5000.  He  remodeled  and  may 
almost  be  said  to  have  founded  the  Vatican  li- 
brary. He  caused  translations  to  be  made  of  the 
Greek  classics,  both  sacred  and  profane.  He  in- 
vited to  Rome  the  most  eminent  scholars  of  the 
world,  and  extended  his  special  patronage  to  the 
Greeks  who  were  driven  from  Constantinople;  in 
short,  he  did  ail  in  his  power  to  make  Rome  the 
centre  of  the  world,  both  in  art  and  letters. — 
The  name  of  Nicholas  V.  was  also  assumed  by 
the  Antipope  set  up  by  Louis  of  Bavaria  against 
Pope  John  XXII.  in  1328,  the  Franciscan  Pietro 
Kainalducci  di  Corbara.  who  finally  made  his 
submission  and  died  at  Rome  in  133.1. 

NICHOLAS  I.  (1844—).  Prince  of  Mon- 
tenegru.  He  was  educated  in  Cetinje,  Triest, 
and  Paris,  returning  to  Cetinje  when  about 
twenty  years  old.  His  uncle.  Prince  Danilo,  was 
assassinated  in  August,  1800.  and-Nichohis  was 
inunediately  proclaimed  Prince.  In  the  .same 
year  he  married  Jlilona.  davighter  of  Peter  Val- 
setitch,  president  of  the  Council  of  State.  Danilo 
.\lexander,  his  eldest  son.  was  born  June  29, 
1871.  Helena,  one  of  his  six  daughters,  became 
the  wife  of  the  Prince  of  Naples,  now  Victor 
Enunanuel  III.  of  Italy.  He  has  introduced 
many  reforms  in  educjition.  the  civil  administra- 
tions, an<l  the  army.  The  ])erio(l  of  Nicholas's 
reign  has  been  one  of  much  moTuent  for  Monte- 
negro, which  obtaineil  from  the  European  Powers 
recognition  of  its  independence  in  the  treaty  of 
Berlin  (1878).  He  has  shown  himself  on  the 
whole  a  capable  ruler,  using  for  the  good  of  his 
people  the  almost  absolute  power  he  holds.     See 

JIoN-TKNKCRO. 

NICHOLAS  I.,  PAVI,o\^TC^  (1796-18.5.'5). 
Emperor  of  Russia  from  1825  to  1855.  He  was  the 
third  son  of  Paul  I.,  and  was  born  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg July  6  (old  style  .Tune  25).  1790.  His  early 
education  was  under  the  direction  of  his  mother. 
a  princess  of  Wiirttemberg.  His  later  studies 
were  principally  in  the  fields  of  economics  and 
military  science,  but  he  evinced  no  especial  abil- 


NICHOLAS  I. 


541 


NICHOLAS. 


ity  in  these  branches.  He  traveled  in  England 
and  on  the  Continent  in  1810,  and  also  made  a 
tour  through  the  Russian  provinees.  On  .July  13, 
1817,  he  married  Charlotte,  the  eldest  daughter 
of  Frederick  William  HI.  of  Prussia.  The  death 
of  Alexander  I.,  in  December,  Isio,  and  the  previ- 
ous renunciation  by  his  elder  l)rothcr,  the  (Jrand 
Duke  Constantine  (q.v. ),  of  liis  claims  to  the 
throne  (1822),  made  Nicholas  Kniperor,  but  he 
was  oldiged  to  meet  at  the  outset  a  military  con- 
spirac_y,  which  was  stamped  out  witli  ruthless 
severity — the  celebrated  rising  of  the  Decem- 
brists. (See  Ru.ssiA. )  Capital  punishment, 
abolished  by  the  Empress  Elizabeth,  was  revived, 
for  the  purpose  of  indicting  it  upon  the  leaders 
of  the  insurrection.  Xicholas,  like  other  czars, 
showed  at  tlie  beginning  of  his  reign  some  zeal 
for  reform;  but  the  spirit  died  out,  giving  place 
to  the  old  despotism,  and  he  became  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  reactionary'  spirit  of  the  Holy  Alli- 
ance. Nevertheless,  his  first  great  measure,  the 
codification  of  Russian  law,  commenced  in  1827, 
was  continued  and  completed  in  184G.  A  war 
with  Persia  began  soon  after  his  accession,  and 
was  concluded  on  February  28,  1828,  by  the  peace 
of  Turkmantchai,  which  gave  Persian  Armenia  to 
Russia.  Close  upon  this  followed  a  successful 
but  costly  war  with  Turkey,  concluded  by  the 
Peace  of '  Adrianople  (q.v.)  which  obtained  for 
Russia  anotlier  increase  of  territory,  the  free 
navigation  of  the  Danube,  the  riglit  of  free  pass- 
age between  the  Black  and  Mediterranean  .seas, 
and  the  protectorate  over  Jtoldavi.a  and  Wal- 
lachia.  The  revolutionary  agitation  of  1830  eom- 
nuinicatcd  itself  to  Russian  Poland,  wliere  there 
was  a  national  rising,  suppressed  after  a  contest 
of  nine  months,  which  ta.xed  the  military  re- 
sources of  the  Empire.  Nicholas  converted  the 
Kingdom  of  Poland  into  a  Russian  province,  and 
began  the  process  of  Russification.  wliich  has 
since  been  in  progress.  Russia,  which  had  been 
approaching  more  closely  the  standards  of  West- 
ern Europe,  gradually  lost  its  newer  aspect.  The 
press  was  placed  under  a  strict  censorship,  and 
education  was  directed,  not  to  the  development  of 
the  people,  but  to  preparation  for  the  work  of 
the  State.  The  process,  begun  in  Poland,  was  to 
be  carried  out  all  over  the  Empire,  until  all  the 
foreign  elements  were  completely  Russianized  and 
unified  in  people  and  religion.  The  independence 
of  tlie  mountaineers  of  the  Caucasus  was  incon- 
sistent with  the  Emperor's  schemes,  and  war  was 
waged  against  them  with  the  greatest  energy 
and  perseverance,  but  at  the  cost  of  immense 
sacrifices  both  of  money  and  lives.  Nicholas 
sought  to  check  the  advance  of  British  influence 
in  Central  Asia,  and  to  counteract  it  tried  vari- 
ous means,  among  which  was  the  expedition  for 
the  conquest  of  Khiva  in  18.30,  Avhicli  ended  in 
disaster.  Between  1844  and  184G  he  visited  Eng- 
land, -•iustria,  and  Italy.  When  the  Revolution 
of  1848  broke  upon  Europe.  Nicholas  refrained 
from  interference  until,  by  aiding  in  the  suppres- 
sion of  tlie  Hungarian  national  uprising  against 
Austria,  he  was  able  to  win  Austria's  gratitude 
and  strike  a  blow  at  the  MagA'ars.  who  interfered 
with  Panslavism.  Nicholas  was  intent  on  carry- 
ing into  efTeet  the  hereditary  Russian  designs 
upon  Constantinople,  and  in  1S.')3  provoked  a 
war  witli  the  Sultan:  but  tlie  oppiisitinn  of  Great 
Britain  and  France  plunged  Nicholas  into  a  much 
more  terrible  struggle  than  he  had  anticipated. 
(See  Crime.\n  War.)      In  the  course  of  the  war 


he  died  at  Saint  Petersburg.  March  2,  1855, 
his  death  having  undoubtedly  been  hastened 
by  chagrin  at  the  repeated  defeats  which  his 
arms  sustained,  and  the  e.xcessive  labor  he  under- 
went to  repair  his  losses.  He  was  remarkable 
for  tcmpeiance,  frugality,  and  patriotism,  but 
equally  so  for. vanity  and  ostentation.  Consult: 
iSmucker,  Nicholas  /".  ( Philadelpliia.  1800)  ;  Bal- 
leydier,  Histoire  de  Vciiiijcrciir  Xicalii.s  (Paris, 
1857)  ;  Lacroix,  Histoire  de  Nicolus  I.  (ib..  1864- 
73);   Edwards,  The  Romanoffs    (London,   1890). 

NICHOLAS  II.  (1808—).  Emperor  of  Rus- 
sia fi'om  1894.  lie  was  born  at  Saint  Petersburg, 
May  18  (old  style  May  0),  1808,  the  eldest  son  of 
Emperor  Alexander  III.  and  Maria  Feodorovna 
(Princess  Dagmar,  daughter  of  Christian  IX.  of 
Denmarlc).  In  1800-01  he  traveled  extensively  in 
the  East,  and  while  in  Japan  narrowly  escaped 
assassination  at  the  hands  of  a  maniac.  He 
traversed  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  Russian 
Empire  and  went  through  Siberia  by  the  old  con- 
veyances along  the  route  of  the  Siberian  railway, 
thus  obtaining  an  adequate  appreciation  of  tlie 
importance  to  Russia  of  that  gigantic  undertak- 
ing. On  the  death  of  his  father,  Alexander  III. 
(November  1,  1894),  he  succeeded  to  the  throne. 
Although  regarded  prior  to  his  accession  as  a 
mild  and  somewhat  indefinite  character,  his  ad- 
ministrative acts  exhibited  energy  and  decision. 
He  brought  into  his  service  some  of  the  ablest 
statesmen  of  Russia.  Tlie  Empire  in  the  reign  cf 
Alexander  III.  was  inlliieiiced  politically  by  the 
reaction  from  liberal  agitation  caused  by  the 
assassination  of  the  Liberator  Czar;  the  conser- 
vative national  Russian  party  had  become  domi- 
nant, and  this  was  not  changed  through  the  ac- 
cession of  Nicholas.  The  process  of  Russification 
went  on  uninterruptedly  in  Pcdand  and  the  Baltic 
Provinces,  and  even  extended  to  Finland  (q.v.), 
which  liy  all  previous  czars  had  been  allowed  to 
retain  its  national  existence.  The  great  oliject  of 
the  internal  policy  of  tlie  Government  has  been  to 
consolidate  Russian  nationality  and  to  develop  the 
strength  and  resources  of  the  Empire.  Nicholas 
and  his  advisers  were  apparently  inclined  to  be- 
lieve that  in  the  present  state  of  eivilizaticn 
among  the  Russian  people  this  can  best  be  done 
under  the  autocracy.  Under  him  Russia  stead- 
ily advanced  its  interests  in  the  far  East,  won 
by  its  diplomacy  open  harbors  on  the  Pacific, 
develojjed  a  great  railway  system  on  strategic 
lines  through  the  whole  Empire,  and  accom- 
plished much  in  the  upbuilding  of  its  own  indu  ;- 
tries.  Perhaps  the  most  notable  act  of  the  Czar 
was  the  peace  rescript  of  1898,  looking  to  a  re- 
duction of  national  armaments,  the  result  of 
which  was  the  peace  conference  at  The  Hague. 
(See  Hagit:  Peace  Conference.)  Nicholas 
married,  November  20  (14),  1804,  Princess  Alex- 
andra Alix,  daughter  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Hesse. 
Consult:  Leudet,  Nicolas  II.  intinie  (Paris, 
1809)  ;  Prince  Ukhtomski,  Voyage  en  Orient, 
Grece,  Egypte,  Inde,  1890-01,  de  son  alfesse  im- 
periale  le  C6sarevitch  (French  translation  by 
T^ger,  with  preface  by  A.  Leroy-Beaulieu  (ib., 
1803). 

NICHOLAS,  Sir  Edward  ( I.'JOS-IGGO) .  A 
minister  of  Charles  I.  of  England.  He  was  born  at 
Winteiiinurne  Earls.  Wiltshire.  He  was  ,a  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  in  1020-21,  1023-24.  and  1027- 
28.  and  in  1041  was  made  Secretary  of  State  and 
Privy  Councilor.  When  the  Royalist  cause  was 
lost,  Nicholas  went  to  live  in  Normandy,  but  was 


NICHOLAS. 


o-i-2  NICHOLL. 


nominally  the  secretary  of  Charles  I.  until  his 
execution,  and  tried  to  serve  Charles  II.  as  faith- 
fully, but  the  jealousy  of  Queen  Henrietta  ilaria 
prevented  him  from  holding  the  position,  except 
in  name.  He  returned  to  England  at  the  Restora- 
tion, but  retired  in  1GG2. 

NICHOLAS,  CtEorce  (c.1755-99).  An  Ameri- 
can soldier  and  politician.  He  was  born  in 
Hanover.  Va.,  and  graduated  at  William  and 
Mary  College  in  1772.  He  took  the  patriot  side 
in  the  Kevolution,  became  captain  of  the  Second 
Virginia  Regiment  in  October  in  1775,  major  of 
the  Eleventh  ^"irginia  Regiment  in  November  in 
1771),  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  same  regiment  in 
September,  1777,  and  resigned  from  the  service 
in  the  following  November.  In  1781,  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Virginia  Assembly,  he  introduced 
articles  of  impeachment,  founded  on  charges  of 
incompetency,  against  Governor  .Jefferson,  but 
they  were  not  adopted.  In  1788  he  did  much 
in  the  Virginia  Convention  to  secure  the  ratifica- 
tion of  the  Federal  Constitution.  He  removed 
to  Kentucky  in  17!tO,  took  the  leading  part  in 
framing  the  State  Constitution  of  1792.  and  be- 
came the  first  Attorney-General  of  the  State. 

NICHOLAS,  Saint  (?-320).  A  highly  popu- 
lar saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  rever- 
enced with  still  greater  devotion  by  the  Rus- 
sian Clnircb.  Of  his  personal  history  hardly 
anything  is  known  with  certainty.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  Bishop  of  Jlyra  in  Lycia  and  to  have 
taken  part  in  the  Council  of  Nicoea.  With  more 
probability,  however,  he  is  referred  to  a  later 
date,  but  he  certainly  lived  prior  to  the  reign  of 
Justinian,  in  whose  time  several  of  the  churches 
of  Constantinople  were  dedicate<l  to  Saint  Nicho- 
las. The  great  popularity  of  Saint  Nicholas  rests 
mainly  on  the  traditions,  both  in  the  West  and 
in  the  East,  of  the  many  miracles  wrought 
through  his  intercession.  He  is  regarded  in 
Catholic  countries  as  the  special  patron  of  the 
young,  and  particularly  of  scholars;  also  parish 
clerks,  travelers,  sailors,  and  i)awiibrokers.  As 
his  protection  was  implored  against  robbers,  these 
per.sons  came  to  Ije  called  'Clerks  of  Saint  Nicho- 
las.' In  England  his  feast  was  celebrated  in  an- 
cient times  with  great  solemnity  in  the  public 
schools  and  elsewhere;  the  supposed  day  of  his 
death.  DeceiMl)er  (i,  is  still  observed  with  curious 
popular  ceremonies  iu  (lermany.  The  nearness 
of  his  feast  to  that  of  Chri.stmas  Day  led  to  the 
confounding  of  the  two,  .so  that  we  are  told  that 
Santa  Klaus,  a  Dutch  corruption  of  the  name 
Saint  Nicholas,  gives  the  presents  of  Christmas. 
In  art  Saint  Nicholas  is  re])resented  as  clad  in 
episcopal  rol)es  and  carrying  three  purses,  three 
different  stories,  illustrating  the  saint's  charity. 
The  supposed  relics  of  Saint  Nicholas  were  con- 
veyed from  the  East  to  Bari.  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples.  May  9.  1087.  and  in  the  Russian  Church 
the  anniversary  of  this  translation  is  still  ob- 
served ;is  a  festival. 

NICHOLAS,  Wilson- Tary  (c.l7.")7-lS2n).  An 
American  legislator,  the  son  of  .Judge  Robert  Car- 
ter Nicholas.  He  was  born  at  Hanover,  ^'a..  grad- 
uated at  William  and  Mary  College  in  1774.  and 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolutionary  War  enlist- 
ed in  the  Continental  .Vrniy.  serving  for  thi'  great- 
er part  of  the  war  as  an  officer  of  Washington's 
'T>ife  CJnarils.'  In  1788  he  was  n  mend)er  of  the 
Virginia  convention  that  ratified  the  Federal 
Constitution,  and  was  himself  a  supporter  of  that 


instrument.  In  1799  he  became  a  Republican 
member  of  the  United  States  Senate,  but  resigned 
in  Deeendier,  1804,  to  become  collector  of  customs 
for  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth.  F'rom  1807  to  1811 
he  was  a  member  of  Congress,  and  from  1814 
to  1817  was  Governor  of  Virginia. 

NICHOLAS  NICKLEBY,  nik"l-bl.  A  nov- 
el by  t  liarlc's  Dickens.  It  aijjjeared  as  a  serial 
in  1838  and  1839.  The  hero  began  his  career 
as  a  teacher  in  Squeers's  school,  Dotheboys 
Hall,  Yorkshire,  of  which  Dickens  gives  a  ter- 
rible picture,  showing  the  evils  of  cheap  schools 
of  that  time.  After  a  struggle  as  secretary,  actor, 
and  clerk,  Nicholas  became  a  member  of  the 
firm  of  Cheeryble  Brothers.  The  lea<ling  charac- 
ters are  Ralph  Niekleby,  his  son.  the  miserable 
Smike.  the  Squeerscs,  and  the  Mantalinis. 

NICHOLAS  OF  CLEMANGES,  kla'maNzh'. 

See    I'l.l.MAM.Ks. 

NICHOLAS  OF  CITSA.  See  CusA. 

NICHOLAS  OF  LY'BA  (c.1270-1340) .  An 
eminent  biblical  scholar.  He  was  born  at  Lyra 
(Lyre)  in  Norman<ly ;  entered  the  Franciscan  Col- 
lege at  Verneuil  in  1291,  and  afterwards  studied 
in  Paris;  became  a  doctor  of  theology,  and  a 
successful  teacher;  held  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant posts  of  his  Order,  among  which  was 
that  of  Provincial  for  lUirgundy,  and  was  emi- 
ment  as  a  lecturer  on  biblical  interpretation.  His 
works  were  approved  by  the  Reformers  and  used 
by  them  to  support  their  arguments.  In  his  sys- 
tem of  interpretation  he  gave  preference  to  the 
literal,  as  being  the  one  on  wliich  all  the  other 
methods — mystical,  allegorical,  and  spiritual — 
were  based.  His  chief  work,  Poslilhe  I'crprUiw 
hi  V)iirrrsa  liihiin.  has  been  regarded  as  mark- 
ing the  beginning  of  a  school  of  natural  exegesis. 
He  also  wrote  on  the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  in 
reply  to  Jewish  critics  (Traclatiis  Fratris  Jficho- 
Ini  dc  Mcssia  Kju.ique  Adientu  Una  cum  Respoii- 
sione  ad  Judworuin  Aryumcnta  Quatuordccim 
contra  Verilatcm  Evanrieliorum,  1309)  ;  and  a 
work  on  the  Sacrament  {Tractatiis  dc  Idonco 
Minisfrante  ct  fitiacipicntc  Saiicti  Altaris  t^ticrn- 
mcntum).  An  edition  of  his  works  in  five  vol- 
umes was  published  at  Rome  (1471-72),  and 
one  in  six  volumes  at  Antwerp  (1034).  Consult: 
Davidson.  Sacred  Hcrmvncutics  (London,  1843)  ; 
Graetz,  Gcschichte  der  Jiiden  (11  vols.,  Leipzig, 
18,53-70)  ;  and  for  different  editions,  Graesse,  Tn'- 
sor  rfis  lirres  rarcs  ct  pr^ciciix  (Dresden,  ISSO- 
G9). 

NICHOLASVILLE,  nik'A-las-vil'.  A  city  and 
the  county-seat  of  Jessamine  County,  Ky.,  83 
miles  east-southeast  of  Louisville,  on  the  Cin- 
cinnati Southern  and  other  railroads  (Map: 
Kentucky,  (!  3).  It  is  the  seat  of  the  .Tessa- 
mine  Female  Institute,  opened  in  18.54.  and  is 
an  important  tobacco  market  and  the  centre  of 
extensive  horse-breeding  interests.  The  chief 
industrial  plants  are  a  large  .sawmill  and  wheel 
works.  Nicholasville  was  settled  in  1799.  and 
was  first  incorporated  in  1835.  Population,  1890, 
21.57:    1900,  239,3. 

NICHOLL,  nik'ol,  Horace  Wadham  (1S48 
—  ).  An  AngIo-.\merican  musician,  horn  at  Tip- 
ton, near  Hirmingham.  Eng.  He  was  educated 
uniler  native  teaeliers.  the  most  famous  of  whom 
was  Samuel  Prince,  anil  after  holding  one  or  two 
local  organ  ap))ointments  moved  to  America  and 
setlleil    in    Pittsburg.     After    1878    he    made    his 


] 


NICHOLL. 


548 


NICHOLSON. 


home  in  Xew  York.  His  compositions  include: 
Cloister  Scene  (1874)  ;  symphonic  poem  Tuitttrus 
( 1888)  ;  Mass  in  E  Fhit :  and  many  otlicr  smaller 
orchestral  and  instrumental  numbers.  His  most 
important  work,  a  cycle  of  four  oratorios,  has 
remained  in  manuscript,  the  component  works 
of  which  are  named  respectively  Adam,  Abraham, 
Isaac,  Jacob. 

NTCHOLLS,  nik'olz.  Francis  Tii.i.on  (1834 
— ).  An  American  politician  and  soldier,  born 
at  Donaldsonville,  La.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1855  and  took  part  in  the  Scmincde  War, 
but  resigned  from  the  army  in  1857  and  returned 
to  his  native  State,  where  he  began  tlie  practice 
of  law.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he 
entered  the  Confederate  service  as  a  captain  and 
rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  In  1876 
be  was  elected  Governor  of  Louisiana,  and  was 
again  elected  in  1888.  During  his  second  admin- 
istration occun-ed  the  suppression  of  the  Louisiana 
Lottery.  The  lottery-  company  succeeded  in  getting 
a  bill  granting  it  a  new  charter  through  both 
branches  of  the  Legislature,  but  Governor  Nicli- 
oUs  vetoed  the  measure,  whereupon  the  company 
api)ealed  to  the  people  and  met  with  final  defeat. 
In  1802  he  became  Chief  Justice  of  the  State 
Supreme  Court. 

NICHOLLS,  Rhod.\  (Holmes)  (?— ).  An 
English  water-color  painter  and  illustrator,  born 
in  Coventry.  England.  She  was  a  pupil  of  the 
Bloomsbury  School  of  Art  in  London  and  won  the 
Queen's  scholarship.  In  1884  she  removed  to  the 
Vnited  States,  and  afterwards  settled  in  New 
York  City,  Avhere  she  became  a  prominent  mem- 
ber of  the  New  York  Water  Color  Club.  Her 
work  is  strong,  brilliant,  and  individual,  and  her 
figure  and  flower  studies  are  particularly  well 
known, 

NICHOLS,  nik'olz,  Ed\v.\rd  LE.\^rINC.TO^^ 
(1854 — ).  An  American  ]diysicist.  He  was 
born  at  Leamington,  England,  and  was  educated 
at  Cornell  University,  graduating  in  1875,  After 
studying  at  Leipzig,  Berlin,  and  Gi'ittingen,  where 
he  took  the  degree  of  Ph.D,  in  1879.  he  was  ap- 
pointed fellow  in  physics  at  Johns  Hopkins.  He 
then  spent  some  time  in  the  Edison  laboratory 
at  Menio  Park,  N.  J,,  and  in  1881  became  pro- 
fessor of  physics  and  chemistry  in  the  Central 
University  of  Kentucky.  In  188.3  he  was  called 
to  the  chair  of  physics  and  astronomy  at  the 
I'niversity  of  Kansas,  and  in  1887  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  physics  at  Cornell  Univer- 
sity. He  became  editor  of  the  I'h/isical  J'eview 
and  prepared  many  papers  on  electricity  and 
other  branches  of  experimental  physics  as  well 
as  text-books  dealing  with  these  subjects. 

NICHOLS,  Ernest  Fox  ( 1809— ) .  An  Amer- 
ican physicist,  born  at  Leavenworth.  Kan.  He 
graduated  at  the  Kansas  Agi-icultural  College  in 
1888.  and  pursued  graduate  studies  at  Cornell 
University  and  Berlin  University.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  physics  at  Colgate  University  in  1802-98 
and  at  Dartinouth  College  from  1898  to  lOO;!,  when 
he  was  made  professor  of  experimental  physics 
at  Columbia  University.  His  work  in  pliysics  in- 
cludes the  remodeling  and  improvement  of  the 
Crookes  radiometer:  with  H,  Robens.  the  discov- 
ery and  measurement  of  heat  waves  fo\ir  times 
as  long  as  any  hitherto  known :  the  measurement 
of  the  heat  radiation  from  the  stars  Arcturus  and 
Vega  and  the  planets  .lupiter  and  Saturn :  and. 


with  G.  F.  Hall,  tlie  measurement  of  pressure 
due  to  radiation. 

NICHOLS,  .John  ( 1745-18-20) .  The  last  of  the 
learned  printers,  born  near  London,  February  2, 
1745.  He  was  apprenticed  to  William  Bowyer 
(q,v,),  and  was  taken  into  partnership  (1700). 
On  the  death  of  his  patron  (1777)  he  succeeded 
to  the  business.  He  died  Novendjcr  20,  1826. 
For  nearly  fifty  yeais  Nichols  devoted  him- 
self to  writing,  editing,  and  publishing  valu- 
able books.  Among  them  are  .1  Hupplcmcnt 
to  SicifVs  Works  (1770,  1779);  Biographical 
and  Literary  Anecdotes  of  W,  Bowyer  (1782); 
The  Progresses  of  Queen  Elizabeth  (1778,  with 
additions  in  1805  and  1821)  ;  and  Literary  Anec- 
dotes of  the  Eighteenth  Century  (1812-15). 
His  son,  John  Bowyer  Nichols  (1779-1803), 
was  also  a  well-known  printer  and  antiquary, 

NICHOLSON,  nik'ol-son,  Edward  Williams 
Byron  ( 1849— ) .  An  English  librarian  and 
author,  born  at  Saint  Helier,  .Tersey,  and  edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  He  was  librarian  and  superin- 
tendent at  the  London  Institution  from  1873  until 
1882,  when  he  became  librarian  at  the  Bodleian 
Library  in  Oxford,  His  ])ublications  include 
Gospel  commentaries.  0  he  Christ-Child  and  Other 
Poems  ( 1877)  ;  The  Rights  of  an  Animal  ( 1879)  ; 
yew  Homeric  Researches  (1883)  ;  The  Pedigree 
of  Jack  (1892)  ;  The  Vernacular  Inscriptions  of 
the  Ancient  Kingdom  of  Alban  (1890)  ;  Golspie 
(1897)  ;  The  Man  with  Two  Souls  and  Other  Sto- 
ries (1898);  and  The  Language  of  the  Conti- 
nental Picts  (1900). 

NICHOLSON,  Sir  Francis  (1660-1728).  A 
British  colonial  governor  and  soldier  in  America. 
He  was  born  in  England,  and  in  1078  entered 
the  army  as  an  ensign.  In  1084  he  became  a  lieu- 
tenant and  was  sent  to  America,  where  in  1087 
he  was  appointed  deputy  for  New  York  of  Sir 
Edmund  Andros,  Nicholson's  administration  of 
affairs  in  New  York  was  weak  and  vacillating. 
In  the  spring  of  1689,  at  the  time  of  the  Lcisler 
rebellion  (see  Leisler,  Jacob)  .  he  was  turned  out 
of  office,  and  returned  to  England,  iv  new  connnis- 
sion  from  William  III.  as  Governor  of  the  colony 
arriving  soon  after  his  departure.  From  1690  to 
1694  he  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Virginia, 
and  administered  the  affairs  of  the  colony  with 
great  ability.  Although  himself  a  dissolute  rake, 
he  endeavored,  with  considerable  success,  to  im- 
prove the  moral  and  intellectual  condition  of  the 
people.  He  gave  his  attention  to  bettering  the 
character  and  condition  of  the  clorgj',  established 
for  tlie  first  time  a  regular  system  of  schools, 
and  founded  William  and  Mary  College,  to  which 
he  himself  donated  the  sum  of  £300.  In  1694 
Lord  Howard  of  Effingham,  under  whom  Nichol- 
son served  as  deputy,  died,  and  when  .\ndros  was 
appointed  to  succeed  him  Nicholson,  disappointed, 
resigned.  He  was  pacified  witli  the  appointment 
to  the  Governorship  of  Maryland,  where  his  fail- 
ure to  get  along  with  the  colonists  was  as  con- 
spicuous as  his  success  in  Virginia  had  been. 
In  1698  he  returned  to  Virginia  as  Governor,  but 
his  second  term  was  far  less  successful  than  the 
first.  He  caused  considerable  irritation  and  ill- 
feeling  by  his  removal  of  the  capital  from  .laines- 
town  to  Williamsburg,  He  was  recalled  in  1705, 
In  1709  and  1711  he  made  ineffectual  attempts  to 
invade  Canada  by  leading  an  army  northward 
from  Albany  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain,  In 
1710  he  planned  and  commanded  the  expedition 


NICHOLSON. 


544 


NICHOLSON. 


■which  resulted  iu  the  capture  of  Port  Royal,  and 
in  1713  betame  Governor  of  Acadia.  In  1719, 
the  proprietary  cliaiter  of  South  Carolina  hav- 
ing been  declared  forfeited,  Nicholson  was  ap- 
pointed royal  Governor.  He  was  knighted  in  the 
following  year,  and  remained  in  South  Carolina 
until  1725.  In  the  same  year  he  attained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  publislied  an  in- 
teresting account  of  the  capture  of  Port  Koyal, 
entitled  Journal  of  an  Expedition  for  the  He- 
duction  of  Port  Uoyal  (1711),  reprinted  by  the 
Nova  Scotia  Historical  Society  in  1879:  and  An 
Apology  or  Vindication  of  Sir  Francis  y icltolson, 
Oovtrnor  of  .South  Carolina   (1724). 

NICHOLSON,  JAME.S  (1737-1804).  An 
American  naval  otlicer,  born  at  Chestertown,  Md. 
He  was  present  at  the  capture  of  Havana  in 
1762,  lived  in  Xcw  York  from  1703  to  1771,  then 
returned  to  ilaryland,  and  in  177.5  became  cap- 
tain of  the  American  sliip  Defense.  In  March, 
1770,  he  captured  several  British  prizes;  in 
June  he  was  put  in  conimaiid  of  a  twenty-eight- 
gun  ship,  the  ]'irgini(i :  and  in  October  he  was 
made  ranking  captain  of  tlie  American  na^'j'.  His 
vessel  was  conhned  for  some  time  to  Chesapeake 
Bay  by  a  strict  blockade,  and  during  this  period 
he  and  his  crew  took  ])art  as  volunteers  in  the 
battle  of  Trenton.  In  .January,  1777,  he  succeed- 
ed Commodore  Esek  Hopkins  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  American  na\y.  in  which  position 
he  remained  until  the  close  of  the  war.  Early  in 
1778,  while  he  was  attempting  to  leave  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  his  vessel  ran  aground  and  was  cap- 
tured, but  he,  with  most  of  his  crew,  managed 
to  escape.  On  .Tune  2,  1780,  in  command  of  the 
TrumhuU,  of  38  guns,  he  fought  a  drawn  battle 
with  the  British  ship  Wi/alt.  and  in  1781,  off 
the  Delaware  cajx-s.  after  a  stubborn  resistance, 
he  was  captured  liy  the  Iris  and  General  ilon1:. 
He  was  released  at  the  close  of  the  war,  and  re- 
turned to  New  York  City,  where  he  was  appointed 
commissioner  of  loans. 

NICHOLSON.  .Tames  Willlvm  Augustus 
(1821-87).  An  American  naval  officer.  He  was 
born  in  Dedham,  Mass..  entered  the  United  States 
Navy  as  a  midsliipnian  in  1838,  became  a  lieu- 
tenant in  )8.">2.  and  in  18.53-5.5  served  on  the 
Vandalia  in  Commodore  'SI.  C.  Perry's  .Tapan  ex- 
pedition. During  the  Civil  War  he  commanded 
the  steamer  Isaac  Smith,  of  the  South  Atlantic 
blockading  squadron,  in  the  battle  of  Hilton 
Head  at  Port  Royal  (November  7,  1801);  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  commander  in  1802; 
was  in  the  action  with  the  Confederate  flotilla 
on  the  Savannah  River  in  the  same  year;  com- 
manded the  mimitor  Manhattan,  iinder  Admiral 
Farragut.  in  tlir  battle  of  Mobile  Bay,  and  soon 
afterwards  participatoil  in  tlie  bombanlment  of 
Fort  Morgan.  In  180500  lie  commanded  the 
steamer  Mohtfian  in  the  Pacific  Squadron;  in 
1873  was  promoted  to  be  commander;  and  from 
1870  to  1880  was  commandant  of  the  Brooklyn 
Navy  Yard.  He  bec%me  a  rear-admiral  in  1881, 
was  placed  in  commaml  of  the  European  station 
in  the  same  year;  was  present  nt  the  bombard- 
ment of  .\Iexandria.  Egypt,  by  an  English  fleet 
in  1882.  anil  by  his  prnnipt  and  energetic  meas- 
ures did  much  to  restore  onler  thereafter.  In 
18S3.  having  reached  the  age  of  sixty-two,  he  was 
retirid  from  service. 

NICHOLSON,  .Tonv  (1821  57).  A  British 
general  and  administrator  in  India.    He  was  bom 


in  Dublin,  December  11,  1821.  At  eighteen  he 
received  a  cadetship  in  the  Bengal  infantry. 
In  1841  he  fought  heroically  to  defend  Ghazni 
against  the  Afglians,  but  was  taken  prisoner  and 
cruelh'  treated.  His  bscape  was  followed  by  a 
period  of  inactivity,  during  which  he  was  sta- 
tioned at  Meerut,  doing  duty  as  adjutant  of  his 
regiment.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Sikh  War 
in  1845,  he  served  in  the  campaign  on  the  Sutlej, 
and  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Firozsliah, 
though  he  had  no  opportunity  to  distinguish  him- 
self. After  the  war,  through  the  recommendation 
of  Colonel  Lawrence,  Nicholson,  now  a  lieutenant, 
was  appointed  assistant  to  the  Resident  at  the 
conquered  capital,  Lahore,  and  thus  fairly  trans- 
ferred to  the  political  l)ranch  of  the  service,  iu 
which  most  of  his  future  life  was  passed.  But 
with  the  outbreak  of  the  Sikh  rebellion  in  1848 
came  an  interlude  of  military  activity,  in  which 
he  greatly  distinguished  liiniself.  At  the  battles 
of  Cliillianwalla  and  Oujerat  he  earned  the  ap- 
proval of  Lord  Go\igli,  to  whom  he  was  imme- 
diately attached. 

Wlien  the  Punjab  finally  became  a  British 
province.  Captain  Nicholson  was  appointed  dep- 
uty commissioner  tmder  the  Lahore  Board,  of 
which  Sir  Henry  Lawrence  was  president.  During 
.a  furlou;.'h,  1850  to  1851,  he  studied  military  af- 
fairs in  the  greatEurnpean  capitals.  For  five  years 
after  his  return  to  India  he  was  engaged  in  aii- 
ministrative  duties  among  the  savage  tril>es  of 
the  Punjab.  His  success  in  bringing  them  under 
thorough  subjection  to  law  and  order  was  very 
great;  and  such  was  the  impression  of  fear 
and  reverence  wrought  by  the  force  and  personal- 
ity of  the  man,  tlutt  he  became  among  these  rude 
populations,  under  the  title  of  'Xikkul  Seyn,'  the 
object  of  a  curious  kind  of  hero-worship.  In 
the  great  mutiny  of  1857  he  did  noble  service  for 
England  in  helping  save  the  Punjab.  When 
everything  was  safe  behind  him.  he  marched  to 
reinforce  the  army  of  General  Wilson,  engaged 
in  the  siege  of  Delhi.  His  presence  and  counsels 
gave  new  life  to  the  operations,  and  in  every  way 
he  strove  to  expedite  the  delayed  as.sault.  When 
the  attack  on  the  city  was  at  last  ordered.  Gen- 
eral Nicholson,  as  he  was  now,  led  the  first  col- 
umn. As  the  troops  forced  their  way  into  the 
city.  Nicholson  exposed  himself  fearlessly  to  ani- 
mate his  men.  Conspicuous  by  his  great  stature, 
he  became  the  mark  of  the  enemy's  bullets  and 
fell,  .shot  through  the  body.  After  great  suf- 
fering he  died  September  23.  1857.  Consult: 
Kaye,  Liies  of  Indian  Officers  (London,  1807); 
id,.  Historii  of  the  Sepoy  War  in  India  (ib.. 
1807)  :  Malleson,  Tlistori/  of  the  Indian  Mulini/ 
(ib.,  1897)  :  Trotter,  Life  of  John  Xichol<ion,  Sol- 
dier and  jldniinistralor,  linned  on  Private  and 
Hitherto  T'npnhlishcd  nocuments    (ib.,   1897). 

NICHOLSON,  .TosEPii  SiiiET.n  (18.50—).  An 
English  eroiinnii-t.  bom  in  Lincolnshire.  He  stud- 
ied at  the  universities  of  Edinburgh.  Cambridge, 
and  Heidelberg,  He  was  private  tutor  at  Cam- 
bridge. 1870-1880,  and  became  professor  of  polit- 
ical economy  at  the  I'niversily  of  Edinburgh  in 
1880.  His  writings  represent  a  compromise  be- 
tween the  methods  of  the  historical  school  of 
German  economics  and  those  of  tlie  T^nglish  de- 
duct ivr  school.  In  his  principal  work.  Principles 
nf  Political  Fconnniii  (3  vols..  1803  1901),  he 
closely  follows  the  great  work  of  .Tohn  Stuart 
^lill  in  his  selection  of  material,  but  employs  sta- 


\ 


NICHOLSON. 


543 


NICKEL. 


tistical  and  historical  discussion  instead  of  the 
abstract  reasoning  from  simple  assumption  which 
characterizes  Jlill's  works.  His  other  important 
works  on  econoiiiie  subjects  are:  KlJccIa  (if  .1/(1- 
chifieiii  on  Wiiycs  (1S78);  Trnaiil's  (Iriiit  Xot 
Landlurd's  Loss  (1SS3);  The  t<ilrcr  Question 
(188G)  ;  Mmuii  and  Monetary  I'rohleins  {  ISSS)  ; 
Historical  J'roiiress  and  Ideal  Socialism  (18114)  ; 
Strikes  and  tioeial  Problems  (1806).  He  is  also 
author  of  three  romances:  Thoth  (1888)  ;  Dream 
of  Dreams   (1880);  and  Toxar   (1800). 

NICHOLSON,  Loui.s.4.  1\L\rgaret.  An  Ameri- 
can >in.i;er,  lietter  known  by  her  professional 
name.   Louise   Xikita    (q.v.). 

NICHOLSON,  WiLLi.\M  (1872—).  An  Eng- 
lish painter  and  wood  engraver,  born  at  New- 
ark-U!ion-Trent.  He  studied  with  Herkonier  and 
under  Bouguereau  and  Constant  in  Paris,  but 
these  masters  had  little  influence  ujion  him. 
After  his  return  to  London,  he  and  his  brotlierin- 
law,  James  Pryde,  began  to  design  posters  under 
the  name  of  tlie  Beggarstaflf  Brothers.  The  tech- 
nical skill  shown  in  these  works,  their  originality 
and  boldness,  attracted  considerable  attention. 
They  are  done  in  black  and  white  with  usually 
a  dash  of  color.  His  publications  include:  An 
Alphabet  (1898)  :  An  Almanac  of  Twelve  Sports 
(with  Rudyard  Kipling.  1808)  :  London  Tiipes 
(with  W.  E.  Henley,  1808)  ;  and  Characters  of 
Romance  (1000).  In  portraiture  he  is  par- 
ticularly successful.  His  best  cuts  are  Queen 
Victoria,  Whistler,  Bernhardt,  Kipling,  and 
Earl  Pvolicrts. 

NICIAS,  nishl-as  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  N«/a?, 
'Nikias).  A  famous  Athenian  statesman  and 
general  during  tlie  Peloponnesian  War.  He  was 
the  son  of  Xiccratus,  a  very  wealthy  citizen,  who 
had  acquired  liis  fortune  by  working  the  silver 
mines  at  Laurium.  Nicias  belonged  to  tlie  aris- 
tocratic party,  and  after  the  death  of  Pericles 
presented  himself  as  the  opponent  of  Cleon,  the 
great  popular  or  demagogic  leader.  The  opposite 
in  character  to  Alcibiades,  he  was  wary,  cautious, 
obstinate,  and  irresolute.  He  was  generally  sue- 
•cessful  in  his  enterprises  against  the  Spartans 
and  their  allies.  In  n.c.  427  he  captured  the 
island  of  ^linoa:  in  the  following  year  he  ravaged 
the  island  of  TnIcIos  and  the  coasts  of  Locris;  and 
in  B.C.  424  he  captured  the  island  of  Cythcra 
and  ravaged  tlie  coast  of  Laconia.  After  the 
death  of  Cleon  he  brought  aboiit  a  peace  between 
the  Spartans  and  Athenians.  B.C.  421.  called  the 
Peace  of  Nicias.  Six  years  afterwards  the 
Athenians,  at  the  instigation  of  Alcibiades,  re- 
solved on  n  great  naval  expedition  against  Sicily. 
Nicias  was  appointed  one  of  the  commanders, 
although  he  had  strongly  protested  against  the 
imdcrtaking.  In  the  autumn  of  B.C.  41.'5  he  laid 
siege  to  Syracuse,  and  was  at  first  successful,  but 
subsequently  experienced  a  series  of  disasters; 
his  licet  was  destroyed,  and  his  troops  began  a 
retreat  to\\ard  the  interior  of  Sicily.  They  were 
speedily  forced  to  surrender,  and  Nicias  was  put 
to  death,  B.C.  413.  Consult  the  Histories  of 
Greece  by  Grote,  Curtius,  Holm.  Beloch,  and 
Edunrd  Sleyer;  also  Plutarch's  "Life  of  Nicias." 

NICKEL  (Swed.  nickel,  connected  perhaps 
with  tier.  Tiickcl,  devil,  cf.  the  etymologs'  of  co- 
balt:  according  to  others  connected  with  Iccl. 
hnikill.  ball.  lump).  A  metallic  element  dis- 
covered by  Cronstedt  in  1751.     It  was  first  men- 


tioned in  1G04  by  Hiarni,  who  called  it  koppar- 
nickcl,  signifying  false  copper,  because,  while  ifs 
ores  resembled  tliose  of  copper,  tliat  metal  could 
not  be  extracted  from  them.  Cronstedt  success- 
fully isolated  the  metal,  but  it  was  not  until 
Bergman  in  1774  corroborated  liis  investigations 
that  its  distinct  nature  was  recognized.  Nickel 
is  a  constituent  of  all  meteoric  irons,  and  it 
has  been  detected  spectroscopically  in  the  at- 
mosphere of  the  sun.  On  the  earth  it  occurs, 
usually  associated  with  cobalt,  in  niccolite, 
gersdorffite,  millerite,  garnierite,  and  certain 
other  minerals.  The  wide  distribution  of  the 
sulpharsenide  ores  led  to  their  extensive  work- 
ing in  Saxony,  Norway,  Sweden,  Austria.  Spain, 
Russia.  Great  Britain,  and  tlie  I'nitcd  St.ates. 
but  since  tlie  discovery  of  garnierite  in  New- 
Caledonia  in  1873,  and  the  development  of  the 
nickeliferous  pyrrhotite  in  Sudbury,  Ontario, 
Can.,  subsequent  to  1887,  these  two  localities 
have  become  the  principal  sources  of  nickel. 

Nickel  (s,nnbol,  Ni ;  atomic  weight,  .58.09)  is 
a  silver-white  lustrous  metal  that  is  magnetic 
at  ordinary  temperatures,  is  ductile,  hard,  and 
tenacious,  has  a  specific  gravity  of  from  8.07  to 
0.20,  and  a  melting-point  of  about  14.50°  C.  Next 
to  manganese  it  is  the  hanlest  of  the  metals,  and 
it  is  capable  of  taking  a  fine  polish.  Fleitman 
has  found  that  on  adding  a  small  quantity  of 
magnesium  to  fused  nickel  the  latter  can  be  rolled 
into  very  thin  sheets  and  welded  on  to  sheet 
iron  or  steel  so  as  to  permit  its  use  for  the 
manufacture  of  culinary  or  other  utensils.  Nickel 
thus  treated  may  be  drawn  into  wire  and  also 
east  or  forged.  The  chief  use  of  nickel  is  in 
the  manufacture  of  allovs.  including  German 
silver.  There  is  an  important  alloy  of  nickel 
and  steel  which  is  used  for  armor  plate  and 
other  hea\-y  forgings.  Nickel  is  also  employed 
as  a  material  for  making  coins  in  Switzerland, 
Belgium,  Germany,  the  United  States,  and  other 
countries.  Nickel  combines  with  oxygen  to  form 
two  oxides.  The  niono.xide,  NiO,  is  a  grayish- 
gi-«en  substance  found  native  as  bunsenite.  It 
may  be  made  by  strongly  heating  the  hydroxide, 
carbonate,  or  nitrate.  The  sesquioxide  of  nickel. 
NiPa,  is  a  black  substance  obtained  by  heating 
the  nitrate  or  carbonate  in  the  air.  The  most 
important  commercial  salt  of  nickel  is  am- 
monium-nickel sulphate,  which  is  obtained  by 
dissolving  either  metallic  nickel  or  its  protoxide 
in  sulphuric  acid  and  adding  ammonium  sulphate 
to  the  concentrated  acid  solution,  which  is  then 
evaporated  to  crystallization.  The  crystals, 
which  are  of  a  bright  green  color,  may  be  further 
purified  by  recrystallization  an<l  find  their  chief 
use  in  nickel  plating.  The  carbonate  may  also 
be  used  for  electro-plating.  Nickel  salts,  when 
hydrated  or  in  solution,  have  a  fine  emerald 
gieen  color,  but  arc  yellow  when  anhyilrous.  In 
1880,  2.52,003  pounds  of  nickel,  valued  at  .$1.51.- 
508,  were  produced  from  ores  mined  in  tlie  United 
States.  In  1002  there  was  no  nickel  mined,  the 
ore  smelted  being  derived  entirely  from  Canada 
and  New  Caledonia. 

Met.vlu'Bgy.  When  nickeliferous  ores  of  lead, 
cobalt,  copper,  or  silver  containing  arsenic  are 
smelted,  the  nickel  combines  with  the  arsenic  to 
form  speiss :  should  arsenic  not  be  present,  the 
nickel  enters  the  various  intermediate  products  of 
the  smelting  process,  such  as  matte,  blister  cop- 
per, tough  pitch  copper,  and  dyes.    From  all  these 


NICKEL. 


546 


NICOLA. 


metallurgical  products  uickol  may  be  extracted 
as  well  as  from  the  ores.  The  prineipal  ores  from 
wliieh  iiiekel  is  extracted  arc  the  sulpliur  com- 
pounds and  the  silicates.  Tlie  chief  sulphur  com- 
pounds are  the  nickel  pyrites  of  iron  and  copper, 
of  which  one  of  the  most  notable  deposits  is  at 
Sudbury,  Canada.  The  Su<lhury  ores  are  the 
principal  source  of  the  world's  nickel  supply. 

The  extraction  of  nickel  is  performed  by  (1) 
the  dry  metliod,  (2)  the  wet  method,  and  (3) 
eleetro-metallurgically.  The  dry  method  is  the 
one  chietly  used  to  extract  the  metal  from  the 
ores,  the  use  of  the  wet  method  and  electro- 
metallurgical  processes  being  confined  almost 
entirely  to  extraction  from  metallurgical  products 
and  the  matte  and  spciss  resulting  from  the 
dry  processes.  Most  allcntion  will  therefore  be 
given  to  the  dry  method  of  extraction  as  applied 
to  the  principal  ore  of  nickel;  that  is,  the  com- 
bined nickel,  iron,  and  copper  pyrites.  In  smelt- 
ing these  ores  in  the  dry-  way-,  after  getting 
rid  of  the  ganguc,  the  metallurgist  is  chiefly 
concerned  with  the  separation  of  the  nickel  from 
the  sulphur,  iron,  and,  in  most  cases,  from  the 
copper  also.  When  no  copper  is  present  the 
process  becomes  simple.  Considering  first  ores 
free  from  copper,  the  task  is  to  get  rid  of  the 
iron  and  sulpluir.  The  first  operation  consists 
in  roasting  the  ore,  which  converts  the  metallic 
sulphides  into  a  mixture  of  oxides,  sulphates,  and 
undeconiposed  sulpliides.  The  roasted  ore  is  then 
smelted  in  a  shaft  furnace  with  coal  and  siliceous 
matter,  which  removes  the  great  bulk  of  the 
iron  as  slag,  leaving  a  matte  consisting  of 
sulphide  of  nickel  mixed  with  a  small  proportion 
of  iron  sulphide,  (ienerally,  to  get  a  matte  rich 
enough  in  nickel  for  the  succeeding  Qperations, 
these  roasting  and  smelting  processes  are  re- 
peated one  or  more  times.  The  raw  nickel  matte 
is  next  submitted  to  an  oxidizing  fusion  in 
hearths,  reverberatory  furnaces,  or  converters  to 
remove  the  remaining  iron,  leaving  nickel  sul- 
phide. When  copper  is  present  in  the  ores  as 
well  as  iron,  the  iron  is  removed  exactly  as 
before,  the  res\ilt  being,  however,  a  matte  of 
nickel  sulphide  and  copper  sulphide  nii.xcd. 
This  matte  may  lie  oxidized  by  roasting  and  then 
smelted  to  produce  a  nicl«'l-copper  alloy,  or  to 
secure  nickel  alone  the  matte  is  smelted  with  a 
flux,  which  removes  the  copper,  or  is  treated 
with  ehemical.s,  which  permit  the  separation  of 
the  copper.  This  latter  method  is  the  chief  use 
made  of  the  wet  method  of  reduction,  which,  as 
previously  stated,  is  used  mostly  for  reducing 
the  mattes,  speiss,  and  slags  resulting  from  the 
smelling  process.  As  in  wet  methods  of  extrac- 
tion generally,  the  process  in  the  ease  of  nickel 
consists  in  dissolving  the  metals  from  the  matte, 
etc.,  by  acids,  and  then  in  i>recipitating  sepa- 
rately the  various  metals  from  tliis  solution. 
The  nickel  compounds  resulting  from  the  proe- 
e.sses  mentioned  are  reduced  to  metallic  nickel 
by  smelting  in  crucibles  with  carbon.  See  Dr. 
Carl  Schnablc's  Handbook  of  MrlnUurqil  (New 
York.  ISPS). 

NICOBAR  (nlkAblir')  ISLANDS.  .V 
group  of  islands  in  the  Indian  dccan  beginning 
I.IO  miles  northwest  of  Sumatra  and  stretching 
northwestward  for  200  miles  (Map:  French  hi- 
de China,  n  fl).  They  form  with  the  .Andaman 
Islands  to  the  north  of  tliem  the  northern  ex- 
tension of  the  great  chain  of  islands  of  which 


Sumatra  and  Java  are  the  principal  members. 
The  group  consists  of  19  islands,  of  which  12 
are  inhabited,  the  largest  being  Lireat  and  Little 
Xicobar  in  the  south,  Camorta  in  tlie  centre,  and 
Car  Xicobar  in  the  north.  The  area  of  Great 
Xicobar,  the  largest,  is  337,  and  of  the  whole 
group  ti84  square  miles.  The  southern  islands 
are  mountainous  and  covered  with  dense  forests; 
those  in  the  north  are  low,  less  fertile,  but 
sujiporting  large  numbers  of  cocoa-palms.  The 
climate  is  hot,  humid,  and  very  unhcalthful  for 
Europeans.  The  X'icobarese  are  classed  with  the 
Selungs  of  the  Mergui  Aichipelago  as  Indone- 
sians. The  inhabitants  of  the  smaller  islands 
and  of  the  coast  of  (!reat  Nicobar  have  inter- 
mixed with  Malays.  In  all  probability  they  be- 
long originally  to  one  of  the  i)riniitive  stocks 
of  Fartlier  India  (proto-Malay  ?  i  with  Xegrito 
and  Malay  admixtures.  The  northern  X'icobarese 
are  monogamous  and  value  chastity  very  highly. 
In  1901  the  inhabitants  munbered  (i310.  They 
are  chiefly  supjiorted  by  their  large  trade  in 
cocoaiuits  and  copra.  Formerly  they  were  en- 
gaged in  piracy  and  wrecking,  but  have  been 
peaceful  since  the  British  occnpation.  The 
islands  are,  together  with  the  Andamans,  gov- 
erned by  a  Britisli  chief  conuuissioner.  The 
British  Covernment  agent  resides  at  X'aneowry 
Harbor,  where  there  is  a  line  landlocked  harbor 
between  Camorta  and  Xancowry  islands.  The 
Xicobar  Islands  were  settled  by  Denmark  in  1756, 
but  her  attempts  at  coloni;:ation  were  unsuccess- 
ful, and  she  abandcmed  tlieni  in  1848.  In  1869 
tliev  wore  aiinexid  by  (Ireat  Britain. 

NICOBAR  PIGEON.  A  large  and  very  beau- 
tif\il  ground-feeding  pigeon  of  the  East  Indies 
{('tilaiHis  yicuhtiric(i) .  which  is  remarkable  for 
the  elongated  feathers  that  mantle  the  neck,  and 
for  its  very  wide  distribution  over  the  Polynesian 
region.  Consult  Wallace,  Mala;/  Archipelago 
(Xew  York,   lSti9). 

NICODE'MUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  NikW,^i, 
y Ikuili')ii(is) .  A  Jew  described  in  the  Gospel  of 
John  as  a  Pharisee  and  menil)er  of  the  Sanhedrin, 
who  came  to  Jesus  secretly  and  by  night  at 
.Terusalem  (.John  iii.  1  sqq.).  He  put  in  a  plea 
for  a  hearing  for  .lesus  when  the  Pharisees  would 
have  conilenuu'd  Kim  witliout  allowing  Him  to 
plead  (.lohn  vii.  50)  ;  and  he  bore  a  part  with 
.Joseph  of  Arimatlnva  in  burying  the  body  of  .Tesns 
(.Tohn  xix.  39).  He  disappears  from  the  Xew  Tes- 
tament after  the  burial.  In  an  apocryphal  book, 
the  Gospel  of  Xicodcmus,  or  Acts  of  Pilate,  the 
few  facts  recorded  in  the  Gospels  are  elaborated 
and  commented  on  at  considerable  length,  evi- 
dently with  no  basis  of  historic  truth  behind 
them.     See  AP0CR\T>II.\. 

NICOL,  nik'ol,  Erskine  (1825-1904).  A 
Scotch  painter,  liorn  at  Leith,  near  Kdinbiirgh. 
He  studied  at  the  Trustees'  Academy,  Kdinliurgli, 
and  then  went  to  Dublin,  where  he  tauylit  and 
painted  portraits.  In  IS.iO  he  was  elected  asso- 
ciate of  the  Royal  .\ca<lemy.  and  in  18(>3  went  to 
live  in  London.  His  works  are  genre,  generallv 
of  Irisli  subjects,  and  many  of  them  are  well 
known  in  the  I'nifed  States  throiigh  engravings. 
.Among  the  best  known  are  "Paddy's  Mark,"  in 
the  Corcoran  Gallery,  Washington;  "Paying  the 
Hint,"'  in  the  Vanderbilt  Collection,  X'ew  York. 

NICOLA,  Lewis  I  1717-c.1S07)  .  An  Ameri- 
can soldier,  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland.    He  became 


NICOLA.  547 

ensifni  in  tlic  ISritisli  aiiiiy  in  1740,  and  after- 
wards major.  He  resigned  and  came  to  Pliila- 
delpliia  about  1700,  and  was  employed  in  civil 
engiueerinj;.  In  1770  he  was  made  barracks- 
muster  of  the  city  and  aided  in  preparing  for  de- 
fense. In  December,  1770,  he  was  made  town 
major  with  8tatc  rank,  and  he  held  this  place  un- 
til 1782.  He  presented  to  Congress  a  plan  for  an 
invalid  regiment,  which  should  serve  both  as  a 
home  giiard  and  a  training  school,  was  made  the 
colonel  in  .June,  1777, and  was  brevetted  brigadier- 
general  in  1783.  He  was  an  original  memlier  of 
the  Penns^-lvania  branch  of  the  Society  of  the  Cin- 
cinnati and  wrote  to  Washington  for  the  army 
oflicers  the  famous  letter  suggesting  that  the 
latter  become  King  of  the  country.  He  published 
A  Treatise  of  Military  Exercise  Calculated  for 
the  Use  of  Americans   (1770). 

NICOLAI,  nik'o-ll,  Christopii  Fkiedrich 
(1733-1811).  A  well-known  German  litterateur, 
born  ill  Berlin.  From  1752  he  directed  a  pub- 
lishing and  bookselling  establishment,  which  he 
made  one  of  the  largest  in  Berlin.  He  became 
(1754)  a  member  of  a  literary  circle  which  in- 
cluded Lessing  and  Moses  Mendelssohn,  with  the 
latter  of  whom  he  established  at  Berlin  in  1757 
the  Bibliothck  (lev  sclMiien  Wisscnschaften  (con- 
ducted from  vol.  v.,  1700,  bj'  C.  F.  Weisse  at 
Leipzig),  designed  as  an  independent  critical 
journal.  He  also  collaborated  with  Mendelssohn 
and  Lessing  (whose  place  was  later  taken  by 
Thomas  Abbt)  in  the  Briefe  die  neueste  Littera- 
tur  hctreffend  (1701-07),  a  literary  review  pre- 
sented as  letters  addressed  to  a  supposititious  of- 
ficer, wounded  in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  Another 
periodical,  the  Allgemeine  Deutsche  Bibliothek 
(100  vols.,  1705-91;  with  a  continuation,  in  all 
102  vols.,  1805),  he  made  known  ehielly  for  its 
harshness  and  insipidit}-.  A  rationalist  in  phi- 
losophy, he  wrote  8el)it!dus  Not  hanker  (1773), 
rather  a  heterodox  monograph  than  the  work 
of  fiction  it  purported  to  be,  and  bitterly  attacked 
Kant,  Fichte,  and  the  critical  school  in  general. 
He  attempted  to  cast  ridicule  upon  most  of  what 
wa.s  significant  in  the  German  literature  of  the 
time,  for  example,  the  work  of  Goethe  and 
Schiller,  who  made  spirited  reply  in  the  Xenien, 
and  that  of  G.  A.  Biirger,  against  whose  re- 
vival of  the  ballad  form  he  directed  his  Feyner 
kleyiier  AliiiaiKirh  vol  sclionerr,  eclitrrr,  libliclterr 
Volckslieder  (1777-78;  new  ed.  1887).  Yet  in 
earlier  critiques  he  worked  eti'ectively  toward  the 
improvement  of  taste;  and  his  Anekdoten  von 
t'riedriek  II.  (1788-02)  is  of  permanent  histori- 
cal value.  Con.sult  Goekingk,  Mcolais  Leben  und 
litterarischer  \achlass  (Berlin,  1820).  See  also 
Germa.n  Literature. 

NICOLAI,  Otto  (1810-40).  A  German  musi- 
cal composer,  born  at  Kiinigsberg  in  1810.  His 
early  life  was  a  struggle  with  poverty  and  dif- 
ficulties, and  although  his  first  lessons  in  music 
were  given  to  him  by  his  father,  the  lack  of 
sympathy  between  them,  and  the  oft  repeated 
brutality  of  the  elder,  caused  the  boy  to  run 
away  from  home  (1820),  and  find  a  patron  in 
Adler  of  Stargard.  bv  whose  aid  he  was  enabled 
to  complete  his  studies.  He  studied  for  three 
years  in  Berlin  under  Klein:  and  in  1835  went 
to  Rome,  where  he  went  through  three  more  years 
of  study  under  Baini.  After  traveling  for  t(?n  or 
twelve  years  over  Europe,  he  became  in  1847 
kapellmeister  at  Berlin,  a  post  which  he  soon  re- 


NICOLAUS  OF  DAMASCUS. 


signed.  He  appeared  as  a  composer  of  dramatic 
music  as  early  as  1831;  but  bis  first  work  of 
importance  was  II  Templario,  founded  on  Scott's 
mmance  of  Ivaiihoe,  which,  produced  at  Turin  in 
1841,  attained  a  higli  and  permanent  reputation. 
In  1848  he  wrote  at  Berlin  Die  lusdiyen  Weiber 
von  Windsor,  on  which  bis  renown  as  a  musician 
is  founded,  a  work  charming  for  its  clear  design 
and  lively,  vigorous  tone.  Two  months  after  the 
I)roduction  of  this,  his  chef-d'oeuvre,  its  composer 
died,  in  Berlin. 

NIC'OLA'ITANS(Gk.  NiKoXaiYoI,  NikolaUai). 
licinc^eiitatives  of  a  form  of  fal.se  teaching  and 
loose  moral  practice,  mentioned  only  in  Revela- 
tion ii.  0,  15,  and  in  early  Christian  literature 
bearing  on  these  passages.  Among  the  early 
references  is  the  following  by  Irena'US  [Against 
Ilcresies,  i.  20)  :  "The  Nicolaitans  are  the  fol- 
lowers of  that  Nicolas  who  was  one  of  the  seven 
first  ordained  to  the  diaconate  by  the  Apostles. 
They  lead  lives  of  unrestrained  indulgence.  The 
character  of  these  men  is  very  plainly  pointed 
out  in  the  Apocalypse  of  John,  [where  they  are 
represented]  as  teaching  that  it  is  a  matter  of 
inditl'erence  to  practice  adultery  and  to  eat  things 
sacrificed  to  idols."  They  evidently  carried  to  an 
illogical  and  immoral  extreme  the  principles  of 
religious  freedom  from  legal  requirements  taught 
by  Saint  Paul.  Certain  critics  have  seen  in 
these  references  of  the  Apocalypse  an  allegorical 
portrayal  of  Paul's  teachings  by  those  to  wdiom 
they  were  repugnant.  Most  scholars,  however, 
find  no  warrant  for  this.  The  Nicolaitans  were 
among  the  obscure  early  Gnostic  heretics  who 
ofl'ended  chiefly  in  violating  the  decree  of  the 
Council  at  .Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.  29),  which  for- 
bade participation  by  Christians  in  the  heathen 
feasts  and  in  the  licentiousness  by  which  these 
celebrations  were  commonly  attended.  That  they 
were  personal  followers  of  Nicolas  or  Nicolaus  of 
Antioch  (Acts  vi.  5)  has  not  been  proved.  Their 
name  (in  Greek,  'conqueror  of  the  people')  close- 
ly I'esembles  the  name  Balaam  (in  Hebrew,  'de- 
stroyer of  the  people' ) ,  whence  it  has  been  argued 
that  no  such  sect  really  existed,  but  the  close 
association  of  the  terms  in  the  Apocalypse  is  a 
part  of  its  allegorical  method.  There  is  no  rea- 
sonable warrant  for  the  conjecture.  The  sect 
was  insignificant  and  disappeared.  Other  sects 
called  Nicolaitans  are  met  with  in  the  Middle 
Ages;  one  flourished  in  the  fifteenth  century  in 
Bohemia ;  these  have  no  connection  with  the 
party  mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse.  Consult  the 
commentaries  on  Revelation,  and  McGiffert,  .4. 
IJistorii  of  Christianity  in  the  Apostolic  Age 
(New  York,  1897). 

NICOLAS,  Sir  Nicholas  Harris  (1799- 
1848).  An  English  antiquary,  born  at  Dart- 
mouth. In  1823  he  published  his  Index  to  the 
flcralds'  Visitations  in  the  Britis}i  Museum. 
His  labors  also  resulted  in  the  reform  of  abuses 
which  had  crept  into  the  administration  of  the 
record  commission,  the  Society  of  Antiquaries, 
and  the  British  Museum.  Among  his  publica- 
tions are:  Observations  on  the  State  of  Hisiorical 
Literature  and  on  the  ftocicty  of  Antiquaries, 
trilh  Remarks  on  the  Record  Com Hn'.9.Si"on  (1830)  ; 
Synopsis  of  the  Peerage  of  England  (1825;  new 
ed.  revised  bv  William  Courthope.  1857)  ;  and 
History  of  the  Battle  of  Agincourt  (.3d  ed.  1833). 

NIC'OLA'US  (Lat..  from  Gk.  Nt/(6\aos,  'Xiko- 
laos )  OF  DAMASCUS.   A  Greek  historian  of  the 


NICOLA  us  OF  DAMASCUS. 


548 


NICOLLS. 


■first  century  B.C.,  an  intimate  friend  of  Herod 
the  Great  and  of  Auj^ustu^,.  His  numerous  wiirlcs 
include  his  autobiography,  of  which  a  consider- 
able portion  remains;  a  history  of  the  world 
down  to  his  own  times  in  144  books,  of  which 
fragments  liave  been  ])reserved;  and  a  panegj-ri- 
cal  biograpliy  of  Augustus,  of  wliich  some  ex- 
tracts, made  by  command  of  Constantine  Tor- 
phyrogenitus,  are  extant.  He  also  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  various  philosophical  works,  and 
several  tragedies  and  comedies.  A  fragment  of 
one  of  the  tragedies  has  been  preserved  by  Sto- 
hseus.  For  the  fragments,  consult:  iIiiller,"/Va(7- 
mrnla  Eistoricorum  (Ircecoriim  (6  vols.,  Paris, 
1841-70)  ;    also.  Trieber,   De   Xicolai  Damasceni 


was  continued  in  a  new  edition  with  life  by  C. 
P.  Goujet  (14  vols.,  Paris,  1707-82). 

NICOLINI,  ne'ko-le'ne,  Ernesto  (properly 
Ek-nest  Xrol-Vs)  (1834-081.  A  French  singer, 
born  at  Saiut-ilalo.  He  studied  at  the  Conserva- 
tory, and  made  his  debut  in  tlie  Moi(squetaii(s  de 
la  reine  at  the  Upfra  Comiiiue  in  Paris  in  18.57. 
Afterwards,  he  traveled  extonsivelv.  and  did  not 
reappear  in  Paris  until  1870.  While  in  Saint 
Petersburg  on  another  tour  he  renewed  an  ac- 
quaintance with  Mnie.  Adelina  Patti.  whom  he 
married  after  her  divorce  from  the  ilarquis  de 
Caux  in  1S8G. 

NIC'OLL,  James  Craig  ( 1847—  ) .    An  Ameri 


i 

i 

I 


Laconicis   (Berlin.  1807)  ;  and  Stcinmctz,  Ucrod     <'/'"  painter,  born  in  Xew  York.     He  studied  un 
and  yicolaus   (Liineburg,  1801). 

NICOLAY,  ni'kiVIa,  .JoHX  George  (1832- 
IHOI).  An  American  author,  born  in  Essingen, 
Bavaria,  February  22.  1832.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1838.  attended  school  in  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio,  and  later  went  to  Illinois,  where 
he  edited  the  I'ike  County  Free  Press,  at  Pitts- 
field.  Then  be  became  assistant  to  the  Secretary 
of  State  of  Illinois,  and  while  in  this  position 


der  .M.  F.  H.  de  Haas  and  Kruseman  van  Ellen, 
and  in  188.5  was  elected  a  National  Academician. 
His  marines  include:  "On  the  Rocks  Near  Port- 
land" (1882).  •■Twilight,"  "Sunlight  on  the 
Sea,"  "Fog  and  Sunshine,"  and  "On  the  Gulf 
of  Saint  Lawrence." 

NICOLL,  William  Robert-son  (1851—).  A 
Britisli  author  and  journalist,  born  at  Lumsden, 
Aberdeenshire,  Scotland.  October  10.  1851.  He 
met  Abraham  Lincoln.  He  served  as  priv"ate  sec-  >vas  educated  at  the  university  and  the  Free 
retary  to  Lincoln  during  the  Civil  War  (1861-  Church  College  at  Aberdeen:  was  a  minister  at 
65),  and  after  tlie  death  of  the  President  be-  Dutftown  (1874-77 ),  and  at  Kelso  (1877-85).  In 
came  United  States  Consul  at  Paris,  France  1884  he  became  the  editor  of  the  Expositor;  in 
(1805-60).  He  was  marshal  of  the  United  1886  of  the  British  Wcckli/,  which  he  founded; 
States   Supreme  Court    (1872-87).     Besides  con-     and    in    1801    of    the    lioohmnn.    which    he    also 


tributions  to  the  leading  magazines,  his  writijigs 
include  books  on  the  Civil  War  and  on  Lincoln, 
The  Outbreak  of  the  RchMion  ( 1881 ) ,  and  joint- 
ly with  .John  Hay  (q.v.)  Abraham  Lincoln: 
A  History.  This  authoritative  work  appeared  in 
the  Century  Magazine  .serially  from  1880  to  1800, 
and  was  then  issued  in  book  form,  together  with 
the  Complete  Works  of  Ahraliam  Lincoln,  in  12 
volumes    (1800-04). 

NICOLE,  ne'kol'.    In  MoliJre's  Bourgeois  gen- 


founded.  He  has  written:  Thr  Inrnrnntc  Haviour 
(1881)  ;  The  Lamb  of  Cod  (1886)  :  The  Kei/  of 
the  Grave  (1893);  Literary  Anrrdotcs  of"  the 
Nineteenth  Century  (1805):  and.  jointlv  with 
C.  K.  Shorter,  a  new  Life  of  the  liroittcs  ("l895)  ; 
besides  editing  a  number  of  theological  works. 

NICOLLET.  n.vk.VlA'.  .Teax  \icol.\s  (1786- 
1S4.". ).  A  French  astronomer  and  explorer,  born 
at  Cluses  in  Savoy.  When  about  twenty-one 
years  old  he  went  to  Paris  and  became  a  nat- 
tilhonnne,  a  bright  servant  who  with  Madame  uralized  Frenchman.  In  1817  he  .secured  a  posi- 
Jourdain  exposes  and  ridicules  the  foibles  of  her  tion  in  connection  with  the  observatory,  and  in 
master. 


NICOLE,  Pierre  (1025-95).  A  distinguished 
French  .lansenist  writer.  He  was  born  at 
Chartres,  and  at  an  early  age  attained  un- 
usual proficiency  in  classical  studies,  at  first 
under  the  teaching  of  his  father,  a  counselor  in 
the  Parlement  of  Paris.     From   1042  to   1644  he 


1822  was  promoted  to  be  assistant  astronomer 
in  the  Bureau  of  Lon^'itudes.  He  discovered  at 
the  same  time  as  Pond  the  comet  of  1821, 
and  in  1822-23  was  engaged  witli  Colonel  Bmus- 
seau  in  measuring  an  arc  of  latitude  in  the 
.south  of  France.  Obliged  to  leave  the  country 
in   1831   because  of  unfortunate  speculations,  he 


studied   philosophy   in   Paris,   where  he  took   his     ^"'"'   *"   *'""    L'lited   States,    where   the   Govern- 
master's   degree,    "inclined   to   take   holy   orders,     ment  gave  him  some  assistance  in  making  a  geo 


he  made  a  theological  course  at  the  Sorbonne  in 
1645-46.  He  was  already  under  the  infiuence  of 
the  Jansenist  leaders,  especially  Antoinc  Ar- 
nauld.  and  after  taking  his  bachelor's  degree  in 
theologj-  went  to  Port  Royal  in  1640.  Five  years 
later  he  returned  to  Paris  and  devoted  his  tal- 
ents to  promoting  the  cause  of  .Jansenism.  In 
1679  his  outspoken  opposition  to  the  ruling  doc- 
trines made  it  advisat)le  for  him  to  accompany 
Arnauld  to  the  Low  Countries,  where  he  lived  at 
Brussels,  Louvain,  and  elsewhere  until  he  got 
permission  to  return  to  Chartres,  and  in  1683  to 
Paris,  where  he  died.  He  wrote  a  large  number 
of  controversial  treatises,  all  characterized  by 
purity  of  style  anil   subtlety  of  discrimination, 

"To  him  is  diie  the  principal  part  of  the  celebrated  pointed  by  Charles  H.  secretary  of  the  commi's- 
Port  Royal  logic — La  lofii/pir,  oh  Vart  de  prn.irr  sion  headed  by  Cid.  Richard  Nicolls  (q.v.).  which 
(Paris.  1062:  Eng.  trans,  ed.  T.  S.  Baj-nes.  10th  was  to  regulate  Ni'w  England  and  capture  New 
cd„  London.  1808).  His  Fssais  dr  morale  (6  Xetherland.  He  Ix-came  the  first  Secretary  of 
vols.,  1071  seq.)   is  his  most  important  work;  it    New  York  after  the   English   occupation    (Sep- 


graphical  and  geological  exploration  of  the  terri- 
tory beyond  the  .Mississippi.  The  results  of  these 
researclies  are  emlioilicd  in  a  series  of  memoirs 
which  appeared  in  tlie  Cunnaissance  des  Temps 
and  Silliman's  Journal.  Among  his  other  publi- 
cations are:  Des  a.isurances  sur  la  I'l'e  (1818); 
Cours  de  mathfmatiques  (1830)  ;  and  a  Report 
and  Map  of  the  Hydrographiral  Basin  of  the  Up- 
per Mis.'ii.tsippi  liirer  (1843).  Consult  Sibley, 
"Memoir  of  .Jean  N.  Nicollet,"  in  the  Collrc- 
lions  of  the  Minnesota  Ilistorical  Ftociety,  vol,  i. 
(Saint  Paul.  1872). 

NICOLLS,  nik'olz.  Mathias  (c.lG.SO-87).  An 
English  colonial  oflicial.  born  at  Plymouth.  He 
was   admitted   to  the   bar,   and   in    1004   was  ap- 


NICOLLS. 


540 


NICOMEDIA. 


tember  8,  1664),  and  was  appointed  a  member 
of  llie  Governor's  Council.  He  drew  up,  under 
the  supervision  of  Governor  Nicolls,  a  code  from 
tile  Knglisli.  the  liomanDutch,  and  tlie  local 
laws  of  New  Kngland,  which  was  promulgated 
at  llcmpstead  in  October,  1004,  and  was  later 
known  as  the  'DuUe's  Laws.'  In  the  Court  of 
Assizes  provided  in  this  code,  he  was  the  pre- 
siding justice,  and  in  1005  was  appointed  judge 
of  the  Admiralty  Court.  He  also  served  as  cap- 
tain of  the  militia  and  led  some  expeditions 
against  the  Indians.  Though  deposed  as  secre- 
tary when  the  Dutch  recaplui'ed  the  province  in 
1673,  he  was  reappointed  by  Andros  in  1074,  and 
was  elected  mayor  of  the  city  as  well.  In  1080 
he  resigned  all  his  oliiccs  and  went  to  Knglaiul. 
Upon  his  return  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  two 
judges  of  the  Court  of  Oyer  and  Terminer  in 
1083.  During  that  year  and  the  next  he  was 
Speaker  of  the  First  Assemblies  of  the  Province. 
He  bought  and  entered  much  land  in  Queens 
Co\mty.  and  died  on  his  estate,  Plandome. 

NICOLLS,  Richard  (1624-72).  A  British 
soldier  and  colonial  Governor.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  connnanded  a  troop  of  horse  on  the  Roy- 
alist side.  He  followed  the  Stuarts  into  exile  and 
served  with  the  Duke  of  York  under  ilarshal 
Turenne.  After  the  Restoration,  he  was  groom  of 
the  bedchamber  for  the  Duke  of  York.  In  1004 
Charles  II.  appointed  a  commission,  consisting  of 
Colonel  Richard  Xicolls,  Sir  Robert  Carr,  Sir 
George  Cartwright.  and  Samuel  Maverick,  to  in- 
vestigate complaints  against  the  New  England 
colonies,  and  reduce  the  Dutch  in  New  Nether- 
land,  which  had  been  granted  to  the  Duke  of 
York.  Colonel  Nicolls's  presence  was  to  be  neces- 
sary for  a  quorum,  and  he  was  commissioned  as 
Deputy  Governor  of  the  territory  to  be  captured. 
After  touching  at  Boston,  he  appeared  before 
New  Amsterdam,  August  2.5.  1604,  and  on  Sep- 
tember 8th  Governor  Stuyvesant  was  forced  to 
surrender.  Governor  Nicolls  assumed  authority 
over  New  York  and  New  Jersey.  He  made  no 
radical  changes,  was  firm,  yet  conciliatory,  and 
soon  won  the  respect  and  confidence  of  the  people 
and  the  good-will  of  the  Indians.  In  March. 
166.'),  he  pulilished  the  'Duke's  Laws,'  which  had 
been  drawn  up  under  his  supervision  (see  Nic- 
OLL.s,  ilATiiTA.s ) ,  and  which  served  for  a  time  as 
a  constitution.  On  .June  12,  1665.  he  established 
the  English  form  of  raimicipal  government  for 
the  city  of  New  Y'ork.  The  French  and  Indian 
troubles  of  1606  were  settled  with  credit,  but  he 
complaine<l  that  he  had  spent  much  money  from 
his  private  purse  to  maintain  the  establishment. 
He  asked  several  times  to  be  relieved,  and  in 
1667  his  petition  was  granted,  but  he  remained 
imtil  Governor  Lovelace  arrived,  in  August,  1608. 
His  time  had  been  so  fully  occupied  with  afTairs 
in  New  York  that  he  largely  left  the  management 
of  New  England  to  tlie  other  commissioners. 
When  war  broke  out  between  the  English  and 
the  Dutch,  he  served  on  shipboard  and  was  killed 
at  Solcbay. 

NICOL  PRISM.  A  prism  formed  from  a 
crystal  of  calcitc  devised  by  Nicol  in  1828  to 
polarize  light.  The  Nicol  prism,  which  has  under- 
gone various  modifications,  is  a  most  convenient 
source  for  obtaining  polarized  light. and  is  largely 
employed  in  many  forms  of  polariscope.  The  ac- 
compnnving  diagrams  will  show  its  construction. 
In  Fig.l  AGBFDECisa  rhomb  of  calcite, 


a, material  which  is  doublv  refracting  (see 
Light,  paragraph  on  Polarization) ,  while  Fig.  2 
shows  diagi'ammatically 
ii  section  of  a  Nicol 
prism  in  the  plane  A  B 
C  D.  In  the  natural 
crystal  the  angle  B  A  D 
is  71°,  but  in  the  prism 
this  is  made  08°,  and  * 
the  two  halves  of 
the  crystal  forming  the 
prism  are  cemented  together  with  Canada  bal- 
sam along  the  line  B  D,  which  makes  an 
angle  of  90°   with  B  A.     The  plane  of  the  bal- 

C 


Fifi.    1.    RHOMB  OF  CALCITE. 


Fig.   2.     NICOL   PRISM. 

sara  is  perpendicular  to  the  end  of  the  face  of 
the  prism.  Lender  these  conditions  the  ray  of 
light  falling  upon  the  prism  at  H  is  broken  by 
double  refraction  into  two  rays — the  extraordi- 
nary, which  travels  to  J  and  passes  out  of  the 
prism  and  is  available  for  experimentation,  and 
the  ordinary,  which  strikes  the  balsam  at  an 
angle  of  incidence  so  great  that  it  is  totally  re- 
fleeted  at  I  and  lost  on  the  side  of  the  prism. 
The  plane  of  the  polarization  of  the  extraordi- 
nary ray  is  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the 
diagram,  while  that  of  the  ordinary  ray  is  paral- 
lel to  it.    See  Polariscope;  Light. 

NICOMACHUS,  ni-kom'a-kiis  (Lat..  from  Gk. 
Nixi^axos,  Xikoinacbos) .  A  celebrated  painter  of 
the  fourth  century  B.C.,  a  son  .and  scholar  of  Arie- 
tides.  The  references  to  him  praise  his  mastery 
in  technique,  and  rapid  but  eflfective  execution. 
The  notices,  however,  throw  but  little  light  upon 
his  style.  His  works  are  known  only  from  a 
particular  list  in  Pliny  {Hist.  Kat.,  xxxv.,  108, 
cf.  145).  Among  them  were:  "The  Rape  of 
Proserpine,"  in  the  temple  of  Minerva,  on  the 
Capitol ;  "Victory  Conducting  a  Four-Horse 
Chariot  on  High,"  also  in  the  Capitol:  "Apollo 
and  Diana,"  "Cybele  on  a  Lion."  "Bacchantes 
Approached  by  Satyrs,"  and  "Scylla." 

NICOMACHtrS  (c.  100  a.d.).  A  Neo-Pytha- 
gorean  philosopher  and  mathematician,  born  at 
Gcrasa.  probably  in  .ludani.  He  wrote  an  arith- 
metic in  two  books,  of  whidi  the  best  edition  is 
that  of  Iloche  (Leipzig.  1800).  In  this  he  fully 
treated  the  theory  of  figurate  numbers,  and  it  is 
interesting  as  containing  the  first  known  mul- 
tiplication table.  Commentaries  on  tliis  work 
were  written  by  lamblichiis  (q.v. ).  Philoponus, 
Soterichus.  and  others,  and  it  was  translated  into 
Latin  by  Boethius  and  Apuloius.  He  also  wrote 
a  Hannoiiiccs  Manualr  (published  in  1652; 
French  trans.  1880).  of  which  the  first  book  is 
still  extant;  the  so-called  second  book,  consisting 
of  two  fragments  whicli  probably  did  not  belong 
to  the  original,  was  published  in  .Jans's  Mnsici 
(,'raci    (  Leipzig.   1 805 ) . 

NIC'OME'DIA  (Lat..  from  Gk.  Nikomi)5«o, 
yikoynedeia) .  The  capital  of  ancient  Bithynia. 
situated  at  the  northeastern  angle  of  the  Gulf  of 
Astacus.  in  the  Propontis.  now  called  the  Bay  of 
Ismid ;  founded  in  B.C.  264  by  Nicomedes  I.  after 


NICOMEDIA. 


550 


NICOYA. 


thp  destruction  of  Astaeus  (on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  bay)  by  Lysimachus.  Nicomedes  made 
it  the  capital  of  the  l;ingdom,  and  it  soon  became 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  and  Uourisliing  cities 
in  the  East.  Some  of  the  later  Komau  Emperors, 
as  Diocletian  and  Constantine  the  Great,  selected 
it  for  their  temporary  residence.  It  suffered 
greatly  both  from  earthquakes  and  the  attacks  of 
the  Goths.  Constantine  died  at  a  royal  villa  in 
the  immediate  vicinity.  Hannibal '  committed 
suicide  in  a  castle  close  by.  It  was  the  birthplace 
of  the  historian  Arrian.  The  small  town  of 
Isniid  or  Isnikmid  now  occupies  its  site,  and  con- 
tain<  many  relics  of  ancient  Xicomedia. 

NICOP'OLIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  N«6jroXi5.  A  ifcop- 
olis).  A  town  in  Epirus,  where  Paul,  in  writing 
to  Titus,  stated  that  he  designed  to  pass  the 
winter  (Titus  iii.  12).  It  was  founded  in  the 
year  n.c.  31  by  the  Emperor  Augustus,  w-ho 
named  it  the  'City  of  Victory,'  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  victory  won  by  him  at  Actium.  He 
decided  to  make  a  great  city  of  Xicopolis.  gath- 
ered a  large  population  into  it,  and  instituted 
games  which  drew  throngs  there  every  fourth 
year.  The  question  of  Paul's  visit  to  Xicopolis 
is  bound  up  with  the  authenticity  of  the  pastoral 
Epistles  (i.e.  the  two  letters  to  Timothy  and  the 
one  to  Titus.  qf|.v.).  Those  who  hold  these  to 
be  authentic  believe  that  Paul  reached  Xicopolis 
from  Rome,  preached  there,  arid  was  there  ar- 
rested for  the  second  time  and  sent  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  tried  a  secoml  time  and  condemned. 
The  original  site  of  Xicopolis  is  now  deserted. 
Remains  of  it  are  still  to  be  found.  Another  city, 
Prevesa  (Map:  Balkan  Peninsula,  C  5),  situated 
about  five  miles  distant  from  the  original  loca- 
tion of  Xicopolis,  is  the  historical  successor  of 
the  older  .-ity. 

•NICOPOLIS.    A  town  of  Bulgaria.   See  X'iko- 

POLI. 

NICOSIA,  nO'k'pse'a  (more  common  than  the 
forms  I.EI'KOSIA  and  Levkosi.v,  of  which  H  is  a 
corruption).  The  capital  and  largest  city  of  the 
island  of  Cyprus  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia.  E  5). 
It  is  the  se:it  of  the  British  High  Commissioner 
and  of  an  arehbisliop  of  the  Greek  Church.  It 
is  situated  in  a  barren  i)l;un,  a  little  nurtlieast 
of  the  centre  of  the  island,  on  the  river  Pedias, 
which  is  dry  most  of  the  year.  Tlie  water  supply 
of  the  city  comes  by  aqueduct  from  the  hills  not 
far  away.  From  a  distance  the  high  walls  built 
by  the  Venetians  and  the  beautiful  Gothic 
cathedral,  now-  a  mosque,  render  Xicosia  at- 
tractive: but  the  streets  are  narrow  and 
labyrinthine,  and  most  of  the  buildings  insig- 
nificant. The  manufactures  are  silks,  leallier, 
and  woolen  stnirs.  Population,  in  ISOl,  12.51  "i; 
in  l!tOI,  14.7r)2.  The  city  first  appears  in  history 
in  the  time  of  Constantine,  who  fortified  it  with 
walls  that  lasted  until  the  Venetians  replaced 
them.  It  became  the  capital  under  the  Lusignan 
kings,  to  the  first  of  whom,  Guy  de  Lusignan.  the 
island  was  giv<'n  in  110.3  by  Richard  Cn>\ir  de 
Lion.  Consult  Lcrkosia,  the  Capilitl  of  ('t/jinis 
(London.   1881  ). 

NICOSIA,  nf''kA-ze'i'i.  A  city  in  the  Province 
of  Cal:inia.  Sicily,  situated  in  a  mountainous 
region,  on  the  Salso,  2.5  miles  northeast  of  Cal- 
tanisHctta  (Map:  Italy.  .T  10).  The  town  is 
media'val  in  appearance  and  customs.  It  is  the 
see  of  a  bishop.  :inil  has  a  Gothic  cathedral,  sev- 
eral  ancient    churches,    and   quaint   houses.      It 


carries  on  some  trade  in  corn,  wine,  oil,  and  cat- 
tle. Xear  it  are  beds  of  alum,  a  rich  mine  of  rock 
salt,  and  springs  of  petroleum.  Population  (com- 
mune), in  1001,  16,004.  ! 

NICOT,  ne'ko'.  Jean,  Sieur  de  Villemain  1 
(looO-lOUU).  A  French  diplomat,  born  at  Xlmes.  ' 
He  was  appointed  by  Francis  II.  Ambassador  f 
to  Portugal  in  1560.  During  his  residence  at  } 
Lisbon  he  obtained  from  a  Flemish  trader  some  "i 
seeds  of  the  tobacco  ]ilant,  which  he  took  back  -l^ 
with  him  to  France,  where  the  plant  was  named  ': 
yicotidiia  in  his  honor.  He  published  a  llistoria  ' 
Fraiicanim  (1506),  and  a  Trisor  de  la  langue ^ 
frani-aisc  (1606),  one  of  the  earliest  French  dic-'J 
tionaries. 

NICOTERA,     ne-ko'tu-ra,     Giovanni    (1828- 
04).     -\u  Italian  statesman,  born  at  San  Biase     ' 
(Cakibria).      He    took    an    active    part    in    the    i 
Revolution   of   1848-40,   fought   in   Calabria   and     I 
Rome,    and    was    afterwards    taken    prisoner   at     i 
Sanza    and   condemned   to   death.     Through   the 
inlluence    of    England    this    sentence    was    com-  / 
muted  to  imprisonment  for  life.     In  1860  he  was     ; 
set  at  liberty  again,  and  joined  Garibaldi.     He 
was  concerned  in  all  of  the  political  movements    < 
of  the  succeeding  years,  and  was  at  all  times  a     '• 
stipportcr  of  Victor  Ennnanuel.     After  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  he  was  Min-     ■ 
ister  of  the   Interior  under  Depretis    (1876-77),    " 
and    asain    during   the    Premiership    of    Rudini     . 
(1S01-!I2>.  "  ,' 

NICOTIANA.     See  Tobacco.  \, 

NICOTINE  (Fr.  nicotine,  Sp.  nicotiana,  fromf 
Fr.   iiicolidiic,  tobacco,  named  in  honor  of  Jean*  i 
yicot).  CwIInX";.     One  of  the  vegetable  alkaloids 
that  contain  no  oxj-gcn:  it  constitutes  the  active 
principle  of  the  tobacco  plant,  in  the  leaves,  roots, 
and  seeds  of  which  it  occurs  in  combination  with 
malic  and  citric  acids.     The   smoke  of   burning 
tobacco-leaves  contains  but  a  mere  trace,  if  any, 
of  nicotine;  which  does  not  prove,  however,  that 
tobacco  smoke  is  harmless,  for  its  other  ingre- 
dients  are   probably   more   or   less   injurious   to 
health.     Xicotine  is  a  colorless,  intensely  poison- 
ous liquid,  of  specific  gravitv  1.027  at  60°   F. ; 
it   boils   at  466°    F.    (241°   C.).  evolves   a  very 
irritating  odor  of  tobacco,  csf)ecially  on  the  ap- 
plication of  heat,  is  very  inllammable,  and  burns 
widi  a  smoky  flame.     It  is  moderately  soluble  in 
water,  but  dissolves  j-eadily  in  alcohol  and  ether. 
If   exposed   to   the   air.    it   absorbs   oxygen   and 
becimics  brown  and  ultimately  solid.     The  quan- 
tity of  nicotine  contained  in  tobacco  varies  from 
2   to  8   per  cent.:   the  coarser  kinds  containing     : 
the  larger  quantity,  while  the  best  Havana  cigars     ( 
seldom  contain  more  than  2  jier  cent.,  and  often     l 
less.      Turkish    tobacco    scarcely    contains    any     | 
nicotine  at  all.  i 

The  principal  physiological  cfTccts  of  even  I 
minute  doses  of  nicotine  arc  as  follows:  intense 
gastro-intestinal  irritation,  among  the  symptoms 
of  which  are  nausea  and  vomiting,  accompanied 
by  great  muscular  weakness,  a  rapid,  feeble 
pulse,  coldness  of  extremities,  and  extreme  gen- 
eral collapse:  the  motor  nerves  iind  the  respira- 
tion are  rapidly  paralyzed,  and  death  may  ensue 
within  three  minutes  after  taking  a  dose  of  the 
poiMin.     See  also  Alkaloids. 

NICOYA,  n^-ko'vA.  Gui.f  of.  An  inlet  of  the 
Pacific  f)eean,  on  the  west  coast  of  Costa  Rica, 
formed   by  a   peninsula   ending   in   Cape   Blanco 


NICOYA. 


i51 


NIDIFICATION. 


(Map:  Central  America,  EG).  It  is  about  00 
niiles  long  and  20  fo  ;iO  miles  wide,  and  is  lined 
on  both  sides  with  high  and  picturesque  moun- 
tains. On  its  eastern  shore  lies  I'unta  Arenas, 
the  only  port  of  entry  on  the  Pacific  coast  of 
Costa  Rica. 

NICTHEROY,  nek'taroi'.  A  town  of  Brazil, 
in  the  State  of  l\io  de  Janeiro.  It  is  situated 
on  the  east  side  of  the  entrance  to  the  bay,  op- 
posite the  city  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  (Map:  Brazil, 
J  8).  The  town  is  not  attractive.  l)Ut  it  is 
surrounded  by  delightful  suburbs,  where  the  resi- 
dences of  the  wealthy  classes  are  situatad.  Prior 
to  189-t  Xietheroy  was  the  capital  of  Kio  de 
Janeiro.  The  population  was  estimated  in  1898 
at  20.000. 

NIC'UM,  .ToiiN  (18,51-).  An  American 
clergyman  and  author,  born  at  Winnenden, 
■\Viirtteniberg.  lie  studied  at  iluhlenberg  Col- 
lege, Allentown,  Pa.,  and  at  the  Philadelphia 
Theological  Seminary.  In  1870  he  became  pas- 
tor at  Frofkville.  Pa.,  but  two  years  later  re- 
moved to  Philadelphia,  where  he  remained  two 
years,  and  then  went  to  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  In 
18S7  he  took  charge  of  the  Saint  John's  Evan- 
gelical Lutheran  Church  in  Rochester.  His  books 
include  History  of  the  Xeic  York  Muusterium 
(1884),  and  Coiifcssiotial  History  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  in  the  United  States  (1891). 

NIDIFICATION  (from  Lat.  nidificare.  to 
make  a  nest,  from  nidus,  nest  -{-  facere.  to  make) . 
Strictly,  the  act  and  process  of  nest-building. 
In  the  present  article,  however,  the  word  will 
be  broadly  interpreted,  so  as  to  include  the 
entire  series  of  acts,  instincts,  and  adaptations 
connected  with  the  provision  of  a  temporary 
breeding-home,  nidus,  or  'nest'  for  their  eggs, 
embryos,  or  young,  and  the  care  of  offspring,  by 
the  parents  of  animals  generally. 

A  nest  differs  from  an  animal's  ordinary  resi- 
dence in  that  it  is  not  made  primarily  for  the 
animal's  o«-n  use.  but  for  that  of  expected 
young.  In  some  instances  it  is  mainly  a  con- 
venient lying-in  place  for  the  mother;  in  others, 
merely  a  means  for  the  safety  and  comfort  of 
eggs  or  helpless  embryos ;  but  often  it  combines 
these  purposes  and  adds  to  them  that  of  a 
nursery.  The  last  phase  is  illustrated  by  cer- 
tain social  insects,  some  birds,  a  few  mammals, 
and  in  human  society.  In  the  lowest  ranks  of 
invertebrate  life,  and  to  some  extent  among 
animals  of  comparatively  high  organization,  the 
eggs,  or  'spawn,'  are  simply  voided  into  the  water 
or  earth  and  left  to  survive  or  perish,  unregarded 
by  the  parent.  Some  animals,  however,  pro- 
duce comparatively  few  eggs,  protected  against 
many  dangers  by  being  placed  within  one  or 
more  envelopes  or  'capsules.'  (See  Egg.)  An- 
other wides])read  method  is  that  of  retaining  the 
embryo  in  the  maternal  body  until  it  is  able  to 
shift  for  itself.  This  is  seen  in  many  inver- 
tebrates and  in  some  fisl^es.  These  animals  are 
therefore  known  as  ovoviviparous. 

Maternal  (^ake  of  Eggs.  An  advance  upon 
this  is  made  by  a  large  class  of  creatures  wliich 
carry  their  eggs  about  with  them  until  they 
hatch,  and  in  some  cases  even  continue  to  care 
for  the  young,  although  they  make  no  nest. 
Examples  of  this  are  to  be  found  in  all  classes 
of  animals,  from  mollusks  and  crustaceans  up 
to  a  few  of  the  lowest  birds;  and  some  of  the 
brooding   habits   and   physical   adaptations   thus 


manifested  are  surprising.  Thus  the  female 
argonaut  (q.v. )  has  developed  an  elaborate  boat- 
like shell  in  which  her  eggs  and  end)ryos  rest 
secure;  tlie  violet-snail  (q.v.)  (Janthina)  drags 
hers  beneatli  a  raft;  and  other  instances  are  cita- 
ble. Spiders'  eggs  are  covered  with  silk,  forming  a 
bag  or  ball  of  various  shapes  anil  colors.  (See 
Si'iDEK. )  Crustaceans  almost  universally  keep 
their  eggs  with  them.  Some  insects  inclose  their 
eggs  in  packets  and  take  care  of  them,  much  aa 
do  the  crabs,  but  most  insects  simply  deposit 
their  eggs  so  that  the  resulting  larva"  shall  be 
within  reach  of  suitable  food,  and  do  not  know 
what  becomes  of  them.  It  is  nut  until  the  high- 
est grades  of  Hymenoptera  are  reached — the 
wasps,  bees,  and  ants — that  anything  which  may 
be  called  a  'nest'  is  made  in  preparation  for 
the  eggs  or  young,  or  any  parental  care  is 
exerted.  (See  Ant;  Bee;  Wasp;  Insect,  para- 
graph Social  Insects.)  The  eijual  of  this  is 
hardly  to  lie  found  among  vertebrates  until  man 
is  reached — and  even  then  only  among  men  in 
a  somewhat  advanced  stage  of  culture. 

Fishes  axd  Reptiles.  Among  fishes  a  certain 
amount  of  instinct  is  adapted  to  the  best  interests 
of  the  young.  Thus  many  kinds  migrate  long 
distances  to  seek  the  water  or  fooil  proper  for 
the  young,  but,  a  suitable  general  surrounding 
having  been  obtained,  little  or  no  further  care  is 
taken.  Only  a  few  species  build  nests.  Certain 
kinds  make  very  crude  nests,  such  as  the  hollow 
scooped  out  in  the  sand  (jn  some  warm,  clean, 
sunn}'  bottom  by  the  male  suntish,  or  the  more 
elaborate  structures  of  sticklebacks  and  gobies 
(qq.v.).  Amphibians  and  reptiles  rarely  make 
anj'thing  which  may  be  calleil  a  nest,  but  some 
care  for  their  eggs  in  very  curious  ways  else- 
where described. 

Birds.  The  nest-making  of  birds  is  most 
familiar  and  perfect,  yet  it  is  only  among  the 
higher  forms  that  it  is  manifested  to  any  great 
extent.  In  no  respect  is  there  greater  diversity 
among  birds  than  in  the  structure  of  the  nest. 
As  a  rule,  its  character  is  closely  associated 
with  the  intelligence  of  the  bird,  modified  more 
or  less  by  the  necessities  of  the  situation  and 
the  structure  of  the  bird's  bill  and  feet.  The 
nests  of  ostriches  and  other  Ratitoe  are  mere 
accumulations  of  sand  or  earth,  or  cavities 
scraped  in  the  ground.  The  nests  of  the  lowest 
water-birds  consist  of  burrows  in  the  ground,  or 
the  eggs  are  laid  on  the  bare  earth  or  rock. 
Good  examples  are  the  guillemots  (q.v.).  The 
king-penguin  treats  its  eggs  in  the  same  way. 
Among  those  a  little  higher  in  the  scale,  nests 
of  sea-weed  and  coarse  grass  loosely  put  together 
make  a  home  for  the  young.  Most  of  the  ducks 
and  geese  build  nests  of  grass,  and  often  in- 
clude feathers  from  their  own  bodies,  a  habit 
carried  to  the  extreme  in  the  eider-duck  (q.v.). 
Few  of  the  wading' birds  build  nests,  the  herons 
coming  nearest  to  it  with  a  platform  of  sticks. 
The  grouse  and  quail,  turkey  and  pheasant,  all 
scrape  together  nests  of  leaves  and  grass  on  the 
ground.  The  allied  mound-birds  are  remarkable 
for  collecting  great  heaps  of  decaying  vegetable 
matter,  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid,  the  heat 
caused  by  the  decay  ripening  them.  Doves 
and  pigeons  usually  build  a  very  frail  nest  of 
twigs,  but  a  few  species  are  ground  breeders. 
Eagles,  hawks,  and  \'ultures  construct  coarse, 
heavy  nests  of  sticks  and  twigs  on  large  trees 
or  cliffs,  while  owls  often   resort  to  hollows  in 


NIDIFICATION. 


552 


NIDIFICATION. 


trees,  or  to  the  deserted  burrow  of  some  mam- 
mal, especially  the  prairie  dog.  Parrots,  wood- 
peckers, kingfishers,  mouse-birds,  todies,  and 
some  others  lay  their  eggs  in  holes  in  trees,  or 
in  earthen  banks,  with  little  or  no  bedding. 
Humming-birds  (q.v. )  build  the  most  delicate 
and  Ijeautiful  nests  known;  and  swifts  extraor- 
dinar}'  ones,  consisting  largely  of  mucilaginous 
saliva.  (See  CuiMNEY-SwiKT;  Sala.ng.v.nE.) 
Many  song-birds  build  on  the  ground,  where 
the  nest  is  more  or  less  cleverly  concealed,  but 
the  great  majority  build  in  trees'or  bu.shes.  The 
most  remarkable  nests  built  by  any  birds  are 
those  of  the  .American  orioles  or  hangnests,  and 
more  especially  of  the  weaver-birds  (q.v.)  of 
Africa  and  the  East  Indies. 

The  perfection  of  many  nests  for  the  purposes 
to  which  tliey  are  put.  and  the  ingenuity,  skill, 
and  apparently  aesthetic  sentiment  displayed  by 
man}'  birds,  long  ago  led  to  some  study  and 
much  speculation.  An  e.xcellent  book  was  made 
upon  the  subject  early  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury— Kennie's  Architect  tire  of  Bij-ds  (London, 
1831).  He  divided  his  subjects  into  such  classes 
as  ground-ncsters,  squatters,  and  miners;  build- 
ers of  mounds,  of  umbrellas,  of  domes;  masons; 
carpenters;  platform-makers;  basket-makers; 
weavers;  tailors;  felters;  and  cementers.  This 
was  purely  artificial,  but  did  well  enough  so 
long  as  nests  and  eggs  were  treated  as  things 
separate  from  the  bird  itself.  About  forty  years 
later  Wallace  included  in  his  book  Contribiition.i 
to  Natural  Selection  (London,  1870)  an  essay 
on  "A  Theory  of  Birds'  Nests,"  in  which  he 
discussed  the  subject  from  an  evolutionary  point 
of  view,  showing  the  analogy  between  the  method 
of  birds  and  primitive  men  in  meeting  their 
diverse  requirements  of  shelter  out  of  the  ma- 
terials most  available.  Wallace  places  birds' 
nests  in  two  great  classes — a  functional,  not  a 
structural,  classification.  The  first  class  includes 
those  in  which  the  eggs,  young,  and  brooding 
parents  are  not  exposed.  To  this  group  belong 
nests  that  are  built  in  natural  covers,  such  as 
holes  in  trees  or  in  banks  and  cliffs,  as  well  as 
nests  covered  by  the  bird,  such  as  the  suspended 
nest  of  the  American  orioles.  To  the  .seccmd 
class  belong  the  nests  of  the  ordinary  type,  cup- 
shaped  and  open  above,  so  that  the  eggs,  young, 
and  brooding  females  are  exposed.  This  contrast 
in  method  of  nidilication.  as  he  believed,  cor- 
related with  the  color  of  the  female.  As  he 
says:  '"When  both  sexes  are  of  strikingly  gay 
and  conspicuous  colors  the  nest  is  of  the  first 
class,  or  such  as  to  conceal  the  sitting  birds; 
while,  whenever  the  male  is  gay  and  conspicuous, 
and  the  nest  is  open  so  as  to  expose  the  sitting 
bird  to  view,  the  female  bird  is  of  dull  or  obscure 
colors."  The  comments  and  criticisms  upon  this 
theory  by  the  Duke  of  .\rg\-le.  by  Prof.  .\.  Mur- 
ray, and  by  .f.  .A.  .Mien  (Biillclin  Xuttall  Ornilh. 
Club,  vol.  iii.,  Cambridge,  187S),  and  by  others 
more  recently,  show  that  it  is  not  so  universal 
in  its  application  or  fully  explanatory  as  its 
author  considered  it.  The  hypothesis  Was  re- 
stated, with  improvements,  by  Wallace,  in  Dar- 
winism   (New  York  reprint.   1880). 

The  more  recent  philosophic  view,  well  sum- 
marized by  riiapnian  (Hirrl  Life.  New  York, 
ISIIS),  is  that,  apart  from  and  above  the  various 
considerations  already  mentioned,  the  necessity 
for  protection  of  the  eggs  and  young  from 
physical  accidents,  loss  of  heat,  and  .seizure  by 


enemies  is  the  real  motive;  and  the  superior 
excellence  as  cradles  of  the  nests  of  birds  of  the 
higher  orders  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  these 
orders  are  'altricial' — that  is,  their  young  are 
born  in  a  helpless  condition,  must  be  cared  for 
by  the  parents  for  a  considerable  time,  and  hence 
both  old  and  young  need  much  better  and  safer 
quarters  than  do  the  'precocial'  birds,  whose 
joung  (e.g.  chickens)  run  about  at  birth  and 
have  no  need  of  a  nursery. 

Wallace  also  treated  of  the  belief  formerly 
prevalent  that  birds  work  by  instinct  and  never 
fliake  any  improvement  during  their  lifetime  in 
nest-building.  He  asserted  that  the  chief  mental 
faculties  so  exhibited  by  birds  are  the  same  in 
kind  as  those  manifested  by  mankind  in  the 
formation  of  their  dwellings:  that  is,  essen- 
tially, imitation,  and  a  slow  and  partial  adapta- 
tion to  new  conditions.  In  answer  to  the  ob- 
jection that  it  is  not  so  much  tlie  material  as 
the  form  and  structure  of  nests  that  varies, 
Wallace  replied  that  such  diversities  may  be 
explained  in  a  great  measure  by  the  general 
habits  of  the  species,  the  nature  of  their  tools, 
the  materials  they  can  most  easily  obtain,  and 
diflferences  of  habitat  and  needs  that  niaj-  have 
occurred  within  the  period  of  existing  species, 
due  to  changes  in  climate,  the  earth's  surface, 
food,  and  so  forth.  Birds  learn  something, 
doubtless,  in  regard  to  the  size,  structure,  and 
material  of  the  nest  of  their  own  species  before 
they  leave  it.  Wallace  quotes  a  numl)er  of  cases 
of  birds  reared  in  the  nests  of  other  birds  that 
sang  only  the  song  of  the  foster  parent,  learned 
while  in  the  nest.  Then,  too,  young  birds  do  not 
always  mate  with  birds  of  their  own  age,  and 
the  young  bird  learns  nest-building  from  its  moro 
experienced  mate.  It  is  not  un\isual  to  see  onft 
bird  of  a  i)air,  say  an  English  sparrow,  redis- 
posing  the  material  that  the  other  bird  has  just 
put  in  place.  Several  observers  have  stated  that 
young  birds  build  less  perfect  nests  than  old 
birds,  and  Wallace  quotes  one  instance  in  which 
some  yoimg  chaffinches  were  taken  to  New  Zea- 
land and  there  set  free.  They  built  a  nest  in 
the  new  home  which  showed  •'very  little  of  that 
neatness  of  fabrication  for  which  this  bird  is 
noted  in  England."  It  is  an  oft-repeated  observa- 
tion that  the  nests  of  the  Baltimore  oriole,  when 
built  near  the  h;ibitations  of  man.  (Iifr<'r  in  shape 
and  structure  from  those  in  the  wilds  where 
twine  and  threads  are  not  at  hand,  and  where 
there  is  more  necessity  of  concealment  from 
hawks  and  snakes.  The  swallows  and  swifts  of 
all  parts  of  the  world  are  quick  to  change  their 
nesting  places  from  hollow  trees  and  rocky  clitTs 
or  caverns  to  the  porches,  barns,  and  chimneys 
of  men's  habitations,  anil  changes  in  the  style 
of  their  architecture  follow.  The  nests  of  house 
wrens  and  purple  martins  vary  with  the  situa- 
tions chosen.  The  orchard  oriole  may  build  a 
shallow  nest  in  stout  brancho  or  deep  ones  in 
swaying  willows.  Many  sin)ilar  instances  of 
change  in  form  and  inaterial  might  be  adduced, 
"f'hildren  and  savages  imitate  before  they 
originate;  birds,  as  well  as  all  other  animals,  do 
the  same."  so  when  the  environment  remains 
constant,  the  form  and  constructive  material  of 
birds'  nests  vary  little. 

HiiooDiNo  OF  Birds.  The  eggs  of  birds  are 
hatched  by  the  steady  application  of  warmth 
for  a  sufTicient  time  to  mat\ire  the  embryo  to 
the  stage  when  it  breaks  from  the  shell.     This 


PENSILE    NESTS   OF    BIRDS 


1.  AUSTRALIAN  FLOWER-PECKER  (Dioaeum  hirundlnaceum).  4.  INDIAN  TAILOR   BIRD  lOrthotomus  sutorlus). 

2.  EUROPEAN     PENDULINE    TITMOUSE    (/Egithalus    pendu-  5.  RED-EYED  VIREO  (VIreo  ollvaceusK 

linusl.  6.  BALTIMORE  ORIOLE  (Icterus  galbula). 
S.   BRAZILIAN  CRESTED  CACIQUE  (Ostlnops  citrlus). 


■> 

-'I 


NIDIFICATION.  5: 

necessary  warmth  (about  105°  F.)  is  secured  by 
the  bird  covering  the  eggs  with  its  body,  'sit- 
ting' upon  or  'incuViating'  tliem  almost  continu- 
ously for  a  length  of  time  wliicli  in  a  general 
way  is  proportioned  to  the  bird's  size.  No  very 
extended  and  accurate  observations  on  this  point 
have  been  recorded :  the  best  are  those  by  Kvans 
in  The  Ibis  (London)  for  1891  and  1802.  Broadly 
speaking,  most  of  the  smdll  song-birds  hatch 
their  young  in  from  13  to  15  days,  but  the  very 
smallest  may  take  less  time — tlie  humming-bird, 
it  is  said,  only  10  da.ys.  In  canaries,  it  is  from 
15  to  18  days;  in  the  common  fowl,  it  is  21  days: 
in  tlie  duck,  it  is  from  28  to  30  days ;  in  the 
guinea-fowl,  it  is  28  or  20  days  ;  in  the  turkey, 
30  days;  and  in  the  swan,  from  40  to  -15  days. 
The  emeu  is  said  to  sit  50  days.  Small  altricial 
birds  usually  begin  sitting  after  the  first  egg 
is  laid;  but  game-birds  and  water-fowl  rarely 
begin  to  sit  until  the  whole  clutch  is  in  the  nest, 
so  that  the  whole  brood  shall  hatch  simul- 
taneously. 

It  is  in  most  birds  the  function  of  the  female 
to  perform  the  duties  of  incubation,  during  which 
she  is  to  a  greater  or  less  e.\tent  defended,  fed, 
and  clieered  by  her  mate.  Twice  or  oftener  each 
day  she  leaves  the  nest  for  rest  and  to  get  food, 
and  the  male  takes  her  place  for  an  liour  or 
two.  It  sometimes  happens  that  if  she  is  killed, 
the  male  conchides  the  process  of  incubation 
and  cares  for  tlie  young.  In  some  groups  he 
does  tlie  entire  duty  of  sitting.  This  seems  to 
be  universally  true  of  the  ostrich  and  other 
ratite  birds,  and  is  the  practice  of  the  godwits, 
phalaropes,  and  certain  other  shore-birds.  Both 
sexes  join  in  the  care  of  the  young  at  first,  but 
in  most  cases  their  education  is  gradually  left 
entirely  to  the  mother. 

Nests  of  Mamm.^ls.  Among  the  inammals,  a 
'nest'  in  the  present  sense  of  tlie  word  is  not 
common.  The  female,  when  about  to  bring  fortli 
young,  is  either  already  in  a  den  or  lair  which 
has  been  a  family  residence  during  the  winter 
or  is  permanently  so,  or  else  requires  no  more 
accommodation  tlian  a  retired  corner  in  the  midst 
of  a  thiclcet  or  beneath  a  sheltering  rock.  Squir- 
rels, wood-rats,  and  mice  ( qq.v. ) ,  however,  often 
construct  in  bushes  and  trees,  or  among  tall  grass 
or  low  brush,  globular  nests  of  leafy  twigs  or  of 
grass  in  which  the  young  are  born.  The  'lodges' 
of  the  beaver,  muskrat,  coypu,  and  the  like,  else- 
where described,  are  family  houses  in  which  the 
protection  of  the  young  is  probably  the  prime 
desideratum.  Hardly  different,  and  by  no  means 
so  elaborate,  are  the  platforms  or  'nests'  of  the 
anthropoid  apes,  and  especially  of  the  oraiigs 
(see  Orang-utan),  where  the  young  are  born, 
but  in  whicli  tliey  do  not  long  remain.  There  is, 
however,  little  to  choose  between  tliese  struc- 
tures, or  their  advantage  to  tlie  young,  and  those 
of  many  nomadic  savages,  such  as  tlie  aboriginal 
Bushmen  of  South  Africa,  the  northern  Austra- 
lians, or  the  Indians  of  the  Utah  Basin  and  des- 
erts of  Arizona  and  Chihuahua. 

Consult  standard  works  on  zoiilog\',  especially 
Cambridge  Natural  Bistori/,  vols,  iii.-x.  (London, 
1898-1002)  ;  and  Newton, 'article  "Nidification," 
in  Dictionary  of  Birds  (London  and  New  York, 
ISn.S-OfiK     See  also  works  cited  under  Eoc. 

NIEBUHR,  neOioor,  Bartholo  Georo  (177fi- 
18.'?1).  A  German  historian,  critic,  and  philol- 
ogist,   bom    August    27,    1776,    at    Copenhagen, 


i3  NIEBXJHR. 

where  his  father,  Carsten  Niebuhr,  then  resided. 
He  showed  singular  aptitude  for  learning  in  hi.s 
earliest  youth,  and  his  powers  of  acquiring 
knowledge  kept  pace  with  his  advancing  years. 
After  preliminary  education,  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  his  father,  he  studied  law  ami  plii- 
losophy  at  Kiel,  and  then  went  to  Edinburgh, 
where  he  devoted  himself  more  especially  to  the 
natural  sciences.  On  his  return  to  Denmark  he 
became  private  secretary  to  the  Finance  Minister, 
Schimmelmann,  and  from  that  period  held  several 
appointments  under  the  Danish  Government,  be- 
ing made  director  of  the  Government  bank  in 
180-1.  He  entered  the  Prussian  civil  service 
ill  1800,  and  during  the  three  succeeding  years 
he  shared  in  the  vicissitudes  which  befell  the 
Government  of  his  chief,  Count  Ilardcnberg.  The 
opening  of  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1810 
opened  a  new  era  in  the  life  of  Niebuhr.  He 
resigned  his  Government  position  and  gave  at  the 
university  a  course  of  lectures  on  Roman  history, 
which,  by  making  known  the  results  of  the  new 
critical  methods  which  he  had  ap])lied  to  the 
elucidation  of  obscure  historical  evidence,  estab- 
lished his  position  as  a  leader  in  the  scientific 
study  of  history,  and  eli'ected  an  important 
change  in  historical  method.  In  1813  he  reentered 
the  Government  service.  Appointed  in  1816  Prus- 
sian Ambassador  at  the  Papal  Court, Niebuhr  was 
enabled  to  verify  many  of  his  conjectures  and 
test  his  methods  by  the  actual  sources  of  an- 
cient Roman  history.  On  his  return  from  Rome 
in  1823,  Niebuhr  took  up  his  residence  at  Bonn, 
where  he  delivered  classical  and  archivological 
lectures  and  expositions.  The  Revolution  of 
1830  again  stirred  his  interest  in  public  all'airs. 
He  died  January  2,  1831.  Niebuhr's  scholarship 
was  broad,  vigorous,  and  indeiieiideiit.  He  was 
an  accomplished  linguist  and  a  philosophical  and 
scientific  thinker.  He  was  a  path-breaker  in  the 
modern  method  of  historical  criticism,  and  while 
all  his  conclusions  are  not  accepted  to-day,  he 
showed  the  way  by  which  they  might  be  tested 
in  the  light  of  more  complete  knowle<lge.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  Rlieiiiisches  iluseuin  at  Bonn. 
Among  his  important  works  are:  Hiimischc  Gc- 
schichte  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1811-32;  new  ed.  1873; 
the  first  two  volumes  translated  by  Hare  and 
Thirlwall,  and  the  third  by  Smith  and  Schmitz)  ; 
Griechische  Heroengcschichte  (1842;  11th  ed. 
1896),  written  for  his  son  Marcus;  Geschichte 
des  Zeitalters  der  Revolution  (1845).  The  Kleine 
historische  xmd  philologische  Schriften  (1828- 
43)  contains  his  introductory  lectures  on  Ro- 
man history,  and  man}'  of  the  essays  wliieh  liad 
appeared  in  the  transactions  of  the  Berlin  Acad- 
emy. Besides  these,  and  numerous  other  essays 
on  philological,  historical,  and  archa'ological 
questions,  Niebuhr  coiiperated  with  Bekker  and 
other  learned  annotators  in  reediting  the  Scrip- 
tores  Historiw  Biizantiiue :  he  also  discovered 
hitherto  imprinted  fragments  of  classical  au- 
thors, as,  for  instance,  Cicero's  Orations,  and 
portions  of  Gains:  published  the  Inscripiiones 
yiibiensps  (Rome.  1821)  ;  and  was  a  constant  con- 
tributor to  the  literary  journals  of  Germany. 
His  Lectures  on  Ancient  Hislorit  is  familiar  in 
English  translation.  Consult:  W'inkworth,  Li/e 
and  Letters  of  Xiebiihr  (London.  1852)  ;  Licber, 
"Reminiseences  of  an  Intercourse  with  Niebuhr," 
in  Miscellaneous  ^yritings  (Philadelphia,  1SS4)  ; 
and  for  his  biosraphv.  Classen  (Gotha,  187G) 
and  Eyssenhardt   (ib.,'l886). 


NEEBUHB. 


554 


NrELLO. 


NIEBTTHH,  Carstex  (17331815).  A  Ger- 
mau  travckr,  father  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Liidingworth  in  Hanover,  where  his  father 
was  a  small  farmer.  He  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  GiJttingen,  and  in  1700  became 
a  lieutenant  of  engineers  in  the  Danish  army. 
The  next  year  he  sailed  with  the  expedition  .sunt 
out  by  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark  to  explore 
Egj'pt,  Arabia,  and  Syria,  liis  companions,  the 
best  known  of  wliom  was  the  naturalist  Forskai 
(q.v.),  all  died  of  hardship  or  disease,  but 
Iviebulir  continued  alone  and  only  after  six  years 
of  wandering  did  he  return  to  Europe.  The  re- 
sults of  his  observations  appeared  in  Bcschrei- 
bung  von  Arabicn  (1772)  ;  Heisebeschrcibung  von 
Arabien  iind  andnn  iimlicycnden  Liindcrn  (1774- 
78)  ;  and  Reisen  durch  ^yrien  nnd  PaUistina 
(1837).  He  also  brought  out  the  results  of 
Forskal's  work  under  tlie  titles  DescripHones 
Animaliiim  (177o),  Flora  .J^.gyptiaco-Arabica 
(1776),  and  Iconcs  Reruin  yaturalium  (1775- 
7(5)  ;  and  contributed  a  number  of  papers  to  the 
German  periodical  Deutsches  Museum.  The  ac- 
curate observation  and  the  unswerving  truthful- 
•  ness  of  their  author  place  these  works  among  the 
most  reliable  books  on  the  lands  which  they  de- 
scribe. In  1778  Nieltiihr  entered  the  civil  service 
and  removed  from  Copenhagen  to  MeUlorf.  in 
Holstcin,  wliere  lie  died.  Consult  Cnrslcn  .YiV- 
buhrs  Lebcn  (ISlli),  by  his  son,  Barthold  Georg 
Xiebuhr,  an  Englisli  version  of  wliich.  tiy  >Irs. 
Sarah  Taylor  Austin,  was  published  in  the  Lives 
of  Eminent  Persons   (London,  1833). 

NIECKS,  neks,  Fkederick  (1845—).  A  Brit- 
isli  niu>i(ian.  critic,  and  writer,  of  German  birth 
and  parentage.  He  was  born  in  Diisseldorf,  and 
studied  under  native  teacliers.  ^\■hen  twenty-tliree 
years  of  age  he  moved  to  England,  and  became 
"organist  at  Dumfries,  and  played  viola  in  A.  C. 
Mackenzie's  string  quartet.  He  subsequently 
became  critic  for  'the  Monthly  Musical  Record 
and  Novello's  Mus-icnl  Times.  He  was  apiujinted 
professor  of  music  in  Edinburgh  University,  and 
was  considered  one  of  the  highest  musical  au- 
thorities in  Great  Britain.  His  works  include: 
Dictionary  of  Musical  Terms  (1884)  ;  Frederick 
C'h'ijiin  as  a  Mail  and  Musician   (1S8S). 

NIEDEBMEYEK,  ne'der-ml'er,  Lotns  ( 1802- 
Cl).  A  Franco-Swiss  composer,  born  at  Xyon, 
Switzerland.  He  studied  under  :Moscheles  and 
other  eminent  masters  at  Vienna  and  Rome.  His 
first  opera  was  produced  at  Naples,  but  of  several 
composed  by  him,  f<lradclla  (1837)  was  the  only 
one  which  had  success,  lie  also  set  to  music  a 
number  of  songs  by  Victor  Hugo,  Lamartinc.  and 
JIanzoni.  Dissatisfied  with  the  meagre  success  of 
his  secular  work,  he  turned  to  church  nuisic  and 
achieved  real  success.  The  Ecole  Xiedermeyer, 
founded  by  him.  subsequently  came  under  Gov- 
ernment subvention,  and  equally  favorable  results 
attended  his  journal  /<«  MaUrise.  which  became  a 
very  influential  musical  factor.  He  died  in  Paris, 
and  a  bnxt  of  him  has  been  placed  in  the  foyer 
of  tlie  Cnind  Op.'ra. 

NIEDERWALD.  ne'dfrvlilt.  The  finely 
wooded  western  s|)ur  of  the  Taunus.  in  the  I'rus- 
sian  District  of  Wiesbaden,  near  the  Rhine.  Its 
height  is  lll.'>  feet.  On  it.  opposite  Bingen. 
stands  the  national  monument  commemorating 
the  war  of  1870-71  with  France.  The  pedestal. 
82  feet  in  height,  ia  riehlv  decorated  with 
reliefs  nnd   allegorical    figures.     On  it  stands  a 


bronze  figure  of  Germania,  34  feet  high,  holding 
the  Imperial  crown,  typifying  the  formation  of 
the  Empire.  The  monument  is  the  work  of 
Schilling  of  Dresden.  It  was  unveiled  on  Sep- 
tember 28,  1883,  when  an  anarcliistic  plan  for 
dynamite  explosion  was  frustrated  by  the  damp 
weather.  The  two  ringleaders  of  the  attempt 
were  executed  in  1883.  T«o  railways  lead  to  the 
monument  from  Riideslieim  and  Assmannshausen, 
famous  fi>r  tlieir  wines. 

NIEDNEB,  net'ner.  Christian  Wiluelm 
(171)7-1805).  A  German  ecclesiastical  historian. 
He  was  born  at  Oberwinkel,  near  Waldenburg; 
studied  thcologr  at  Leipzig;  and  was  professor 
there  (1829-49)"  and  afterwards  at  Berlin  (1859- 
05).  His  Geschichte  der  chrisllichen  Kirche  (2d 
ed.  1880)  shows  a  remarkably  minute  acquaint- 
ance with  materials,  but  is  composed  in  a  peculi- 
arly al)stract  and  dillicult  style.  For  the  last 
twentv  years  of  his  life.  Xiedner  was  an  editor  of 
the   '/,'ii'tschrift  filr  die  historische  Theologie. 

NIEHAUS,  ne'hous.  Cuakles  Henry  (1855 
— ) .  An  .\merican  sculptor,  born  in  Cincinnati, 
Ohio.  He  studied  at  the  McMicken  School  of 
Design  there,  and  in  Munich,  where  his  "Fleeting 
Time"  won  the  first  medal  ever  awarded  to  an 
American.  He  returned  to  America  in  1881,  and 
two  years  afterwards  made  statues  of  (4artield 
for  Cincinnati,  and  of  William  Allen  for  the 
Capitol  in  Washington.  Both  these  works  are  mas- 
sive ami  dignified,  and  are  fine  portraits.  From 
1881  until  1843  he  was  in  Rome,  and  ujxin  his  re- 
turn to  America  he  settled  in  New  York  City.  His 
other  works  include :  the  Lee  nKmumcnt  at  Rich- 
mond (1880)  ;  "The  Scraper" ( 1893)  ;  the  statues 
of  Hooker  and  Davenport,  in  the  Connecticut 
State  Capitol;  and  the  bronze  <loors  for  Trinity 
Church.  Xew  York  City,  given  in  memory  of 
Jolin  .Jacob  Astor.  The  six  reliefs  of  religious 
and  historical  subjects  which  decorate  these 
doors  are  fine  exami)les  of  chdicate  and  skilled 
worknumship.  The  colossal  statues  of  Gibbon 
anil  Moses,  for  the  Congressional  Library  in 
Washington,  are  also  works  notable  for  strength 
and  simplicity.  He  was  awarded  first  prize  in 
the  competition  for  the  memorial  to  Sanmel 
Hahneman,  in  Washington.  D.  C.  Other  works 
that  should  be  mentioned  are  the  pediment  of  the 
Aiipellate  Court  building,  New  Y'ork  City,  and 
two  large  groujjs  representing  Mineral  Wealth  at 
the  Fan-American  Exposition  of  1901. 

KIEL,  ne'el',  Adoi.imik  (1802-09).  A  French 
7nar.-lial.  He  was  born  at  Murcl.  Haute-Garonne,' 
and  educated  at  the  F.colc  I'i)!yle<hniqiu>  and  at 
the  military  academy  of  Metz.  He  became  lieu- 
tenant of  eiigineers  in  1827.  captain  in  1835.  and 
served  in  Algeria  in  1830-37.  gaining  the  rank  of 
rhcf-de-batailUm  by  his  coinage.  He  commanded 
the  engineers  in  tlie  army  of  Oudinot.  which  put 
an  end  to  the  Roman  Republic  in  1849.  and  be- 
came brigadier-general  and  director  of  the  en- 
gineer department  in  the  Ministry  of  War.  As 
general  of  division  he  comlucted  the  operations 
which  destroved  the  Russian  fortress  of  Bomar- 
sund  in  .Vngiist.  1854.  .\t  the  head  of  the  en- 
gineers in  the  Crimea,  he  directed  the  siege  opera- 
tions around  Sebastopol.  During  the  Italian 
War  of  1859  his  services  at  Macienta  and  Sol- 
fc-riiio  made  him  marshal.  In  If<07  he  became 
Minister  of  War. 

NIELXO  (It..  WackishK  A  black  snbst.ince 
capable  of  being  ground  fine  and  also  of  being 


NIELIiO. 


553 


NIEMEYEK. 


nieltcd  I)}'  a  iiioclci;ite  lieat.  The  iiigrcilionts  are 
esneiitialiy  silviT  and  sulphur,  but  other  metals 
are  melted  with  the  silver  before  the  sulphur  is 
added.  It  is  used  as  enamel  is  used,  to  till  up 
incised  lines  and  patterns,  the  metal  liaekground 
being  nearly  always  silver.  Thus  the  top  and 
sides  of  a  silver  box  may  be  engraved  with 
elaborate  ornaments  in  scrolls,  conventional  flow- 
ers, and  the  like ;  the  separate  parts  are  heated, 
the  powdered  niello  is  spread  over  the  wliole 
surface,  and  as  it  melts,  fills  every  incision,  even 
the  finest  lines  and  points.  The  metal  is  then 
cleaned  and  polished,  so  that  the  snuioth  surface 
shows  a  black  iiattern  on  a  plain  silver  ground. 
In  some  modern  work  the  black  pattern  is  slight- 
ly in  relief;  this  suggests  the  application  of  the 
ground  and  nearly  fused  niello  by  hand  to  the 
actual  lines  of  the  pattern. 

The  art  of  working  in  niello  dates  from  an- 
tiquity. It  was  in  common  use  under  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire,  and  this  tradition  has  been  inherited 
by  the  modern  Russians,  together  with  so  many 
other  forms  of  decorative  art.  It  was  also  prac- 
ticed in  Western  Europe  throughout  the  Middle 
Ages,  though  it  was  less  popular  than  enamel.  A 
great  deal  of  altar  plate  and  similar  decorative 
objects  belonging  to  the  Christian  ritual  were 
adorned  by  niello.  The  metal-workers  of  India 
have  always  employed  the  art  with  high  success. 
Consult:  Ottley,  Bisiory  of  Engraving  (London, 
1810)  ;  Duchesne,  Essai  stir  les  nielles  gravures 
des  orferrcs  florcntiiis  du  XVeme  siccle  (Paris, 
1826);  Waterton,  "On  Niello,"  in  Archwological 
Journal,  vol.  xix.  (London,  1802)  ;  Passavant, 
ie  peintre-grarciir  (Leipzig,  1800-04);  Labarte, 
Arts  of  the' Middle  Agc»  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1872-75)  ; 
Davenport,  "Niello  Work,"  in  Journal  of  the  So- 
cictif  of  Arts,  vol.  xlviii.  (London,  1901). 

NIEM,  ne'em,  or  NIEHEIM,  ne'lilm.  DlE- 
TRUii  ui-  ( 1340?-1418) .  A  German  chronicler, 
born  in  the  town  of  Nieheim,  in  the  mediawal 
Bishopric  of  Paderborn.  He  received  otllce  under 
the  Papal  Curia  at  Avignon,  and  went  with  it  to 
Komc  in  1370.  In  1305  he  was  made  Bishop 
of  Verden  (Hanover)  by  Boniface  IX.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  been  forced  from  this  dignity  by 
disputes,  and  in  1403  is  met  with  as  abhrcviator 
in  the  Pa])al  Chancellery.  During  the  subsequent 
discussions  which  harassed  the  Church,  he  in- 
sisted on  internal  reforms.  He  wrote  in  this 
connection  his  tliree  books.  De  iSchismalc  (com- 
pleted in  1410;  printed  in  1532,  and  subsequent- 
ly), a  vivid  history  of  the  events  of  the  years 
137(i-1410.  This  with  others  of  his  works,  such 
as  the  Historia  de  Vita  Joannis  XXIII.  (1682), 
and  the  Xenrus  Unionifs  (incorporated  with  the 
Basel  l.iOO  edition  of  the  De  fiehi.imate) ,  forms 
an  important  source  for  historical  investiga- 
tion. Consult  the  Life  br  Sauerland  (Giittingen, 
1873). 

NIEMANN,  ne'nuin,  Albert  (1831  —  ).  A 
German  dramatic  singcV,  born  at  Erxleben.  He 
was  at  first  a  singer  in  the  chorus  at  Dessau. 
After  a  thorough  training  under  Schneider  and 
Nusch.  his  voice  (tenor)  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  King  of  Hanover,  who  took  him  into  his 
service.  \\'agner  selected  him  to  sing  in  Tann- 
hiiuKer  on  its  first  production  in  Paris  in  1801. 
He  sang  in  the  United  States,  and  was  remark- 
able for  his  ability  in  the  dual  role  of  vocalist  and 
actor.  He  retired  from  the  stage  in  1880. 
Vol.  XIV.— 36. 


NIEMBSCH  VON  STREHLENAXT,  nemsh 
fiin   straTcnou,   Nikolais.     See   Lenau,   Niko- 

LAL.S. 

NIEMCEWICZ,  nyem-tsa'vich,  Julian  Ub- 
SYN  ( 17.')7-1S41 ) .  A  Polish  author  and  states- 
man, born  at  Skoki,  Lithuania.  After  graduat- 
ing from  a  military  school  he  entereil  the  army  at 
twenty  as  an  adjutant  and  became  major  in  1788, 
when  he  was  sent  as  Deputy  to  the  Polish  Diet. 
With  a  colleague  he  published  the  I'cople'.'i  I'nper, 
and  was  the  framer  of  the  so-called  'Constitution 
of  the  3d  of  May,'  making  monarchy  heieditary  in 
Poland  (1791).  He  was  Kosciuszko's  adviser  and 
aide,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  Maciejowiee 
and  taken  prisoner  with  his  chief  (  1704).  While 
in  the  fortress  of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul  in  Saint 
Petersburg,  he  translated  Pope's  Ilnpe  of  the  Lock 
and  Gray's  Elegy.  Released  by  Paul  after  two 
years,  he  came  with  Koseiuszko  to  the  United 
States,  where  he  married  Mrs.  Livingston  Kean  of 
New  York.  On  the  report  of  Napoleon's  entrance 
into  Poland,  he  left  America  for  his  fatherland  in 
1807.  The  King  of  Saxony  appointed  him  .secre- 
tary of  the  Senate  in  the  new  Duchy  of  Warsaw, 
as  well  as  inspector  of  schools  and  member  of  the 
Supreme  Council  of  Pul)lie  Instruction.  When 
Poland  came  under  Russia's  control,  he  was  re- 
tained in  office  by  Alexander  I.,  but  he  did  not 
lose  faith  in  the  restoration  of  Poland,  and  took 
a  most  active  part  in  the  events  of  1830,  after 
which  he  went  into  exile.  He  died  in  Paris. 
His  Historieal  Ballads  (1810-19)  which  aroused 
the  national  consciousness  of  the  Poles,  have 
retained  much  of  their  hold  on  the  public,  and 
his  Meditations  at  Ursynow  are  his  best  lyric 
poems.  The  Envoy's  Return,  among  his  dra- 
matic works,  and  his  novel  of  manners,  Johann 
of  Tenczyn,  enjoyed  a  great  vogue.  The  History 
of  Siyismund  III.'s  Reign  (latest  ed.  3  vols., 
Breslau,  1830)  and  a  Collection  of  .Memoirs  on, 
Ancient  Poland  are  valuable  for  the  material 
collected.  A  collection  of  his  works  was  pub- 
lished in  Leipzig  (1838-40),  but  it  is  incomplete. 
Consult  a  biography  in  Polish,  by  A.  Czarloryski 
(Berlin,  1800). 

NIEMEN,  ne'mcn,  Pol.  pron.  nyem'en.  A 
river  of  Russia  and  Prussia  (Map:  Russia, 
B  3).  It  rises  near  the  city  of  JMinsk,  and 
flows  westward  to  Grodno,  W'here  it  becomes 
navigable.  Tlience  it  flows  northward,  form- 
ing the  boundary  between  West  Russia  and 
Poland:  turning  again  westward  at  Kovno,  it 
enters  East  Prussia,  where  it  takes  the  name  of 
Memel,  and  empties  into  the  Kurisches  Haft' 
through  a  large  compound  delta  beginning  near 
the  city  of  Tilsit.  Its  total  length  is  400  miles. 
It  is  of  considerable  connnereial  importance,  be- 
ing the  outlet  for  large  quantities  of  timber  and 
grain  from  Russia.  Its  navigation  is  extended 
through  several  canal  systems.  Its  banks  are 
mostly  low  and  often  nuirshy.  and  in  the  delta 
they  are  protected  from  inundations  by  large 
dikes. 

NIEMEYEK,  ne'ml-er.  Aigu.st  Hermann 
( 1754-1828).  A  German  educator  and  theologian. 
He  was  born  at  Halle,  and  after  finishing  his 
studies  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  in 
the  university  (1779).  In  1807  Niemeyer  was 
carried  to  France  a  prisoner  of  war.  A  year 
afterwards,  on  his  return,  he  became  rector  of 
the  University  of  Halle,  and  its  chancellor.  As  a 
theologian,  he  held  to  a  moderate  rationalism; 


NIEMEYER. 


556 


NIETZSCHE. 


but  even  his  tlicologioa!  works  were  tinged  with 
the  views  of  au  educ-atur,  and  in  the  latter  cliar- 
aeter  he  did  liis  most  iiiiiiortant  work.  Among 
Niemeyer's  works,  the  eliief  are:  Chaidhtcrislik 
(ler  Bibel  (1775-82);  Uinidbuch  fur  christlichc 
Jiiliijionsklirry  (1S05-07);  and  Lcilfaden  dur 
I'mhtyogiU  und  Didaktik  (1802). 

NIEMEYER,  Felix  von  (1820-71).  A  Ger- 
man physician.  He  was  born  at  Magdeburg, 
wliere  he  jiraetieed  medicine  after  studying  at 
Halle,  Prague,  and  Vienna.  At  the  time  of  the 
cholera  epidemic  of  1848-49  he  published  Die 
symptomalische  lichandlung  der  Cholera  mit 
hrsDiiderer  lUicksiclit  auf  die  BedeuUtng  dcs 
Durmleidens.  In  1853  he  became  head  of  the 
medical  department  of  the  city  liospital  at  Mag- 
deburg, and  two  years  afterwarils  was  ajjpointed 
))rofessor  at  Greifswald.  wlience  in  18(i0  he  went 
to  Tubingen.  Niemeyer's  great  work,  Lchrbuch 
der  spezielleii  I'alhologie  und  Therapic  (1858 
sqq. ;  Uth  ed.  1884),  met  with  immediate  success 
and  ))roved  one  of  the  most  important  medical 
works  of  tlie  century. 

NIEPCE,  ne'eps',  .Joseph  Nic£puore  (17ti5- 
1833).  A  French  scientist,  born  at  Clialon-sur- 
Saonc.  He  entered  the  Revolutionary  army  in 
1789.  but  two  years  later  was  compelled  to  resign 
because  of  illliealth,  and  in  1795  became  civil 
administrator  of  the  District  of  Nice.  In  1801 
he  returned  to  his  native  town  and  thenccfortli 
devoted  himself  to  tlic  st\idy  of  chemistry  and 
mechanics.  During  tlic  following  years  he  made 
a  numlier  of  inventions,  and  in  1813  turned  his 
attention  to  the  production  of  pictures  uptm 
metal  plates  by  nieans  of  light.  In  1824  he  dis- 
covered a  process  by  which  he  could  fix  the 
images  of  the  camera  ob.scura.  Two  years  later 
he  entered  into  relations  with  Daguerre.  and  in 
1829  the  two  formed  a  partnersliip  to  "cuiiiier- 
ate  in  perfecting  tlie  discovery  invented  by  j^I. 
Niepc?  and  perfected  by  M.  Daguerre."'  Article 
V.  of  their  agreement  says  that  Niepce  gave  "his 
invention"  and  Daguerre  "a  new  contrivance  of 
tlie  dark  chamber,  his  talents,  and  his  educa- 
tion:" so  that  if  the  title  "inventor  of  photogra- 
phy" can  be  applied  to  any  one  man  it  seems  that 
it  should  go  to  Xiepce.  He  died  at  Oras.  near 
his  birthplace,  poor  and  comparatively  unknown. 
He  \Vrote  .Vo^i'cr  .s-i/r  Vhclioyraphie  (1829).  Con- 
sult: Krnouf,  Leu  inrentetirs  du  r/riz  el  de  la 
photoffraphie  (Paris.  1877):  and  Fouque,  La 
rerite  fivr  Viineiilioii  de  la  photoyraphie :  yic6- 
phiirr  \irprr    (ill,.   lS('i7). 

NIEPCE  DE  SAINT  VICTOR,  dp  sSn  vi^k'- 
tor'.  (■i..\rnK  M.\kie  Fr.v.ncois  (1805-70).  A 
French  ])hotograiiher.  born  at  Saint-Cyr.  near 
Chalon-surSaone.  He  served  in  the  army,  and 
was  ajipointcd  in  1854  second  commandant  of 
the  T.ouvre.  The  discoveries  in  photography  made 
by  his  uncle.  Nicr-phore  Niepce.  jointly  with  Da- 
giierre,  had  attracted  his  attention  to  that  art. 
and  he  succeeded  in  bringing  out  himself  a  num- 
ber of  interesting  inventions.  He  was  the  first 
to  use  albumen  for  photographic  purposes,  and 
was  one  of  the  first  to  try  photography  on  glass 
and  to  produce  steel-engravings;  by  a  idioto- 
grapbie  process.  He  also  -;\icccrded  in  obtaining 
colored  images,  which  lie  named  licliorlirDmen ; 
the  colors,  liowever.  were  fugitive.  Tn  1855  he 
publisbed  the  various  memoirs  in  which  ho  had 
at  different  times  eomnninieated  his  discoveries 
to  the  Aendemv  of  Sciences,  under  the  title  of 


It'celierches  pholoiiraphiijiies,  which  was  followed 
in  1850  by  Truitc  prutiyue  de  gravure  sur  acicr 
et  sur  rerre. 

NIESE,  ne'zc,  Be.nedictis  ( 1849—  ) .  A  Ger- 
man classical  pliilologist  and  historian.  He  was 
born  at  iiurg,  on  the  island  of  Fehmarn.in  Schles- 
wig-llolstein,  and  in  1877  he  became  professor  in 
the  University  of  JIarburg.  His  publications  in- 
clude: Flav'ii  Josephi  Opera  I. -I'll.  (Berlin, 
1885-95)  ;  Grundriss  der  romisclien  Oeschichte 
(2d  ed.,  Munich,  1897);  Ocschiehte  der  gricrh- 
ischen  und  inakedonischcn  Staaten  (Gotha.  1893- 
99)  ;  Flarii  Jusephi  Antitjuitatum  ?:pitoma 
(Berlin.  ISOIJ)  :  Kritik  der  hciden  Makkabiier- 
hii<  III  r   i  ill,.  lilOO). 

NIETZSCHE,  net'shc.  Friedricii  (1844- 
190(11.  A  German  ]iliiloso)ihie  writer,  one  of  the 
mo>t  daring  thinkers  and  charming  stylists  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  He  was  born  at  Ripken, 
near  Leipzig,  son  of  a  Protestant  pastor  of  the 
village,  who  died  when  the  precocious  boy  was 
five  years  old.  Ho  was  brought  up  by  his 
mother  at  Naumburg  on  the  Saale:  studied  at 
the  noted  State  school  at  Pforta,  and  then  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  classics  in  the  imi- 
vcrsities  of  Bonn  and  Leipzig.  At  twenty-five, 
on  the  rcconnncnd.it ion  of  Ritschl,  he  became 
professor  extraordinarius  of  classical  philology 
at  Basel,  and  shortly  afterwards  was  promoted 
to  be  professor  ordinarius  there — a  po-st  which 
he  was  forced  to  resign  in  1879  because  of 
an  atfection  of  his  eyes.  Meanwhile  Nietzsche  had 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Wagner  and  become 
an  ardent  advocate  of  Scho])eiiliauer's  theories  of 
iirt.  During  this  period,  which  was  brief  and 
immature,  the  only  work  of  importance  he  wrote 
was  (Icburt  der  Tragiidie  inis  item  deistc  der 
Musik  (1872),  in  which  he  maintained  that 
both  Dionysiae  (orgiastic)  and  Apollonic  (tem- 
perate) motifs  contributed  to  the  origination  of 
Attic  tragedy.  The  book  might  be  termed  a  de- 
fense of  Wagner's  inogrammc.  But  shortly  there- 
after came  a  breach  between  Nietzsche  and 
Wagner,  said  to  be  due  to  Wagner's  compro- 
misis  with  success.  With  the  loss  of  faith 
in  Wagner,  he  lost  faith  in  God  and  in  Cbris- 
tianitv.  in  traditional  morality,  and  in  current 
hnmaii  ideals,  and  ended  by  deifying  passion 
and  despising  reason.  He  went  so  far  as  to 
sav  that  the  untruth  of  a  view  is  not  a  valid 
objection  to  it  if  only  it  be  useful,  and  that  the 
falsest  views  are  often  the  most  useful.  Satis- 
faction of  instincts  became  his  ideal;  we  must, 
he  maintained,  at  all  hazards  realize  the  will 
to  dominate  ider  Willr  zur  Maelit).  The  moral 
man  who  lives  for  otliers  is  a  weakling,  a  de- 
generate. The  lonlly  egoist  who  exploits  other 
men  and  rises  on  stepping  stones  of  their  dead 
selves  to  higher  things  is  the  prcqier  human 
ideal,  the  over-man  iVihrniirnxeh) .  The  evolu- 
tion of  Nietzsche's  thought,  which  culminated  in 
this  idealization  of  the  inhumane  victor  in  the 
struggle  for  existence,  can  be  traced  in  his 
Mrnseliliehe.i.  Mhumrnxehlielira.  ein  Burh  fiir 
frriv  (leister  (1870-80):  Morgenriithe.  Ilednnken 
iiber  mnrnlixehr  \orurlhrUr  (1881)  ;  ,4/so  sprnrh 
/.aralhusirn  (1883-84):  ./enseit.i  io»  (lul  und 
Ilnsc  (188(1)  :  Zur  Oenealngie  der  Moral  (1887)  ; 
ner  Fall  Wagner  (1888)  :  and  (Inlzrndiimmrrung 

(1889).  Among  his  other  works  should  he  men- 
tioned Der  Wille  zur  Maeht:  Ver.iueh  einer  Vm- 
werlung  aller  Wrrle  (1890).  Of  this  hook 
the  first  part   is  entitled  Der  Anttehrinl,  where 


NIETZSCHE. 


557 


NIGEL. 


the  author  traces  the  liistoiy  of  the  world, 
sliowinj;  the  part  pUiyed  hy  tawny  brutes  ami 
ta«!iy  licroes  iu  the  great  struggh;  (or  power, 
and  representing  might  as  yight,  a  right  over- 
tlirown  by  the  slavish  and  false  eonoepts  of  the 
Jewisli  Nazarene.  After  Nietzselie  left  Basel 
he  lived  for  several  years  in  Turin;  in  1880  it 
beeaine  evident  that  his  brain  was  afl'ectod,  partly 
due  to  hereditary  causes  and  partly  to  the 
abnse  of  soporifics.  He  retired  to  his  mother's 
home  near  Weimar,  where  he  was  cared  for  by 
his  sister  until  his  death.  As  can  he  seen  from 
tlie  above  sketch  of  the  course  of  his  philosophical 
development,  Nietzsche  accepted  the  struggle  for 
existence  as  an  ultimate  fact  which  man  ought 
not  to  attempt  to  ameliorate.  It  is  only  the 
slavish  spirit  Avhich  attempts  to  modify  tiie  in- 
evitable natural  process  of  the  elimination  of 
the  unfit.  This  attempt  to  stem  the  tide  of 
natural  evolution  results  in  the  servile  morality 
{Sl;tfircn>iwral]  characteristic  of  the  present  day. 
Nature's  morality  is  the  morality  of  the  rutii- 
lessly  strong  hero  ( llcrrruinonil) .  This  view  is 
the  inevitable  outcome  of  an  uncritical  acceptance 
of  the  merely  physical  'is'  as  the  moral  'ought.' 
Its  philosophical  significance  lies  in  its  exhibit- 
ing in  tindisguised  form  the  logical  consequences, 
for  a  Darwinian,  of  the  principle  that  whatever 
is.  is  right.  His  popularity  is  due  partly  to  this 
hyper-Darwinianism,  but  more  largely,  since  such 
a  doctrine  is  against  the  predominant  spirit  of 
hnmanity  of  the  present  age.  to  his  fascinating 
literary  style.  He  is  a  great  prose  poet,  and  it 
we  may  judge  from  a  vohuue  of  early  verse. 
(IrdicJite  unci  Sprik-Jir  (ISO"),  in  tone  a  revolt 
against  the  lyric  tradition  of  Heine,  he  might 
have  been  a  great  lyrist.  Richard  Strauss  (q.v.) 
has  founded  one  of  his  most  famous  tone-poems 
tipon  Also  sprach  Zftrnthtistra.  A  complete  edi- 
tion of  his  works  was  begiui  at  Leipzig  in  ISOo: 
an  English  version  under  the  editorship  of  Tille 
is  incomplete.  Consult  the  biography  by  his  sis- 
ter, Frau  F(irster-Nietzsche  (Leipzig,  1805,  sqq.), 
and  appreciation  in  Riehl,  Frirtlrich  yiclzsche, 
drr  Kihtstlcr  iiiid  drr  Doikcr  (Stuttgart,  3d  ed., 
inoi)  ;  also  Seth,  ^[llll.'s  Place  in  the  Cosmos  (2d 
ed..  Edinburgh.  100'2):  Wallace.  Lrctvrcs  and 
Essat/s  in  Naitiral  Tlieolofji/  and  Ethics  (Oxford. 
1898)  ;  Dolson.  The  Philosophy  of  Fried  rich 
\iclzsche  (New  York.  1001),  with  an  excellent 
bibliography;  Brandes,  Friedrieh  Nietzsche 
(Frankfort,  1888)  ;  Kronenherg.  Nietzsche  iind 
seine  Herrcnnionil  (Miuiich,  1001);  Eisler, 
Nicfzsches  Erkenntnistheorie  und  Melaphysik 
(Leipzig,   1002). 

NIEUWENHUIS,  ne'vcn-hois,  IIo.mel.v 
(lS4(i— ).  A  Dutch  Socialist,  son  of  Domela 
Nieinvcnbuis  (1808-GO),  who  was  a  prominent 
Lutlieran  theologian.  The  son,  born  at  Amster- 
dam, studied  theology,  was  for  nine  years 
preacher  at  the  Lutheran  Church  in  The  Hague, 
and  then  became  a  leader  of  tlie  Social  Demo- 
crats and  practically  the  founder  of  tlie  ]iarty  in 
Holland.  In  I8S7  he  entered  the  Statcs-ficneral, 
but  he  failed  of  reelection  in  1888.  His  views 
became  more  and  more  extreme,  and  he  broke 
from  the  State  (Socialists  to  form  with  Cornelis- 
Ben  a  free  Socialist  faction.  Nieuwenhuis  was 
prominent  in  the  Socialist  Congresses  of  Brus- 
sels (1801)  and  of  Zurich  (180.3)  as  an  opponent 
of  Liebknecht  and  his  motion  against  war  and 
compulsory    military    service.     In     1807,    when 


Recht  roor  alien  became  the  property  oi  the  cen- 
tralization Socialists,  Nieuwenliuis  started  a  new 
journal,  De  vryc  tiocialisl. 

NIEVO,  ne-a'v6,  Ipi-olito  (1832-01).  An 
Italian  novelist  and  poet,  born  at  Padua.  He 
studied  in  his  native  town,  took  part  in  the  revo- 
lutionary disturbances  of  the  time,  and  finally 
joined  (iaribaldi.  His  C'onfessioni  di  nn  otluu- 
yenario  (1867)  holds  a  high  place  among  the 
historical  novels  of  the  century.  He  also  wrote 
II  conte  pccorajo  {lSo7) ,  Anyelo  di  honta.  (  IHoS), 
and  Poesic   (1883). 

NI^VKE,  nya'vr'.  A  central  departnu'nt  of 
France,  nearly  conterminous  with  the  foi'mcr 
Province  of  Nivernais.  It  is  named  from  the 
river  Ni6vre,  an  affluent  of  the  Loire.  It  has  the 
Loire  and  the  Allier  as  its  western  boundary 
(Slap:  France,  K  4).  Its  area  is  26.58  square 
miles.  The  eastern  half  is  occupied  by  the  forest- 
covered  ilorvan  Mountains,  and  the  soil  is  gen- 
erally rocky  and  sandy.  Forest  and  mineral 
products,  the  latter  including  coal.  iron,  nuirble, 
and  mill-stones,  form  tlie  chief  wealtli  of  the  de- 
partment, but  stock-raising  and  viticulture  are 
also  important.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
glass  and  porcelain,  and  there  are  large  inm  and 
steel  works.  Population,  in  1801,  343,581;  in 
1001,  323,78.3.     The  capital  is  Nevers    (q.v.). 

NIFLHEIM,  nifl-him  (leel.,  cloud-home). 
One  of  the  nine  separate  abodes  or  homes  of 
w-hieh  the  old  Scaiulinavians  conceived  the  world 
as  consisting  in  the  beginniiig  of  time.  It  is  the 
kingdom  of  cold  and  darkness,  and  is  separated 
from  JMuspelbeim,  the  kingdom  of  light  and  heat, 
by  a  huge  chasm  (Ginnungagap,  yawning  gap). 

NIFO,  ne'fo,  Agcstixo,  or  .-Vugustini'S  Ni- 
rnus  (C.1473-C.1.538) .  An  Italian  scholar,  born 
in  the  Province  of  Calabria.  At  an  early  age  he 
settled  at  Sezza.  and  afterwards  studied  and 
taught  philosophy  at  Padua.  Salerno.  Naples, 
Rome,  and  Pisa.  Nifo  at  first  belonged  to  the 
school  of  Averroes  (q.v.).  His  commentaries, 
several  times  reprinted,  were  collected  with  his 
Opnscula    Moralia    et    Politica    in    14    volumes 

(Paris,  1654).  Afterwards,  Nifo  modified  his 
beliefs  to  suit  orthodox  doctrine,  and  published 
the  writings  of  his  master  (1405-07),  with  notes 
iind  objections.  He  was  charged  by  Leo  X.  to 
answer  Pompanazzi's  Dc  Immortalitate  Animi, 
and  for  this  service  he  receivcil  the  title  of  Count 
Palatine.  His  philoso))liical  treatises,  Dc  Im- 
mortalitate AHi';Hi(1518  and  1524),  De  Intellectu 
Lihri  VI.    (1.503,   1.527.   1502).  and  De  Infrnitate 

T'rimi  Motoris  Qiicestio  (1504),  are  the  most 
important  of  his  productions. 

NIGEL,  nig'el,  known  as  Nioel  Wireker 
(fl.  c.  1100).  A  satirist  who  flourished'toward 
the  close  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  a 
monk  in  Clirist  Church  priory.  Canterbury,  and 
was  personally  acquainted  with  Thomas  a  Becket. 
His  famous  work  is  Speenlnm  Hlullonim  (A 
ilirror  of  Fools),  a  satire  in  Latin  elegiac  verse 
on  the  clergy  and  society  in  general.  The  hero 
is  Burnellus,  or  Brunellus.  an  ass,  who  wants  a 
longer  tail.  The  poem  was  iuuncnscly  popular 
for  centuries.  Under  the  title.  "Da\ui  Burnel 
the  Asse."  it  is  quoted  by  Chaucer  in  the  "Nun's 
Priest's  Tale."  Nigel  also  wrote  several  short 
Latin  poems  and  a  prose  treatise.  Contra  Curialcs 
et  Ofliciales  Clerieos.  Consult:  Wright.  The 
Anylo-Latin    Satirical    Poets     (London,    1874); 


NIGEL.  558 

and    Ward,    Catalogue    of    Romances     (Loudon, 
1883-93). 

NIGEL1,A  (Neo-Lat.,  fern,  of  Lat.  nigellus, 
blackish,  diiiiiuutivc  of  iiiijcr,  black).  A  genus 
of  annual  plants  of  the  natural  order  Ranuncu- 
lacese,  indigenous  to  the  Mediterranean  region 
and  the  wanner  temperate  parts  of  Asia,  having 
live  colored  spreading  sepals,  five  or  ten  small 
two-lipped  petals,  with  tubular  claws;  carpels 
more  or  less  connected,  many-seeded;  leaves 
divided  into  threadlike  segments,  and  flowers 
solitary  at  the  top  of  the  stem  or  branches. 
Mgella  damascciia,  occasionally  seen  in  gardens, 
is  known  by  the  names  fennel  flower,  devil  in-a- 
bush,  and  devil-in-a-mist.  The  somewhat  peppery 
aromatic  seeds  have  been  used  as  a  substitute 
for  spices.  Those  of  Mgclla-  saliva,  nutmeg 
flower,  a  species  counnon  in  grain  fielils  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  are  supposed  to  be  the  blaek 
cunnnin  of  the  ancients,  and  perhaps  tlie  cmnmin 
of  the  Bible.  The  seeds  of  a  species  of  Xigella 
are  much  used  by  the  Afghans  for  flavoring 
curries. 

NIGER,  nl'jer.  or  JoL'in.v.     The  third  largest 
river    of    Africa    (Map:    Africa,   D    3).      It    has 
no  single  native  name.     It  is  generally  known, 
however,    as    the    Joliba    in    the    upper    course, 
the    Issa    and    Mayo    in    the    middle,    and    the 
Kwara   (Quorra)   in  the  lower  course.     The  Xiger 
rises  on  the  inner  frontiers  of  Sierra  Leone  and 
Liberia,   and    flows    first   northeastward   to   Tim- 
buktu:  thence  eastward  along  the  escarpment  of 
the  Sahara  Plateau:  finally  it  turns  to  the  south- 
east, which  direction   it  maintains,  with   a   few 
deviations,  to  its  mouth.   It  enters  the  Gulf  of 
Giiinea  through  a  vast  delta  extending  100  miles 
inland,  and  occupying  an  area  of  14,000  stjuare 
miles.     The  delta  "consists  almost  wholly  ot  low 
and   malarious   mangrove   swamps,   and   its   size 
is  increasing   rapidly,  owing  to  tlie  constant   in- 
land  breezes    whidi    ])revent   the    sediment    from 
being  carried  to  sea.     Only  one  of  the  numerous 
arms  of  the  delta,  the  Xun.  is  accessible  to  sea- 
going vessels.     The  length  of  the  Xiger  is  about 
2000  miles,  and  the  incline  of  its  bed  through  its 
whole  course  is  very   ;entle,  with  few  rapids,  in 
which    respect   the'   iigcr    differs    conspicuously 
from  other  .Vfricai    rivers.     It  is,  however,  navi- 
gable only  in  sect    .iis,  being  ol)structcd  at  several 
places.     At  Bamaku,  2.50  miles  from  its  source, 
it  is  already   .')00  yards  wide,  and   from  here   it 
is   navigable   for   small    steamers   to   Timbuktu, 
above  which   place   it  spreads  out  into  a   larp 
inland    delta    converging    in    the    marshy    Lake 
Debo.     Below  Timbuktu  it  runs  through  a  rocky 
gorge,   where   it   is  narrowed   to  a   width   of   300 
feet"    and    obstnicted    by    raiu.ls.      The    greater 
part  of  its  middle  course  lies  in  a  desert  region, 
where  it  receives   scarcely  any  trit)utaric«.  and 
where    vegetation    flourishes    only    inuiiedi:ilely 
along  its   hanks.     As   it    Hows   southward,    how- 
ever,  the   coimtry   bcconies   more   and   nmre    fer- 
tile and  populous.    The  head  of  permanent  steam 
navigation    is    at    Rabba,    4f>0    miles    from    the 
mouth  of  the  river,  which  below  that  point    is 
a  broad  and  tranquil  stream  .">n  fivt  deep  in  the 
dry  season,  and  over  100  fn't  deej)  during  floods. 
Some   distance   below   Rabba    the   Xiger   receives 
its  largest  tributary,  the  Benue    (q.v.) 

The  chief  to\vns  or  settlements  on  the  river 
nre,  in  descending  order.  Bamaku,  Scgo-Sikaro, 
Sansanding,    Gundam,    Timbuktu,    Gogo,    Birni, 


NIGERIA, 


Say,  Busah,  Rabba,  Lakoja,  and  places  situated 
in  the  delta. 

The  name  Xiger  {yigris)  is  mentioned  by 
ancient  writers,  but  did  not  probably  refer  to 
this  river.  The  stream  was  first  made  known 
to  Arabian  geographers  in  the  Middle  Ages  by 
travelers  across  tlie  Sahara,  but  it  was  then 
believed  to  ccmimunicate  with  the  Xile.  It  had 
not  been  seen  by  Europeans  luitil  Jlungo  Park 
explored  its  upper  course  in  17!)l).  The  lower 
course  was  first  explored  by  Clapperton,  Denbara, 
and  Lander  in  182.5-.32.  "Consult:  Baikie,  Re- 
ports 0)^  the  Geographical  Position  of  the  Coun- 
tries in  the  ydghhorhood  of  the  Xiger  (London, 
18C3)  ;  Rohlfs,  Quer  durch  Afrika  (Leipzig, 
1874)  :  Thomson,  iluiigo  Park  and  the  Mger 
(Lonilon,  1890):  Miickler-Ferryman,  I'p  the  .Vi- 
gcr  (ib.,  1892)  :  Trotter.  The  Mger  Sources  and 
the  Borders  of  the  .A'fio  Sierra  Leone  Protecto- 
rate (ib..  1898)  ;  Hourst,  The  Exploration  of  the 
yigrr,  trans,  (ib.,  1898)  ;  Vandeleur,  Campaign- 
ing on  the  Upper  Nile  and  Niger  (ib.,  1898). 

NIGE'RIA,  or  X'iger  Tebeitories.    A  British- 
colonial  possession  in  Africa,  organized  in  1900. 
It  occupies   the   territory   between   the   Military 
Territories   of    French    Sudan,    Lake    Chad,    the 
(ierman    possession    of    Kamerun,    the    Gulf    of 
Guinea,   the   British   colony   of    Lagos,   and   the 
French    possession    of    Daliomcy    (Map:     Africa, 
E   4).     It   is  divided  into   Xorthern   and   South- 
ern   Xigeria.       Xorthern     Xigeria     comprises     a 
large   portion   of   the   Fulah  or   Sokoto  Empire, 
with    its    subordinate    States    of    Xupe,    Ilorin. 
Muri,    Gandu.    Kano,    Katsena,    Banchi,   a    por- 
tion   of    Adamawa,    Bakundi.    Donga,    Takum, 
and   Zaria,   besides   a    part  of  the   Kingdom   of 
Bornu.  and  of  the  pagan  confederation  of  Borgu. 
Southern  Xigeria  consists  of  what  was  formerly 
known  as  the  Xiger  Coast  Protectorate,  supple- 
mented  by   the    Protectorate   of   Lagos   and   con- 
siderable acquisitions   along  the  Cross   River   in 
the  southeast.     Xo   trustworthy   figures  for  the 
area    of    the    region    and    fm-    the    population 
are   available.      Current   estimates   of   the   area 
ran"e    from    400,000    to    iiOO.flOO    square    miles: 
of  the  population,  from  2,5.000,000  to  40,000.000. 
The  physical  features  of  the  region  are  as  yet 
sliglitly    known.      The    counhy    along    the    gulf 
is,  as  "far  as  40  miles  inland,  swampy,  and  in- 
tersected   by    the   numenais    arms    of   tlie   Xiger 
anil  a  multitude  of  other  streams  interlacing  each 
other    and    lined    with    mangrove    trees.      The 
clinuite  of  that   district   is  characterized  by  hu- 
midity and  unhealthfulness.     The  portion  north 
of  the  coast  region,  as  far  as  the  eonlluence  of 
the    Benue    with    the    Xiger,    is    an    undulating 
forest   country,   while   that   north   of   the   Xiger 
is    mostly    hilly    and    partly    covered    with    thin 
forests.   '  The    extrenu'    north    partakes    of    the 
cliiiracter    of    the    S;ihara.      The    climate   of   the 
interior  appears  to  be  more  healthful. 

.Agriculture  is  pursued  mostly  along  the  Benue 
River  and  in  the  plains  of  the  interior.  Cotton 
and  many  cereals  are  raised  to  some  extent,  but 
the  chief  articles  of  food  among  the  natives 
are  bananas  and  yams.  The  oil  tree  is  found 
in  abundance  and"  t!ie  forest  region  is  full  of 
rubber  trees  and  valuable  woods.  In  its  pres- 
ent state  of  develoi)mcnt  the  country  produces 
chiefly  ])alm  oil  and  kernels  for  export.  Some 
ivory!  indigo,  and  ndiber  are  also  bro\ight  to  the 
southern  ports  from  the  interior.  The  principal 
means    of    comnuinicniion    are    the    Xiger,    the 


I 


NIGERIA. 


559 


NIGHTHAWK. 


Ecnue,  and  a  number  of  smaller  rivers.  The 
principal  seaports  are  Akassa,  Old  and  New 
Calabar,  and  New  Benin.  Tlie  imports  and  ex- 
ports for  l'JOO-01  amounted  to  $5,842,490  and 
$5,079,135  respectively. 

At  the  head  of  the  administration  of  Nigeria 
are  two  high  commissioners,  assisted  by  resi- 
dents. There  are  a  supreme  court,  at  Asaba,  and 
a  number  of  resident  courts.  The  revenue  is 
derived  principally  from  customs  duties,  which 
are  collected  at  the  ports  of  Lagos  and  Southern 
Nigeria,  and  distributed  among  these  two  gov- 
ernments and  that  of  Northern  Nigeria.  In 
1900-01  tlie  revenue  and  expenditure  amounted 
to  .$I.8o5.;!92  and  .$1,481,170  respectively.  The 
control  of  the  British  Government  thus  far  ex- 
tends only  to  a  small  proportion  of  the  ter- 
ritory along  the  coast.  The  prerogatives  of  the 
Sultan  of  Sokoto  are  still  recognized  in  a  large 
measure. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  coast  region  are  pure 
negroes  in  a  very  low  state  of  civilization.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  interior  are  also  of  negro 
descent,  intermixed  with  some  of  the  races  of 
Northern  Africa.  They  show  some  traces  of 
Jloorish  influence.  The  reMgion  is  Jlohammedan- 
isni  tinged  with  fetishism.  The  most  advanced 
and  intelligent  of  the  population  are  the  Hausas. 
(See  Hausa  States.) 

British  settlements  and  trading  stations  were 
established  along  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  in  the  re- 
gion of  the  Niger  at  a  very  early  period,  but  these 
were  only  private  enterprises  without  any  political 
powers  or  aims.  It  was  only  with  tlie  establish- 
ment of  the  United  African  Company,  reorgan- 
ized into  the  National  African  Company  by  Sir 
George  Goldie  in  1882,  that  the  movement  look- 
ing toward  the  future  acquisition  of  Nigeri.a 
by  Great  Britain  was  started.  After  having 
concluded  political  treaties  with  the  native 
rulers  the  company  obtained  a  ro.yal  charter 
in  1886,  and  its  name  was  changed  to  the  Royal 
Niger  Company.  The  boimdaries  were  fixed  by 
treaties  with  Germanv  in  18S5.  1880.  and  1893, 
and  with   France  in  "l889,   1890,   and   1898. 

In  1884  and  1887  the  territory  of  Nigeria 
was  declared  a  British  protectorate,  and  the  sea- 
board region  was  organized  into  the  Oil  Rivers 
Protectorate,  and  was  put  under  the  authority 
of  a  royal  commissioner  in  1891,  the  company 
having  no  jurisdiction  in  that  part  of  the  eotm- 
try.  The  name  of  the  Oil  River  Protectorate 
was  soon  changed  to  Niger  Coast  Protectorate, 
and  its  territory  was  augmented  by  tlu;  addition 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Benin  in  1897,  and  further 
extensions  along  the  Cross  River  in  the  south- 
eai5t.  On  January  1,  1900,  the  company  sur- 
rendered its  charter  and  the  whole  territory 
passed  under  the  British  control. 

BiBLTOGRAPHY.  Lucas,  Historical  Geo(!riij)hi/ 
of  the  British  Colonies,  vol.  iii.  (Oxford.  1894)"; 
Keltic.  The  Partition  of  Africa  (2d  cd.,  Lon- 
don. 1895)  :  Robinson,  JJauf<alaiifI :  Fifteen  Hun- 
dred Miles  Throiifih  Central  Soudan  (ib.,  1800)  ; 
Miickler-Ferryman.  Imperial  Africa,  vol.  i.(ib., 
1898)  ;  Hourst,  The  Exploration  of  the  Ifiger 
(trans.,  ib..  1898)  ;  Blindloss,  In  the  Nif/cr  Cotin- 
tr;i  (ib.,  1898)  :  Johnston,  The  Colonization  of 
Africa  (Cambridge,  1890);  Robinson,  Nifieria: 
Our  Latest  Protectorate  (London,  1900)  ;  Mock- 
ler-Ferryman,  British  yir/cria   (ib.,  1902). 

NIGGER  CHUB,  or  Nigger  Dick.  A  chub 
{Exoglossuni     inaxillingua)     of    the    lakes     and 


rivers  of  the  Middle  States,  distinguishable  from 
all  other  cyprinids  by  its  three-lobed  under  jaw. 
it  is  about  six  inelies  long,  dusky  greenish  on 
the  back,  with  a  black  bar  behind  the  gill-cover. 
Compare  Citlip.s  (a  name  also  locally  given  to 
the  present  fish ) . 

NIGGER-FISH.  One  of  the  many  names 
given  to  tlie  sea-bass  of  the  genus  Bodianus, 
allied  to  the  groupers.  They  are  small,  bright- 
colored  spotted  fishes  that  live  in  warm  seas.  A 
common    species    about    Bermuda,    Florida,    and 


"'-^jSji'" 


NiGGER-Fise  (Boflianiis  fulrust- 

southward  is  Bodianus  fulrus,  also  called  'yellow 
fish'  and  "butter-fish,'  a  dark  variety  of  which  is 
especially  designated  by  'nigger-fish.'  The  Span- 
ish name  for  the  group  is  guativere.  They  are 
brought  to  market. 

NIGGER-TOES.    See  Brazil-Nuts. 

NIGHT- APE.     A  nyctipithecine  monkey.    See 

DOUROUCOULI. 

NIGHT-BLINDNESS.  A  form  of  amblyo- 
pia, or  a  limited  ability  to  see  in  a  faint  light, 
due  to  defective  power  of  retinal  adaptation; 
nyctalopia.     See  Sight,  Defects  of. 

NIGHTHAWK.  The  North  American  night- 
jar (Chordeiles  ]'irfiinianus) ,  numerous  and  well 
known  in  all  temperate  parts  of  the  continent  in 
summer,  whence  in  winter  it  migrates  to  the 
tropics.  It  is  about  10  inches  long  and  23 
inclies  in  expanse  of  wing.  The  gape  is  destitute 
of  bristles.  The  tail  is  slightly  forked.  The 
general  color  is  brown,  much  mottled,  and  marked 
with  white.  There  is  a  white  mark  on  the 
throat,  in  shape  like  the  letter  V,  and  a  broad 
white  bar,  which  extends  across  the  first  five 
primary  wing-feathers,  is  plainly  visible  when 
the  bird  is  near  by  and  flying.  The  middle  toe 
is  provided  with  a  comb-like  process  used  by  the 
bird  to  free  itself  of  vermin.  The  nighthawk 
is  seen  pursuing  its  insect  prey  in  the  air,  chiefly 
after  sunset  and  before  dawn,  and  attracts  at- 
tention by  its  sharp,  tearing  cry.  It  also  pro- 
duces in  its  flight  a  remarkable  hollow  booming 
sound,  "like  blowing  into  the  bung-hole  of  a 
barrel,"  in  the  moments  of  its  perpendicular 
descent  through  the  air,  which  has  gained  for  it 
such  rustic  names  as  'buUbat'  and  "piraniidig;* 
also  'mosquito  hawk.'  Its  movements  in  the  air 
are  extremely  beautiful  and  rapid.  When  fat 
and  plump,  as  it  usually  is  on  its  southward 
migration,  it  is  said  to  be  good  eating,  and  some 
are  shot  for  that  purpose.  A  closely  allied 
species  occurs  in  Texas  and  Jlexico,  and  another 
in  the  West  Indies.  The  latter  is  very  generally 
kno\ni  as  the  'gie-me-a-bit,'  from  its  vei'y  char- 
acteristic note.  Nighthawks  lay  their  eggs  on 
the  bare  grotind  or  on  a  flat  rock  or  roof  of  a 
building.  They  are  usually  two  in  number,  and 
are  dull  white,  closely  marked  with  fine  specks 
of  grayish  brown.  At  rest  these  birds  roost  by 
squatting  lengthwise  on  a  large  horizontal  tree- 


NIGHTHAWK. 


660 


NIGHTJAR. 


branch,  and  at  once  become  nearly  invisible. 
Compare  Wiuppoorwill.  See  Plates  of  Night- 
jar, GuACUABO,  ETC.;  and  of  Eggs  of  Song- 
birds. 

NIGHT-HERON.  A  heron  of  the  genus 
Xycticorax,  intcnncdiate  in  form  between  bit- 
terns and  herons,  but  with  shorter  and  thicker 
bill  than  either,  and  legs  shorter  than  in  herons. 
The  common  night-heron  or  'quabird'  iXycti- 
corax  nyclicoraxj  is  found  throughout  all  warm 
temperate  regions.  The  American  bird,  a  sub- 
species to  which  the  name  iiwcius  is  given,  is 
abundant  in  America  and  is  partly  a  bird 
of  passage.  Its  longtli  is  fully  two  feet.  Its 
plumage  is  soft,  the  general  color  ash-gray,  pass- 
ing into  black  on  the  neck  and  head,  and  into 
wliite  on  the  breast  and  l>eny ;  the  back  of  the 
head  is  adorned  with  three  very  long  white 
feathers,  which  hang  down  on  the  neck.  The 
young  are  very  dilTerent — grayish-brown  marked 
with  white  above,  and  white  streaked  with  black- 
ish underneath.  The  nests  are  built  in  trees 
and  usually  many  together,  forming  a  heronry; 
eggs  4-fl,  dull  blue.  ( See  Plate  of  Eggs  of  Water 
AND  Game  Mirds.)  The  night-heron  feeds  chiefly 
by  twilight  or  at  night,  and  is  never  seen  .stand- 
ing motionless  like  other  herons,  but  walks  about 
in  search  of  prey  by  the  sides  of  ditches  and 
ponds,  as  its  food  consists  chiclly  of  fishes,  frogs, 
and  other  aquatic  animals.  Its  cry  is  very  loud 
and  hoarse.  Another  species  (Xi/cticorax  tfo- 
laceus)  is  found  in  the  Southern  United  States. 
Its  crown  is  white  washed  with  buff,  and  it  is 
therefore  called  the  "yellow-crowned  night-heron.' 
It  is  more  solitary  than  the  connnon  species,  ap- 
pearing singly  or  in  pairs,  and  is  also  less 
nocturnal.  Other  species  of  night-heron  are 
foinul  ill  Africa  and  Australia. 

NIGHTINGALE  (AS.  mhlcfiale.  OHG.  wiht- 
agnln.  (Jer.  Snchtiijall.  from  -\S.  tiiht,  night  + 
gnlan,  to  sing).  A  justly  celebrated  migratory 
song-bird  of  \Vest<'rn  and  Central  Europe,  which 
is  a  warbler, closely  related  to  the  robin  redbreast, 
and  as  large  as  a  thrush — the  Daiilins  lu.i<i)ii<i  of 
modern  ornithologists.  It  is  rich  brown  in  color, 
the  rump  and  tail  reddish,  the  lower  parts 
grayish  white.  The  sexes  are  alike.  It  is  plenti- 
ful in  some  parts  of  the  south  and  east  of  Eng- 
lanil.  but  does  not  extend  to  the  western  coun- 
ties, and  never  appears  in  Ireland.  It  frequents 
thickets  and  hedges,  and  low  damp  meadows 
near  streams.  It  arrives  in  England  aliout  the 
middle  of  April,  the  males  ten  to  fourteen  days 
before  the  females.  It  is  at  this  -season,  and 
before  pairing  has  taken  place,  that  bird-catchers 
generally  procure  nightingales  for  cage-birds,  as 
they  then  become  easily  reconciled  to  confine- 
ment, while  if  taken  after  pairing,  they  fret  and 
pine  till  they  die.  The  nightingale  makes  its 
nest  generally  on  the  ground,  but  sometimes  on 
a  low  fork  of  a  bush.  The  nest  is  loosely  con- 
structed of  dead  leaves,  rushes,  and  stalks  of 
grass,  with  a  lining  of  fibrous  roots.  Tlio  eggs 
are  four  or  five  in  niiinl«'r.  of  a  uniform  olive- 
brown.  The  song  of  the  male  ceases  to  be  heard 
ns  soon  as  incubation  is  over,  and  Newton 
remarks  that  it  is  not  safe  for  novelists  to 
represent  it  •  as  singing  before  April  loth  or 
after  .luiie  l.ith.  In  caiitivity,  however,  it  is 
often  continuous  throughout  the  year,  especially 
in  roomy  aviaries.  The  nightingale  usually 
begins    its  song  iu  the  evening  and   sings   with 


brief  intervals  throughout  the  night.  The  va- 
riety, loudness,  and  richness  of  its  notes  are 
equally  extraordinary;  and  its  long  quivering 
strains  arc  full  of  plaintiveiicss  as  well  as  of 
passionate  ecstasy.  The  nightingale  has  been 
a  favorite  from  the  most  ancient  times,  and  is 
often  mentioned  in  the  poetry  of  India  and 
Persia,  as  well  as  of  Greece  and  Rome,  but  the 
bird  referred  to  by  these  Eastern  writers  is  in 
most  cases  a  larger  species  {Daiilids  philumeUi), 
the  ■i)hiIomel,'  "sprosser,'  or  •thrush-nightingale,' 
which  is  never  seen  west  of  the  Rhine;  or  else  a 
third  species  {Daulias  llufhi)  of  Persia  and 
Turkestan.  The  bird  also  has  a  place  in  classic 
niythologj'  in  the  story  of  Procne  and  Philomela. 
Consult:  Newton.  Dirtiotiarii  of  Birds  (London 
and  New  York,  1893-90)  ;  Burroughs,  Winter 
.S'«H«/n'«c  (Boston,  1870).  See  Colored  Plate  of 
So.ng-Bibds  with  Thrush. 

NIGHTINGALE,  Florence  (1820—).  An 
Englisli  pliilnnthio|iist,  born  at  Florence,  Italy, 
tlie  daughter  of  Williaui  Edward  Nightingale,  of 
Embley  Park,  Hampshire.  Her  attention  was 
early  directe<l  to  the  condition  of  hospitals;  she 
tiMvelcd  extensively  on  the  Continent  to  study 
such  institutions,  and  entered  upon  a  course  of 
training  in  nursing  with  the  Sisters  of  Saint 
Vincent  de  Paul  in  Paris  and  at  the  Kaiserswerth 
institution  on  the  Rhine.  When  the  Crimean 
War  broke  out  in  1854.  she  organized  a  nursing 
department  at  Scutari,  and  by  her  untiring 
energy"  and  extraordinary  ability  in  alleviating 
the  suffering  of  the  sick  and  wounded  acquired 
a  world-wide  reputation.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  she  gave  a  testimonial  fund  of  i.'iO.OOO  to 
the  founding  of  the  Nightingale  Home  at  Saint 
Thomas  Hospital  for  the  training  of  nurses. 
During  the  American  Civil  War  and  during  the 
Franco-Prussian  War  she  was  often  consulted  on 
questions  concerning  camp  hospitals.  Among  her 
puldications  are:  Xotcs  on  llospitals  ( 18o9)  ; 
\otes  on  Xursinii  (1800)  ;  Xotis  on  the  iianitary 
iitntc  of  the  Anni/  in  India  (1803)  :  and  Life  or 
Drnth  in  India  (1874).  Consult  Edge,  A 
Woman's  Example  and  a  TCation's  Work  (Lon- 
don,  1804). 

NIGHTJAR.  A  general  term,  derived  from 
their  nocturnal  habits  and  jarring  utterances  on 
the  wing,  for  the  large  family  Ca|)rimulgidiC 
(i.e.  'goat-suckers'),  which  is  nearly  cosmopoli- 
tan in  extent.  Nightjars  are  birds  varying  in 
size  from  eight  to  fifteen  inches  in  length :  all 
have  light  soft  plumage,  in  finely  mottled  shades 
of  gray,  brown,  and  white:  and  they  bear  many 
resemldances  to  owls  in  structure  as  well  as  in 
their  nocturnal  and  crepuscular  habits.  In  some 
particulars  they  resemble  the  swifts,  and.  like 
them,  capture  all  their  food  upon  the  wing:  and, 
as  moths  form  a  conspicuous  part  of  this,  the 
tribe  has  been  called  'niothhunters.'  In  pur- 
suit of  this  prey  they  arc  often  seen  in  the  dusk 
about  pastures  with  the  cows  or  ( in  Southern 
Europe)  with  the  goats;  ami  their  habit  of  dodg- 
ing about  the  cattle  after  insects,  together  with 
their  capacious  mouths,  led  to  strange  supersti- 
tions which  are  entirely  without  foundation.  The 
wings  are  long  and  jHiwcrful.  and  in  the  males 
of  some  species  are  furnished  with  long  orna- 
mental feathers  (see  Sta.ndaruWino)  ;  while 
in  others  some  tail-feathers  are  lengthened.  The 
legs  and  feet  are  small  ami  weak,  and  the  middle 
toe  is  usually  remarkably  long,  and  serrated  on 


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NIGIDIXJS  FIGTJLtrS. 


its  inner  edge,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  comb 
attached  to  the  toe.  Although  the  l)ill  is  very 
sliort  and  «cak,  tlie  {jape  is  extremely  wide,  as 
if  the  head  itself  were  divided,  and  the  mouth 
is  surrounded  by  bristles,  assistin<;  the  bird  in 
securing  its  agile  prey.  All  avoid  activity  in 
daylight,  when  they  rest  quiet  on  the  ground, 
a  log,  stone,  or  large  horizontal  tree-branch,  in 
some  shady  place,  and  almost  always  lengthwise 
of  the  pcrc'li — a  habit  due  not  only  to  the  feeble 
grasping  power  of  the  feet,  but  to  tlie  greater 
invisibility  thus  obtained.  In  many  instances 
the  birds  have  a  further  ])roteetive  habit  of 
still'ening  themselves  in  certain  positions  wliere 
tliey  resemble  a  knot,  or  a  broken  and  projecting 
stick,  and  so  escape  notice.  (See  Morepork.) 
They  make  no  nests,  or  only  very  poor  ones, 
which  are  placed  on  the  ground.  The  oblong 
eggs  are  usually  two,  and  are  whitish  or  incon- 
spicuoush'  marked.  (See  Colored  Plate  of  Eggs 
OF  SoNG-BiRus.)  The  voice  is  a  screaming, 
jarring,  or  booming  note,  produced  in  flight; 
while  many  species  have  an  oft -repeated  cry, 
usually  translatable  into  syllables,  as  "whip-poor- 
Will"  or  'chuck-Will's-widow.'  About  100  species 
are  known,  included  in  about  fourteen  genera. 
Of  these,  four  or  five  genera  with  six  species 
occur  in  the  United  States.  The  best  known  are 
the  whippoorwill.  chuek-Will's-widow.  poorwill, 
and  nighthawk  (qq.v.).  The  best-known  species 
of  the  Old  World  is  the  common  nightjar, 'churn- 
owl.'  or  'fern-owl'  {C(ii>riiniilrius  Eiiropdus) , 
familiar  throughout  Central  Europe,  the  Mediter- 
ranean region,  and  Western  Asia.  The  potoos 
(q.v. )  of  Jamaica  and  South  America  represent 
a  distinct  subfamily  ( Xyctibiiiuv) ,  and  an 
aberrant  form  is  the  guacharo  (q.v.). 

Consult  standard  authorities,  especially  Xew- 
ton.  Dictionary  of  Birds  (London  and  Xew  York, 
180301!).    Sec  Plate  of  Nightjars,  etc. 

NIGHTMARE  (night  +  mare,  AS.  mara, 
OHG.  marO,  mar,  dialectic  Ger.  Mahr,  JIar,  in- 
culjus ;  connected  with  Polish  7nora,  Bohem. 
miira,  incubus,  Russ.  kilci-mora,  ghost).  A  sen- 
sation of  ilistress.  sufl'ocation,  or  ojipression  which 
occurs  during  sleep,  and  is  attended  by  hideous 
dreams,  or  indefinite  feelings  of  terror,  with  a 
sense  of  utter  helplessness  and  inability  to  move 
or  cry  out.  Nightmare  is  associated  with  dis- 
turbances of  the  circulation  and  respiration,  and 
is  most  commonly  caused  l)y  the  taking  of  heavy 
meals  or  indigestible  food  shortly  before  going 
to  bed.  It  occurs  in  persons  of  a  nervous  tem- 
perament, or  in  those  subjected  to  severe  mental 
strain  or  overwork.  The  pliysical  symptoms  of 
nightmare  include  groaning,  flushing  of  the  face, 
neck  and  chest,  cold  perspiration,  or  a  general 
trembling  of  the  body.  The  breathing  is  dis- 
turbed and  sometimes  stertorous.  The  pulse  is 
irregular,  but  otherwise  normal. 

The  night  terrors  of  children  may  be  regarded 
as  a  form  of  nightmare.  The  child  sees  some 
object  which  inspires  him  with  fear,  and  s])rings 
up.  screaming  and  protesting.  He  recognizes  no 
one  and  has  no  rememlirance  of  the  ciroimstnnec 
in  tlie  morning.  Other  allied  psychical  condi- 
tions are  observed  in  certain  forms  of  incipient 
delirium,  such  as  occurs  in  fevers,  or  as  the 
result  of  alcdlioHc  excesses.     See  Delirium. 

NIGHTMARE  ABBEY.  A  novel  by  Thomas 
Love  Peacock  (1818).  The  hero  is  a  caricature 
of  Shellev. 


NIGHTSHADE  (AS.  uilitscada.  OHG.  luiht- 
scdlo.  Gcr.  Sa( htsi-hattcn.  nightshade,  from  AS. 
niht,  OHG.  naht,  Ger.  Xacht,  night  +  AS.  scada, 
OHG.  scato,  Ger.  Sichatten,  shade).  The  common 
name  of  certain  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Solanacea".  possessing  the  narcotic  properties 
frequently  developed  in  that  order.  Anumg  them 
are  some  species  of  Solanum.  particularly  the 
common  niglitshade  or  black  nightshade  ( iS'oia- 
num    nigrum),    an    annual    or   biennial    slightly 


BLACK  NIGHTSHADE. 

narcotic  weed  in  waste  places  throughout  the 
world.  It  has  erect  angular  stems,  ovate  leaves, 
drooping  lateral  umbels  of  white  flowers,  and 
globose  black  berries.  The  leaves  in  a  fresh 
state  are  said  to  be  injurious  to  animals,  but 
seem  to  lose  almost  all  narcotic  property  by 
boiling.  The  berries,  although  generally  dreaded 
or  suspected,  may  also,  it  is  said,  be  eaten,  at 
least  in  moderate  quantity,  without  danger.  They 
contain,  however,  the  alkaloid  solanin.  found  also 
in  the  shoots  of  the  potato.  Solaiuiin  dulcainnra 
is  popularly  known  as  bittersweet  (q.v.).  .See 
Bell.\i)ON>a.  and  Colored  Plate  of  Poisoxois 
Plants. 

NIGHTSHADE  FAMILY.  A  natural  order 
of  plants.     See  Sol.vxace.e. 

NIGHT  WALKER,  The,  or  The  Little 
Thief.  A  comedy  bj'  Fletcher.  It  was  written 
probably  not  later  than  1018,  was  altered  by 
SbirU-v  in  10.33.  and  performed  in   1034. 

NIGHT  WATCH,  The.  A  large  picture  I)y 
Rembrandt  in  the  Ryks  Museum  at  .\insterdam 
(1642),  representing  a  company  of  ar(iuel)usii'rs 
under  Capt.  Frans  Banning  Coch  coming  out  of 
their  guild  house.  The  faces  are  portraits.  The 
painting  is  Rembrandt's  largest  and  most  re- 
nowned work. 

NIGID'ITIS  FICTTIiTJS,  PuBLius  (c.lOO- 
44  B.C.).  -\  Latin  grammarian  and  Pythagorean 
philosopher.  He  was  pronounced  by  Aulus  Gel- 
liiis  the  most  learned  of  the  Romans  next  to 
Varro.  and  was  so  celebrated  as  an  astrologer 
that  in  later  times  it  was  believed  he  had 
predicted  the  future  greatness  of  Octavianus  on 
learning  of  the  latter's  birth.  He  was  a  par- 
tisan of  Pompey  in  the  Civil  War.  and  in  conse- 
quence was  compelled  by  Cipsar  to  live  abroad, 
and  died  in  exile.  The  surviving  fragments  of 
his  works,  w'hich  treated  grammar,  religion,  and 


NIGIDIUS  FIGTJLTJS. 


562 


NIHILISM. 


the  natural  sciences,  .are  printed  in  the  Tariw 
Leclioncs  (1018,  iii.  IG)  of  Kutgersius.  Con- 
sult: Brcysig,  De  Xiyidii  Figuli  Fniynnnlis 
(Berlin,  1854)  ;  Klein,  JJe  ]'ila  \igidii  (Bonn, 
1801);  Riilirig,  De  JS'igidio  Fiyulo  (Coburg, 
1887)  ;  and  Swoboda,  P.  Xiyidii  I'igiili  Operum 
Jiili(li(i(r   (Vienna,  1889). 

NIGRA,  ne'gri'i,  CosTAXTiNO,  Count  (  1827—). 
An  Italian  dii)l<)niatist,  born  at  Castellanionte, 
near  Ivrea.  He  interrupted  his  studies  at  Turin 
to  take  part  in  the  war  against  Austria  ( 1848- 
4!)).  and  then  entered  the  diplomatic  service  and 
became  secretary  to  Cavour.  After  the  Peace  of 
Villafranca  (ISoK)  he  was  sent  to  France  as 
Minister  I'lenipotentiary.  He  took  an  active  part 
in  the  negotiation  of  the  Treaty  of  Zurich  in  1859, 
anil  the  cession  of  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France,  and 
was  made  .Vmliassador  to  Paris  (1801).  After 
the  fall  of  the  Knipire  he  l)ecanie  Ambassador  at 
Saint  Petersburg  (1870-82).  Londcm  (1882-85), 
and  Vienna  (1885),  and  in  ISiiO  was  elected 
Senator. 

NIGRITIA,  ne-grlsh'e-ii.  Anotlicr  name  for 
the    Sii.lMn. 

NIHILISM  (from  Lat.  nihil,  nil,  nothing, 
from  ne,  not  +  hilum,  trifle,  little  thing).  A 
term  applied  to  the  tenets  of  tlie  revolutionary 
wing  of  the  Russian  Liberal  Party.  The  term 
was  first  used  in  a  novel  by  Ivan  Turgenieff, 
J-'athrrx  nnd  Sans.  Originally  it  was  a  school 
of  philosophic  and  ethical  individualism  which 
held  aloof  from  political  agitation.  In  the  com- 
mon mind  Nihilism  is  associated  with  assassina- 
tion and  revolution,  since  Russian  Nihilists  seek 
to  overthrow  the  jjresent  (iovernment  by  force. 
The  movement  which  resulted  in  the  formation 
of  the  Nihilistic  Party  began  early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century.  As  early  as  1818  those  who 
aspired  for  greater  freedom  in  Russia  formed  an 
association  (o  further  the  common  welfare.  On 
December  20  (old  style.  14),  1825.  occurred  the 
celebrated  rising  of  the  Decembrists  among  the 
ollicers  and  soldiers  of  the  army,  which  aimed  at 
the  emancipation  of  the  serfs  and  the  introduction 
of  constitutional  governnu'nt.  The  revolt  was 
easily  quelled,  and  six  leaders  were  executed;  125 
others  were  imprisoned  or  exiled.  Toward  the 
middle  of  the  century  liberal  ideas  received  an 
impetus  from  the  study  of  socialistic  writers  of 
other  countries.  On  April  2:1.  1840.  some  thirty- 
three  men  were  arrested  wlio  belonged  to  an 
association  formed  by  Petra>hevsky.  an  official 
of  the  Foreign  Olliee.  Tliese  were  sentenced  to 
death,  hut  the  sentences  were  eommuted  to  im- 
prisonment and  banishment.  There  were  no 
further  disturbances  during  the  reign  of  Nicho- 
las I. 

In  1857  Alexamlcr  HitI/ch  fiiimdcd  in  London 
his  journal,  the  Kolukol  (  Tocsin  l.  which  had 
enormous  inlluence  upon  the  Russian  yo\ith. 
About  this  time  there  arose  in  Russia  itself  a 
literary  movement,  iindcr  the  leailersjiip  of 
Teliernislievsky,  which  criticised  existing  society 
and  sought  to  arouse  the  people.  Tehernishev- 
sky'.s  paper  was  suppressed  in  1802.  Init  later 
he  wrote  a  novel,  ^\'hnl  is  In  hi  Donrt  which  had 
preat  inlluence  in  popularizing  revolutionary 
ideas.  ShapolT.  writing  from  the  historical  point 
of  view,  urged  the  introduction  of  self-govern- 
ment and  local  autonomy.  Organizations  sprang 
>ip  in  the  universities,  and  new  regulations  intro- 
duced by  the  Government  increased  the  opposi- 


tion of  tlie  students.  The  secret  associations  of 
Saint  Petersburg  united  in  1803  under  the  name 
'Land  and   Freedom.' 

During  the  decade  from  1800  to  1870  true 
Nihilism  was  first  developed.  Its  fuiulaniental 
principle  was  absolute  individualism,  the  nega- 
tion of  duties  imposed  by  family.  State,  and 
religion.  An  active  materialistic  i)roi>aganda 
was  maintained.  It  stood  for  the  rights  of  women 
and  children,  demanding  cciuality  of  treatment 
for  women,  and  in  this  res|)cct  it  won  a  decided 
victory.  But  this  individualism  was  confronted 
with  misery  among  the  common  people  which 
was  not  removed  by  the  emancipation  of  the 
serfs.  Economic  conditions  forced  a  change  of 
policy  and  tlie  development  of  political  agitation. 
In  1808  Bakunin  (q.v.)  started  a  paper  at 
Geneva,  and  became  the  leader  of  the  anarchists, 
who  gained  control  of  the  movement.  Bakunin 
advocated  the  total  aliolition  of  the  State  and 
the  sulistitution  of  small  cipunnunes.  The  mir. 
or  village  conuiuine  (q.v.),  had  only  to  be  freed 
from  the  State  to  make  an  ideal  basis.  The 
Russian  students,  forbidden  in  187.3  to  study  at 
Zurich,  returned  home  to  take  active  part  in  the 
propaganda.  Associations  sprang  uj)  throughout 
the  land.  Many  of  the  aristocrats  took  ])art  in 
this  movement.  The  attention  of  the  Govern- 
ment was  of  course  attracted,  and  in  1873  and 
1874  some  1500  persons  were  arrested.  Most 
of  these  were  released  after  a  few  months'  im- 
lirisoiniient ;  the  rest  were  confined  for  three  or 
four  years,  and  in  1877  1!13  were  banished  to 
Siberia.  During  this  same  jieriod,  au<l  indeed 
at  all  times,  there  existed  a  more  moderate  part}'; 
but  it  did  not  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  young 
men  and  women,  particularly  of  the  universities, 
which  have  been  a  hotl>ed  of  political  agitation. 
About  1875  the  'Narodniki'  became  a  prominent 
and  widespread  organization.  It  was  under  the 
leadership  of  the  society  at  Saint  Petcrsliurg. 
The  (iovernment  now  became  active,  and  during 
1870  and  1877  the  prisons  were  filled  with  propa- 
gandists. The  trials  of  1877  and  1878  mark  the 
end  of  the  first  period  of  revolution.  The  num- 
ber of  persons  involved  in  these  trials  was  about 
3800. 

The  attempts  to  organize  the  people  into  revolt 
now  ended.  The  cruelty  of  the  Government  led 
to  reprisals,  and  the  Nihilism  which  began  peace- 
fully in  the  seventies  took  on  another  nature. 
-At  first  sj)ies  of  the  (iovernment  were  nnirdercd. 
February  5,  1878.  Vera  Zassuliteh,  a  young 
woman  of  twenty-eight,  shot  at  General  TrcpotT, 
who  had  caused  a  prisoner  to  be  whipped  for 
refusing  to  take  o(T  his  hat  to  him.  She  was 
tried  before  a  jury  of  educated  men,  eight  of 
whom  held  Government  positions,  and.  to  the  gen- 
eral sinprisc.  she  was  acquitted.  The  Govern- 
ment was  enraged  at  this,  and  the  verdict  was 
annulled.  August  4.  1878.  General  Mezentseff 
was  killed  in  the  streets  of  Saint  Petersburg. 
f)n  February  21.  1870,  the  Governor  of  Kharkov. 
Prince  Krapotkin.  was  assassinated,  and  other 
attempts  were  made  to  assassinate  hated  olTicials. 
.April  14.  1870.  an  attem])t  to  assassinate  the 
Kmperor.  Alexander  II..  was  made  by  SoloviefT, 
who  was  captured  and  hanged.  Two  later  at- 
tempts were  likewise  failures.  Imt  (he  next 
(March  13.  1881)  was  successful.  (See  Al.EX- 
ANnr.it  II.)  It  was  hoped  that  the  terror  inspired 
by  the  death  of  the  Fniperor  would  lead  to  the 
introiluction  of  a   conslitnl  ionnl    systeni.      When 


NIHILISM. 


563 


NIKE  APTEROS. 


this  Iiope  failed,  c•on^stl■Ul■tive  measures  were 
souf,'lit.  In  1880  two  reform  parties  were 
prominent:  one  of  them  had  as  its  mouthpieci; 
the  Tchenty  I'cicilicI,  wliii-h  foiind  its  cliief  sui)- 
port  in  the  workinf^men,  and  |iroposcd  to  educate 
and  orj^anize  society  in  orcU'r  that  social  revolu- 
tion might  be  effected.  The  second  and  more 
important  party  was  the  Xarodnaia  V'olia  (Will 
of  the  People},  which  sou<;ht  to  ovcrtlirow  des- 
potism by  the  communistic  instincts  of  the  peas- 
ants. It  set  forth  a  programme  with  the  follow- 
ing demands:  (1)  A  repBcsentative  assembly  hav- 
ing supreme  control  in  all  State  matters:  (2) 
provincial  self-government  with  elective  ollicers : 
1 3)  village  eonununcs.  which  were  to  be  eco- 
nomically and  executively  independent:  (4)  free- 
dom of  conscience,  press,  si)eech.  association,  and 
political  agitation;  (5)  manhood  suffrage;  (6) 
militia  instead  of  a  standing  army;  (7)  na- 
tionalization of  land  ;  ( 8 )  measures  to  socialize 
factories,  etc.  The  Xarodnaia  practically  dis- 
solved in  1884.  With  its  downfall  there  came 
a  period  of  quiet  in  the  social  movement,  al- 
though in  the  cities  there  still  exists  a  reform 
movement    among    the   workingmen.      See    Coii- 

m'XISM  ;    S0CIAL1.S.M. 

Consult :  Turgeniefi',  La  Riissie  ct  les  Itusscs 
(Paris,  1847);  Ilertzen.  La  conspiration  russc 
de  IS^o  (London,  ISoS)  ;  Thun,  Geschichtc  des 
ruxsischen  yHiilismns  (Basel,  1883);  Step- 
niak,  Underground  Russia  (London,  1883)  ;  id., 
Fussia  Under  the  Tsars  (ih.,  188.5)  ;  Tikhomirov, 
Russia,  Political  and  Social  (ib.,  1887)  ;  Olden- 
burg, Der  russisclic  yihilismus  {Leipzig,  1888)  : 
Stegmann,  Handhurh  des  l^ocialismus,  article 
"Paissland"  (Zurich,  1807);  Karlowitsch,  Die 
Entirirkcluiif]  des  rnssisclieii  Xihilismus  (3d  ed., 
Berlin,  1880 1,  a  convenient  short  history  of  the 
movement :  Kennan,  Siberia  and  the  Exile  Sys- 
tem (Xew  York,  ISfll)  ;  Krapotkin,  Memoirs  of 
a  Revolutionist    (Boston,   1899), 

NIHONGI,  neTi6n-ge'  (.Jap.,  Chronicles  of  Ja- 
pan). An  ancient  Japanese  historical  book.  In  a.d. 
71'2  the  Jiojiki  (Records  of  Ancient  Matters) ,  the 
first  book  written  in  Japan,  appeared.  It  was 
followed  in  720  by  the  yihonyi,  which  gives  the 
substance  of  the  Kojiki  in  Chinese  form.  Xot 
only  are  Chinese  phrases  and  sentences  employed, 
but  it  is  fashioned  throughout  on  the  model  of 
Chinese  histories.  It  transforms,  for  example, 
the  two  gods  from  whom  sprang  the  .Japanese 
race  into  the  "positive"  and  "negative'  principles 
of  the  Chinese  philosophy,  and  it  puts  into  the 
months  of  mythical  .Japanese  monarchs  speeches 
filled  with  quotations  from  the  Chinese  classics. 
It  omits  a  few  legends,  explains  away  the  gross- 
ness  of  a  few  others,  and  gives  variant  versions 
of  still  others.  It  adds  also  72  years  of  history. 
In  .Japan  it  has  far  excelled  the  Kojiki  in  popu- 
larity, but  to  the  serious  student  it  is  of  much 
less  value,  though  it  is  still  a  secondary  source 
for  the  history  of  ancient  Japan. 

NIIGATA,  ne'e-gii'ta.  A  seaport  on  the  west 
coast  of  Hondo,  .Japan,  and  capital  of  a  prefec- 
ture, at  the  mouth  of  the  Shinano  River,  in 
latitude  37°  .i.V  X.  and  longitude  139°  3'  E. 
(Map:  .Japan,  F.^).  By  tlie  treaty  of  1S.5S  Xiigata 
was  opened  to  foreign  commerce  on  Janmiry  1, 
18G9,  but  the  existence  of  a  heavy  bar  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  has  prevented  its  commercial 
development.  The  Province  of  Echigo,  in  which 
Njigata  lies,  abounds  in  mineral  wealth,  petro- 


leum, coal,  and  metals,  and  the  soil  yields  rice, 
silk,  tea,  and  the  lacquer  tree,  and  inferior  lac- 
quer ware  is  numufactured  at  Xiigata  on  a  large 
scale.  The  town  is  clean,  and  well  provided  with 
schools,  banks,  newspapers,  and  post  ollices.  The 
climate  is  very  hot  in  the  summer  and  extremely 
cold  in  the  winter.     Population,  in  1898,  53,330. 

NIJAR,  ne'iiilr.  A  town  of  Southeastern 
Spain,  in  the  Province  of  .\lmerla,  situated  in  an 
artilicially  irrigated  plain,  15  miles  northeast 
of  Almeria  (ilap:  Spain,  D  4),  There  are  mines 
of  lead,  iron,  manganese,  and  phosphorite,  and 
the  town  manufactures  woolen  blankets  and  fine 
ironstone  pottery.    Population,  in  1900,  12,558. 

NIJKERK,  nl'kerk.  A  town  in  the  Province 
of  Gelderland,  Holland,  28  miles  southeast  of 
Amsterdam  (Map:  Xethcrlands,  D  2).  It  has  a 
good  harbor  connected  with  the  Zuider  Zee  by  a 
wide  canal  two  miles  long.  The  chief  industries 
are  matting  and  flax-spinning;  a  brisk  trade  is 
carried  on  in  grain,  wood,  and  cattle.  Popula- 
tion, in  1899.  8124. 

NIJMEGEN,  nI'ma-Gen.  A  city  of  the  Neth- 
erlands.     See  XlMEGUEN. 

NIJNI-NOVGOROD,  nyezh'nye  ndv'go-rod. 
A  city  in  Russia.     See  Xiziini-Novgoeod. 

NIKA  (ne'ka)  RIOT.  An  insurrection  against 
the  Emperor  Justinian  at  Constantinople  in  532. 
It  was  occasioned  by  the  oppressive  taxation 
and  the  fights  between  the  Blue  and  the  Green 
factions  of  the  Circus.  Justinian  favored  the 
Blues  at  first,  but  soon  both  Blues  and  GJreens 
joined  in  a  popular  uprising.  Justinian  yielded 
to  their  demands  for  reform,  and  this  encouraged 
the  mob,  who  set  fire  to  the  city.  Saint  Sophia 
and  many  public  buildings  were  burned.  The 
mob  forced  Hypatius  to  assume  the  Imperial 
insignia,  and  Justinian  wished  to  flee,  but  was 
dissuaded  by  Theodora.  Finally  Belisarius 
(q.v. )  attacked  the  rioters  in  the  hippodrome, 
and  put  down  the  rebellion  by-  the  slaughter  of 
as  many  as  thirty  thousand.     See  Justinian. 

NITCE  (Gk.  piK-//,  victory).  The  Greek  god- 
dess of  victory,  corresponding  to  the  Roman 
Victoria.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Styx  and 
Pallas,  and  sister  of  Zelos  (zeal),  Cratos  (pow- 
er), and  Bia  (force).  Having  assisted  Zeus  in 
his  combat  with  the  Titans,  she  was  taken  to 
live  with  him  on  Oljnnpus.  She  is  usually  rep- 
resented with  wings  and  bearing  a  wreath  and 
palm  branch,  and  is  often  foimd  in  sculpture 
in  connection  with  other  divinities,  especially 
with  Athena,  who  is  also  called  Nike. 

NIKE  AP'TEROS  (Gk.  TXUv  'Airrepot,  Wing- 
less Victory),  or  Atiikne  Nike,  Temple  of,  A 
beautiful  small  temple  of  simple  Doric  archi- 
tecture standing  on  a  bastioji  flanking  the  en- 
trance to  the  Athenian  Acropolis.  The  temple 
was  erected  as  part  of  the  scheme  of  beautifica- 
tion  of  the  city  undertaken  by  Pericles,  and 
was  built  by  Callicrates,  the  architect  of  the 
I>ong  \\'alls.  It  was  torn  down  by  the  Turks 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
the  material  was  used  in  the  construction  of  a 
bastion.  Lord  Elgin  took  some  of  the  slabs  of 
its  frieze  to  Londcm.  In  1835.  when  the  bastion 
was  destroyed,  the  stones  of  the  building  were 
recovered,  and  the  temple  was  rebuilt  on  the 
original  foundation,  missing  portions  being  sup- 
plied by  terra-cotta  easts.  The  temple.  18  by  27 
feet,  consists  merely  of  a  small  cella,  with  four 


NIKE  APTEROS. 


564 


NIKON. 


Ionic  columns,  13i..j  feet  higli,  in  the  front  anJ 
rear.  The  sculptures  of  its  frieze  represented 
an  assembly  of  divinities,  combats  between  Greeks 
and  Persians,  and  a  combat  between  Greeks  and 
Greeks.  The  balustrade  surrounding  the  precinct 
of  the  teni|)le  was  adorned  with  reliefs  of  sacri- 
fices in  honor  of  Athena,  to  whom  the  temple 
was  consecrated  under  the  name  of  Nike  Apteros, 
in  order  to  distinguish  her  from  the  usual  winged 
representations  of  Nike. 

NIK'ISCH,  Arthir  (1855—).  An  Hungarian 
nuisioal  ciinductor.  born  at  LC'beny  Szent-.Mikli'ps. 
ile  was  educated  under  Dessotl'  and  Hellmesberger 
at  the  \'ienna  Conservatory,  and  on  the  conclu- 
sion of  his  course  entered  the  Court  orchestra  as 
a  violinist.  His  first  enj;agement  as  a  conductor 
was  at  the  Leipzig  Theater.  Here  he  became 
noted  for  conducting  without  score,  while  his 
ability  and  technical  skill  won  him  a  leading 
place.  From  18S!I  to  1893  he  was  conductor  o^ 
the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra,  succeeding  W'il- 
hclm  (ioricke,  and  being  in  turn  succeeded  bv 
Emil  Paur.  He  returned  to  Pesth,  where  he 
was  appointed  the  director  of  the  Royal  Opera 
House  and  conductor  of  the  city  Philharmonic 
Society  concerts.  His  most  important  musical 
engagement  and  the  scene  of  his  greatest  success 
was  as  the  successor  of  Reinecke  (1895)  in  the 
conductorship  of  the  Gewandhaus  concerts  of 
Leipzig. 

NIKITA,  ne-ke'ta,  Louise  (1872—).  The 
professional  name  of  Louisa  ilargaret  Nicholson, 
an  American  singer,  born  in  Philadelphia.  She 
studied  in  Paris  under  Maurice  Strakosch,  and 
sang  there  and  in  (iermany  with  considerable 
success.  Her  operatic  debiit  was  in  1889  as 
Zerlina  in  Dun  Gioraiini,  and  in  189-t  she  became 
prima  donna  at  the  Paris  Opera.  Her  best-known 
roles  are  in  Fille  du  regiment,  Maiioii,  Trariata, 
Lfikiiir.  and  Pagliucci. 

NIKITIN,  ny^-ke'tyfn.  IvAX  Savitcii  (1824- 
61).  A  Russian  lyric  poet,  born  at  Voronezh. 
He  began  to  writi-  for  the  press  in  1850:  at- 
tracted attention  by  his  patriotic  irocm  Rii.s.iiu  in 
1853:  and  in  185(i  had  a  volume  of  poems  pub- 
lished under  the  patronage  of  Count  Tolstoi.  His 
greatest  iiopularity  was  won  by  his  poem  liiiltik. 
or  'The  iloney-Lender'  (1858),  a  remarkable 
picture  of  peasant  life.  Resides  his  Ivrics. 
Nikitin  wrote  two  novels.  A  collected  edition  of 
his  works  was  published  at  Moscow  (tith  ed. 
18921. 

NIK'KO  (.rap,.  Sun's  Brightness).  A  town 
and  tourist  resort  in  the  Prefecture  of  Tochigi, 
Japan,  about  80  miles  northwest  of  Tokio. 
famous  for  its  natural  beauties,  as  well  as 
for  the  mortuary  shrines  of  lyevasu.  the  founder 
of  the  Tokugawa  family,  and  of  lyC'mitsu.  his 
grandson  (.Map:  .Japan."  F  5).  As  a  holy  place 
its  reputation  dates  from  the  eighth  century,  but 
the  gorgeous  mortuary  shrines  were  not  built 
until  Ifil",  since  which  time  they  have  been  em- 
l>ellished  by  the  lavish  gifts  of  vassals,  the  won- 
ders of  Hiilari  .lingoro's  wood  carving,  magnifi- 
cent gifts  of  works  of  art  in  bronze,  granite,  and 
other  sttmes.  with  offerings  from  the  Dutch.  Loo- 
Chooans.  Koreans,  etc.  The  name  Nikko  is  also 
ajiplied  to  the  surrounding  region. 


NIKLA   URSS.   ne'klA   i.irs 


the 
p:.tr 


Bea  r  I 

.t, 


.A    popular   name 
I'Mi   Ilora    (q.v. ). 


(Rum.,  Nicholas 
for   a   Rumanian 


NIKOLAYEV,  nye'kfi-la'yev.  An  important 
naval  and  eonimcrcial  river  port  in  the  Govern- 
ment of  Kher.son.  South  Russia.  situate<l  on  the 
river  Bug,  42  miles  northwest  of  Kherson  (Map: 
Russia.  D  5).  The  river  at  Nikolayev  is  of  surti- 
cient  width  and  ilepth  for  the  largest  vessels. 
The  town  has  two  gynmasia,  a  naval  school,  an 
observatory,  a  theatre,  and  a  number  of  parks. 
Nikolayev  is  among  the  largest  commercial  ports 
of  Russia.  It  is  especially  important  in  the 
export  of  grain,  the  imports  being  comjjaratively 
insigiiitlcaut.  The  harl>or  is  strongly  fortified, 
and  the  navy  yard  with  its  wharves" and  various 
shops  covers  a  large  area.  The  industrial  estab- 
lishments, except  those  connected  with  the  navy 
yard,  are  few  and  consist  of  tobacco  factories, 
tallow-melting  establishments,  etc.  The  city 
forms  a  separate  administrative  district  under 
a  military  Governor,  who  is  also  conunander-in- 
chief  of  the  Black  Sea  fleet.  There  are  many  con- 
sular representatives  at  Nikolayev. 

Population,  in  1S97,  92,0t)0.  of  whom  about  75 
per  cent,  were  (ircek  Orthodox,  and  alrout  17  jier 
cent.  .lews.  Nikolayev  was  founded  bv  Potemkin 
in  1784.  Until  18i)0  it  was  only  a  'naval  port, 
which  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  building  up 
of  the  Russian  n;ny. 

NIKOLAYEVSK,  nye'k.Vlii'y^fsk.  A  town 
in  the  (iovernment  of  Samara.  Russia,  situated 
on  the  Great  Irgiz.  a  tributary  of  the  Volga.  110 
miles  south-southwest  of  Samara  (Map:  Russia, 
G  4).  It  carries  on  a  brisk  trade  in  agricul- 
tural products  and  animals,  and  produces  brick, 
leather,  and  tallow.  In  the  district  of  Niko- 
layevsk  are  a  number  of  prosixrous  German 
(•(donies.  The  town  was  foimded  by  the  Ras- 
kolniks  (dissenters)  in  1782.  Population,  in 
1897.  12.500.  chiefly  Raskolniks,  and  including 
aliout   1900  Tatars. 

NIKOLSBURG,  n6'k61s-boorK.  A  town  of 
.Muiiivia.  Austria,  situated  about  .30  miles  south 
of  Briinn  (Map:  .\uslria.  E  21.  On  a  rock  near 
the  centre  of  the  town  stands  the  castle  of  the 
l)rinees  of  Dietrichstein.  to  whom  the  town  has 
belonged  since  1575.  There  arc  a  number  of 
ehun'hes,  a  higher  gymnasium,  a  library,  and  a 
natural  history  museum — the  two  last  in"  the  cas- 
tle. In  the  vicinity  of  the  town  is  produced  good 
wine.  Nikolsburg  is  noted  for  the  |>eace  con- 
cluded there  between  Ferdinand  XL  and  Bethlen 
G:lbor  in  1022,  and  the  armistices  iK'lween  Prus- 
sia ;in(l  Austria  and  Prussia  and  Bavaria  in 
18i;i;.     Population,  in  1900,  8091. 

NI'KON  (1005-81).  A  patriarch  of  the  Rus- 
sian Church.  He  was  born  near  Nizlmi-Novgo- 
rod,  became  a  priest  and  monk,  and  in  lti4(>  was 
appointed,  by  the  Czar  .Mcxis  Mikhailovitch, 
.\rcliimandrite  of  the  Novospa.sky  .Monastery  at 
Moscow.  In  1048  he  became  Metropolitan  of 
Novgorod,  and  in  1052  was  elevated  to  the 
patriarchate.  In  1058,  having  lost  the  favor  of 
the  Cziir.  he  retired  to  the  Monastery  of  the 
Resurrection  of  Christ,  which  he  had  himself 
built,  and  in  1000  was  ileposed  by  a  council 
called  to  consider  his  ease,  and  banished  as  a 
eonunon  monk  to  a  monastery  at  Bielozersk.  Czar 
Feodor  -Alexeyevitch  granted  him  jicrmission  to 
return  to  the  Monastery  of  the  Resurrection  of 
Christ,  but  he  died  on  the  journey  thither.  Nikon 
was  nn  ardent  upholder  of  monasticism.  and  wa.i 
noted  for  his  benevolent  life  and  character,  show- 
ing   mueli    kindness    to    the    poor    and    unfortu- 


NIKON. 


563 


NILE. 


iiatc.  He  tried  to  uplift  the  people,  pro- 
iiioled  educalion.  and  alteinpted  to  inlroduce 
many  rcfuiius  into  the  C'lmicli,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  was  the  ellurt  to  revise  the  Church 
books  and  correct  them  according  to  the  old  East- 
ern liturj;ics.  This  cli'urt  met  with  opposition 
from  some  who  were  opposed  to  ehan)i<',  and 
led  to  a  division  in  the  C'hureh.  Sec!  Ka.skoi.- 
NIKS.  Consult  I'almer,  The  I'utriurch  and  the 
Tnur    (London,   1S71-7(J). 

NIKOP'OLI,  or  NICOP'OLIS.  An  ancient 
an<l  fortilied  town  in  the  north  of  Bul<;aria,  situ- 
ated on  the  right  bank  of  tlie  Danube,  about 
24  miles  north-northeast  of  Plevna  (Map:  Bal- 
kan Peninsula,  E  3).  It  is  commanded  by  a 
citadel  and  has  an  old  castle  and  a  Byzantine 
church.  The  surrounding  country  produces  good 
wine,  and  tliere  is  some  trade  between  Nikopoli 
and  Wallachia.  Nikopoli  is  noted  for  the  de- 
feat here  in  13!»G  of  a  large  Christian  army  un- 
der Sigismund  of  Hungary  by  the  Turks  under 
Bajazet  I.  The  fortress  was  occupied  by  the 
Russians  in  1810,  and  the  fortifications  were 
partly  demolishe<l.  In  1829  a  Turkish  fleet  was 
defeated  by  tlie  Russians  near  Nikopoli,  and  iu 
18V"  the  town  was  nearly  destroyed  by  the  Rus- 
sian army.  The  Nikopolis  ad  Istruni,  foiuided  by 
Trajan,  with  which  Nikopoli  is  sometimes  iden- 
tified, is  now  believed  to  have  been  .situated  a  few 
miles  down  the  river. 

NILE  (Lat.  Nil  us,  from  Gk.  NciXos,  Xeilos, 
Nile;  possibly  connected  with  Heb.  nahal, 
stream,  Eg^'ptian  U'pi).  The.  The  largest  river 
of  Africa,  and  the  longest  in  the  world  excepting 
the  Missouri-Mississippi,  its  length  from  the  Vic- 
toria Nyanza  to  the  Mediterranean  being  about 
3670  miles.  Authorities  have  definitely  ascer- 
tained that  the  fountainhead  of  the  Nile  is  a 
little  stream  situated  just  north  of  latitude  3° 
S..  in  longitude  2(1°  30'  E.,  near  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  the  mountains  bordering  the  north- 
east coast  of  Lake  Tanganyika.  This  stream, 
rising  among  the  mountains  at  a  height  of  6114 
feet  above  tlie  sea,  gives  birth  to  tlie  Ruvuvu 
River,  wliich  is  the  mother  branch  of  the  Kagera 
or  Alexandra  Nile,  eni])tying  into  Victoria  Nyanza 
on  its  west  coast.  The  area  of  the  Nile's  basin 
has  been  estimated  at  from  1.082.000  to  1,780.000 
square  miles.  The  general  course  of  the  river  is 
from  south  to  north,  and  though  it  ha.s  some 
largely  developed  sinuosities,  its  delta  is  almost 
directly  north  of  the  Albert  Nyanza.  which  tlie 
Nile  enters  and  from  which  it  emerges,  the  dclt.a 
an<l  lake  being  separated  by  a  distance  of  about 
2000  miles. 

The  Nile  has  some  special  features  that  may 
be  mentioned  before  describing  it.  While  the 
river  and  its  tributaries  bring  down  from  the 
tropics  an  enormous  quantity  of  water,  little  of 
it  reaches  the  sea,  except  at  high  flood,  as  nearly 
all  the  water  that  does  not  evaporate  in  the 
long  journey  northward  is  sprea<l  over  the  fields 
of  Egypt,  where  it  serves  the  double  purjiose  of 
supplying  moisture  and  fertilizing  sediment.  Its 
up|ier  and  its  lower  courses  are  navigable.  Its 
midille  course  is  not  navigable  except  at  very  high 
flood,  and  then  only  with  ditliculty.  The  six  cata- 
racts of  the  Middle  Nile  extend  along  1100  miles. 
with  long  stretches  of  smooth  water  between 
them ;  but  this  entire  section  of  the  river  may 
be  regarded  as  unavailable  for  very  important 
navigation.    These  Nubian  cataracts  "afford  abun- 


dant water  power,  but  it  has  never  been  utilized. 
Like  all  large  rivers  flowing  north  and  south,  the 
Nile  tends  to  impinge  more  strongly  upon  its 
right  bank,  owing  to  tlie  revolution  of  the  earth 
from  west  to  east.  The  l)oundary  of  the  Nile 
basin  is  more  clearly  outlined  in  the  south  than 
in  tlie  north.  The  river  dill'er^  from  all  other 
great  African  rivers  in  that  it  ])asses  through 
various  climatic  zones  and  departs  very  little 
from  its  main  direction. 

The  Nile  may  be  divided  into  four  sections — 
the  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower  Nile,  and  the  Delta, 
each  having  its  distinctive  aspects.  The  Upjier 
Nile  extends  from  the  lakes  to  the  confluence  of 
the  Blue  and  White  Nilos  at  Khartum.  It  is 
distinguished  as  being  the  region  of  tril)utaries, 
all  of  them  being  included  excepting  the  Atbara, 
which  is  not  perennial.  It  is  also  the  region  of 
heavy  tropical  rains.  Three  great  reservoirs  re- 
ceive the  numerous  affluents  in  the  equatorial  re- 
gions. The  Nile  issues  from  the  largest  of  these 
reservoirs,  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  which  is  nearly 
equal  to  Scotland  in  area,  and  lies  3000  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  river,  issuing  from  the  middle  of 
the  north  shore  of  the  lake,  plunges  13  feet  over 
Ripon  Falls,  and  is  1200  feet  wide  where  its 
waters  start  on  their  journey  north.  This  is  the 
Victoria  or  Somerset  Nile.  It  flows  to  the  north- 
west, passes  through  the  .small  Gita  and  Kioga 
lakes,  down  the  Karuma  rapids,  thimders  over 
Murchison  Falls  (120  feet  high,  270  miles  from 
the  outlet ) ,  and  then  pursues  a  peaceful  course 
for  about  30  miles  till  it  empties  into  the  north- 
east corner  of  Alliert  Nyanza,  only  to  emerge  at 
the  northern  apex  of  the  lake  as  the  Bahr-el- 
.lebel,  a  deep  and  majestic  stream,  bound  on  its 
long  journey  to  the  ilediterranean.  South  of 
Albert  Nyanza  is  Lake  Albert  Edward,  sending 
its  waters,  collected  chiefly  from  the  great  moun- 
tain mass  of  Rowenziui,  through  the  Semliki 
River  to  Albert  Nyanza,  which  is  1000  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza.  The  headwaters 
of  the  Upper  Nile  are  thus  collected  in  the  Albert 
Nyanza.  From  the  Albert  Nyanza  the  river  de- 
scends with  slow  current  and  scarcely  any  slope 
to  Dufile.  where  it  passes  between  two  mountain 
walls.  Soon  after  leaving  the  mountains  the 
slope  becomes  greater,  the  river  foams  over  the 
Fola  Rapids,  leaves  the  plateau  of  Central  Africa, 
enters  the  grass  lands,  and  below  Bor  its  banks 
are  lost  in  the  wide-s))reading  swamps  on  either 
side,  and  the  channel  s]dits  into  several  branches, 
the  Bahr-cl-.Jebel.  the  Bahr-el-Seraf.  and  others, 
which  meet  again  in  Lake  No  or  farther  down  the 
river.  In  Lake  No.  the  Bahr-el-.Iebel  meets  the 
large  tributary  from  the  west,  the  Bahr-el-tJhazal 
(Gazelle  River),  and  they  leave  the  lake  as  the 
Bahr-el-Abiad  or  White  Nile,  which  owes  its 
name  to  the  fact  that  in  the  sluggish  current 
through  the  swam])  region  and  in  Lake  No  the 
sediment  settles,  leaving  the  river  light  in  color, 
and  this  is  accentuated  farther  down  by  the  white 
waters  of  the  Sobat  tributary. 

This  area  of  swamps  and  branches  is  the  vast 
region  of  the  suchl  (barrier),  where  all  the 
channels  are  often  comidetely  choked  by  dense 
masses  of  vegetation.  The  current  brings  down 
fresh  masses  of  weed  ami  the  sectional  area  of 
the  river  channel  is  quickly  reduced.  The 
velocity  of  the  current  is  consequently  increased, 
and  the  succeeding  portions  are  sucked  under 
the  original  block,  thus  adding  to  its  thickness. 
By  degrees,  under  the  severe  action  of  the  water. 


NILE. 


566 


NILE. 


the  whole  becomes  compressed  into  a  dense  and 
Kolid  mass,  which  covers  the  river  surface  from 
bank  to  bank,  and  underneath  which  the  stream 
rushes  as  through  a  sluice  gate.  These  blocks 
at  times  attain  a  thickness  of  15  feet  below  tlie 
water  and  4  or  5  feet  above  it.  The  surface  in 
places  is  so  solid  that  lii|)p(ipotami-  and  even 
elephants  can  cross  it  without  danger.  Naviga- 
tion of  the  river  is  thus  rendered  impossible.  In 
18!)U-li>00,  after  the  recoiupicst  of  the  Sudan,  the 
Government  attempte<l  witli  much  success  to 
open  navigation  in  the  main  channel  by  cutting 
down  into  the  sudd,  tearing  tlie  sections  away 
by  steamboats,  and  setting  the  masses  thus  sej)a- 
rated  afloat.  This  region  is  very  unhealthful 
and  the  inhabitants  are  few.  It  is  believed  that 
the  swamp  and  sudd  region  embraces  an  area  of 
about  12.000  scuuue  miles.  All  the  streams  are 
reunited  02  miles  below  Lake  Xo  and  receive  on 
the  right  bank  the  Sobat  Kiver,  coming  from  the 
southern  extension  of  the  Abyssinian  highlands, 
a  navigable  river  for  212  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Below  the  Sobat,  the  White  Xile  takes  a  definite 
northern  course  and  Hows,  a  mighty,  though  slug- 
gish stream,  to  Khartum,  where  the  White  and 
the  Blue  Niles  mingle  their  waters. 

The  i51ue  Nile  is  a  very  different  river.  It 
rises  in  the  Alpine  heights  of  Abyssinia,  descends 
to  the  White  Nile  between  its  high  banks  with  a 
very  rapid  c\iirent,  and  in  the  flood  time  it  is 
reddened  by  the  (piantitiis  of  alluvia  with  which 
it  is  surcharged.  Tlie  White  Nile  gives  to  Eg^'pt 
the  larger  i|uaiitity  of  water:  the  Blue  .Nile 
spreads  over  tlie  liclds  the  fertile  sediment  that 
enriehes  them.  Thus  each  had  its  distinctive 
function  in  creating  Kgvpt  out  of  the  desert 
sands.  Khartum,  at  the  junction  of  these  rivers, 
is  at  the  heart  of  the  great  hydrogiaphic  system, 
and  is  naturally  the  metropolis  of  the  Eastern 
Sudan.  The  Blue  Xile,  from  its  great  reservoir. 
Lake  Tsana,  5840  feet  above  the  sea,  has  a  wind- 
ing course  of  S'.i'.)  miles  down  the  ]ilateau  and 
over  the  jihiin  to  Khartum.  Jluch  land  in  its 
valley  is  suitable  for  agricultural  development. 
The  river  needs  seientilic  regulation  so  that  it 
may  best  serve  the  interests  of  Eg>-pt.  Under 
the  agreement  with  King  Menelek  of  Abyssinia 
(1902)  for  the  delimitati<m  of  the  boundary  be- 
tween his  country  and  the  Sudan,  the  Egv-ptian 
Government  has  authority  to  regulate  the  flow 
of  water  in  the  u])iier  river.  The  Cape  to  Cairo 
Railroad  will  ftdhiw  the  Blue  Nile  for  a  consid- 
erable distance  above  Khartum,  to  avoid  the 
swamp  region  of  the  White  Nile. 

From  a  little  below  Khartum  to  the  Mi^diter- 
ranean  the  river  flows  tlircmgh  one  of  the  most 
arid  deserts  in  the  world,  without  receiving  a 
single  tributary  excepting  the  Atbara.  ISO  miles 
below  Khartum,  which  drains  the  northern  high- 
lands of  .\byssinia.  but  is  nearly  dry  in  sununer. 
Throughiiut  this  long  course,  the  valley  of  tlie 
Nile  is  jnerely  a  cleft  in  the  desert  plateau,  the 
alluvial  plain  along  the  river  being  hounded  by 
barren  elifl's.  which  here  and  there  rise  to  1000 
feet.  The  volume  of  the  river  is  greatly  depletid 
by  evaporation  in  this  part  of  its  course.  The 
second  section  of  the  rivi^r,  the  ^liddle  Nile,  ex- 
tends from  Khartum  to  .^ssuan.  a  distance  of 
1124  miles.  It  is  a  region- of  cataracts,  there  be- 
ing .'iol  miles  of  rapicis,  with  a  total  fall  of  fi.'iO 
feet,  and  77:!  miles  of  navisation,  with  a  fall  of 
312   fi<.l       I'Ih'   cataracts,   in  their  order  as  the 


river  is  descended,  may  be  briefly  described: 
The  Sixth  Cataract,  beginning  52  miles  below 
Kliartum,  is  a  little  over  one  mile  long,  and  the 
drop  in  the  river  is  20  feet.  The  Fifth  Cataract 
begins  28  miles  north  of  Berber,  is  100  miles 
long,  has  three  principal  rapids,  and  the  descent 
is  over  200  feet.  Abu  Ilamed  is  a  little  below  the 
foot  of  this  cataract.  The  Fourth  Cataract  is 
between  Abu  Hamed  and  Dongola.  and  drops 
ItiO  feet  in  ti8  miles.  The  very  fertile  region 
of  Uongola  is  between  the  Fourth  and  the  Third 
cataracts.  The  Third  Cataract,  with  two  rapids, 
is  45  miles  long  and  the  fall  in  the  river  bed  is 
30  feet.  The  Second  Cataract  is  ~'3  miles  farther 
down  the  river,  is  124  miles  long,  with  four 
rajiids.  and  it  falls  210  feet.  The  town  of  Wadi- 
Halfa  lies  at  its  foot.  The  First  Cataract  is  214 
miles  farther  down  the  Nile,  is  three  miles  long, 
droi)s  10  feet,  aud  Assuan  lies  at  its  foot.  The 
fact  that  below  Assuan  lies  the  great  region  of 
irrigation,  fertility,  and  dense  population,  and 
that  this  portiim  of  the  Nile  is  hemmed  in  by 
high  hills,  marked  Assuan  as  the  best  place  to 
build  a  great  dam  across  the  river  to  keep  back 
at  flood  time  much  of  the  water  which  hitherto 
had  gone  to  waste,  so  that  it  might  be  utilized  in 
the  dry  season  and  give  Egypt  iierennial  irriga- 
tion. 

The  third  section  of  the  river  is  the  Lower 
Nile,  extending  from  Assuan  to  the  head  of  the 
Delta,  an  open  waterway.'  navigable  by  large 
vessels,  with  Cairo  near  its  foot.  The  current 
is  slow  during  the  low  river  in  summer — less 
than  two  feet  a  second.  The  velocity  in  flood  is 
from  .314  to  GI2  feet  per  second.  Along  the  lower 
])art  of  this  section  a  divergent  channel  knowni  as 
the  Bahr-Yusuf  (.Joseph's  Canal)  extends  paral- 
lel to  the  Nile  on  the  west  side,  finally  discharg- 
ing its  waters  in  the  depressed  area  of  the  Faymn 
(q.v.).  The  fourth  section  of  the  river  is  the 
Delta  or  'Garden  of  Egypt.'  It  is  pierced  in  all 
directions  by  irrigation  canals  and  navigable 
channels.  Wlien  the  Xile  is  in  flood,  its  tendency 
is  to  increase  the  height  of  its  banks  by  deposits 
of  loam  and  sand.  These  banks  are  artificially 
strengthened  and  the  river  thus  kept  to  a  definite 
course.  The  river  reaches  the  sea  through  the 
Rosetta  and  Damietta  motiths,  and  the  canals 
that  cover  the  Delta  like  a  network  carry  their 
surplus  waters  into  a  chain  of  salt  lakes  that  ex- 
tends iM'hind  the  sandy  shore.  As  a  drainage  out- 
let, a  navigalile  highway,  and  a  source  of  power 
the  Xile  is  surpassed  by  many  other  rivers.  Its 
imicpie  distinction  is  that  it  has  turned  Egjpt 
from  a  desert  into  one  of  the  richest  agricultural 
lands,  supporting  a  population  of  about  000  to 
the  square  mile.  There  are  periods  of  exceptional 
flood  and  low  water;  but  tlu'  extraordinary  regu- 
larity with  which,  as  a  rule,  (he  river  rises  and 
falls  contributes  to  the  sccurily  of  farming. 

The  heavy  rains  in  the  basin  of  the  White  Xile 
during  April  ilrive  the  waters  of  that  marshy 
region  ilown  upon  Egypt,  where  they  appear  nt 
Cairo  about  .June  15th.  A  fortnight  later  the 
real  Hood  begins,  for  the  May  rains  in  .Miy^sinia 
fill  (he  Blue  Xile  with  the  richest  muddy  water. 
The  rise  is  sometimes  as  rapid  as  three  feet  a 
day,  the  flood  being  heightened  by  the  large  vol- 
ume brought  down  by  the  .Mbara.  The  maxi- 
mum flood  reaches  .\ssuan  about  Septendier  1st, 
and  it  wo\ild  be  at  Cairo  a  few  days  later  were 
it  nfit  that  the  water  is  diverted  to  the  land  and 
the  whole  Xile  \'alley  is  a  great  lake.     For  tbi» 


f 


NILE. 


567 


NILE. 


reason  tlie  maximum  Hood  at  Cairo  appears  only 
about  (Jftober  1st.  The  rains  cease  in  .M)yssinia 
about  the  middle  of  Septemlier,  the  llooils  of  the 
lilue  Nile  and  the  Atbara  disaii|)wir,  and  then 
the  great  lakes  and  marshes  of  Central  .\friea  are 
the  main  sniijily  of  the  river  until  the  foUowing 
June.  This  routine  of  the  waters  is  marki'd  by 
marvelous  regularity.  The  time  between  an  early 
and  a  late  Hood  is  not  more  than  three  weeks. 
The  height  of  the  Hood  at  Assuan  is  usually  about 
25  feel  above  the  minimum  supply.  If  the  water 
rises  29  feet  alwve  the  minimum,  the  crops  of 
Egypt  are  in  danger.  If  it  rises  only  20  feet 
above  the  minimum,  large  ai'eas  cannot  be 
flooded.  The  mean  Mood  discharge  at  Cairo  is 
about  2S0.000  eubie  feet  per  second  (about  equal 
to  the  average  How  of  the  Niagara  River),  the 
maximum  about  400,000  feet.  The  general  slope 
of  the  valley  on  each  side  is  away  froni  the  river. 
Along  each  edge  of  the  river  is  an  earthen  em- 
bankment too  high  to  be  topped  l)y  the  Hoods. 
Along  the  valley  is  a  series  of  embankments,  one 
end  of  which  is  at  tlie  river  edge  and  the  other 
on  the  sides  of  the  hills  that  wall  in  tlie  valley. 
The  whole  country  is  thus  divided  into  a  series  of 
oblongs  surrounded  by  artificial  embankments  on 
three  sides  and  by  tlie  slope  of  the  desert  hills 
on  the  fourth.  There  are  120  of  these  oblongs, 
varying  in  extent  from  60,000  to  about  3000 
acres.  It  is  easy  to  cut  short,  deep  canals  in  the 
banks  which  fill  as  the  flood  rises  and  carry  the 
nuid-charged  water  into  these  basins  of  irriga- 
tion. There  the  water  remains  for  a  month  or 
more,  .three  to  four  feet  deep,  depositing  its  mud. 
At  the  end  of  the  Hood  the  water  is  passed  off 
through  sluices  from  one  basin  to  another  and 
ultimately  back  into  tlie  river.  In  November 
seed  is  sown,  and  so  saturated  is  the  soil  that  the 
grain  sprouts  and  thrives  and  the  harvest  is 
gathered  in  April  or  May  without  a  drop  of  rain 
or  any  fresh  irrigation.  After  the  crop  is  reaped 
the  fields  remain  dry  and  cracked  in  the  fierce 
summer  heat  until  the  next  Hood  comes  on.  A 
little  below  Cairo  is  a  great  dam  or  barrage 
across  the  river,  by  means  of  which  all  available 
water  in  the  Nile  before  it  begins  to  rise  in 
June  is  diverted  into  canals  that  carry  it  to  the 
cott(Ui  fields  of  the  Delta.  This  barrage  makes  it 
possible  to  irrigate  Delta  crops  in  the  dry  sea- 
son, so  that  to  a  large  extent  two  cro])S  a  year 
are  raised  there.  The  water  in  the  Delta  would 
not  be  sullieient  if  a  strict  system  of  control  were 
not  maintained  by  which  each  cultivator  is  sup- 
plied in  turn  every  fifteen  or  twenty  days. 

The  great  need  has  long  been  to  store  the 
waters  during  Hood  time  (when  a  large  part  of 
them  run  to  waste)  so  that  the.v  miglit  be  turned 
over  the  fields  during  the  months  of  low  Nile, 
lliiis  giving  to  Egypt  the  benefits  of  irrigation  at 
all  seasons,  and  making  it  possible  to  raise  two 
or  three  crops  annually  where  only  one  or  two 
were  grown.  Near  Assuan,  the  gateway  to 
Lower  Eg^-pt,  the  work  on  the  great  and  mudi 
desired  reservoir  was  begun.  It  was  compUded 
and  formally  opened  in  December,  1002.  The 
work  consists  chicHy  of  an  enormous  wall  or  dam. 
of  masonry  nearly  2  miles  long  and  averaging  flO 
feet  in  height.  The  wall  is  ])iereed  by  ISO  open- 
ings, each  containing  sluices  through  whieli  tlie 
low  Nile  may  pass  and  the  retained  flood  waters 
may  escape  a.»i  they  are  needed  for  irrigation. 
A  roadway  runs  along  the  top  of  the  wall.  It  is 
estimated  by  Sir  William  Garstin  that  the  vol- 


ume of  water  impounded  by  the  dam  will  reach 
the  enormous  total  of  ;i7,l>12,17!),000  cubic  feet. 
He  estimates  also  that  in  the  distribution  of  this 
reserve  supply  70,000  ai'res  in  Upper  Egj'pt,  be- 
tween Assuan  and  Assiiit,  will  receive  perennial 
irrigation;  also  458,000  acres  now  irrigated  as 
basins  in  Middle  Egjpt  between  Assiut  and 
Cairo;  that,  further,  52,000  acres  in  the  Fayum 
now  unfilled  may  be  reclaimed;  and  that  in  Low- 
er Egj'pt  or  the  Delta  the  a<lditional  water  will 
insure  the  cotton  crop  against  drought,  and  re- 
claim an  area  of  120.000  acres  now  uncultivated. 
In  the  Province  of  (Jhi/.eh  likewise  an  area  of  lOti,- 
000  acres  of  basin  cultivation  will  be  converted 
into  [lerennially  irrigated  land.  Since  the  dam  at 
Assuan  closes  the  Nile  to  navigation,  a  canal  0540 
feet  in  length  with  four  locks  is  being  constructed 
around  it.  Mail  steamers  and  any  stern  wheeler 
now  on  the  Nile  may  pass  through  the  canal,  and 
sailing  vessels  may  pass  Assuan  all  the  year 
round,  thoiigh  heretofore  they  have  been  able  to 
get  through  the  cataract  only  during  high  Nile. 
Below  Assuan  a  barrage  has  also  been  constructed 
at  A.ssiut  for  the  purpose  of  raising  the  level  of 
the  river  in  summer,  so  that  water  may  be  de- 
livered at  that  point  at  a  higher  level,  increasing 
the  discharge  into  the  Ibrahimia  Canal,  which 
carries  the  supplies  to  the  basins  as  far  north  as 
IMinieh  and  Beni-Suef.  These  great  works  will 
add  enormously  to  the  productivity  of  Egj'pt, 
will  increase  the  value  of  all  the  farm  lands,  and 
will  augment  the  revenues  of  the  Government. 
See  Egypt  and  Egyptian  Sudan. 

Bibliography.  Most  of  the  information  on  the 
Nile  is  scattered  through  oHieial  publications  and 
books  relating  to  Egypt,  the  Anglo-Egyptian 
Sudan,  and  the  Lake  Region  of  Central  Africa. 
Among  these  are:  Bruce,  Travrlt  to  Disrorer  the 
SoHrecs  of  the  Nile  (3d  ed.,  London.  1S13)  ;  Beke, 
The  Sources  of  the  Nile  (ib..  1800)  ;  Speke,  Jour- 
iiril  of  the  Discovery  of  the  Source  of  the  Nile 
(ib.,  1803);  Baker,  The  Nile  Tributaries  of 
Abyssinia  (ib.,  1S07);  id.,  The  Albert  Nyaiizn, 
(Sreat  Basin  of  the  Nile  and  Exploration  of  the 
Nile  Sources  (ib.,  1871);  Chavanne,  Afrikas 
Htriime  und  Fliisse  (Vienna,  1874)  ;  Schwein- 
furth.  Heart  of  Africa,  trans.  (2d  ed..  London. 
1875)  :  Ebers,  Aegypten  in  liild  und  Wort  (Stutt- 
gart, 1879;  trans,  as  Eyypt.  Dcscriplire.  His- 
toriral,  and  Pirtiiresi/ue,  London,  IHOS);  Poole, 
Efjypt,  in  "Foreign  Countries  and  British  Colonies 
Series"  (ib.,  1881);  Hartmann,  Die  NiWinder 
(Leipzig,  1884)  ;  Edwards,  A  Thousand  Miles  Up 
the  Nile  (London.  1889)  :  Willcoeks,  Egyptian  Ir- 
rigaUon  ( ib.,  1889);  .Tunker,  Travels  in  Africa, 
trans,  (ib..  1890-92)  ;  Budge,  Dwellers  on 
the  Nile  (ib.,  1890)  ;  Chehi,  Le  Nil,  le  Soudan, 
I'Efiypte  (Paris,  1891);  Baumann,  Purrh  ^fa.s- 
sniUrnd  sur  Nilquelle  (Berlin,  1894)  ;  C.essi.  Sette 
anni  nel  Sudan  erjixiano  (Milan.  1891)  ;  Report 
on  Perennial  Irrigation  and  Flood  Protection  for 
Egypt  (Cairo,  1894)  ;  Ucporl  on  the  Nile  and 
Country  Between  Dongola.  Sual'in,  Kassnhi,  and 
Omdurnian  (2d  ed.,  London,  1898)  ;  Stulilmann, 
Mil  Emin  Pasha  ins  Hers  von  Afrika  (P.crlin. 
1894)  ;  Colville,  The  Land  of  the  Nile  Springs 
(London,  1895)  :  Brown  and  Carstin,  History  of 
the  Barrage  at  the  Head  of  the  Delta  of  Egypt 
(Cairo.  1896)  ;  Wood,  Egypt  Under  the  British 
(London,  1896):  Notes  on  Egyptian  Crops 
(Cairo,  1890);  Casati,  Ten  Years  in  Equnfnria 
(London,  1898)  ;  White,  The  Expansion  of  Egypt 


NILE. 


568 


NILGAI. 


w 


(jb.,  1899)  ;  Willcocks,  The  Kile  Reservoir  Dam 
at  Assuan  and  After  (ib.,  1901). 

NILE  GROUP.  A  large  marble  group,  one  of 
the  most  important  Alexandrine  works  of  art, 
representing  the  river  god  reclining  and  leaning 
on  a  Sphinx.  About  and  over  his  body  sixteen 
children  are  climbing  and  playing,  emblematic 
of  the  sixteen  cubits  to  which  the  Xile  rises  be- 
fore overflowing  the  surrounding  country.  The 
god  holds  in  his  left  hand  a  cornucopia  with 
Bowers  and  fruits,  in  his  right  a  bunch  of  grain, 
types  of  the  fructifying  power  of  the  inunda- 
tion." The  group  was  found  near  the  Church  of 
Santa  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  Home,  in  the  time 
of  Leo  X.,  and  is  now  in  the  Vatican. 

NILES,  nilz.  A  city  in  Berrien  County, 
Mich..  92  miles  east  of  Chicago,  111.;  on  the 
Saint  .Joseph  River,  and  on  the  Cleveland.  Cin- 
cinnati, Cliicago  and  Saint  Louis  and  tlie  ilichi- 
gan  Central  railroads  (Map:  Michigan,  G  7). 
It  derives  excellent  power  from  the  river  and 
has  extensive  manufactures  of  all  grades  of  pa- 
per, furniture,  windmills,  steel  tanks,  Hour,  etc. 
There  is  also  a  large  fan  and  lithographing  es- 
tablishment. The  surrounding  counlrj-  is  chiefly 
agricultural,  and  the  river  scenery  is  unusually 
fine.  The  government,  as  provided  by  general 
charter  of  1896.  is  vested  in  a  maj'or,  annually 
elected,  and  a  unicameral  council.  The  water- 
works and  electric  light  plant  are  owned  and 
operated  by  the  nuinicipality.  Population,  in 
1890.  4197:  in  1900.  42S7.  On  or  near  the  site 
of  Niles  stood  Kort  Saint  Joseph,  the  capture 
of  which  by  the  Spaniards  in  1781  was  the  basis 
of  Spain's  claim  (in  1782-83)  to  a  large  tract 
of  Western  territory.  The  foimdations  of  the  old 
fort  are  still  visible.  Early  records  show  that  a 
French  mission  was  here  established  as  early  as 
lti97.  and  a  complete  census  of  a  settlement  in 
1707  is  extant.  Xiles  was  settled  permanently 
in  1828,  ten  years  later  was  incorporated  as  a 
village,  and  in  18.i9  it  received  a  city  char- 
ter. 

NILES.  A  city  in  TrmnbuU  Couijty.  Ohio, 
58  miles  southeast  of  Cleveland;  on  the  Mahon- 
ing Itiver,  and  on  the  Erie,  the  Pennsylvania, 
and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroads  (Map: 
Ohio,  J  3).  It  is  primarily  a  manufacturing 
centre,  these  interests  being  represented  by  tin 
mills,  automatic  press  works,  sheet  mills,  boiler 
works,  and  manufactories  of  electric  and  steam 
ears,  incamlescent  lamps,  chinaware.  iron  roof- 
ing, metal  lath,  ollice  supplies,  foundry  and  blast 
furnace  products,  mine  and  mill  sui)]dies.  and 
galvanizc<l  iron.  Niles.  tirst  incorporated  in 
1804,  is  governed,  under  a  charter  of  189.5.  by 
a  mayor,  elected  every  two  years,  and  a  unicam- 
eral coimcil.  The  city  owns  and  operates  the 
water-works  and  electric  light  plant.  Popula- 
lloM.  in  1S!'0.  4289;  in  1900,  7408, 

NILES,  llEZEKi.Mi  (1777-1839).  An  Ameri- 
can journalist  and  publisher.  He  wa.s  born  in 
East  Bradford,  Chester  County,  Pa.,  where  he 
was  educated  in  the  village  schools.  He  learned 
the  printers'  trade,  and  in  1800  established  him- 
self in  the  printing  and  publishing  business  in 
Wilmington.  Del.  Failing  in  business,  he  re- 
moved to  Baltimore.  Md..  where  he  became  asso- 
ciated with  rjcorpc  Bourne  in  the  editing  of 
Thr  F.rcniyift  Pout.  In  1811  he  began  the  publi- 
cation of  a  weekly,  largely  devoted  to  politics 
and  the  discussion  of  public  affairs,  which   he 


called  yiles's  Register.  This  journal  he  contin- 
ued until  his  death,  removing  the  publication 
ollice  in  1837  to  Washington  and  renaming  the 
2)aper  Xiles's  yatiimal  Register.  In  1S38  the 
oflice  was  moved  back  to  Baltimore,  and  there 
the  publication  of  the  paper  was  continued  after 
Xiles's  death  until  1849  by  his  son,  W.  O.  Miles, 
and  others.  The  files  of  the  paiwr  from  1811  to 
1849  constitute  an  invaluable  source  for  the 
study  of  American  political  historv-  during  that 
period, 

NILES,  .Joiix  Milton  (1787-1856).  An 
Anurican  journalist,  politician,  and  Cabinet  offi- 
cer. He  was  born  in  Windsor,  Conn,,  received 
a  common  school  education,  and  studied  law  by 
himself.  In  1817  he  .settled  at  Hartford.  Conn,, 
and  established  the  Times,  which,  under  the  edi- 
torial control  of  Xiles,  whose  connection  with  it 
lasted  for  thirty  years,  became  one  of  the  most 
influential  newspapers  in  Xew  England.  It  was 
one  of  the  earliest  papers  in  the  section  to  give 
its  support  to  Andrew  .Jackson  for  the  Presi- 
dency, and  after  his  election  Xiles  received  the 
appointment  to  the  Hartford  postniastership  as 
a  reward.  In  1835  he  was  ai)pointed  United 
States  Senator  to  fill  a  vacancy,  serving  until 
1839.  In  1840  he  was  ap])ointed  Postmaster- 
General  in  Van  Buren's  Cabinet,  remaining  in 
oflice  until  Harrison's  inauguration.  From  1843 
to  1849  he  was  a  nu-mber  of  the  United  States 
Senate.  He  published:  The  Independent  ^Vhig 
(181C)  ;  <Ja::etteer  of  Contwctieut  and  Rhode  Isl- 
and (1817);  Life  of  Commodore  Oliver  Hazard 
Perry  (1820);  .1  History  of  the  Reioluti^on  in 
Mexico  and  South  .-Imerica,  with  a  View  of 
Tej-afs   (1829);  and  The  Civil  0/}icrr  (1840). 

NILES,  Xathaxiel  (1741-1828).  An  Ameri- 
can politician  and  theologian,  born  in  South 
Kingston.  R.  I.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  in 
170(1,  later  studied  medicine  and  law.  taught 
school  in  Xew  York  City,  then  studied  theology, 
and  preached  in  various  Congregational  churches 
in  Xew  England.  While  living  at  X'orwich, 
Conn,,  he  invented  a  process  by  which  bar  iron 
could  be  made  into  wire  by  the  use  of  water 
power,  and  also  established  a  wool-card  manu- 
factory. About  the  close  of  the  Revolution  he 
settled  in  Orange  County,  Vt.,  an<l  founded  West 
Fairlee.  He  was  frequently  a  menfl)er  of  the 
Vermont  legislature,  and  in  1784  was  Speaker; 
was  later  a  judge  of  the  State  Supreme  Court ; 
was  a  Representative  in  Congress  from  1791  to 
1795:  was  six  times  a  Presidential  elector,  and 
also  helped,  as  a  'censor.'  to  revise  the  State 
Constitution.  Shortly  after  the  battle  of  Bunker 
Hill  he  coinpose.l  a  song.  "The  .\merican  Hero." 
wliich  proved  popular,  and  he  later  contributed 
essays  to  the  Theologieal  Magazine,  and  pub- 
lished a  considerable  number  of  books  on  theo- 
logieal and  other  subjects. 

NILGAI,  nil -gi'  ( Pers,.  Hind,  nilgaii,  nilgar, 
liliinr.  lilne  ox.  from  nil,  Skt.  nilii,  blue  -\-  gait, 
.Skt.  f/i/i/.ox.  cow).  An  East  Indian  antelope  ( Bos- 
eliijdnis  tragoeamelus)  with  a  somewhat  ox-like 
head  and  body,  but  with  long,  slender  limbs,  and 
of  great  activitv  and  fleetness.  It  is  one  of  the 
largest  of  antelopes,  and  stands  about  4i-l'  feet 
high  at  the  shoulder.  The  bonis  of  the  male  are 
about  as  long  as  (he  ears,  smooth,  black,  pointed, 
slightly  curved  forward.  The  female  has  no 
horns.  The  neck  is  deep  and  compressed,  not 
rounded,  as  in  most  of  the  antelopes,  Tlie  gen- 
eral color  is  brownish  gray.    A  slight  mane  runs 


NILGAI. 


569 


NIMBUS. 


along  the  neck  and  the  eh'valid  forward  part  of 
the  back,  and  the  hreast  is  adorned  witli  a  long 
hanging  tuft  of  hair.  The  nilgai  inliabils  the 
husliy  parts  of  India,  where  it  has  long  Ijeen  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  nol>lest  kinds  of  game.  It 
is  cap.'ible  (jf  domestication,  hut  is  said  to  mani- 
fest an  irritable  and  capricious  temper  with 
advancing  age.  Consult  Ulanford.  Fiiiiiia  of 
lirilisli  hidia:  Mamiiuils  (l.ondon,  1880),  and 
works  on  sport  in  India.  See  I'late  of  Axte- 
l.orES. 

NILGIRI  (ni-1-ge're)  HLLLS,  or  NEIL- 
GHERKY  HILLS.  An  almost  isolated  plateau 
iir  mountain  group  in  Southern  India,  presidency 
of  ^Madras  (Map:  India.  C  0).  It  is  situated 
about  40  miles  from  the  west  coast,  200  miles 
north  of  Cape  Comorin,  and  rises  in  general  to 
heiglits  of  between  3000  and  (iOOO  feet  above  the 
surrounding  plains,  the  highest  point  being  Jlount 
Dodabetta,  with  an  altitude  of  8700  feet.  Granite 
ridges  connect  it  with  the  neighboring  Ghat 
Mountains,  and  it  is  itself  composed  of  granite 
covered  with  a  rich  layer  of  soil.  The  slopes  are 
covered  with  dense,  hot,  and  unhealthful  forest 
jungles,  but  the  uplands  consist  of  beautiful 
grassy  plains  with  a  temperatc-zime  flora  and 
a  delightful  climate,  which  has  made  the  Xilgiri 
Hills  one  of  the  principal  sanatoriums  in  India 
for  European  invalids,  who  are  chiefly  concen- 
trated in  the  town  of  Utakamand.  The  native  in- 
habitants are  Dravidian  herdsmen. 

NILOM'ETEB,  (Gk.  NciXo/i^Tpioi-,  Neilomet- 
rioii.  from  NeiXos,  ■Xeilos,  Nile  -|-  ixirpov,  metron, 
measure).  A  construction  for  measuring  the 
height  of  the  Nile.  Two  such  constructions  have 
survived  from  antiquity.  The  first  is  situated  on 
the  island  of  Roda,  south  of  Cairo.  This  mikijus, 
as  it  is  called  in  Arabic,  is  a  square  well.  Ifi  feet 
in  diameter,  with  an  octagonal  graduated  pillar 
of  marble  in  the  centre,  marking  17  cubits  of 
21..S80  inches.  The  official  guarding  it  announces 
that  the  water  has  risen  high  enough  to  cut  the 
dams  and  to  begin  the  irrigation  when  the  river 
has  risen  to  15%  cubits.  Taxation  was  formerlj- 
regulated  in  accordance  with  the  height  of  the 
in\mdation.  This  construction  is  due  to  the 
Caliph  Suleiman,  a.d.  71.5-717,  but  has  been  re- 
stored repeatedly  since  the  ninth  century.  The 
other  nilometcr  is  situated  on  the  island  of 
Elephantine  (q.v. ),  near  the  First  Cataract.  It 
consists  of  a  well  with  a  staircase  of  stone,  and 
is  very  correctly  described  by  Strabo.  It  was 
restored  to  official  use  in  1870. 

NILSSON,  nil'son,  Christi^'E  (184.3—).  A 
Swedish  soprano.  She  was  born  near  Wexici,  and 
although  her  parents  were  in  humble  circum- 
stances, she  became  proficient  on  the  violin, 
learned  the  flute,  and  attended  fairs  and  other 
places  of  public  resort,  at  whicli  she  sang,  ac- 
companying herself  on  the  violin.  While  per- 
forming in  this  manner  at  a  fair  in  Ljungby  in 
1S.")7.  her  voice  attracted  the  attention  of  F.  0. 
Tornerhjem.  who  sent  her  to  Stockholm,  where 
she  received  instruction  from  I'"ran/.  Berwald. 
She  made  her  d<ibut  at  Stockholm  in  1800.  and 
then  went  to  Paris  to  continue  her  nnisical  edu- 
cation, under  Masset  and  Wartel.  In  1804  she 
ap|)eared  at  the  Th^iltre  Lyrique  of  Paris,  a.s 
Violetta  in  Lii  Tnivintu.  with  such  success  that  she 
was  engaged  for  three  years.  She  made  her  first 
appearance  in  London  in  18fi7.  where  she  imnie- 
diatelv  became  a  favorite.     In  1808  she  sang  the 


part  of  Ophelia  in  the  0]icra  Humht,  by  Ambroise 
Thomas,  at  the  Grand  Opera  in  Paris.  During 
the  same  year  she  sang  in  England  at  the  Handel 
festival  at  the  Crystal  Palace.  In  1870  slie 
came  to  America,  apjjcaring  in  concerts  and 
operas,  and  achieved  popularity  wherever  she 
was  heard.  She  was  married  in  1872  to  Auguste 
Rouzaud,  a  merchant  of  Paris.  After  leaving 
Saint  Petersburg,  where  she  had  been  very  suc- 
cessful, she  returned  to  America  with  the  Stra- 
kosch  Italian  opera  troupe.  She  also  sang  Elsa 
in  Wagner's  Luhcnijrhi.  The  death  of  her  hus- 
band in  1882,  after  she  had  retired  from  the 
operatic  stage,  caused  her  to  return  to  it,  but  her 
marriage  to  Count  Miranda  in  1887  brought 
about  her  permanent  retirement  in  1888.  What 
her  voice  lacked  in  volume  was  compensated 
for  in  smoothness,  sweetness,  and  evenness  of 
tone. 

NILSSON,  nil'son,  Sven  (1787-1883).  A 
Swedish  zoologist  and  archaologist,  born  near 
Landskrona.  At  twenty-five  he  became  assistant 
professor  of  natural  history  at  Lund.  He  was 
appointed  director  of  the  Zoological  Museum  of 
that  city  in  1819,  and  returned  there  after  four 
years  in  a  like  post  at  Stockholm.  He  resigned 
in  1856.  Nilsson  wrote,  on  Scandinavian  fauna 
and  antiquities:  Ornilholofjia  Huecica  (1817- 
21);  Prodroinus  IchthyologicE  (1832);  Observa- 
tioius  [chthyologicw  (1835)  ;  Skandinavisk  fauna 
(1820-53);  and  SkandinaKiska  Tfordens  urin- 
cunare  (1838-43;  in  German  translation  by 
Mestorf,   1863-68).       . 

NUVTBLE  FLY.  A  fly  of  the  family  Dexiids, 
a  group  allied  to  the  parasitic  family  Tachinidie, 
so  called  from  its  rapid  movements.  Their  legs 
are  unusually  long,  and  in  their  early  stages 
they  are  parasitic  in  various  insects,  especially 
in  beetles  and  also  in  snails.  About  fifty  species 
inhabit  Xorth  America. 

NIMBUS.     See  Cloud. 

NIMBUS  (Lat.,  cloud).  In  art,  especially  in 
sacred  art.  the  name  given  to  the  disk  or  halo 
which  enriches  the  head  of  the  sacred  personage 
who  is  represented.  Its  use  is  occasional  in  non- 
Christian  religious  art,  especially  the  Hindu, 
and  it  was  not  unknown  to  classic  and  Oriental 
art.  The  nimbus,  strictly  so  called,  was  first 
systematically  used  in  Christian  art,  appearing 
first  in  the  fifth  century.  Later,  in  Christian 
art,  it  became  almost  a  necessary  appendage  of 
all  representations  of  God  or  of  the  saints.  It  is 
of  two  kinds — either  circumscribed  by  a  well- 
defined  outline,  or  radiating  in  vanishing  lines. 
It  took  various  forms.  The  square  or  oblong 
shape  indicated  a  saintly  person,  such  as  a  pope, 
still  living,  and  was  used  mainly  between  the 
fifth  and  ninth  centuries.  The  square  form  was 
.symbolic  of  the  material  and  earthly.  The  com- 
mon form  was  the  circular,  symbolic'  of  the 
spiritual  and  perfect.  The  earliest  figure  to  re- 
ceive the  nimbus  was  that  of  Christ,  and  this 
nimbus  almost  innncdiatcly  took  a  peculiar  form, 
which  was  ordinarily  given  to  Him  up  to  the  ^ 
sixth  century,  and  this  was  the  monogram    <f« 

or  ■?■  in  the  shape  of  a  cross,  called  the  Constan- 

tinian  monogram  (see  Labari'm).  formed  of  the 
first  two  letters  of  the  Greek  word  for  Christ, 
circumscribed  in  the  circle  and  appearing  above 
and  on  either  side  of  His  head.  This  became, 
after  the  sixth  century,  the  ordinary  cruciform 


NIMBUS. 


570 


NIMES. 


nimbus  which  was  the  rule  up  to  the  Renais- 
sance, when  the  nimbus  went  out  of  fasliion  for 
all  figures  except  occasionally  in  the  form  of  a 
poised  circlet  or  band.  The  interior  of  the  nim- 
bus, of  whatever  form,  is  gilt,  either  plain  or  in 
rays,  excepting  occasionally  that  of  the  Vir- 
gin, made  of  blue  or  some  oilier  color  or  starred. 
Vp  to  the  Renaissance  tlie  nimbus  forms  a  circle 
against  the  background,  but  Renaissance  artists 
tilted  it  or  poised  it  naturalistically.  God  the 
Father  was  not  represented  until  the'  late  Middle 
Ages,  and  to  Him  was  given  a  circular  nimbus, 
but  the  Kenaissance  often  gave  it  a  triangular 
radiating  shape.  The  dove  of  tlic  Holy  Ghost  also 
had  a  circular  nimbus.  So  had  all  "duly  canon- 
ized saints,  for  it  wa.s  a  symbol  of  the  blessed- 
ness of  eternal  life  in  heaven.  In  later  art  the 
nimbus  became  lighter  and  more  aerial,  melting, 
as  it  were,  into  the  picture;  and  in  Raphael's 
saints  it  occasionally  fades  into  tlie  very  faintest 
indication  of  a  golden  tinge  aroimd  the  head. 
Jlosaie  paintings,  frescoes,  illuminated  manu- 
scripts, and  altar-pieces  are  the  principal  classes 
of  monuments  illustrating  the  use  of  the  nimbus. 
{See    lcoN-0(;itAriiY. 

NIMEGUEN,  nim'c-g6n  (Dutch  Xijm€ge7i). 
A  city  in  tlic  I'rovince  of  Gelderland,  Holland,  on 
the  Waal,  four  miles  from  the  German  frontier 
( Map :  Netherlands,  D  3 ) .  It  is  situated  on  several 
liills,  has  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  and  is.  fur 
the  most  part,  poorly  built,  with  steep  and  narrow 
streets.  The  town  is  strongly  fortified  and  garri- 
soned. Among  the  notcworthj-  edifices  are  the 
t'hurch  of  .Siinl  Ste])hen,  a  handsome  Gothic  struc- 
ture dating  from  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the 
town  hall,  with  a  museum  of  Roman  antiquities. 
In  the  beautiful  Valkhof  Park  are  ruins  of  an 
ancient  Imperial  palace.  Ximeguen  is  a  large 
market  for  cattle  and  agricultural  products,  espe- 
cially grain  and  wine.  It  is  noted  for  its  Weiss- 
bier  and  its  eau  de  cologne,  and  has  manufactures 
of  Hour,  cigars,  tin.  and  other  metal  ware,  leather, 
and  furnitiire.  Population,  in  1895,  37,008;  in 
1900,  42,750,  chiefiy  Catholics. 

Ximeguen  was  founded  by  the  Romans,  who 
made  it  a  permanent  camp,  in  order  to  kceji  in 
subjection  the  Teutonic  tribes  northeast  of  the 
Rhine.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  a  member  of 
the  Hansealic  League.  It  was  taken  by  the 
.Spaniards  in  1585,  but  was  recovered  six  years 
later.  The  Peace  of  Ximeguen  in  1078-79  brought 
to  a  close  the  war  between  France  and  the  Dutch 
and  their  allies,  initiated  by  Louis  XIV.'s  inva- 
sion of  the  Xetherlands  in  l(i72.  Peace  between 
France  and  Holland  was  concluded  on  August  11. 
1078:  between  France  and  Spain  on  September 
17.  1078;  between  France  and  the  Emperor  on 
February  5,  1079;  and  between  Holland  and 
Sweden,  the  ally  of  France,  on  October  12,  1079. 
France  secured  possession  of  Franehe-Comt<'  and 
a  portion  of  Flanders.  The  Peace  of  X'imeguen 
was  the  culminating  point  in  Louis  XIV.'s  career 
and  made  France  the  leading  power  of  Europe. 

IflMES,  nem.  The  capital  of  the  Department 
of  Gard,  France,  in  Lower  Languednc.  situated 
on  a  fertile  jjlain  at  the  southern  base  of  a  range 
of  outlying  hills  of  the  Cfvennes,  17-1  miles 
south-southwest  of  Lyon.s  (Map:  France.  L  8). 
The  climate  of  Xlmes  is  not  particularly  agree- 
able, owing  to  its  winds  and  dust  storms,  and  to 
its  heat  in  summer.  It  is  a  unique  ''ity  in 
that  it  contains  very  ancient  construction*  side 
l>y   side   with   modern   and   handsome   buildings, 


streets,  etc.  It  has  splendid  monuments  of 
Roman  times,  and  its  antiquities  are  of  almost 
every  description.  The  fine  Esplanade,  ap- 
proached by  the  sjjaeious  Avenue  Feuch^res,  and 
llankcd  by  the  innnense  Roman  amphitheatre, 
and  adorned  by  a  magnilicent  fountain  decorated 
with  statues  by  Pradier,  forms  a  centre  of  strik- 
ing interest.  Here  also  are  found  the  modern 
Palace  of  .lustice,  and  a  statue  to  .Soleillet.  the 
French  explorer.  The  amphitheatre — Les  Arf-nes 
— is  an  ellipse  438  feet  long,  and  while  sr.i;iller 
than  the  famous  ones  of  Italy,  is  in  a  better 
state  of  preservation.  Its  construction  is  inter- 
esting. It  was  built  at  the  beginning  of  our  era 
and  was  capable  of  seating  24,000.  Its  restora- 
tion was  begun  in  1858. 

The  most  striking  structure  in  Xlmes  is  t'.ie 
far-famed  Maison-Carree.  an  imposing  Roman 
temple,  well  preserved.  It  is  70  feet  long  and 
40  feet  wide,  and  is  embellished  with  30  Co- 
rinthian cohimns.  The  whole  edifice  is  in  ex- 
cellent taste  and  possesses  rich  features.  It  is 
now  thought  to  have  been  built  early  in  our  era. 
It  evidently  belonged  in  the  ancient  forum. 
After  ha\ing  served  various  degraded  uses  dur- 
ing the  centuries,  it  was  artistically  restored 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  It  contains  a  collec- 
tion of  Roman  relics,  some  exhibiting  a  fine 
style  of  workmanship.  Its  Venus  of  Ximes. 
however,  is  mediocre.  The  Romanesque  Church 
of  .'^aint  Paul  has  splendid  mural  paintings  by 
the  two  Flandrins.  Ximes  has  a  Reformed  Grand 
Temple  of  a  very  simple  architectural  style. 
The  uninteresting  cathcilral  was  built  of  mate- 
rials from  ancient  ruins.  The  .Tardin  de  la 
Fontaine  is  ,a  lovely  garden,  with  a  canal,  cas- 
cades and  basin*,  and  a  statue  of  .\ntoninus 
Pius,  who  was  Ijorn  in  Xlmes.  Among  the 
Roman  remains  arc  the  Tour  Magne.  90  feet 
high,  affording  a  fine  view;  a  little  Temple  of 
Diana;  and  the  Porte  d'Auguste.  The  Hotel- 
Dieu  has  an  attractive  facade.  The  Central 
Prison,  with  a  capacity  for  1400  per.sons,  was 
an   ancient   citadel. 

The  Ecole  des  l?eaux-.\rts  is  modern.  The  city 
library  has  75,000  volumes.  This  collection 
is  installed  in  a  former  .Tesnit  college  which 
has  been  provided  with  a  handsome  modern 
facade.  The  Maison-Carree  contains  an  archa'O- 
logical  museum.  In  the  picture  gallery  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  town  are  some  creditable 
paintings.  Xlmes  has  a  Calvinistic  consistory,  a 
lyceum,  a  Protestant  normal  school  for  wo- 
men, a  Catholic  seminary  for  priests,  and  in- 
dustrial and  art  schools.  The  manufacturing  in- 
dustries are  still  important,  though  declining. 
Silk,  wine,  liquors,  are  extensively  produced  and 
dealt  in.  Ximes  also  manufactures  upholstery, 
shawls,  lace,  handkerchiefs,  carpets,  leather,  and 
iron  products.  Pcquilation.  in  1901,  80.005, 
nearly  one-fourth  being  of  the  Reformed  faith. 

Xlmea  (Lat.  A'cmoi/SH-s)  was  the  leading 
Roman  colony  in  Gaul  after  n.c.  120.  and  was  a 
jirovincial  city  of  true  magnificence.  It  fell  under 
the  scourge  of  the  Vandals  in  a.d.  407.  and  was 
lilundered  by  the  X'orthmen  in  859.  It  turned 
Calvinist  at  the  Reformation  and  entered  upon 
a  troubled  career,  .\fter  the  fall  of  Xapoleon  its 
citizens — or  the  Handes  Verdcts — persecuted  the 
Protestants.  Guizot  ami  Damlet  were  born  there. 
The  beautiful  ruined  Pont  du  Gard  is  northe.-ist 
of  Xlmes.  Consult :  Pievrc.  Hi.itoirc  dr  In  lille 
de     \imcs,     deiiuis     If^-'iO      jusqu'd     nos    jours 


NIMES. 


571 


NINE-EYES. 


(Xliiies,    1880-88)  ;    Bazin,    Ximes    gallo-romain 

U'aii',  1801). 

NIMRA'VUS  (Xeo-Lat,  from  yimr-od  + 
Lilt.  ((iH.s.  uiucstoi) .  A  fossil  cat  found  in  the 
John  Day  iliuoone  beds  of  Western  North  Ameri- 
ca.   See  Sabrk-Toothed  Tigkh. 

NIM'KOD  (Heb.  XlmrOd).  According  to 
(iiii.  \.  .S  seq.  (I.  Chron.  i.  10),  the  founder  of  the 
Babylonian,  and  hiter  of  the  Assyrian  Empire; 
also  "a  niighly  hunter  before  Jehovah."  No  ex- 
]ilaiialion  of  the  name  and  legend  has  as  yet 
received  cunnnon  assent.  The  mythical  theory 
wliicli  found  in  Ninirod  Orion  or  the  sun  is  now 
'  generally  abandoned,  and  the  dispute  lies  be- 
tween a  mythological  and  an  historical  per- 
sonage. (1)  According  to  the  mythological  view, 
Nimrod  is  identified  either  with  the  Babylonian 
god  Jlariluk,  a  theory  which  would  well  explain 
his  name,  through  the  correspondence  of  three 
radicals  (see  Niskoch),  or  he  is  identified  with 
Gilgamesh  (q.v.),  the  hero  of  the  Babj'lonian 
epic,  who  appears  typically  in  art  as  engaged 
in  combat  with  a  wild  beast,  and  is  associated 
with  Erech,  one  of  Nimrod's  cities.  (2)  Advo- 
cates of  the  historical  view  seek,  by  reason  of  the 
e.xact  historical  details,  a  character  in  Babylo- 
nian annals  whose  name  may  be  the  original  of 
Nimrod.  Such  a  person  is  suggested  in  a  cer- 
tain Kassite  King  of  Babylonia  of  the  fourteenth 
century  B.C.,  Nazi-marattash  (the  latter  com- 
ponent being  supposed  to  be  a  god  of  hunting). 
But  at  present  under  any  theory  the  legend  must 
be  regarded  as  made  up  of  several  sources.  Yet, 
while  the  name  is  a  problem,  the  biblical  refer- 
ence is  of  great  interest  as  giving  a  correct 
tradition  of  e^arly  Babylonian  history.  Cush,  the 
fatlier  of  Nimrod,  is  now  identified  with  the 
Kassites,  an  Elamitic  race,  which  ruled  Babylonia 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  second  millennium 
ij.c.  (See  Kassites.)  The  four  cities  of  Nim- 
rod's kingdom  mentioned  in  Genesis  x.  10  are 
ancient  and  famous.  That  "out  of  that  land  he 
went  forth  into  Assyria  [the  proper  translation], 
and  built  Nineveh,"  etc.  (Gen.  x.  11-12),  corre- 
sponds with  the  facts  of  the  ethnical  and  social 
origin  of  Assyria  from  Babylonia.  Of  the  four 
cities  here  mentioned,  Rehoboth  and  Resen 
are  not  yet  identified.  In  Micah  v.  0,  "the  land 
of  Nimrod"  is  in  parallelism  to  "the  land  of 
Assyria."  The  characterization  of  Nimrod  as  a 
huntsman  (an  ancient  and  doubtless  pre-lsraelite 
saying),  would  be  appropriate  to  a  mythological 
character  or  to  many  an  Oriental  monarch.  The 
mythological  cx])re.ssion  "a  mighty  hunter  before 
.fehovah"  would  mean  that  Ninirod  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  deities  by  his  prowess,  or 
even  rivaled  them  in  the  art  of  hunting.  Con- 
sult: Maspero,  Daicn  of  Civilizaiion  (London, 
1804)  ;  Savce.  Patriarchal  Palestine  (London, 
18!!.") ) . 

NIM'RUD.  The  modern  name  of  a  moinid  on 
the  cast  bank  of  the  Tigris,  about  20  miles  below 
Mosul  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  K  4),  marking  the 
ruins  of  an  ancient  Assyrian  city  identical  with 
Calah  (q.v.)  mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  11.  It  is  one 
of  a  group  of  cities  which  clustered  around  Nine- 
veh and  may  be  regarded  as  a  suburb  of  the  lat- 
ter. The  chief  discoveries  were  made  at  Ximrud  by 
Layard  in  1845-47  and  184n-.'51,  though  there 
were  also  later  excavations  by  George  Smith  and 
Rassam.  The  city  was  a  quadrangle  about  five 
miles  in  circumference,  surrounded  by  a  wall 
Vol.  XIV.— a?. 


with  towers.  The  most  important  buildings  dis- 
covered were:  (1)  a  stage-tower  (xik-kiirrat)  at 
the  northwest  corner  of  tlie  mound ;  ( 2 )  temples 
near  the  tower,  in  which  valuable  inscriptions 
were  found;  (3)  the  so-called  northwest  palace 
built  by  Assurnazirpa!  (B.C.  8S.i-8G0).  and  re- 
stored by  Sargon  I  n.i'.  722-705),  3.50  feet  square; 
the  sculptures  found  here  were  particularly  fine 
and  instructive,  and  there  was  a  rich  harvest  of 
small  objects  of  art,  utensils  of  daily  life,  tools, 
armor,  and  the  like;  (4)  the  centre  palace  (of 
Shalmaneser  II.,  B.C.  800-825,  rebuilt  by  Tiglath- 
pileser  III.,  B.C.  745-727)  ;  here  was  found  one 
of  the  nio.st  interesting  of  all  Assyriological 
monuments — the  famous  black  obelisk  of  Shal- 
maneser II.,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  which 
gives  an  account  of  the  campaigns  of  the  King 
during  thirty-one  years  of  his  reign;  (5)  the 
southwest  palace  (Esarhaddon's,  B.C.  681-668), 
built  with  materials  taken  from  the  northwest 
and  centre  palaces;  (6)  the  southeast  palace 
(Asshuretililani's.  after  B.C.  625)  ;  (7)  a  temple 
of  Nebo,  at  first  wrongly  called  the  tomb  of  Sar- 
danapalus.  The  history  of  Calah  has  been  traced 
back  to  Shalmaneser  1.  (c.l300  B.C.),  who  calls 
himself  its  builder.  It  was  afterwards  neglected 
for  a  time,  but  was  rebuilt  by  Assurnazirpal 
and  was  the  capital  of  the  Empire  for  two  cen- 
turies. About  B.C.  700  it  gave  way  to  Nineveh, 
and  was  destroyed  by  the  Medes  and  Babylonians 
when  they  conquered  Assyria.  For  bibliography, 
see  NiXEVEii;  see  also  Assyria;  Assyrian  Art. 

NIMWEGEN,  nim'wa-gen.  A  city  of  the 
Netherlands.     See  Nimeguen. 

NINDE,  nlnd,  William  Xavier  (1832-1001). 
A  bishop  of  the  Jlethodist  Episcopal  Church. 
He  was  born  at  Cortland,  N.  Y.,  and  grad- 
uated from  Wesleyan  University,  Middletown, 
Conn.,  in  1855.  After  teaching  for  a  year 
at  Rome,  N.  Y'.,  he  entered  the  ministry.  In 
1861  he  was  sent  to  a  church  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
and  remained  a  pastor  in  that  city  until  1868, 
%xhen  he  went  abroad  for  travel  through  Europe 
and  the  East.  The  remainder  of  his  pastoral  life 
was  spent  in  Detroit  at  the  Central  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  His  terms  here  were  divided 
by  a  period  spent  as  professor  of  practical  the- 
ology in  Garrett  Biblical  Institute  at  Evanston, 
111.  This  institution  called  him  to  its  presi- 
dency in  1870,  and  here  he  remained  until  1884, 
when  he  was  chosen  a  bishop  of  the  Metliodist 
Ejnseopal  Church.  He  was  one  of  the  organizers 
of  the  Epworth  League  and  its  second  president. 
He  died  at  Detroit,  jlich.  Consult  the  memoir  by 
his  daughter  (New  Y'ork,  1002). 

NINDEMANN,  nin'dc-man,  Wilrelm  Fried- 
rich  Carl  (1850 — ).  A  German-American  Arc- 
tie  explorer,  born  at  Gingst,  island  of  Riigen. 
When  seventeen,  he  came  to  the  L'nitcd  States. 
He  joined  the  Polaris  expedition,  and  in  1872. 
when  the  vessel  was  caught  in  the  ice.  with  eigh- 
teen of  the  crew  he  was  carried  on  an  ice  field  for 
nearly  seven  months.  He  was  rescued  ofT  Labra- 
dor by  the  Tifjressi:  volunteered  on  that  vessel 
and  afterwards  on  tie  Jcannetle  in  the  search  for 
the  Polaris;  and  after  the  loss  of  the  Jrnnnette 
was  sent  south  for  help  by  De  Long,  in  the  quest 
for  whom  he  later  joined.  Nindemann  wrote  in 
(Tcrman  a  description  of  his  Arctic  voyages 
(1885). 

NINE-EYES.     In  England,  a  lamprey  (q.v.). 


NINEKILLER. 


573 


NINEVEH. 


NINEKILLER.  One  of  several  similar 
names  ainiliid  to  shrikes,  this  one  expressing  a 
German  rustic  notion  tliat  the  bird  murders  nine 
victims  in  a  series.    Compai'e  Bltcuer-Bibd. 

NINETY-SIX.  A  village  in  Abbeville  Coun- 
ty, S.  (.'.,  about  80  miles  southwest  of  Camden, 
said  to  liave  been  so  named  from  its  having  been 
located  ilti  miles  from  Keowee,  the  principal  town 
of  the  C'herokees.  During  the  Revolutionary 
War,  it  was  an  important  strategic  point,  and 
in  1781,  while  occupied  by  a  Loyalist  force  of 
about  550.  under  Lieutenant-Colonel  C'ruger,  was 
unsuccessfully  besieged  by  a  force  of  Americans, 
under  (Jeneral  (Jrcene,  from  May  21st  to  Jime 
litth,  wlieii,  on  receiving  news  of  the  near  ap- 
proach of  a  greatly  superior  British  force  under 
Lord  Rawdon.  (ieneral  tJreene  withdrew.  The 
loss  of  tile  Americans,  incurred  chicHy  during  an 
assault  on  .lune  ISth.  was  about  1S5  in  killed  and 
wounded;  that  of  the  Loyalists  was  about  85.  On 
June  2'Mh  the  place  was  evacuated  by  Lord  Raw- 
don. Consult  Dawson.  Bailies  of  the  United 
States  (New  York,  1858). 

NIN'EVEH.  The  later  capital  of  the  great 
Assyrian  Knipire.  The  etymology  of  the  name 
(written  Mmia  and  SinO  in  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions) is  unknown.  A  popular  etymologj-  con- 
nected it  with  iiilnii,  "fish.'  and  made  Nineveh 
the  'tish-city.'  rresumably  the  word  is  connected 
in  some  way  with  Xiin'i,  a  Babylonian  goddess, 
subsequently  identilied  with  Islitar  (q.v.).  Nine- 
veh was  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris, 
opposite  the  present  Mosul  (Map;  Turkey  in 
Asia,  K  4),  where  for  centuries  its  ruins  were 
indicated  by  a  number  of  mounds,  the  two  prin- 
cipal ones  being  known  as  l\oy\injik  and  Nebi 
Yunus,  the  hitter  the  traditional  site  of  the 
preaching  of  the  prophet  .Jonah  and  crowned  by 
a  famous  Mohannnedan  shrine.  References  in 
Arabic  geographers  and  early  European  travelers 
show  that  the  location  was  ;ilw;iys  preserved  in 
local  tradition,  although  the  value  of  this  tradi- 
tion was  called  in  (piestion  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Its  trustworthiness  was  established  by 
Claudius  .Tames  Rich,  whose  examination  of  the 
mounds  in  1821  marks  the  beginning  of  scientific 
investigation;  he  gave  the  first  accurate  descrip- 
tion and  prepared  excellent  ma|is  (published, 
after  his  death,  in  lH:!(i).  The  first  exc;ivations 
were  made  at  Koyunjik  by  I'aul  Botta  in  1S42-43. 
At  this  early  stage  of  .Vssyriological  investiga- 
tion sculptures  or  other  large  objects  which  could 
be  sent  to  Europe  and  arouse  popular  wonder 
were  the  main  desiderata ;  and  when  three 
months'  labor  had  brought  to  light  nothing  but 
friigments  of  reliefs  and  inscriptions,  Bolta  con- 
sidered the  work  disappointing  and  abandoned 
.Koyunjik  for  Khorsabad  (q.v.).  l.ayard.  while 
excavating  at  Ninirud  (q.v.)  in  1S45-47.  dug  a 
few  trenches  at  Koyunjik  ;in(l  made  a  (dilative 
examination  which  located  the  so-called  south- 
west palace  (Sennacherib's).  During  his  second 
expedition  (184II-51)  he  made  a  more  thorough 
examination  of  this  palace,  brought  to  light 
numerous  valuable  sculptures,  and  discovered  the 
famous  library  of  Assurbanipal.  After  Layard's 
departure  operations  were  continued  by  Rassam 
I  IH52-54I,  while  \'ii'tor  I'lace  was  also  attempt- 
ing to  I'xcavate  at  the  ,.ame  mounil,  the  work  of 
the  two  investigators  nol  always  proceeding  in  a 
spirit  of  frien<lly  eoiiperation.  Hassam  discovered 
the    north    palace     ( Assurbanipal's  i.    the    sculp- 


tures of  which  belong  to  the  finest  specimens  of 
Assyrian  art.  He  also  found  here  the  second 
half  of  Assurbanipal's  library,  including  the 
Babylonian  account  of  the  deluge.  The  examina- 
tion of  the  palace  was  continued  for  a  short 
time  after  Rassam's  departure  by  Loftus  and 
Boutcher.  The  next  attempt  at  Koyunjik  was 
made  by  (Jeorge  Smitli  during  two  brief  periods 
aggregating  not  more  than  three  montlis  together 
in  187.3-74.  and  resulted  mainh'  in  the  recovery 
of  inscriptions  from  .Xssurbanipal's  library,  pop- 
ularly considered  disappointing  after  the  bril- 
liant successes  of  Layard  and  Rassam,  but  in 
reality  as  important  as  any  discoveries  j'ct  made. 
Rassam,  during  his  four  campaigns  in  1878-82, 
made  further  excavations  at  Koyunjik;  owing 
to  the  unfortunate  attempt  to  do  too  much  and 
the  unsystematic  and  unscholarly  methods  fol- 
lowed, the  results  were  not  all  tiiat  could 
have  been  desired.  Rassam  also  excavated  at  this 
time  at  Balawat  (q.v.),  about  fifteen  miles  east 
of  Mosul,  like  Khorsabad  and  Nimniil  one  of  the 
many  cities  grouiied  arotmd  Nineveh,  and  at- 
tempted without  success  to  examine  Nebi  Yunus. 
It  is  known  that  the  latter  mound  contains  me- 
morials of  Adadnirari  111.  (B.C.  812-783)  and 
palaces  of  Sennacherib  ( u.c.  705-(;Sl)  and  Esar- 
liaddon  (n.c.  tiSl-bllSi,  but  this  mound  has  not 
yet  been  examined.  Much  also  still  remains  to  be 
ilone  at  Koyunjik.  The  earliest  ex|ilorations  of 
Layard  were  carried  on  at  the  expense  of  Sir 
Stratford  Canning  and  Layard  himself;  other 
investigations  have  been  supported  by  the  British 
Museum,  where  most  of  the  anti(iuities  discov- 
ered are  now  stored.  Besides  ornaments,  seals, 
and  similar  small  objects  of  great  importance  as 
works  of  art.  colossal  statues  were  found,  and 
small  bas-reliefs  representing  incidents  of  war, 
hunting  scenes,  sacrificial  rites,  religious  proces- 
sions, building  operations,  and  other  events  of 
daily  life.  The  inscriptions  on  clay  cylinders, 
obelisks,  .slabs,  statues,  and  tablets  of  stone  and 
other  material  have  furnished  data  for  tracing 
the  history  of  the  Assyrian  empire  with  consider- 
able detail  from  about  B.C.  1 100  to  the  fall  of 
Nineveh. 

The  ancient  city  was  a  strongly  fortified  towni, 
an  irregular  tra]ie/.ium  in  shape.  The  walls  have 
been  traced  and  found  to  have  been  about  a  mile 
ajid  one-quarter  in  Icngtli  on  the  north,  something 
less  than  three  miles  on  the  east,  about  half  a 
mile  on  the  south,  and  two  and  one-half  miles 
along  the  Tigris  on  the  west.  A  reiuiirkable  gate 
was  discovered  by  Layard  near  the  centre  of  the 
northern  wall ;  on  the  city  side  there  were  co- 
lossal man-headed  bulls  anil  winged  human  fig- 
ures. The  river  Khosar  llowcd  through  the  city 
from  west  to  east,  dividing  it  into  two  nearly 
equal  parts.  The  superficial  area  was  aboul  ISOO 
acres.  According  to  a  stalciiicnt  of  the  Hook  of 
.lonah  (iv.  II),  the  population  when  the  city 
was  at  the  height  of  its  glory  has  been  estimated 
at  GOO.onO.  This  is  probably  too  great.  Com- 
mander .Tones  calculated  in  1852  that  the  popula- 
tion of  the  city  and  suburbs  cannot  have  ex- 
ceeded 350.000.' while  the  cHy  itself  may  have 
been  the  home  of  about  175,000  souls.  The  state- 
ment that  "Nineveh  was  an  exceeding  great  city 
of  three  days'  journey"  (.Tonah  iii.  3)  does  not 
seem  greatly  exaggerated,  if  the  suburbs  be  taken 
into  account. 

The  first  certain  mention  of  Nineveh  is  in  the 
code  of  Hammurabi — latter  half  of  the  twenty- 


I 


NINEVEH. 


573 


NINIAN. 


third  century  B.C.  (St'f  HAMMiKAnr. )  The  name 
oiiurs  in  i.eilain  Babylonian  inscriptions  whieli 
arc  at  least  500  years  older,  but  it  is  not 
certain  that  the  reference  is  to  the  Assyrian  cap- 
ital. The  earliest  seat  of  the  Assyrian  rulers 
was  at  Asshur  (Kilch  Sbergat,  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Tigris,  about  50  miles  below  JIosul).  The 
.seat  of  government  was  lirst  transferred  to  Calah 
(Ximrud,  q.v.).  Shalmaneser  1.  (c.1300  B.C.), 
who  calls  himself  the  builder  of  the  latter  city, 
is  known  to  liave  restored  a  temple  of  Ishtar  at 
Xineveh,  which  is  also  mentioned  in  an  inscrip- 
tion of  Shamshiadad  (c.1800  B.C.)  and  in  the 
code  of  Hammurabi.  From  the  time  of  Asshur- 
belkala  (c.lOOO  B.C.)  to  the  reign  of  Assur- 
nazirpnl  (B.C.  885-SGO)  Xineveli  was  the  capital. 
The  latter  King  returned  to  Calah,  but  in  the 
days  of  Sennacherib  (B.C.  TOo-tiSl)  Xineveh  re- 
gained its  position.  Sennacherib's  predecessor, 
Sargon  II.  (B.C.  722-705).  seems  to  have  given 
tlic  jireference  to  Khorsabad.  Under  Sennacherib 
and  his  successors  Xineveh  attained  to  its  great- 
est jirosperity  and  fame.  It  fell  before  the  com- 
bined efforts  of  Medes  and  Babylonians,  the  Jle- 
dian  King,  CVaxares  (r.c.  G25-585),  entering  into 
an  alliance  with  the  Babylonian  King,  Xabopolas- 
sar  (B.C.  025-005),  for  the  destruction  of  the  As- 
syrian Empire.  The  last  days  of  Xineveh  are  ob- 
scure. That  the  city  held  out  for  a  considerable 
time  by  virtue  of  its  strong  fortifications  is  prob- 
able. The  year  of  its  fall  is  uncertain;  a  probable 
date  is  B.C.  007.  According  to  tradition  its  King, 
Sinsharishkun,  ended  his  life  in  the  tlames  -which 
consumed  his  capital.  The  destruction  of  the  city 
was  comjilete.  Xenophon  with  the  Ten  Thousand 
Greeks  passed  by  its  site  about  two  centuries 
later,  and  does  not  even  mention  its  name.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  the  'great  uninhabited 
cities'  which  he  calls  Jfespila  and  Larissa  {Aiiab. 
iii.  4,  7-12)  were  Koyunjik  and  X^ebi  Yunus, 
respectively. 

BiBLTOORAPHY.  All  that  was  known  about 
Nineveh  before  the  beginning  of  e.xcavatiors  may 
be  found  in  Tuch,  Cominrntationcs  Gcograpliicw 
(le  \ino  I'rhe  (Leipzig,  1845),  and  JIarcus  von 
Xiebuhr.  (Icschichtc  Assiirs  und  Bahelf!  (Berlin, 
1857).  The  aiitlioritative  accounts  of  the  ex- 
cavations are:  Layard.  Xincvrh  niid  /(.«  Remains 
(London,  1848)  :  id.,  T)te  Moiniini-nls  of  Nineveh, 
series  i.,  100  plates,  .series  ii.,  71  plates  (ib., 
1840-53)  ;  id..  Discoveries  in  the  Ruins  of  Nineveh 
and  Bahylon  (ib.,  185.3):  Smith,  Assyrian  Dis- 
coveries '  {ih..  1875:  3d  ed.,  Xew  York,  1876); 
Rassam,  Asshur  and  the  Land  of  Nimrod  (Cin- 
cinnati. 1807).  For  the  topography,  consult 
Rich,  Narrative  of  a  Residence  in  Koordi.itan  and 
on  the  f>Hc  of  Ancient  Nineveh  (London,  1830)  ; 
.Tones,  "Topography  of  Xineveh.  with  ^laps."  in 
the  ■Journal  of  the  Roi/al  .^■'^i^ltic  Soeieti/,  vol.  xv. 
(London.  1855).  For  the  inscriptions  consult 
Layard.  Inscriptions  in.  the  Cuneiform  Character 
from  .Assyrian  Monuments  (London,  1851); 
Rawlinson  and  Pinches,  The  Cuneiform  Inscrip- 
tions of  ^yeslern  .Asia  (ib..  1801-01);  Bezold. 
Catalogue  of  the  Cuneiform  Tahhis  in  the  Kouy- 
iin'iik  CcjUection  of  the  lirili.th  Mus(um  ( ib..  1889- 
Ofl).  The  following  works  are  also  reconunended: 
Rich,  Collected  Memoirs  (London.  1830)  ;  Loftus, 
Travels  and  Researches  in  Chahhra  and  f^usiana 
(ib..  1857)  :  Layard.  Early  .Adventures  in  I'ersia, 
fiusiana.  and  Baht/lonia  ( ib..  1887  :  2d  ed..  abridged, 
1804)  :  ttie  British  Museum  Cuide  to  the  .Assyr- 
ian Antiquities  (new  ed.,  ib.,  1000)  ;  vol.  i.,  parts 


1.3  of  the  photographs  of  the  antiquities  in  the 
British  Museum  pul)lished  by  Stephen  Thompson 
( ib..  1872);  Masjiero.  The  Slruyfile  of  the  Na- 
tions (ib.,  1890)  and  The  I'assiny  of  the  f^mpires 
(ib.,  inOO).  both  profusely  illustrated:  Billerbeck 
and  .leremias.  '"Der  Untergang  Xinevehs  und  die 
Weissagungsschrift  des  Xahum  von  KIkosch,"  in 
Beilriige  zur  Assyriologie,  vol.  iii.  (Leipzig, 
1898),  a  description  of  the  defenses  and  fortifi- 
cations with  maps  and  illustrations:  Kaulen 
Assyrien  und  Babylonien  (5th  ed.,  Freiburg, 
1899)  ;  Goodspeed,  A  History  of  the  Babyloniatis 
and  Assyrians  (New  York,  1903)  ;  Schrader,  Die 
Keilinschriften  und  das  alte  Testament  (Giessen, 
1883;  Eng.  trans..  London.  1897)  ;  Pinches, 
The  Old  Testament  in  the  Light  of  the  Historical 
Records  and  Legends  of  .Assyria  ami  Babyloiiia 
(London.  1902)  ;  Hilprecht,  Explorations  in  Bible 
Lands  During  the  Nineteenth  Century  (Phila- 
delphia. 190.3)  ;  and  the  works  mentioned  in 
the  article  Assyria.  See  also  Assyrian  Art; 
CrxEiFORM  Inscriptions,  and  the  biographical 
notices  of  the  different  excavators. 

NINE  WORTHIES,  TiiE.  Nine  heroes  of 
history  and  romance,  long  popular  in  medi-fval 
art  and  story.  They  are  mentioned  in  the  preface 
to  Caxton's  Malory's  Morte  d'Arthur,  as  the 
"X^ine  Worthy  and  the  best  that  ever  were;"  to 
wit,  three  Paynims,  three  .Jews,  and  three  Chris- 
tian men.  These  are  Hector  of  Troy,  Alexander 
the  Great,  Julius  Caesar,  .Joshua,  David,  .Judas 
Maccabaeus,  King  Arthur,  Charlemagne,  and 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  These  heroes  were  a  familiar 
and  popular  subject  in  tapestries  and  paintings, 
and  figured  also  in  masks  and  pageants.  Dunlop 
mentions  in  History  of  Prose  Fiction  a  rare  ro- 
mance, the  "Triumphes  des  neuf  Preux,"  in 
which  the  author  had  a  vision  of  the  nine 
worthies.  Brunet  intimates  that  the  original 
was  of  Spanish  origin.  The  nine  are  mentioned 
also  in  English  literature.  Shakespeare  parodies 
them  in  Love's  Labor's  Lost,  and  Dryden  alludes 
to  them  in  The  Flower  and  the  Leaf. 

NING-PO,  ning'p(5'  (Chin..  Calm  AVaves).  A 
treaty  port  in  the  Province  of  Che-kiang.  China, 
on  the  river  Tatsish,  12  miles  from  the  sea  (Map: 
China,  F  6).  The  inclosed  space  is  about  five 
miles  in  circumference.  The  brick  walls,  25  feet 
high  and  22  feet  thick  at  the  base,  are  pierced 
by  six  gates.  The  city  is  f:unous  for  its  temples, 
pagoda,  stone  bridges,  and  a  library,  the  fourth 
in  point  of  number  of  volumes  in  the  Empire. 
The  gold  and  silver  work,  confectionery,  lacquer 
work,  and  carving  are  noted  all  over  China.  The 
Portuguese  settled  in  1522  in  Ning-po,  but  were 
driven  out  in  1545  after  a  massacre,  in  which 
800  out  of  1200  Europeans  were  slain.  The  city 
was  occupied  by  the  British  forces  for  six 
months  in  1841-42,  and  was  opened  to  foreign 
trade  in  1842.  It  is  an  important  centre  of 
Christian  missions.  Ning-po  has  little  direct 
trade  and  is  principally  a  distributing  station  for 
Shanghai.  Its  total  trade,  chiellv  imports, 
amounted  in  1900  to  more  than  .$10,000,000.  The 
principal  articles  of  connnerce  are  green  tea, 
cotton,  opium,  silk,  and  sugar.  Population,  esti- 
mated at  255,000. 

NIN'IAN,  Saint.  The  .-\postle  of  the  Picts. 
He  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth  and  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  century.  Whether  Chris- 
tianity had  been  introduced  among  the  Picts  be- 
fore the  time  of  Xinian  has  been  a  subject  of 


NINIAN. 


574 


NIP  A. 


controversy.  However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain 
that  wheii  Xiiiian  apiwared  anioiig  them,  the 
Picts  were  in  the  main  a  pagan  peojjle.  He  was 
a  Briton,  and  of  nobh'  birth,  but  had  l)een 
educated  at  Kome,  and  there  ordained  a  bishop 
in  394.  The  e.xact  time  of  his  preacliing  in  Scot- 
land is  imknown.  His  labors  apin-ar  to  have 
commenced  in  Cumbria,  and  to  liave  extended 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  district  as  far  north 
as  the  (Jranipian  Hills,  his  see  being  li.xed  at  Can- 
dida Casa,  or  Whithorn,  in  the  modern  Wigton- 
shire.  His  death  is  placed  by  the  Hollandists  in 
432;  his  festival  is  September  10th.  His  Life, 
bj'  Ailred,  is  in  Korbes,  Historians  of  Scotland, 
vol.  V.  (Edinburgh,  1874). 

NINIGRET  (c.UilO-e. 11)77).  A  sachem  of  an 
Algoncpiian  tril)e  of  Indians,  the  Xiantics.  He 
assisted  the  English  colonists  in  the  Pequot  war 
of  1637,  but  soon  afterwards  began  to  scheme  for 
their  expulsion  or  extermination.  A  visit  to  the 
Dutch  on  Manhattan  Islaiul  in  10,52-.^3  caused 
him  to  be  suspected  of  plotting  against  the 
United  Colonies,  whose  commissioners,  in  April, 
1053,  declared  war  against  him,  but  were  unable 
to  prosecute  it,  owing  to  the  opposition  of  Massa- 
chusetts. Ninigrct,  however,  soon  attacked  the 
Long  Island  Indians,  allies  of  the  English,  and 
the  commissioners;  after  summoning  him  in  vain 
to  Hartford,  sent  Major  Sanuiel  Willard  against 
him  with  a  force  of  .310  men.  Xinigret  took 
refuge  in  a  swamp,  but  subsequently  (Ui()2),  in 
conjunction  with  several  other  chiefs,  sold  a  large 
part  of  his  territory  to  the  colonists.  Several  of 
his  successors  from  whom  land  titles  were  se- 
cured by  Rhode  Island  were  also  called  Xinigret. 

NINO,  ne'nyfi,  Pedro  Alonso  (c.U.'jo-c.IoOo)  . 
A  Spanish  navigator,  born  at  Moguer.  He  had 
sailed  to  the  west  coast  of  Africa  several  times 
in  Portuguese  vessels  before  1402,  when  he  be- 
came pilot  of  one  of  Columbus's  three  ships.  In 
June,  1496,  Xino  sailed  to  Santo  Domingo  with 
supplies,  and  on  his  return  nearly  ruined  the 
fortunes  of  Columbus  by  his  braggadocio  and  his 
tardiness  in  reporting  at  court.  After  sailing  on 
Columbus's  third  voyage,  he  planned  with  Cris- 
tobal de  la  Ciuerra,  a  S|ianish  merchant,  the  first 
successful  commercial  voyage  to  the  Xcw  World 
(1499).  Xino  died  soon  after  his  return,  after 
having  been  accused  of  cheating  the  Crown  of  a 
part  of  its  >liare  in  the  [)ronts  of  the  voyage. 

NINON  DE  L'ENCLOS,  ne'nnN  dc  liiN'- 
klO'.  or  Le.nclos  (1616-1706).  A  Parisian  cour- 
tesan, renuirkable  for  beauty,  grace,  and  intel- 
lectual culture,  as  well  as  for  keen  wit.  Her 
career  began  at  sixteen.  Among  her  many  lovers 
were  successivelv  the  Covmt  de  Chatillon,  the 
Marquis  de  Vilhirceaux.  the  Marq\ii-i  de  SfvignC-. 
the  Marquis  de  (Jersay,  .Marshal  (  nndf,  the  Hue 
de  la  Rochefoucauld,  Marshal  il'Albrit.  Marshal 
d'Estr.Vs.  Al)bc-  d'ICIhal.  (lourville.  and  I.a  CliAtre. 
She  counted  among  her  friends  (^lueen  Christina 
of  Sweden,  Madame  Scarron  (afti-rwards  Madnnie 
de  Maintenon).  anil  Madame  de  La  Fayette.  Her 
salon  seemed  for  a  time  a  rival  of  the  Hrttel  de 
Rambouillet.  Moli^re  and  Scarron  arc  said  to 
have  taken  literary  counsel  with  her.  Her  beauty 
lasted  into  old  age.  Consult:  Douxmesnil.  .Ifc- 
nioiro  (Rotterdam.  17.">2)  ;  and  the  ll'orAs  of 
Saint-Evremonil  (.\nisterdani.  1706).  but  esjM-- 
ciallv  the  contemporarj'  'portrait'  in  Mile,  de 
ScudVTv'i  r/<7ie  (Paris,'  1556-00),  where  she  fig- 
ures as  'Clarisse.' 


NIOBE,  ni'6-be  (Lat,,  from  Gk.'Sii^Ji).  In 
Greek  legend,  the  daughter  of  Tantalus,  King  of 
Lydia,  and  (according  to  the  most  popular  ver- 
sion) the  sister  of  Pelops.  She  was  the  wife  of 
Auiphion,  King  of  Thebes,  and  bore  him  many 
children,  the  numbers  varying  usually  between 
twelve  and  twenty.  In  her  pride  she  \)oasted  her 
superiority  to  Leto,  the  mother  of  .Vpolln  and 
Artemis.  The  angry  goddess  moved  her  children 
to  avenge  the  insult,  and  Apollo  with  his  arrows 
slew  the  sons,  while  Artemis  killed  the  daugliters 
in  the  palace.  Xiobe  in  her  grief  prayed  the  gods, 
who  in  pity  transformed  her  into  a  stone  image 
on  iluunt  Sipylus  in  Lydia.  The  story  ajipears  in 
the  epic,  and  was  retold  by  tragedians,  poets,  and 
chroniclers  with  many  divergencies  in  detail.  The 
fullest  version  whicli  has  survived  is  by  Uvid 
(.l/f(aiH.,  vi.  146  sqq.).  Representations  of  llie 
story  on  vases  and  reliefs  are  not  numerous,  but 
it  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the  most  famous 
groups  of  ancient  statues.  Consult:  Stark, 
.Viobf  vnd  die  y'iobiden  (Leipzig,  1803)  ;  Ame- 
lung,  I'iihrer  durch  die  Antiken  in  Florenz 
(Munich,  1S97). 

NIO'BIUM  (Xeo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  .Vio6e, 
daughter  of  Tantalus;  so  called  from  its  close 
resemblance  to  the  metal  tantalum,  from  Lat. 
Tantalus,  father  of  Xiobe).  A  metallic  chemical 
element,  same  as  columbium  (q.v.). 

NIOBRARA,  ni'u-brii'rA.  A  river  rising  in 
Laramie  County,  Wyo.,  flowing  east  through 
northern  X'ebraska,  and  emptying  into  the  Mis- 
souri River  at  Xiobrara,  after  a  course  of 
about  450  miles  (Map:  Xebraska,  CI).  It  is 
a  shallow  and  rapid  stream,  and  is  not  navigable. 
In  its  upper  course  it  flows  through  a  samly 
region,  after  which  it  traverses  a  deep,  rocky 
canon ;  but  in  the  lower  part  it  winds  through 
fertile  bottom  lands. 

NIOBRARA  STAGE.  The  name  given  to  a 
divi^-ioll  of  llie  Cretaceous  system  (q.v.).  The 
rocks,  including  sandstones,  limestones,  and 
chalks,  are  exposed  in  Kansas.  South  Dakota, 
and  in  the  States  farther  westward,  and  attain 
a  maximum  thickness  of  2000  feet. 

NIORT,  nyor.  The  capital  of  the  Department 
of  Ucux-S^vres,  France,  on  the  S^vre-Niorlai-'e 
River,  49  miles  by  rail  southwest  of  Poitiers 
(Map:  France.  F5).  Its  chief  points  of  in- 
terest are  the  Church  of  Xotre  Dame,  with  its 
famous  tower  and  elaborate  interior,  the  Church 
of  Saint  Andrew.  Museum  of  Art  and  Xatural  His- 
tory, Museum  of  Antiquities  and  the  Public  Gar- 
den. The  inhabitants  of  the  adjoining  region 
are  engaged  in  cattle-raising  and  farming,  and 
the  town  has  a  large  trade  in  gloves,  oil,  brushes, 
and  leather;  there  are  also  extensive  nursery 
interests.  Xiort  dates  from  1155;  was  under 
the  rule  of  England  for  a  short  period;  and 
as  a  Protestant  strongludd  endured  many  hard- 
ships during  the  Religious  Wars.  Madame  de 
Maintenon  was  a  native  of  Xiort.  Population, 
in   1901,  23,897. 

NI'PA  (X'eo-Lat..  from  the  native  name).  A 
gentis  of  plants  referred  by  most  botanists  to 
the  order  Palinie.  .Vi/in  fruticans.  the  only  species 
recognized,  connnon  in  the  East  Indian  .\rchi- 
jielago,  is  a  low-growing  tree,  which  flouri-ihes 
with  the  mangrove  in  places  inumlated  by  the 
tiile.  It  abounds  in  saccharine  sap.  fr^im  which 
a  kind  of  palm  wine  and  also  excellent  sugiir 
are  made.     The  leaves  ftre  employed  for  rooting 


NIP  A. 


575 


NIPPUB. 


and  are  exported  from   IViiassuiim  for  this  juir- 
pose. 

NIPH'ER,  Francis  Elgk.ne  (1847—).  An 
Aiiiciicaii  rk'ctriwU  engineer  and  pliysieist.  He 
was  born  at  Port  JJyron,  X.  V. ;  graduated  from 
Iowa  State  University  in  1870 ;  and,  after 
four  years  as  instruetor  of  physics  in  that 
institution,  was  ehosen  professor  of  physics 
and  of  electrical  cnjjineering  in  W'asliingtou  Liii- 
versity.  Niphcr  organized  the  Missouri  weather 
service  (1S77)  and  the  ^Magnetic  Survey  of 
the  iState  (1878);  became  a  prominent  member 
of  the  Saint  Louis  Academy  of  Science ;  and  con- 
trilnited  to  its  Truiisactions  articles  on  physics 
and  meteorology.  His  more  interesting  researches 
include  his  proof  that  a  photographic  plate 
over-exposed  may  be  developed  as  a  positive, 
and  that  between  positive  and  negative  there 
is  a   zero  value  which  cannot  be  develoi)ed. 

NIPIGON,  nip'i-gon  (or  NEPIGON),  L.\ke. 
A  lak*'  of  Ontario,  Canada,  .3.3  miles  north  of 
Lal<e  Superior  (Map:  Ontario,  il  8).  It  is 
aliout  00  miles  long  from  north  to  south,  and 
4.)  miles  wide.  A  coast  line  with  bold  headlands 
and  deep  bays  gives  a  total  length  of  shore  of 
.380  miles.  It  is  813  feet  above  Lake  Superior. 
A  great  number  of  mountain  streams  flow  into 
it,  and  its  waters  flow  out  through  the  Xipigon 
River,  40  miles  in  length,  southward,  to  Nipigon 
Bay,  an  arm  of  Lake  Superior.  The  lake  is  very 
deep,  studded  with  islands,  and  well  stocked  with 
tish. 

NIPISSING,  nip'is-sing  (still-water  place,  or 
littlc-wntcr  place).  An  Algonquian  tribe,  for- 
merly residing  about  the  lake  of  the  same 
nanu'  in  Xorthern  Ontario,  Canada.  When  first 
known  to  the  French,  early  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  tliey  were  one  of  the  most  prominent 
and  intlucntial  tribes  of  Canada,  and  were 
regarded  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries  as  the 
typical  Algonquian  tribe,  and  their  language  as 
the  standard  for  the  whole  linguistic  stock. 
On  the  destruction  of  the  missions  by  the  Iro- 
quois aljout  lUoO  they  were  forced  to  fly  to 
the  nortli  and  west,  almost  to  the  extreme  west- 
ern end  of  Lake  Superior.  They  afterwards 
returned  and  settled,  some  in  their  old  coun- 
try on  the  lake  shores,  others  at  the  Three 
Rivers,  and  also  with  the  Catholic  Iroquois 
at  the  Lake  of  Two  Mountains,  near  Montreal, 
where  they  still  have  a  village.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  give  any  reliable  statement  of  the  past 
or  present  numl)er  of  the  Xipissing,  as  they 
are  generally  included  in  the  estimates  with  the 
other  tribes  known  collectively  as  Algonquian 
(q.v.).  Tlie  Indians  now  on  a  reservation  on 
Lake  Xipissing  are  oftieiallv  classed  as  Ojibwa 
(q.v.). 

NIPISSING  (or  NEPISSING),  Lake.  A 
lake  in  Ontario,  Canada,  nearly  midway  between 
Lake  Huron  and  the  Ottawa  Kiver,  with  a 
length  of  about  So  miles,  and  a  maximum  breadth 
of  28  miles  (Map:  Ontario,  D  1).  Its  waters 
are  mostly  received  from  the  north  through 
Sturgeon  River,  which  connects  it  with  a  chain 
of  smaller  lakes.  The  only  outlet  is  French 
River,  hy  wliicli  the  lake  discharges  into  (icor- 
gian  r.:iy.  an  inlet  of  Lake  Huron.  Tliere  are 
n  number  of  small  islands.  The  vicinity  is 
jnhaliited  by  Indians.  There  is  a  regular  steam- 
er service  on  the  lake,  and  its  waters  and  shores 
are    extensively    resorted    to    for    angling    and 


shooting.     Le  Caron,  a  RecoUet  priest,  was  the 
lirst  European  to  visit  the  lake,  in  ltil4. 

NIP'MUC  (fresh-water  people).  A  collec- 
tive term  for  llie  small  inland  tribes  of  Algon- 
quian stock  formerly  living  in  central  Massa- 
chusetts and  the  adjacent  sections  of  Connecti- 
cut and  Rhode  Island.  Their  chief  seats  were 
at  the  headwaters  of  the  Rlaekstone  and  the 
t.hiinebaug  rivers,  and  about  the  ])on(ls  of  Brook- 
ticld.  Their  villages  had  no  ap|)arent  political 
connection,  and  the  various  bands  were  subject 
to  their  more  powerful  neighbors,  the  Massa- 
chuset,  the  Wampanoag,  the  X'arragauset,  and 
the  Mohegan,  or  even  tributary  to  the  distant 
Mohawk.  There  were  seven  villages  of  "pray- 
ing Indians"  among  them  in  1(174,  but  on  the 
outbreak  of  King  I'liiliji's  War  the  next  year 
almost  all  of  them  joined  the  hostiles,  and  at 
its  close  some  of  tliem  lied  to  Canada  or  west- 
ward to  the  Mohican,  and  others  to  the  districts 
about  the  Hudson. 

NIP'PER,  SiSAX.     A  character  in  Dickens's 

novel   Domheij   and   Son.   the   nurse    of   Florence 
Dombey,  sharp-tongued  but  faithful. 

NIPPEIlDEY,nip'per-dI.  Karl  L^^)\^^G(I82I- 
7.5).  A  German  philologist,  born  in  Schwerin, 
September  13,  1821.  He  studied  at  the  universi- 
ties of  Leipzig  and  Berlin,  and  after  teaching  in 
the  former  university,  became  professor  at  .Jena, 
1852.  He  published  a  number  of  translations 
and  critical  studies  of  Latin  prose,  among  them 
works  on  Caesar,  Xepos,  and  the  Annales  of 
Tacitus.  These  works  passed  through  many  edi- 
tions, the  translation  of  Xepos  having  reached 
its  tenth  edition  in  LSflO,  and  the  translation  of 
the  Annales  of  Tacitus,  with  exegetieal  notes, 
having  passed  through  the  ninth  edition  iu  I8!)2. 
Consult  Schiill's  collection  of  his  works,  under 
the  title  of  C.  Xippcrflfii  Opiixcnla  (1877),  and 
the  biography  by  the  same  author  (1875).  Nip- 
perdey  committed  suicide,  Januaiy  2,  1875. 

NIPPLES.      See  Breast. 

NIPPOLD,  ni'p.'dt.  FRiEnRlcii  (1838—).  A 
(ierman  Cliurch  historian.  He  was  born  at  Em- 
merich and  studied  at  Halle  and  Bonn.  After 
1865  he  served  as  professor  of  Church  history 
at  the  universities  of  Heidelberg,  Bern,  and 
.Jena.  Xippold  became  a  representative  of  liberal 
theology,  and  took  a  prominent  lead  in  the 
•modern  Church  movcTnent.  His  ninnerous  theo- 
logical treatises  include  Handbiich  dcr  neues- 
tcn  Kircheiigeschichte  (1857),  which  is  his  chief 
wcnk.  and  Amerikanische  Kirchengeschichte 
(1802). 

NIPPON,  or  NIHON,  n^'hon'.  The  Japan- 
ese pronunciation  of  the  name  ".Jih-pen"  (sun- 
origin)  given  to  "Japan'  by  the  Chinese.  '.Japan' 
is  a  corruption  of  the  same  words.  The  name 
was  employed  first  officially  by  the  .Tapane.se 
Government  about  A.D.  070.  Before  that  time 
various  high-sounding  titles  had  been  used, 
and  two  native  nanu-s  .still  survive  in  litera- 
ture. 'Vamato,'  strictly  speaking,  the  name  of 
a  province,  and  'O-mi-kuni'  (Great  .Xugust 
Country).  'Xippou'  was  misapplied  by  Occi- 
dentals for  a  time  as  the  name  of  the  largest 
island   of  the  archipelago. 

NIP'PirR  (modern  name.  X'iffar).  One  of 
the  most  important  cities  of  ancient  Babylonia, 
situated  on  the  northeast  edge  of  the  district 
now  occupied  by  the  Afej   tribes  of  Arabs,  be- 


NIPPTJR. 


576  NIRVANA. 

Caracas  (Map:  \unc'2ucla,  D  2).  It  is  situated 
in  the  richest  district  of  the  State,  in  a  region 
jjrodueing  colVce,  cacao,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  cot- 
ton, as  well  as  live  stock.  Nirgua  was  founded 
in  1.554,  and  in  I'Mo  rich  gold  deposits  were  dis- 
covered in  the  vicinity.  The  population  of  the 
municipality,   in   1S!)1,  was  83U4. 

NIRUKTA,     neroolc'til      (Skt.,     explanation, 
from  nin,  out  +  iihta.  p.p.  of  riic,  to  speak).    The 


tween  the  Tigris  and  tlie  Euphrates,  about  100 
miles  southeast  of  J5agdad.  The  Talmud  identi- 
fies it  with  Calneh  (Uen.  x.  10).  Nippur  was  fa- 
mous as  the  seat  of  worship  of  the  god  Bel  (or 
En-lil),  who  at  an  early  period  acquired  a  unupie 
position  as  the  chief  ilcity  of  the  Babyl.iniau 
Tantheon.  This  is  indicated  by  his  name,  which 
signifies    'lord'    par    cxcidlcncc.      The    clo.sc    con- 

iiec'tion    in   ancient    IJahylonia   between    political      ^  _  ^ 

supreniaev  and  religious  prominence  justifies  the  name  of  tliat  one  of  the  six  V<'<h'iiigas  (see  Vii- 
supposition  that  for  a  considerable  period  Nip-  nANO.\)  which  explains  dillicult  Vedic  words, 
pur,  the  city  of  Bel,  also  exercisecl  control  oyer     Xhere  must  have  been  several  works  of  this  <h;ir- 


at  least  a  large  portion  of  the  Euphrates  Val- 
ley. The  religious  sanctity  of  the  place,  how- 
ever, outlasted  its  political  history,  and  for 
many  centuries  after  Nippur  had  yielded  its 
political  supremacy  to  other  centres  it  con- 
tinued to  be  a  favorite  i)lace  of  pilgrimage, 
and  the  kings  of  both  Bal)ylonia  and  Assyria 
vied  in  rendering  homage  to  the  great  Bel  by 
restoring  ruined  portions  of  his  temple.  The 
chief  temple  was  known  as  Ekur,  'Mountain 
House,'  and  there  was  also  a  stage-tower  (cifc- 
Imrrat),  rising  to  a  considerable  height,  with  a 
shrine  of  Bel  at  the  top.  Besides  Bel  and  his 
consort,  Belit,  other  gods  were  worshiped  at 
Nippur,  and  temples  or  shrines  were  erected 
to  them,  so  that  there  came  to  be  a  large  sacred 
complex,  shut  otr  from  the  rest  of  the  city  by 
a   double   wall. 

Systematic  explorations  at  Nippur  have  been 
conducted  by  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  be- 
ginning in  1888  under  the  direction  of  the  Rev.  Dr. 
John  P.  Peters,  the  founder  and  organizer  of  the 
expedition,  and  continued  at  intervals  till   1900. 
During    1893-00.    and    again    in    1898-1900,    the 
work    was    in    charge    of    J.    H.    Haynes.    who 
was  joined  in  the  field  during  the  spring  of  1900 
by   Prof.   II.   V.   Hilprecht.      As   a   result   a   con- 
siderable   portion    of    the    temple    area    and    ad- 
joining grounds  has  been   laid  bare,  the  charac- 
ter and  i)lans  of  the  ancient  buildings  have  been 
determined,  and  a  large  number  of  inscriptions, 
historical    and    votive,    as    well    as   over    30.000 
commercial  and  literary  tablets,  have  been  found. 
The  larger  n\iniber  of  the  tablets  were  discovered 
in   a  section  of  the  mound  containing  an  edifice 
or  edifices  used  for  tlie  U'gal  and  literary  archives 
of  the   temple.     Tlirougli   tlie   liistorical   and   vo- 
tive   inscriptions,   of    which    two    volumes    have 
been     published     by     Professor     Hilprecht    [Ohl 
liahi/loiiiiin    Inncriplions,    f'hirfly    from    Xippiir, 
Philadelphia,    1893-96),   the   history   of   Nippur 
has  been  traced   to  a  date,  according  to   some, 
as  early  as  c.4.500  B.C.,   according  to  others  to 
c.3200  or   3000   ii.c.      Much   light   has   been   shed 
on  the  general  course  of  events  from   Ibi-^  early 
period  ilown  to  the  rule  of  the  Kassiles  in  Baby- 
lotua    (c. iron  1-200    n.c).    who    appear    to   have 
been    particularly    attached   to   the   cult   of    Bel 
of  Nippur.     A  third  volume  by  Professors  1111- 
nrecht  and  Clnv    { Hiisiiicis  Dnriimrulu  nf  Muni- 
shu.    Roii.9   of    \ippur,    Philadelphia.    1898)    con- 
sists of   120  tablets  of  a   conunercial    character, 
illustrating  business  methods  in  Babylonia   dur- 
ing   the    Persian    period.      Consult,    besides    the 
works    alreadv    mentioned:     Peters,    \ippiir.    or 
Explorulions'inul  Ailiriihirix  on    Ihr   /•.'iz/i/iro/r.'! 
(New   York,    1897):    Hilprecht.   Ki-plorntionx    in 
nihil-  LaiuU  (Inring  the  "Sinetcenth  Centuni  (Phil- 
adelphia. 1903). 

NIRGTIA.    nvr'gwft.      A    town    of    the    State 
of  Carabobo.  Venezuela,   110  miles  southwest  of 


acter  in  a  remote  period  of  Hindu  antiquity,  which 
bore   the   name   Xirukta.   for   'Nirukta   authors' 
are  quoted  either  generally  or  by  name  in  sev- 
eral   Sanskrit   authors;    but   the   work   which    is 
especially  called  yinih-tii.  and  wliich.  thus  far,  is 
the  only"  surviving  representative  of  this  impor- 
tant division  of  tlie  \'edangas.  is  that  of  Yaska, 
who   was   a    predecessor   of   Panini    (q.v.).      His 
work  consists  of  three  parts — the   yaighantiika, 
where,  for  the  most  part,  synonymous  words  are 
given:   the  Nuigtima,  which  contains  words  that 
usually  occur  in  the  Vedas  only:   and  the  i)i7i- 
rata,  \vhieh   contains   words   chiefly    relating   to 
deities  and   sacrificial   acts.     A  commentary  on 
this  work  has  been  composed  by  the  same  Yaska, 
and  it  likewise  bears  the  name  of  Nirukta.     In 
this.    Vedic    passages    are    quoted    in    illustra- 
tion of  the  words  to  be  explained,  and  the  com- 
ment given  by   Yaska  on  these  passages   is  the 
oldest  known  "instance  of  a  Vedic  gloss.     Besides 
the    great    importance    which    Yaska's    Nirukta 
thus    possesses    for    a    pro]ier    understanding    of 
the  Vedic  texts,  it  is  valualile   also   on   account 
of  several  discussions  which  it  raises  on  gram- 
matical   and    other    questions,    and    on    account 
of   the  insight    it  all'ords   into  the  scientific   and 
religious  conditions  of  its  time.     The  text  and 
commentarv  of  the  yinikta  have  been  edited  by 
Roth  (Gottingen,  18.52),  and  by  Samassami.  The 
Mrukia,  iritlt  Commentaries  (Calcutta,  1882-91). 
NIRVANA,  ner-va'nS    (Skt.  nirvana.  QxUnc- 
tion.  from  •11.';.  out  +  reiHfl.  a  blowing,  from  ra.  to 
blow).     In  Buddliistic  doctrine,  the  term  denot- 
ing  final    deliverance    from    transmigration.      It 
implies,  consequently,  the  last  aim  of  Buddhism, 
since  transmigration  is  tantamount  to  a  relapse 
into   the    evils    or    miseries   of    xamsara.    or    the 
world.      But  as   Himluism.  or  the  Brahnvanieal 
doctrine,  professes  to  lead  to  the  same  end.  the 
difference   between   nirvana   and    mokxa.   aparar- 
qa.  or  the  other  terms  of  Brahmanism  desigmit- 
ing  eternal  bliss,  and  consequent  liberation  from 
metempsychosis   (q.v.).  rests  on  the  ditTerence  of 
the  ideas  which  both  doctrines  connect  with  the 
condition  of  the  individual  after  that  liberation. 
According    to    the     Hralimanical     doctrine,    man 
has  a  soul,  and   Brahma   being  the  existing  and 
everlasting   cause   of   the   universe,   eternal    hap- 
piness   is    to    the    Brahmanical    Hindu    the    ab- 
sorption  of   the   soul    into   that   cause   whence   it 
emanated,   never  to  depart   from   it  again.     On 
the    other   hand,    as    the    ultimate    cause    of    the 
universe,  according  to   Buddhism,  is  non-entity. 
Die   deliverance    from    transmigration    is.   to   tlie 
Buddhists,  the  return  to  non  entity,  or  the  abso- 
lute  extinction   of   individuality.      Buddhism   ac- 
knowledu'es   no   soul.      Ill    lirahmanism   the   sepa- 
rate   soul    is    realis(ube(l    into    the    All-soul.      In 
Buildhism.    individuality    ceases.      But    to    some 
Buddhists,  as  also  to  the  .Tains,  nirvana  became 
a  term  significant  rather  of  emancipation,  cter- 


NIRVANA. 


577 


NISH. 


nal  blissful  repose.  Kiirllior  ohangcs  naturally 
ii.llowfd.  We  are  tol<l.  for  instance,  that  nir- 
\ana  is  quietude  and  identity,  whereas  sanisara 
is  turmoil  and  variety;  that  nirvana  is  freedom 
from  all  conditions  of  e.\istcncc,  whereas  sam- 
eara  is  birth,  disease,  decrepitude,  and  death, 
sin  and  pain,  merit  and  demerit,  virtue  and 
vice;  that  nirvana  is  the  shore  of  salvation  for 
those  who  are  in  danger  of  being  drowned  in 
the  sea  of  samsara ;  that  it  is  the  port  read}' 
to  receive  those  who  have  escaped  the  dungeon 
of  existence,  the  medicine  which  cures  all  dis- 
ea.ses,  and  the  water  which  quenches  the  tliirst 
of  all  desires.  To  Buddha,  who  receive<l  the 
term  from  earlier  Hinduism  and  did  not  invent 
it,  nirvana  meant,  first  of  all,  the  extinction 
of  desire,  of  anger,  of  ignorance.  Whether  it 
was  also  synonymous  with  annihilation  he  refused 
to  state,  although  this  may  be  inferred. 

The  later  Buddhistic  interpret.ations  show  that 
it  was  impossible  to  retain  the  notion  of  a  non- 
psycliic  individuality  persisting  after  death,  and 
that  the  goal  of  extinction  steadily  faded  before 
the  older  and  more  permanent  notion  of  eternal 
felicity  in  one  form  or  another.  The  first  of 
these  later  views  is  that  which  confounds 
with  nirvana  the  preparatory  labor  of  the 
mind  to  arrive  at  that  end,  and  therefore 
assumes  that  nirvana  is  the  extinction  of  men- 
tality, or  even  of  self-consciousness.  The  er- 
roneousness  of  this  view  is  based  on  the  fact 
that  the  mind,  even  though  in  a  stiite  of  uncon- 
sciousness, as  when  ceasing  to  think,  or  when 
speculating,  is  still  within  the  pale  of  existence. 
Thus,  to  obviate  the  mistaken  notion  that  such 
a  state  is  the  real  nirvana.  Buddhistic  works 
sometimes  speak  of  the  "nirvana  without  a 
remainder  of  substratum"  in  contradistinction 
to  the  '"nirvana  with  a  remainder;"  meaning 
by  the  latter  expression  that  condition  of  a 
saint  which,  in  consequence  of  his  bodily  and 
mental  austerities,  immediately  precedes  his  real 
nirvana,  but  in  which,  nevertheless,  he  is  still 
an  occupant  of  the  material  world. 

The  second  heterodox  view  of  nirvana  is  that 
which,  though  acknowledging  in  principle  the 
original  notion  of  Buddhist  salvation,  clearly 
represents  a  compromise  with  popular  prejudice. 
It  belongs  to  a  still  later  period  of  Buddhism, 
when  this  religion,  in  extending  its  conquests 
over  Asia,  had  to  encounter  creeds  which  ab- 
horred the  idea  of  an  absolute  nihilism.  This 
compromise  coincides  with  the  creation  of  a 
Buddhistic  pantheon,  and  with  the  classification 
of  Buddhist  saints  into  three  classes,  each  of 
which  has  its  own  nirvana ;  that  of  the  two 
lower  degrees  consisting  of  a  vast  number  of 
years,  at  the  end  of  which,  however,  those  saints 
are  born  again:  while  the  absolute  nirvana  is 
reserved  for  the  highest  class  of  saints.  Hence 
Buddhistic  salvation  is  then  spoken  of,  either 
simply  as  nirviiiifi,  the  lowest,  or  as  pnrinirra- 
na,  the  middle,  or  as  malulpurinirnlixi.  final  and 
absolute  extinction  of  individuality;  and  as  those 
who  have  not  yet  attained  to  the  highest  nir- 
vana must  live  in  the  heavens  of  tlie  two  in- 
ferior classes  of  saints  until  tliey  reappear  in 
this  world,  their  condition  of  nirvana  is  as- 
similated to  that  state  of  more  or  less  material 
happiness  which  is  also  held  out  to  the  Brah- 
manical  Hindu  before  he  is  completely  absorbed 
into  Brahma. 

Wien,    in    its   last   stage.    Buddhism    assumes 


an  Adi,  or  primitive  Buddha,  as  the  career  of 
the  universe,  nirvana,  then  meaning  the  ab- 
sorption into  this  Buddha,  ceases  to  have  any 
real  allinity  with  the  original  Buddhistic  term, 
and  becomes  identified  with  the  ii\ijki<u,  or  salva- 
tion by  absorption,  of  the  pantheistic  philoso- 
phers. See  also  Biddhi.sm  and  L.\.m^usm.  Con- 
sult: Oldenberg,  Buddhri.  His  Life,  His  Doctrine, 
His  Order  (London,  1882);  Hopkins,  Religions 
of  India  (Boston,  189.5)  ;  Dalilmann,  \irvann, 
eine  Htudie  xur  Yorgeschichte  des  Buddhismus 
(Berlin.  1890). 

NI'SAN.  In  the  Jewish  calendar,  the  first 
montti  (jf  the  ecclesiastical  year.     See  Abib. 

NISARD,  ne'ziir',  Desir£  (1800-88).  A 
French  literarj'  critic  and  historian,  born 
at  Chatillon-suf-Seine,  Cote-d'Or.  Xisard  began 
literary  life  as  a  liberal  journalist.  He 
supported  the  .July  Monarchy  after  a  brief 
period  of  vigorous  radicalism  as  editor  of 
Le  National  and  fellow-worker  of  Armand 
Carrel.  In  1835  he  was  made  Supervisor  of 
Xorraal  Schools,  and,  with  official  promotions, 
giew  yearly  more  conservative  and  even  reac- 
tionary. From  1842  to  1848  he  was  Deputy, 
and,  after  temporary  eclipse  at  the  Revolution 
of  1848,  recovered  imder  Xapoleon  III.  favor 
and  office,  which  he  used  so  servilely,  in  lectur- 
ing at  the  College  de  France,  as  to  i)rovoke 
student  riots  and  require  police  protection 
(185.5).  In  recompense  for  this  he  was  made 
Commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  (18501, 
Director  of  the  Normal  School  (1857),  and 
Senator  ( 1807 ) .  He  had  belonged  to  the  Acad- 
emy since  1850.  His  more  noteworthy  works 
are  Eisloire  de  la  litterature  fran^aise 
(  1844-01)  :  Etudes  (1859)  ;  and  yoiiielles  etudes 
(1864).  As  critic  he  stands  for  classic  as  op- 
posed to  romantic  ideals.  He  neglects  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  and  the  Renaissance,  and  regrets  alike 
the  perversity  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  the 
degeneracy  of  the  nineteenth.  His  objective 
method  and  martinet  spirit  delighted  only  in 
the  clear  precision  of  the  Classic  School.  Thus 
he  is  the  opposite  of  Sainte-Beuve  and  the  fore- 
runner of  Bruneti&re.  Jsisard  died  March  15, 
1888,  at  San  Remo,  Consult  his  .S'oMreiiirs  et 
notes  hiograpliiques  (1888). 

NISCEMI,  ne-sha'nie.  A  town  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Caltanissetta.  Sicily.  ,30  miles  southeast 
by  south  of  the  city  of  Caltanissetta  (Map:  Italy. 
J  10).  A  ruined  castle  is  the  chief  object  of 
interest.  In  1790  the  town  suffered  from  an 
earthquake,  the  ground  sinking  in  one  place 
to  the  deptli  of  .30  feet.  Population  (commune), 
1881.    11.902:    1901.    14.089. 

NISH,  nesh.  or  NISSA.  nIs'sA.  The  second 
city  of  Servia.  situated  on  the  Xishava.  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Morava.  about  130  miles  southeast  of 
Belgrade  (Map;  Balkan  Peninsula.  D  3).  It  is 
fortified  and  divided  into  a  Turkish  and  a 
Servian  town.  It  is  gradually  assuming  a 
European  aspect.  Its  educational  institutions 
inclijde  a  gv"mnasium  and  a  training  school  for 
teachers.  Situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Vien- 
na-Belgrade-Constantinople and  the  XishSaloni- 
ki  railway  lines,  as  well  as  at  the  converging 
point  of  several  important  roads.  Xish  is  of  great 
commercial  and  strategic  importance.  It  was 
prior  to  1901  the  seat  of  the  Xational  Assembly. 
Population,  in  1895,  21.-524,  including  about 
2000  Mohammedans. 


NISH. 


578 


NISSA. 


Nish  is  the  Xiassus  of  the  Komans,  a  prom- 
inent city,  according  to  Ptolemy,  and  the  birth- 
place of  Constantine  the  Great.  It  fell  in  1456 
into  the  hands  of  the  Tiirks.  under  whom  it  was 
an  important  stronjfhold.  It  was  the  scene  of  a 
severe  defeat  of  the  .Servians  by  the  Turks  in 
ISOil,  and  was  captured  by  the  Servians  under 
]Mihin  in  1S7S. 

NISHAN  EL-AAMAN",  ni-shiUi'  el  a-miin' 
(Ar.  nishuii  al-iimun,  order  of  the  best).  A 
Tunisian  order  Avith  one  class  founded  by  ^lo- 
hammcd-es-Sadok  in  1859  in  commemoration  of 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution. 

NISHAN  EL-IFTIKHAR,  if'ti  Kiir'  (Ar. 
nisliiin  (il-iftilidr.  unlcr  of  lionor).  A  Tunisian 
order  of  merit,  civil  and  military,  modeled  on 
the  French  Legion  of  Honor,  foiuided  by  Ahmed 
Bey.  It  has  live  classes.  The  decoration  is  a 
star   witli   the   Bcv's   monogram. 

NISHAN  EL-IFTIKHAR.  A  Turkish  or- 
der, conferred  on  foreigners  for  services  to  the 
Turkish  State.  It  was  founded  by  Sultan  Selim 
III.  and  renewed  in  1827.  The  decoration  is  an 
ornate  medallion  with  the  Sultan's  monogram 
suspended    from   tlie   star  and  crescent. 

NISHAN-I-IMTIAS,  W-m'te-iis'  (Ar.-Pers. 
nishfin-i-imtiyus,  order  of  excellence).  A  Turk- 
ish order  of  merit  conferred  on  civil  and  military 
oHieials  who  have  displayed  at  least  three  of  the 
qualities  the  names  of  which  appear  on  the  deco- 
ration: patriotism,  zeal,  bravery,  and  tidelity. 
It  was  founded  in  1879  by  Sultan  Abdul  Hamid. 

NISHAN-I-SHEFKAT,  f-shef-kiit'  (Ar.- 
Pers.  iiisii(iii-i-Klilf(i(it,  order  of  clemency).  A 
Turkish  order  with  three  classes,  conferred  on 
women  for  services  in  war  and  in  times  of  dis- 
tress. It  was  founded  by  Sultan  Abdul  Hamid 
in  1878.  The  decoration  is  a  sun  with  laurel 
wreath  and  star  suspended  from  a  crescent. 

NISHAPTJR,  nTsh'a-])oor'.  A  town  of  North- 
eastern Persia,  in  the  Province  of  Khorasan 
(Map:  Persia,  G  3).  It  is  situated  in  a  fertile 
and  populous  plain  40  miles  west  of  Jleshed,  and 
is  surrounded  by  half-ruined  walls.  It  was  for- 
merly one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  Persia, 
but  has  greatly  declined.  It  still  has  some  trade 
in  turquoises.  Population,  about  11.000.  Xi.slia- 
pur  was  the  birthplace  of  Omar  Khayyam. 

NIS'IBIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  N/o-i/Sis).  The  capi- 
tal of  ancient  ilygdonia,  the  northeastern  part 
of  Jlesopotamia.  It  was  situated  in  a  fertile 
district,  and  was  of  importance,  both  as  a  ])lace 
of  strength  and  as  ;ui  emporium  of  the  trade 
between  the  East  and  the  West.  Nisibis  is  men- 
tioned in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  under  the 
name  Nasibina.  It  seems  to  have  been  re- 
built by  Seleueus,  and  during  the  ilacedonian 
rule  was  known  as  Antiochia  Miiridoniw.  It 
was  taken  in  n.r.  149  by  the  Parthians.  and  in 
their  wars  with  Rome  changed  bands  more  than 
once,  being  captured  by  Lticullus  ( n.c.  (iS)  and 
again  by  Trajan  (A.n.  110).  After  its  third 
capture  by  T,ucius  Verus,  A.n.  105.  it  remained 
the  chief  bulwark  of  the  Roman  Empire  against 
the  Persians,  till  it  was  surrendered  to  them  by 
Jovian  after  the  death  of  .Tulian  in  ."ifiS.  Nisibin 
is  still  the  name  of  a  Turkish  village  near  the 
ruins   (if   the   aniient   city. 

NISI  PRIUS  (Lat.,  unless  before).  A  term 
applied  to  certain  trial  courts,  consisting  of  one 
judge  and  a   jury,  which   have  jurisdiction   for 


the  trial  of  civil  cases.  The  term  originated  in 
England  through  the  practice  of  inserting  in 
writs  of  venire  (q.v.).  by  which  jurors  were 
summcmed,  a  clause  directing  them  to  appear 
at  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  at  Westminster 
on  a  certain  date,  unless  before  (nisi  frrius) 
that  time  one  of  the  judges  in  Eyre  (circuit) 
should  hold  court  in  their  county.  It  also  be- 
came common,  when  cases  from  a  distant  county 
were  connnenced  at  Westminster,  to  fi.x  a  cer- 
tain day  on  which  they  were  to  be  tried  unless 
before  that  time  court  was  held  in  that  coun- 
ty, and  this  was  entered  on  the  record,  being 
known  as  the  'Xisi  jjriiis  clause.'  This  practice 
was  sanctioned  by  the  statute  of  13  Edw.  I.,  c. 
30,  known  as  the"  "Statute  of  Xisi  Prius."  The 
sessions  held  by  these  circuit  judges  came  to  be 
known  as  Xisi  Prius  Courts,  and  this  continued 
until  after  the  sittings  of  the  judges  became 
fixed  and  certain,  when  the  alternative  phrase 
was  omitted  from  the  venire ;  and  thereafter  the 
use  of  the  terra  as  applied  to  the  courts  was 
gradually  discontinued.  To-day  the  cases  tried 
before  the  judges  of  the  King's  Bench  Division 
of  the  High  Court  of  Justice  in  London  are 
known  as  nisi  prius  actions,  and  this  seems  to 
be  the  only  use  of  the  term  which  has  judicial 
sanction  in  England  at  present,  although  in  the 
country  districts  the  name  is  still  popularly  ap- 
plied to  the  proceedings  in  the  civil  courts  held 
in  the  various  circuits  under  the  .Judicature 
Acts  (q.v.K  In  a  few  of  the  United  States  the 
term  is  applied  to  certain  civil  courts,  the  ses- 
sions of  which  are  held  by  judges  who  travel 
from  one  county  to  ;iniither,  in  a  fixed  circuit  of 
several  counties,  during  the  year;  but  the  orig- 
inal significance  of  the  term  has  become  obso- 
lete. See  CiBcuiT;  COURT;  JiDicATiRE  Acts, 
and   consult   the  autlunities  there  referred  to. 

NISQUAXLI,  niz'kwiile.  A  Salishan  tribe 
of  North  American  Indians  originally  occupying 
the  territory'  about  the  river  of  the  same  name 
at  the  southern  end  of  Puget  Sound,  Washington. 
With  the  Puyallup  (q.v.)  and  several  smaller 
bands,  all  speaking  dialects  of  the  same  lan- 
guage, they  participated  in  the  Jledicine  Creek 
Treaty  of  1854  and  were  assigned  to  a  reserva- 
tion. l)Ut  have  recently  been  given  industrial 
allotments  and  are  now  citizens.  They  subsisted 
chielly  upon  wappato  and  camas  roots,  wild  ber- 
ries, and  salmon.  They  lived  in  great  commimal 
houses  of  cedar  planks  and  used  cedar  dugout 
canoes  of  elaborate  workmanship  and  ornamen- 
tation. Slavery  was  a  regular  institution,  and 
head-llattcning  was  practiced,  but  not  scalping. 
They  btiricd  their  dead  in  canoes  raised  u]ion 
posts.  They  took  i)arl  in  the  general  Indian 
war  in  Washington  in  1858.  They  number  now 
oidy  about   100  souls. 

NIS'ROCH  (Heb.  Msrok).  According  to 
II.  Kings  xix.  .'(7  (Is.  xxxvii.  38),  the  god  in 
whosc^  temple  Sennacherib  was  assassinated  by 
his  sons.  No  such  god.  however,  has  been 
discovered  in  the  Assyrian  pantheon,  and  the 
word  is  manifestly  a  corruiition.  It  has  been 
variously  identified  with  Asshur.  Nusku,  and 
others,  but  most  i)robably  it  represents  ilarduk, 
the  chief  of  the  later  Babylonian  pantheon. 
(See  MKRonACTl.)  For  a  like  corruption,  see 
Nnnion.  Consult  Chevne.  Snmil  liookx  of  the 
Old   Trstamint    (London.    189G,   ct  scq.). 

NISSA,  nis'si.     A  city  of  Servia.    See  NiSH. 


NISSEN. 


579 


NITRIC  ACID. 


NIS'SEN,    Heinrkh     (1830—).      A    German 

ari'li:cologist.     He  was  burn  at  Haiier^leben.  stud- 

iiMl  at  Kiel  and  Berlin,  and  became  professor  of 

ancient   history   at   Marburg    (ISUll),    Gottingcn 

(1S77),   Strassburg    llSTii).   and   Bonn    (1884). 

Nissen  especially  devoted  himself  to  the  critical 

study     of     early     Roman     history.      He     wrote 

Kiitische  Vntcisitclniiigen  iiber  die  Qucllcn  dcr 

ricrtcih  und  funftcn  Drkade  des  Liiniisl  18G3) , Das 

Tcnijiliiiii   (1869),  h'oiiipcjunische  tiludirn  (1877), 

Jt(i}hrhe  himdeslanide    (1SS,3).  and  "Griechische 

nnd  riiniische  Metrologie"  ( 1887 )  in  Twan  Mijller's 

llinidhiu-h  der  klassischen  Altcrtuinswisscimchaft. 

,  NI'SUS   (Lat,  from  Gk.  N(<ros,  xVisos).    (l)ln 

Greek    mythology-,   a    King   of   i\legai-a.    and    son 

I       of    King    Pandion    of    Athens.      His    datighter 

I       Scylla  fell   in  love  with   Minos,   King  of   Crete, 

I       when  the  latter,  on  his  expedition   against  the 

i       Athenians,    besieged   Megara,    and   betrayed   the 

j       city  to  him.     She  slew  her  father  by  cutting  off 

I       a    purple    lock    of    hair,    on    tlie    preservation    of 

which  his  life  depended,  but  Minos  punished  her 

treachery   by   dragging   her   after   his   ship   and 

drowning   her.      She   was   changed    into   the  bird 

called   Ciris,   in  which   form   she   was   constantly 

pursued  by  Xisus,  transformed  into  a  sea-eagle. 

The  legend  is  treated  by  Vergil  in  the  Ciris,  and 

by  Ovid,   Met.,  viii.   145.     (2)    A  companion  of 

-Eneas  and   friend  of  Euryalus,  with  whom  he 

was  slain  in  the  war  against  Turnus. 

NIT'HABD  (c.795-843).  A  Prankish  histo- 
rian, son  of  Bertha,  daughter  of  Charles  the 
Great.  He  was  a  warrior  and  a  statesman  and 
Bided  with  Charles  the  Bald  in  the  qtiarrels  be- 
tween the  sons  of  Louis  the  Pious.  Nithard 
fought  in  the  great  three  days'  fight  at  Fontenoy 
in  841,  and  was  killed  two  years  after  in  a  bat- 
tle with  tlie  Northmen  near  AngoulOnie.  His 
Latin  history  deals  with  the  dissensions  of  the 
sons  of  Louis  the  Pious ;  it  is  valuable,  but 
strongly  partisan,  and  is  remarkable  as  one  of 
the  few  documents  of  the  Middle  Ages  written 
1)V  a  lavman.  The  work  is  edited  bv  Pertz  (Han- 
over, 2'd  ed..  1870).  Consult:  Patz,  Dr  Vita  et 
Fide  Xitluirdi  (Halle,  1865),  and  ^Meyer  von 
Knonau,  Ucbcr  Xitkai'ds  vier  BUcher  Geschichten 
(Leipzig,   1880). 

NITHSDALE,  nich'd&l,  William  Maxwell, 

Earl  of  (1676-1744).  A  Scotch  Jacobite,  the 
Willie  of  'Kenmure's  tip  and  awa'.'  He  partici- 
pated in  the  Jacobite  rising  of  1715.  He  was 
captured  after  Preston,  and  was  rescued  from 
the  Tower  by  his  wife,  who  took  his  place  in 
prison  w'hile  he  escaped  in  her  clothes.  He  made 
his  wa.y  to  Rome,  where  he  joined  the  Pretender. 
The  Countess  of  Xithsdale  wrote  the  story  of  his 
escape  published  in  the  first  voliune  of  the 
Tran.iactioits  of  the  Soeieties  of  Antiquaries  of 
Scotland. 

NITO'CKIS.  A  Queen  of  Eg>-pt  (Nitaqert.  or 
Nitaqrit ) ,  the  last  ruler  of  tlie  Sixth  IJynasty. 
She  w'as  sister  of  Menthuophis,  whom  she 
succeeded,  and  whose  murder  she  avenged  by 
drowniing  all  she  suspected  of  connection  with 
the  plot,  after  having  called  them  together  for 
a  feast.  The  third  in  size  of  the  great  pyramids 
was  enlarged  by  Xitocris.  and  there  she  was 
buried,  .\bout  her  beauty  legends  grew  up ;  the 
Greeks  called  her  Rhodopis,  translating  the 
Egyptian  e])ithet,  red-cheeked;  they  argued  she 
must  have  been  a  Greek,  made  her  a  courtesan, 
and    told    how    the    King   married    her,    having 


fallen  in  love  with  her  lost  slijiper — the  earliest 
form  of  the  legend  of  Cinderella.  .Vnother  legend 
in  the  Jliddle  Ages  makes  lier  a  lieautiful  spirit 
who  hatmts  the  pyraujid  and  drives  men  mad 
for  the  love  of  her. 

NITRATE   OF   SODA.      See   JUnukes   and 

iLvXUEI^G. 

NITRATES.     See  Nitric  Acid, 

NITRE.      See    Salti'KTKE. 

NITRIC  ACID  (from  Neo-Lat.  nitnim,  nitre, 
natron,  Lat.  nitrum,  from  Gk.  virpov,  nitroiiy 
Xlrpop,  liiron,  natron,  of  Semitic  origin,  cf.  Heb. 
iieter,  ]uitron,  from  nular,  to  loose),  HNO3.  A 
powerfully  acid  compound  of  hydrogen,  nitrogen, 
and  oxj'gen.  Geber,  in  his  De  Inventiorn:  Yeri- 
tatis,  described  a  method  of  preparing  the  acid 
by  heating  potassivini  nitrate  with  alum  and  cop- 
per sulphate,  and  tJlauber  was  probably  the  first 
to  prepare  it  by  the  action  of  free  sulpliuric  acid 
upon  saltpetre  (the  acid  was  long  known  as 
'spiritiis  nitri  fumaiis  Glauberi') .  In  166!)Mayow 
described  nitric  acid  as  containing  two  com- 
ponents, one  from  the  air  and  one  from  the  earth. 
In  1776  Lavoisier  demonstrated  that  one  of  its 
constituents  was  oxygen,  and  in  1785  Cavendish 
showed  the  composition  of  the  acid  by  synthesiz- 
ing it  from  oxygen  and  nitrogen  in  the  presence 
of  water.  However,  the  true  composition  of  its 
molecule  was  not  recognized  until  long  after- 
wards, when  chemists  had  realized  that  acids  in 
general  were  compounds  necessarily  containing' 
h.ydrogen.  (See  Chemistry.)  Nitric  acid  does 
not  occur  in  a  free  state  in  nature,  but  after 
thunder  storms  traces  of  it  are  found  in  rain 
water,  and  according  to  Boussingault,  amounts 
of  nitric  acid  up  to  0.66  nig.  to  the  liter  have 
been  found  in  the  rain  falling  on  tlie  Alps.  It 
occurs  largely,  however,  comliined  in  the  form 
of  alkaline  nitrates,  in  Chile  and  elsewhere,  the 
formation  of  the  nitrates  being  supposed  to 
originate  in  the  putrefaction  of  nitrogenous  or- 
ganic matters:  the  latter  are  assumed  to  be  con- 
verted into  ammonia,  and  this  to  be  oxidized  in 
presence  of  the  hydroxide  of  potassium,  sodium, 
or  calcium,  into  the  corresp<mding  nitrate.  Nitric 
acid  may  be  made  by  the  action  of  strong  sul- 
phuric acid  on  the  nitrate  of  sodium  or  potas- 
sium, the  former  being  generally  cm]iloyed  on  a 
commercial  scale  on  account  of  its  cheapness. 
Cast  iron  retorts  are  charged  with  about  670 
pounds  of  dry  sodium  nitrate,  about  530  pounds 
of  strong  sulphuric  acid  are  added,  and  heat  is 
applied.  The  volatile  nitric  acid,  on  forming, 
passes  into  a  series  of  large  bottles  provided 
with  inlet  and  outlet  tubes  ('Woulfr's  bottles') 
and  containing  small  amounts  of  water.  Nitric 
acid  is,  however,  not  the  only  product,  a  certain 
amount  of  peroxide  of  nitrogen  being  fm-med  at 
the  same  time.  Some  of  this  dissolves  in  the 
nitric  acid,  imparting  to  it  a  more  or  less  intense 
red  coloration.  Another  porti(m  of  the  peroxide 
is  caused  to  come  into  contact  with  moist  air.  in 
a  tower  attached  to  the  last  of  the  large  bot- 
tles, and  thus  this  portion  of  the  peroxide  is 
converted  into  nitric  acid.  Sodium  sulphate  re- 
mains as  a  by-product  of  the  process  in  the  east- 
iron  retorts.  The  acid  jiroduct  generally  contains 
about  55  per  cent,  of  nitric  acid,  the  rest  being 
water  and  small  amounts  of  chlorine,  iodic  acid, 
oxide  of  iron,  sulphuric  acid,  sodium  sulpliate, 
and    peroxide    of    nitrogen,    the    non-volatile    of 


NITRIC  ACID. 


580 


NITEIC  ACID. 


these  impurities  being  carried  over  mechanically 
during  the  process  of  ilistiUation.  ilost  of  the 
impurities  may  be  readily  gotten  rid  of  by  a 
second  distillation,  the  tirst  portion  of  the  distil- 
late and  a  small  last  portion  containing  nearly 
all  the  impurities,  while  the  large  internuulialc 
portion  is  practically  pure,  although  it  still  con- 
tains a  large  percentage  of  water  and  a  small 
amount  of  nitrogen  peroxide.  A  third  distilla- 
tion, this  time  after  mixing  the  liquid  with  an 
equal  vohmie  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid, 
yields  a  nitric  acid  of  over  i)9.5  per  cent, 
strength.  To  free  this  from  peroxide  of  nitrogen, 
it  is  gently  warmed,  then  removed  from  the 
source  of  heat,  and  a  current  of  dry  air  is  passed 
through  it  until  the  temperature  has  been  re- 
duced to  that  of  the  surroundings.  Thus  nitric 
acid  is  puritied  for  use  in  chemical  laboratories. 
For  nuiny  purposes  in  the  arts,  however,  the 
acid  need  be  neither  very  strong  nor  ver_v  |)urc. 
Pure  nitric  acid  is  a  colorless  liquid  with  a 
specilie  gravity  of  1.53  at  ordinary  temperatures. 
The  pure  acid,  as  well  as  its  strong  aqueous 
solutions,  decomposes  slowly  under  the  inlluence 
of  light,  with  formation  of  water,  oxygen,  and 
peroxide  of  nitrogen,  the  latter  coloring  the  acid 
yellow.  A  similar  decomposition,  only  more 
rapid,  is  cfl'eeted  by  heat,  at  temperatures  above 
86°  C.  (187°  F. ).  A  given  amount  of  nitric  acid 
may  be  decomposed  entirely  by  sealing  it  up  in  a 
glass  tube  and  raising  the  temperature  to  200°  C. 
(500°  F. ).  Under  reduced  pressures  nitric  acid 
may  be  di.stilled  without  decomposition;  thus,  it 
ma}'  be  entirely  frec<l  from  nitrous  acid  by  sev- 
eral distillations  under  a  pressure  of  15  milli- 
meters of  nU'rcurA",  at  the  temperature  of  45°  C. 
(11,S°  F.). 

Nitric  acid  is  used  in  large  quantities  in  chem- 
ical laboratories,  in  botli  analytical  and  s^ti- 
thetic  work.  Its  uses  in  the  manufactures  are 
very  extensive  indeed.  It  is  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  explosives,  of  coal-tar  colors,  and  of 
commercial  nitrates,  including  those  of  silver, 
lead,  iron,  aluminum,  barium,  and  strontium.  A 
mixture  of  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids  is  known 
as  aqua  regia  (q.v. ).  Nitric  acid  is  one  of  the 
most  powerful  oxidizing  agents  and  in  a  concen- 
trated .state  readily  oxidizes  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
carbon,  most  metals,  and  many  organic  sub- 
stances. The  oxidation  of  turpentine,  for  ex- 
ample, when  added  to  strong  nitric  acid,  is  rapid 
enough  to  be  accompanied  by  an  evolution  of 
light  and  of  heat  of  a  very  high  temperature. 
The  following  may  be  mentioned  among  the 
pht//iiolo(iiciil  efforts  of  nitric  acid;  the  strong 
acid  is  a  jiowerful  caustic,  staining  the  skin  yel- 
low and  causing  erosions  and  ulcers:  even  a  10 
per  cent,  solution  in  water  will  cause  swelling  if 
applied  to  the  skin.  In  highly  dihite  form 
the  acid  is  sometimes  administered  internally, 
the  effect  being  an  improved  appetite  and 
an  increased  secretion  of  urine.  If  continued, 
however,  the  administration  of  the  acid  will 
cause  the  gums  to  turn  spong>'  and  to  blceil, 
and  will  loosen  the  teeth.  Whether  given  in- 
ternally or  employed  in  the  form  of  baths,  nitric 
neid  will  furllier  cause  dyspepsia,  foul  breath. 
headaches,  debility,  etc.  It  has  been  successfully 
given  in  cases  of  intermittent  fever,  to  allay 
thirst  in  diabetes,  and  for  a  variety  of  other  pur- 
poses. Externally  it  is  used  as  an  ingredient  of 
gargles,  in  the  treatment   of  chilblains,   for  the 


removal  of  warts,  etc.  Aqua  regia  is  sometimes 
used  for  the  same  purposes  as  nitric  acid  alone. 
For  a  convenient  method  of  detecting  nitric  acid, 
see  below  luider  yitralcs. 

NnnATE.'S.  The  salts  of  nitric  acid,  i.e.  the 
compounds  resulting  from  the  substitution  of 
metals  for  the  hydrogen  of  nitric  acid,  are  termed 
nitrates.  The  most  important  of  these  is  nitnite 
of  sillier,  AgNO;,,  whicli  is  extensively  used  in 
photography  and  in  medicine.  It  is  made  by  dis- 
solving metallic  silver  in  gently  heated  30  per 
cent,  nitric  acid,  the  pure  salt  crystallizing  out 
on  cooling.  It  may  be  piu-ilicd  by  fusing,  when 
the  nitrates  of  other  metals  that  are  likely  to  be 
l)rescnt  are  reduced  and  rendered  insoluble,  so 
that  pure  silver  nitrate  may  be  <lissolved  out  of 
tlie  fused  mass  on  cooling.  Silver  nitrate  is  very 
soluble  in  water  and  dissolves  in  four  times  its 
weight  of  cold  alcohol.  It  forms  colorless  tabular 
er\stals  of  the  rhombic  svstem.  It  melts  at 
198°  C.  (388.4°  F.)  without  decomiwsition ;  but 
if  heated  to  redness  it  is  reduced  to  metallic 
silver.  Fused  silver  nitrate,  usually  in  sticks 
rendered  firm  by  the  addition  of  a  little  ])otas- 
sium  nitrate,  or  silver  chloride,  is  used  as  a 
cauterizing  agent,  being  commonly  known  as 
liDKir  cinixlic.  When  a|)plied  to  the  skin,  silver 
nitrate  combines  with  albumin  to  form  an  in- 
soluble white  albuminate  of  silver.  When  used, 
the  sticks  are  moistcncil  with  water  and  rulibed 
over  the  surface  of  the  skin.  The  nitrate  is  thus 
used  in  (liphtheria,  croup,  chronic  ulceration  and 
simple  inllamniation  of  the  larynx  and  trachea, 
simple  chronic  laryngitis,  whooping  cough,  vari- 
ous fiuuis  of  neuralgia,  in  various  diseases  of  the 
eye,  in  erysipelas,  for  burns,  etc.  The  stain  left 
by  it  on  the  skin  may  be  removed  by  the  use  of 
potassium  cyanide.  Internally  nitrate  of  silver 
is  sometimes  given  in  certain  diseases  of  the 
stomach  and  the  heart  and  in  briuichitis.  and  it 
has  been  found  useful  in  certain  diseases  of  the 
nervous  system;  for  example,  in  paralysis  and  ep- 
ile])sy.  In  cases  of  jioisoning  by  silver  nitrate,  the 
jiaticnt  should  swallow  a  large  anio\nit  of  a  solu- 
tion of  common  salt,  which  transforms  the 
nitrate  into  the  insoluble  and  harmless  silver 
chloride,  and  induces  vomiting:  the  solution  of 
salt  should  be  followed  by  moderate  amounts  of 
milk.  Nitrates  of  Icail,  iron,  and  aluminiun 
are  used  in  dyeing  and  e:\lico  printing,  f.rail  ni- 
Iriifc.  PbtNO^)..  may  be  obt.iined  by  dissolving 
metallic  lead,  or  oxide  or  carbonate  of  lead,  in 
dilute  nitric  acid,  the  salt  crystallizing  out  on 
slow  evaporation.  It  is  sohible  in  water,  but  is 
insoluble  in  strong  alcohol.  It  is  sometimes  used 
in  medicine,  esi)eeially  as  an  application  for  sore 
nipples.  Xilnitc  of  iron,  or  ferric  nitrate. 
Fe.(NO,)„.  is  likewise  sometimes  used  in  medi- 
cine, its  solution  being  prep:ired  by  the  action 
of  nitric  acid  on  freshly  (ibt;iincil  moist  ferric  hy- 
droxiilc.  liariiim  nitrate.  Ba(XO,),.  and  xtron- 
liiim  nitrate,  Sr(NO,)j,  are  used  in  making  fire- 
works. The  nitrates  of  potassium  and  sodium 
will  be  found  described  under  S.m.tpktke.  Nitric 
acid  and  its  salts  may  be  most  readily  detected 
in  solutions  by  the  use  of  the  alkaloid  brucine:  a 
little  brucine  in  .solution  and  a  few  ilrops  of 
strong  sulphuric  acid  are  added  to  the  liquiil 
under  examination,  which  turns  pink  if  it  eon- 
t;uns  nitric  acid  or  a  nitrate.  The  nitrates  also 
include  a  number  of  organic  s\ibslances.  the  most 
important  of  which  are  nitroglycerin  and  •jun- 
cotton  (qq.v.).     See  also  Nitkooen. 


NITRIFICATION. 


581 


NITRO-BENZENE. 


NITRIFICA'TION.  The  term  applied  to 
the  foiniatiun  of  nitrates  iu  soils  and  manures 
through  the  agency  of  micro-organisms.  It  iu- 
chides  three  ditferent  stages,  viz.,  (  1)  (ii)imunizu- 
tioii,  the  transformation  of  organic  nitrogen  com- 
pijtuids  into  anunonia;  (2)  iiilioziiliun,  or  the 
conversion  of  ammonia  into  nitrites;  and  {'.i) 
nittution,  or  the  formation  of  nitrates  from  the 
nitrites.  Modern  investigation  has  shown  that 
all  three  of  these  changes  are  due  to  the  activity 
of  micro-organisms,  the  first  being  brought  about 
by  a  variety  of  organisms  of  the  putrefactive 
class,  the  most  prominent  being  Bacillus  ny- 
coides  and  Proteus  vulgaris,  while  the  second  and 
third  are  the  work  of  specific  organisms  {nitrosu- 
mtis,  nitrous  organisms,  and  nilrobuctcria,  nitric 
organisms),  which  have  been  isolated  and  studied 
with  some  minuteness.  The  retrograde  action 
known  as  denitrification,  by  which  nitrates  are 
reduced  to  the  less  highly  oxidized  forms  and 
even  to  free  nitrogen,  has  also  been  shown  to  be 
the  work  of  micro-organisms,  mainly  Bacillus 
denitrificans  I.  and  II..  although  a  large  immber 
of  other  organisms  bring  about  denitrification. 
The  first  of  the  denitrifying  organisms  named 
works  best  in  absence  of  o.xygen :  the  second  is 
aerobic  and  works  most  energetically  in  connec- 
tion with  Bacillus  coli-connnunis.  The  discovery 
of  the  true  nature  of  nitrification  was  made  by 
Schlocsing  and  Jliintz  in  1877.  Since  that  date 
the  nature  of  the  organisms  causing  nitrification 
and  the  conditions  best  suited  to  their  activity 
have  been  carefuHj'  studied  by  many  other  in- 
vestigators. These  studies  have  shown  that  the 
activity  of  the  nitrifying  organisms  is  limited  by 
a  certain  range  of  temperature,  viz.  from  slightly 
above  freezing  to  about  ."jO"  C,  the  organisms  be- 
ing most  active,  according  to  Schloesing  and 
Miintz,  at  a  temperature  of  about  37°  C.  Other 
essential  conditions  are  an  adequate  supply  of  air 
(oxygen),  for  which  reason  activity  is  generally 
confined  to  the  surface  layer  of  soil  and  moisture, 
and  the  presence  of  certain  mineral  plant  food 
constituents,  especially  phosphoric  acid  and  a 
salifiable  base  (lime  as  carbonate). 

Nitrification  will  go  on  only  in  a  slightly 
alkaline  medium,  but  excessive  alkalinity  is  as 
fatal  to  the  process  as  acidity.  Winogradsky, 
Waringtnn,  and  Frankland  have  demonstrated 
the  interesting  fact  that  the  nitrifying  organisms 
do  not  require  organic  matter,  hut  can  grow  in 
a  purely  mineral  medium,  deriving  their  carl)on 
from  carbon  dioxide.  The  organisms  are  widely 
distributed  and  very  abundant  in  all  soils  except 
stich  as  are  deficient  in  lime  compnunds  and  are 
acid.  Miintz  found  them  in  abundance  on  the 
hare  surfaces  and  in  the  cracks  and  fissures  of 
rocks  at  the  summit  of  movmtains  in  the  Pyre- 
nees. Alps,  and  Vosges.  The_y  are  also  found  in 
well  water,  river  water,  and  sewage.  As  a  rule 
they  do  not  occur  in  rain  or  in  the  air.  They 
decompose  carbon  dioxiile  most  readily,  and  hence 
cause  nitrification  most  rapidly  in  the  dark. 

While  nitrification   probably  goes   on   to   some 
extent    during    the    winter,    the    conditions    are 
usually  most  favorable  to  rapid  nitrification  dur- 
')    ing  the  summer  months,  especially  in  fielils  lying 
I    in  bare  fallow.     The  rate  is  of  course  very  vari- 
I    able.      Warington    found    it    in    an    inifertilized 
Rothamsied  soil  to  be  1.3  pounds  of  nitric  nitro- 
gen per  day  per  acre  to  a  depth   of  nine  inches. 
Similar  soil  fertilized  with  sulphate  of  anmionia 
showed    nearly    twice    this    rate.      Much    higher 


rates  than  these  have  been  reported.  Ammonium 
salts,  since  they  have  already  i)assed  the  first 
stage  of  nitrification,  are  considered  more  readily 
nitritiable  tliaii  organic  substances  which  nuist 
first  be  converted  into  ammonium  compounds. 
Miintz  and  Girard  place  them  first  in  order  of 
nitrifiability ;  then  follow  guano,  green  manures, 
dried  blood  and  meat,  powdered  horn,  poudrette, 
wool,  and  leather.  Frequently,  however,  the  rate 
of  nitrification  of  anmionium  salts  is  fouml  to  l)e 
much  slower  than  that  of  organic  nuinures.  This 
may  be  due  to  a  deficiency  of  lime  or  to  other  un- 
favorable conditions,  but  Witliers  and  Kraps  re- 
port experiments  in  which  the  ord<'r  of  nitrifica- 
tion of  diU'erent  fertilizing  materials  in  presence 
of  an  abundance  of  calcium  carbonate  wa,s:  dried 
blood,  cottonseed  meal,  dried  fish,  bat  guano, 
tankage,  ammonium  sulphate,  bone.  A  portion 
of  the  nitrogen  of  soil  humus  is  readily  nitri- 
fiable,  while  a  part  strongly  resists  the  action  of 
nitrifying  organisms.  The  rate  of  nitrification 
in  barnj'ard  manure  in  the  soil  is  very  variable, 
but  is  probably  greater  than  that  of  soil  nitrogen. 
The  old-time  nitre  be<ls  or  plantations  were 
simply  examples  of  rapid  nitrification  under 
peculiarly  favorable  conditions. 

The  constant  production  of  nitrates  in  the  soil 
and  the  readiness  with  which  they  are  washed 
out  in  the  drainage  furnish  a  strong  argument  in 
favor  of  the  practice  of  a  system  of  cropping 
which  keeps  the  soil  covered  with  vegetation  as 
constantly  as  possible.  The  conditions  favorable 
to  denitrification  are  exactly  the  opposite  of  those 
which  favor  nitrification,  viz.  excess  (and  de- 
ficiency) of  water  and  a  limited  supply  of  air 
(oxj-gen).  Under  certain  conditions  denitrifica- 
tion is  especially  rapid  in  barnyard  manuie  and 
results  in  considerable  losses  of  nitrogen  from 
this  material. 

BiiiLiOGR.\PiiY.  Aikman,  Manures  and  Manur- 
ing (London,  1894)  ;  Roberts,  FertiUtij  of  the 
Land  (New  York,  1807);  Conn,  Afiricultural 
Bacteriology  (Philadelphia,  15)01)  ;  United  Htntvs 
Department  of  Agrieiilturr,  0/}ice  of  Experiment 
titulions.  Bulletins  (Washington,  1892)  ;  Comples 
rendiis  de  VAeademie  de  Seience,  vol.  Ixxxiv. 
(Paris,  1877)  :  Bulletin  de  I'AcadHiie  Uogale  de 
Belgigue,  series  3,  No.  25  (Brussels,  1893)  ;  An- 
nates agronomiques,  vol.  xix.  (Paris,  1893); 
Annates'  de  I'lnstifut  Pasteur,  iv.,  v.  (Paris, 
1890-91);  North  Carolina  Experiment  Station 
Bulletin  nCf  (Raleigh,  1900). 

NITRITE   OF  AMYL.      See  Amyl  Nitrtte. 

NITRITES.     The  salts  of  nitrous  acid  (q.v.). 

NITRO-BENZENE,  or  Nitro-Benzol,  C„Hr. 
NO..  An  aromatic  nitro-compound  manufac- 
tured from  the  benzene  derived  from  coal-tar. 
and  in  its  turn  transformed  into  the  aniline  that 
is  used  in  making  dye-stuff's.  Nitro-benzene  is 
an  oilv  yellow  liquid  of  specific  gravity  1.2  at 
0°  C.  (32°  F.)  and  boiling  at  20.5°  C.  (401°  F.)  : 
it  may  be  distilled  withont  decomposition.  It 
has  a  "sweet  taste,  is  insohi!)le  in  water,  but  dis- 
solves freely  in  alcohol  and  ether.  Its  odor  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  oil  of  bitter  almoiuls. 
which  has  led  to  its  use  in  perfumery,  under  the 
name  of  essenec  of  mirbane.  Most  of  the  nitro- 
benzene of  commerce  is.  however,  transformed 
into  aniline.  On  a  large  scale  nitrobenzene  is 
made  by  gradually  adding  a  quantity  of  benzene 
to  a  mixture  of  concentrated  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acid  jilaced  in  a  large  iron  vessel,  the  tempera- 


NITRO-BENZENE. 


582 


NITROGEN. 


tiire  being  kept  low  by  cooliug  with  water,  and 
the  mixture  being  constantly  stirred  witli  the  aid 
of  some  special  arrangement  with  which  the  ves- 
sel is  provided.  After  all  the  benzene  has  been 
added,  the  temperature  is  raised  for  a  short  time 
to  about  80°  C.  (170°  F. ).  Tlien  the  mixture  is 
diluted  with  water  and  distilled  with  a  ciirrent 
of  steam.  For  laboratory  purposes  nitro-benzene 
may  be  purified  by  washing  with  dilute  soda, 
drying,  and  subjecting  to  a  process  of  fractional 
distillation.  Nitrobenzene  is  a  very  poisonous 
substance,  its  vapors,  if  inhaled,  being  capable 
of  causing  coma  and  death  in  a  few  liours. 

NITRO-CELLULOSES.      See   Gu.xcoTTOX. 

NITROGEN  (from  Xeo-Lat.  nitrum,  nitre, 
natron.  Lat.  nitrum  +  t!k.  -yfv/it,  -genes,  pro- 
ducing, from  -ylypea-Oai,  yignesthiii,  to  become). 
A  gaseous  clement  tliscovered  by  Rutherford  in 
1772,  who  found  that  when  a  small  animal  was 
allowed  to  breathe  air  in  a  confined  space  for  a 
time,  and  the  carbon  dioxide  tliereby  produced 
removed  by  absorption,  a  gas  still  remained 
which  was  incapable  of  supporting  respiration. 
On  account  of  its  presence  in  nitre,  Chaptal 
named  it  nitrogen  (French  nilrofiim-)  ;  and  ow- 
ing to  its  incapacity  for  supporting  life,  Lavoisier 
named  it  o;o/e  (1787).  It  is  one  of  the  most 
widely  distributed  of  the  elements,  and  is  found 
free  in  the  atniosi)here,  of  which  it  forms  about 
four-fifths  by  volume.  Considerable  quantities  of  it 
occur  in  volcanic  gases  and  in  the  air-bladders  of 
certain  fishes,  the  bone  cavities  of  birds,  and  in 
plants.  It  is  likewise  found  in  meteorites,  and 
its  presence  has  been  demonstrated  in  tlie  atmos- 
phere of  the  sun.  In  combination  it  is  found 
associated  with  oxygen  as  nitric  and  nitrous 
acids,  with  hydrogen  as  ammonia,  and  with 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  aiul  carbon  in  many  substances 
of  organic  origin.  It  is  an  essential  constituent 
of  animal  and  vegetable  organisms,  and  is  found 
in  many  minerals,  as  saltpetre  and  soda  nitre. 
The  separation  from  nitrogen  of  the  other  gases 
contained  along  with  it.  in  atmospheric  air  was 
considered  a  very  easy  matter  before  the  discov- 
ery of  argon  (<i.v.).  In  fact,  the  water-vapor  of 
the  air  can  be  readily  removed  by  the  use  of 
strong  sulpliiiric  acid  or  burnt  lime  or  any  other 
good  dehydrating  agent  :  the  carbonic  acid  of  the 
air  can  be  removed  by  means  of  the  caustic  alka- 
lies or  alkaline  earths;  the  oxygen  can  be  re- 
moved by  passing  air  over  red-hot  copper,  by 
burning  phosphorus  in  the  air.  and  by  similar 
methods.  But  argon  is  itself  an  inert  substance 
that  cannot  be  removed  by  any  known  chemical 
reagent.  Xitroyen  miglit  possil)ly  he  isolated 
from  it  by  lii|Ui  fyinj;  (lie  mixture  and  subjecting 
it  to  fractional  distillation.  Hut  an  easier  and 
more  certain  way  of  obtaining  ]>ure  nitrogen  con- 
sists in  causing  it  to  lie  liberated  from  certain  of 
its  compounds.  Thus  pure  ammoni\im  nitrite 
breaks  up,  on  heating,  into  pure  nitrogen  and 
water.  Similarly,  nitrogen  may  be  obtained  by 
heating  a  mixlure  of  potassi\im  nitrite  and  am- 
monium chloride,  or  by  heating  equal  parts  of 
potassium  nitrite  and  ammonium  sulphate  with 
n  mixt\ire  of  three  parts  of  water  and  two  jiarts 
of  filycerin. 

NitroL'en  (symbol.  X;  atomic  weight,  14.04)  is 
a  colorless,  tasteless,  and  odorless  gas.  By  the 
application  of  pressure  at  low'  tempernture  (sec 
C'BiTlcAt.  Point),  nitrogen  has  been  liquefied,  and 
the  liquid  has  been  caused  to  freeze.   In  the  gaseous 


it  ij 

163    * 


state  it  is  slightly  soluble  in  water.     It  combines 
directly  witli  but  very  few  elements,  although   in-     |l 
directly  it  can  be  made  to  form  compounds  with     I 
a  large  number  of  the  elementary  bodies.    Xitro-     ( 
gen  combines  with  o.xygeii  to  forin  the  following 
five  o.xides:     (1)     Xiliuiicn  monoxide,  or  nitrous     i 
oxide,  N;0,  called  also  'laughing  gas,'  was  orig-     I 
inally  obtained  by  Priestley  in  1772,  by  the  action  'h 
of  moist   iron   filings  on  nitric  oxide    (NO).     It  ,; 
is  now  usually   prepared  by   the  distillation  of     I 
ammonium    nitrate,    and    is    a    colorless   gas   of     ' 
pleasant  odor  and  sweetish  taste.     It  is  a  valu-     ' 
able  ana'sthetic    (q.v.).  and  is  largely  ein]iloyed    ,] 
for  producing  insensibility  during  short   opera-     ' 
tions.     It  may  be  considered  as  the  anhydride  of     ! 
hyponitrous  acid   (q.v.).      (2)    Xitroficn  dioxide,    , 
or  nitric  o.xide,  XO.  was  first  obtained  by  Van    •: 
Helmont,  who  failed,  however,  to  recognize  it  as 
a    distinct    chemical    substance.      Its    properties 
have  been  clearly  known  since  1772,  when  Priest-     | 
ley  succeeded  in  isolating  it,  and  its  composition    ,] 
was  correctly  determined  l)y  Cavendish  in  1784.  'j 
It  is  formed  when  various  substances  (hydrogen,  'J 
illuminating  gas,  wood,   coal,   etc.)    are   burned   * 
in  the  air.     It  may  he  ])repared  by  the  action  of    • 
cold   dilute   nitric  acid  on   nietallic  copper    (con- 
centrated nitric  acid  yields   laughing  gas).     In 
the  absence  of  oxygen  it  remains  lolorless;  but 
readi!}-  combines  with  oxygen  to  form  red  fumes 
of  nitrogen  tetroxide.     Still,   if  heated   alone  to 
520°  C,  nitric  oxide  decomposes  with  formation 
of  laughing  gas,  free  nitrogen,  nitrogen  trioxidc, 
and    nitrogen    tetroxide.       Solutions    of    ferrous 
salts    absorb    considerable    quantities    of    nitric 
oxide.      (3)   Xitroficn.  trioxide,  X^O^,  may  be  ob- 
tained by  heating  nitric  acid  with  starch  in  a 
large  retort.  <lrying  the  gaseous  product  over  cal- 
cium   chloride,    and    licpiefying    it   by    means    of 
freezing  luixlures.   At  10°C.  it  is  a  dark  blue  liquid    ^ 
and   it  boils  below  0°    C.      Within  a   few  degrees    > 
above  that  point  its  vajiors  dceoinpose  into  nitric  i 
oxiile  and  nitrogen  tctro.xide.    The  decomposition, 
however, is  partial,  and  even  at  as  high  as  1.50°  C. 
the   trioxide   is  not  yet   completely  decomposed. 
The  trioxide  has  been   recommended  as   a   disiil-    , 
fectaiit :   for  this  purpose  a  mass  containing  one   / 
part  of  sodium  nitrite,  two  parts  of  acid  sodium  I 
sulphate,  and  two  parts  of  gypsum,  is  kept  dry   J 
when  not  used:  on  mixing  it  with  water  it  yields    V 
the  trioxide  of  nitrogen.     Xitrogen  trioxide  is  the 
anhydride  of  nitrous  acid    (q,.v.).     (4)    yUrofien 
tetroxide,  or  nitrogen  jieroxide,  has  the  formula  i 
X'.O,  at  lower  temperatures  and  XO,  at  high  tem-  ^^ 
peratures.      (See  Dissociatiox.)      The  tetroxide  ],• 
is  formed  when  dry  nitric  oxide  comes  in  contact  ii 
with  oxygen.     It  may  be  prepared  by  passing  a  '^ 
perfectly  dry  mixture  of  two  jiarts   (by  volume)  'It 
of  nitric  oxide  and  one   jiart  of  oxygen   into  ai) 
U-tube  immersed  in  a  freezing  mixture  at  — 20' f  J 
C,  and  if  the  mixture  is  absolutely  dry  the  tet-  ^ 
roxide  is  thus  obtained   in  the  form  of  ecdorless  t' 
crystals.     Above  — 20°  C.  it  is  usually  a  liquid  j 
of   yellow    color,    the    cohu'   becoming   more    and    } 
more  intense  as  the  temperature  rises.    The  vapor  « 
is    the    more    intensely    colored,    the    more    it    is   1 
dissociated.      (See  Dlssoclxtion.)      The  boiling-   ' 
points  of  the  liquid,  as  given  by  difTerent  ohserv-'    ■ 
ers,  are  between  22°   and  28°   C.      (Ti)    yitrnijen  ^ 
l>eiilnxide,  N.0,„  was  discovered  by  Sainte-CIairei^ 
lleville  in   184(1.     It  may  be  prepared  by  the  nc-  ^j 
tion  of  phosphorus  pentoxide  on  nitric  acid  com-    . 
pletely  dehydrated  by  repeated  distillations  with 


.?- 


NITROGEN. 


583 


NITKOGLYCERIN. 


suli>liuric  acid  and  fifed  liimi  nitrogen  trioxide 
b.v  (la^.-sing  a  luirent  of  dry  air.  The  uitrogen 
penlu.\ide  tlius  obtained  is  passed  into  a  suitable 
receiver  kept  in  a  freezing  ini.Kture;  when  a 
crystalline  mass  has  formed  in  the  reeeiver,  the 
portion  remaining  liquid  is  decanted  oil";  then 
the  crystals  are  allowed  to  melt,  the  liquid  is 
again  caused  to  solidify,  and  any  portion  remain- 
ing liquid  is  again  rejected.  By  repeating  this 
operation  several  times,  it  is  easy  to  obtain  per- 
fectly pure  nitrogen  pcnto.xide.  The  colorless 
rhombic  crystals  of  this  substance  may  be  pre- 
served very  long  by  keeping  out  of  contact  \\ith 
the  air  and  away  from  light.  Tliev  nudt  at  about 
30°  C.  and  the  lii[uid  boils  at  about  45"  ('.,  but 
slightly  above  this  temperature  the  substance 
undergoes  decomposition.  If  exposed  for  some 
time  to  the  light  the  crystals  melt  and  may  de- 
compose with  explosive  violence.  Nitrogen  pent- 
oxide  is  the  anhydride  of  nitric  acid. 

The  compounds  of  nitrogen  with  hydrogen  in- 
clude ammonia,  XH„  hydrazine,  X-Ii,,  and  hydra- 
zoic  acid,  XjH.  The  most  important  of  the  com- 
pounds of  nitrogen  with  the  halogens  is  nitrogen 
tri-cliloride,  XCr.  which  may  be  considered  as 
ammonia  iu  which  all  the  hydrogen  has  been  re- 
placed by  chlorine.  It  is  pre])ared  by  jiassing 
chlorine  gas  into  a  warm  solution  of  ammonium 
chloride.  It  is  a  yellowish,  volatile,  extremely  ex- 
plosive, oily  substance,  which  must  be  handled 
with  extreme  caution  and  the  preparation  of 
whicli  should  not  be  undertaken  by  any  one  not 
thoroughly  accustomed  to  experimenting  with 
dangerous  substances.  Its  explosion  may  be 
brought  about  by  the  action  of  lieat  or  light,  or 
by  contact  with  phosphorus,  turpentine,  and 
other  substances. 

NITROGLYCERIN,  or  Gloxoix,  CAP, 
(XO, ),.  An  explosive  substance  discovered  by 
Sobrero  in  1840.  Although  Sobrero  pointed 
out  the  possibilities  of  the  substance  as  an 
explosive  agent,  it  found  no  other  than  a  lim- 
ited use,  in  dilute  alcoholic  solution,  as  a 
remedy  for  headache,  under  the  name  of 
'glonoin.'  Its  use  as  an  explosive  remained 
undeveloped  until  1862,  when  Alfred  X'obel 
(q.v. )  discovered  means  of  controlling  its  ex- 
plosive properties  and  devised  a  practical  method 
of  making  it  on  a  large  commercial  scale.  X'itro- 
glycerin  is  made  by  running  from  210  to  2.30 
pounds  of  pure  glycerin  into  l.iOO  pounds  of 
nii.xed  acids,  consisting  of  three  |)arts  by  weight 
of  concentrated  sulphuric,  and  two  parts  by 
weight  of  concentrated  nitric  acid.  As  consider- 
able heat  is  set  free  by  the  reaction  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  glycerin  should  be  added  slowly 
and  intimately  mixed  with  the  acids.  Tliis  is 
I  accomplished  by  injecting  the  glycerin  into  the 
acid  mixture,  stirring  the  whole.  an<l  cooling  it 
by  means  of  cold  water  run  through  pipes  wliich 
are  coiled  within  the  leaden  vessel  ("the  con- 
verter'I  in  which  the  conversion  is  carried  out. 
I  When  all  of  the  glycerin  is  converted  into  nitro- 
\  glycerin,  the  entire  charge  of  the  converter  is 
I  run  into  a  tank,  where,  on  standing,  the  nitro- 
1  glycerin  separates  in  a  layer  on  top  of  the 
I  acids.  The  nitroglycerin  is  then  drawn  off.  wash- 
ed with  water  until  nearly  free  from  acid,  then 
with  a  dilute  solution  of  sodium  carbonate  until 
it  is  neutral  in  reaction,  and  then  run  through 
a  filter  by  which  it  is  dried. 

Pure    nitroglycerin    is    a    colorless,    odorless, 


transparent  oily  liquid,  but  as  made  on  a  com- 
mercial scale  it  is  colored  various  shades  of 
jellow.  Solidified  nitroglycerin  melts  at  8°  U. 
(40.4°  F.).  Its  specitic  gravity  in  the  liquid 
.state  is  1.599;  when  frozen,  1.735.  It  gives 
off  vapors  to  a  slight  extent  at  the  ordinary 
temperature,  and  it  may  be  eomi)letely  evapo- 
rated bv  continuous  exposure  at  a  temperature 
of  70°  C.  (158°  F.).  It  is  soluble  in  methyl 
alcohol,  ethyl  alcohol,  ether,  benzene,  and  many 
other  organic  liquids,  but  it  is  nearly  insoluble 
in  water,  \\heu  the  vapors  of  nitroglycerin  are 
inhaled  or  the  substance  is  taken  into  the  stom- 
ach, it  produces  most  violent  headaches.  Some 
persons  are  so  sensitive  to  its  action  that  they 
are  poisoned  by  it  when  nitroglycerin  touches 
the  skin.  The  production  of  imdecomposed  va- 
por of  nitroglycerin,  when  the  substance  is  ex- 
ploded, seriously  interferes  with  its  use  in  tun- 
nels, mines,  and  other  confined  places.  The  com- 
mon antidote  is  black  coffee.  Pure  nitroglycerin 
will  keep  indefinitely  at  connnon  tem[)eratures; 
but  if  continuously  exposed  to  temperatures 
above  45°  C.  (113°  F.)  it  undergoes  decompo- 
sition, which  progresses  the  more  rapidly  the 
higher  the  temperature.  At  180°  C.  (350"°  F.) 
it  explodes  violently.  It  is  also  decomposed  by 
contact  with  sulphuric  acid,  or  with  an  alkali, 
and  decomposition  due  to  the  presence  of  acid 
has  repeatedly  given  rise  to  accidental  explo- 
sions of  this  substance.  It  may  be  exploded 
by  percussion,  concussion,  or  fire.  I)ut  the  surest 
and  safest  way  of  firing  it  is  by  exploding  a 
detonator  containing  mercuric  fulminate  in  con- 
tact with  it. 

The  name  nitroglycerin,  as  applied  to  the 
substance  discovered  by  Sobrero,  is  a  misnomer, 
and  conveys  a  false  impression  as  to  its  accepted 
constitution;  for  instead  of  being,  as  stipposed 
when  the  name  was  given,  a  nitrosubstitution 
compound,  it  has  been  shown  by  Berthelot  to 
be  a  nitric  ester,  namely,  the  trinitrate  of  glyc- 
eryl (C3H5O3),  a  radicle  forming  part  of  the 
molecule  of  glycerin. 

Nitroglycerin  is  used  directly  in  'shooting'  oil 
wells  to  make  them  yield  more  freely,  and  in 
blasting  under  water;  but  its  liquid  state  ren- 
ders it  unsuitable  and  even  dangerous  for  gen- 
eral use  as  an  explosive.  Its  largest  uses  are 
in  the  manufacture  of  dynamite,  blasting  gela- 
tin, and  some  varieties  of  smokeless  powders, 
notably  cordite  and  ballistite.  Jlcdicinally,  ni- 
troglycerin is  used  in  a  weak  dilution  to  re- 
duce arterial  tension  and  relieve  the  heart  of 
strain,  by  dilating  the  arterioles  and  capillaries. 
Its  action  is  similar  to,  though  less  ra|)id  and  fu- 
gacious than  that  of  amyl  nitrate,  and  less  per- 
sistent than  that  of  the  nitrite  of  sodium  or  potas- 
sium. It  is  employed  in  a  certain  type  of  asthma, 
in  chorea,  epilepsy,  angina  pectoris,  and  gas- 
tralgia.  It  has  been  recommended  in  certain 
forms  of  Bright's  disease.  Although  the  manu- 
facture of  nitroglycerin  did  not  begin  in  the 
United  States  until  1807,  and  its  progress  was 
at  first  slow,  in  the  year  1900  there  were  manu- 
factured here  3.t,482.947  pounds,  of  which 
amount  31,661.800  pounds  were  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  dynamite,  blasting  gelatin,  and 
smokeless  powder.  Consult:  Mowliray.  Trinitro- 
Ghicerin  (Xew  York.  1874)  ;  Nobel,  Roux,  and 
Sarrau,  Lex  explosifs  modemes  (Paris.  187fi>  ; 
Guttmann.  The  Mniiiifncture  of  Explosives  (New 
York,  1895).    See  Explosives. 


NITRO-HYDROCHLOEIC  ACID. 


584 


NI0-CHWANG. 


NITRO-HYDROCHLORIC     ACID,     Xitbo- 

JliKiAiK'    Acw,    vr    AyiA    Kecua.      .See    Aqua 
Kegia. 

NITROPHILOTJS  PLANTS  (from  Lat.  hi- 
triim,  mitron  +  Gk.  0i\os,  philos,  loving,  from 
<l)i\iiv,  philcin,  to  love).  Plants  whieli  thrive 
best  in  soils  rieh  in  nitrogenous  materials.  The 
term  is  objeetionable,  since  it  implies  qualities 
about  wliifh  there  is  great  doubt.  Certain  plants 
found  particularly  in  the  neighborhood  ol  ma- 
nvire  piles  have  been  supposed  to  prefer  soils 
rich  in  nitrogenous  substances,  but  the  evidence 
upon  which  this  based  is  very  slight.  It  is.  of 
course,  true  that  all  plants  require  nitrogenous 
food,  which  is  particularly  hard  to  get  in  cer- 
tain cases,  and  especially  in  the  case  of  plants 
which  have  no  symbiotic  fungus  relation.  It 
may  be,  therefore,  that  autophyles  require  larger 
amounts  of  nitrate  of  ammonia  than  do  rayco- 
tro])hic  plants. 

NITROUS  ACID  (from  Lat.  nitrosus,  full 
of  natron,  from  nitrum,  natron),  HNO,.  An 
acid  compound  of  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  o.\v- 
gen,  known  chiclly  by  its  salts,  which  are  called 
nitrites.  The  acid  itself  is  not  known  in  an 
isolated  state,  being  a  very  unstable  compound, 
even  in  an  acjueous  solution  rapidly  decompos- 
ing into  nitric  acid  and  nitric  o.xide  (NO). 
Nitrites,  however,  are  very  stable  bodies  and  are 
usually  formed  by  the  reduction  of  nitrates. 
Small  quantities  of  annnonium  nitrite  are  fovmd 
in  our  almospliere.  and  other  nitrites  are  con- 
tained in  the  juices  of  certain  plants.  In  na- 
ture the  nitrites  are  formed  usually  by  the 
decomposition  of  organic  matter,  and  generally 
indicate  contamination  with  sewage.  One  of 
the  most  important  nitrites  is  that  of  potas- 
sium, which  is  fornu'd  either  by  fusing  potassium 
nitrate  or  by  heating  that  salt  with  lead  or 
copper.  Certain  organic  compounds  of  nitrous 
acid   are   of   consiilerable   importance. 

NITROUS  ETHER,  or  Etityi.  Nituitk, 
CjHjNO,.  A  jiale  yellow  fluid,  lighter  than  wat<T, 
and  evolving  an  agreeable  odor  of  apples. 
On  evaporation,  it  produces  a  great  degree  of 
cold:  it  boils  at  (it. 4°  F.  (18°  C).  and  it  is 
verj'  inflammable.  It  does  not  mix  with  water, 
but  is  readily  miscible  with  alcohol.  When  kept 
in  contact  with  water  it  soon  decomposes,  and 
an  acid  mixture  of  a  very  complicated  charac- 
ter is  formed.  It  is  usually  prepared  by  the  action 
of  nitric  acid  on  alcohol.  The  spirit  of  nilroiis 
cthrr  or  sirrrt  spirit  <if  nilrr  used  in  medicine  is 
a  mixture  of  nitrous  ether  with  about  four  times 
its  volume  of  rectified  spirit.  It  is  used,  in  con- 
junction wilh  other  medicines,  as  a  diuretic,  espe- 
cially in  the  dropsy  which  follows  scarlatina; 
and  it  is  employed,  in  combination  wilh  acetate 
of  ammonia  and  tartarizcd  antimony,  in  febrile 
afTections. 

NITROUS  OXIDE.  Nitrogen  monoxide,  or 
laughing  gas.  N.O.  it  is  made  by  heating  solid 
ammonium  nitrate  in  a  (lask.  The  result  is  water 
and  nitrous  oxide.  NH.N0,=2H;0+N,n.  Laugh- 
ing gas  possesses  the  peculiar  property  of  intoxi- 
cating animals.  It  nuiy  be  inhaled  pure  or  mixed 
with  atmospheric  air  fr.r  a  considerable  period 
with  safety.  When  first  inhaled  there  is  a  feeling 
of  exhilaration  experienced,  which  is  succeeded  by 
profound  anasthesia.  during  which  minor  sur- 
gical and  dental  operations  may  be  performed. 
There   is   no   resulting  depression,  and   in  cases 


1 


where  the  inhalation  is  not  continued  over  twenty  ''; 
minutes  the  patient  experiences  alisolutcly  no  un- 
pleasant sensations,  and  is  able  to  go  about  his  ' 
avocations    without   loss   of   time,   on   recovering  '' 
consciousness.    It  is  the  custom  with  many  Amer- 
ican surgeons  to  secure  aniesthesia  by  tlie  use  of 
nitrous  oxide  and  then   substitute  ether   as  the 
ana-sthctie,   in  all  operations   where   over   fifteen    ; 
or  twenty  minutes  are  recpiisitc  for  the  comple-   j 
tion  of   the  work.     This  expedient   prevents  the  ''{ 
nervous  excitement  consequent  upon  the  adniinis-    i 
tration  of  ether  from  tlie  tirst,  diminishes  shock, 
and  prevents  much  of  the  nausea  consequent  to  -i 
ether  anaesthesia.     The  term  laughing  gas  is  usedJ 
because   the   patient   is   ai>t  to   laugli   or  e.xhibity 
other  emotion  if  but  a  little  gas  is  administered,! 
and    then    the    inhalation    is    intermitted.      Sea 
Nitrogen. 

NIT'TIS,  Giuseppe  de    (1846-84).     An  Ital-  j 
ian  painter,  born  at  Barlctta,  Nai)lcs.     lie  was  ' 
a   pupil  of  the  Naples  Academy,   but   found   his   I 
style    rather   by   diligent    observation   of   nature,,,, 
and   in    18(iS   went   to   Paris,   where   he   studied*] 
under  Brandon,  Gerome,  an<l  ileissonier.     After   '' 
exhibiting  genre   scenes   and   landscapes   he   de-   ■ 
voted    himself    chiefly   to   the    painting    of   city   ' 
views,  the  result  of  extensive  travels,  and  dis-    '• 
tingiiished  for  keen  observation,  elegant  drawing, 
ami  extraordinary  transparency  of  color.    In  1878 
he  was  awarded  a  first-class  medal   for  a  "Cor- 
ner of   Boulevard."   "Triumphal   Arch,"   a  water    ' 
color,  and  "In  the  Bois  de   Boulogne,"  a   pastel. 
His    frequent    studies    in    the   open    air   led    him 
grailmiily  to  a  conception  of  nature  much  akin 
to   that   of   the   Impressionists,   and   from    1879 
on   he  cultivated  especially   the  pastel.     Of  hia 
Parisian  views  the  "Place  des  Pyramides"  (1876) 
and   "Place   du   Carrousel"    (1SS3)    fovuid   their 
way  into  the  Luxendiourg  Museum,  and  several 
genre  scenes   are   in   private  collections   in   New 
York   City  and  Philadelphia. 


\ 


i\ 


NITZSCH,  Karl  I.mmaxiel  (I787-18()8).     A^ 
German    theologian.       lie    was    born    at    Borna,  ".; 
Saxony,     lie  studied   for  the  cliureh   at   Witten-  fl 
berg,    where   he   took    his    degree    in    ISIO,   and  i 
where,   in   181.'?.  he  became  parish   minister.     la  | 
1822  he  was  called  to  Bonn  as  ordinary  profes-.%; 
sor    of    theology    and    university    lueaehcr.      Ill  c 
1847  he  succeeded  Marheineke  at  Berlin,  and  as 
professor,   university   preacher,   and   upper   con- 
sistorial    councilor,    he    exercised    with    priidence 
and   moderation   a    wide   ecclesiastical    influence. 
He    belonged    to    the    school,  .  of    which    Xeander 
was  tlie  chief  representative,  which  souglit  to  rec- 
oncile  faith    and    science   by    pointing   out    their 
distinctive  spheres;   in  theologv'  he  s\il)ordinatcd 
dogma  to  ethics,  and  became  one  of  the  leaders 
of    the    Vrrmittrluiipstlirdlnfiir.      Besides    nuiner- 
ous  smaller  treatises  on  dogmatics,  the  history 
of  dogmas  and  liturgies,  three  larger  works  call 
for  special  mention:   his  Susirm  <lrr  rhrisllichen 
Lfhrc    (1820:    fdh    ed.    ishl  ;    Kng.    trans..    .<f.i/»- 
^f»i    of   Christian    Dortrinr.    Edinburgh.    lS4fl)  ; 
his    Pral-lisrhr   Thcolo/iie    (1847);    :i'id    his   Pre- 
iliilliii,  or  sermons,  of  whioh  several  collections 
have    appeared. 

NIU-CHWANG.  nn'ehwiing'.  or  Yixg-tse. 
The  only  treaty  purt  of  Manchuria.  China,  situated 
ill  the  Province  of  Shintrkins.  alioiil  l.'i  iiiilcs  from 
(he  mouth  of  the  Liao  Biver,  which  falls  into  the 
(iulf  of  Pe-ebi-li.  ami  on  (he  southern  branch  of 
the    Trans-Siberian    line     (Map:     China,    F    3). 


NIU-CHWANG. 


585 


NIZA. 


It  has  greatly  increased  iu  iiiipurtaiioe  since  the 
constructiun  of  the  Tran.s-JMbciiau  line,  ami 
the  recent  Russian  acquisitions  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  peninsula,  wliich  niaUe  Xiu  chwang 
the  only  port  of  ilanchuria  ojien  to  foreign 
trade.  The  vicinity  of  Niu-chwang  is  not  veiy 
productive  agriculturally,  but  ini])ortant  coal 
mines  have  lately  been  opened  along  the  rail- 
way line,  and  the  city  acquires  additional  im- 
portance from  its  railway  connection  with 
Tientsin  and  Peking.  The  chief  ex|)orts  are 
beans,  bean  cake,  and  oil,  which  go  largely  to 
Japan.  The  imports  consist  mostly  of  cotton 
goods,  which  come  largely  from  the  United 
States,  petroleum,  and  opium.  The  value  of  the 
exports  in  I'JOO  was  nearly  $8,000,000,  of  which 
the  exports  to  foreign  countries  amounted  to 
about  .$2,700,000.  The  imports  for  the  same 
year  were  valued  at  over  $7,000,000,  of  which 
foreign  imports  amounted  to  over  $5,000,000. 
Niu-chwang  has  a  considerable  foreign  colony, 
and  many  consular  representatives,  including 
two  from'the  I'nited  States.  The  population  of 
the  city  is  estimated  at  50.000.  Xiu-ehwang, 
or  rather  the  small  town  of  the  same  name, 
about  40  miles  from  the  coast,  was  opened  to 
foreign  trade  by  the  treaty  of  1S5S.  The  pres- 
ent port  was  taken  by  the  Japanese  in  1895,  and 
was  originally  a  part  of  trie  territorial  con- 
cessions of  China,  but  Japan  was  forced  to  re- 
linquish it.  Since  the  uprising  of  ilanchuria 
against  Russia  in  1900  Niu-chwang  has  been 
occupied  by  Riissia,  and  its  administration  is 
still  to  a  large  extent  in  Russian  hands,  although 
the  date  set  for  its  evacuation  (April  8,  1903) 
is  passed. 

NITJE,  ne-oo'a.  or  Savage  Island.  A  small 
coral  island  in  tlic_Pacific  Ocean,  situated  about 
350  miles  southeast  of  the  Samoan  Islamls.in  lati- 
tude 19°  S.,  longitude  170°  W.  Area,  30  square 
miles.  It  is  200  feet  high,  consisting  of  coral 
limestone,  and  has  a  fertile  soil.  T)ie  chief 
export  is  copra.  Population,  in  1901,  4050,  all 
Christians.  In  1900  Xiue  was  taken  under 
British  protection  as  a  dependency  of  New  Zea- 
land. 

NIVELLES,  ni-'vel'  (Flem.  X.vrrO-  A  town 
in  the  Province  of  Brabant,  Belgium.  18  miles 
south  of  Brussels  (Jlap:  Belgium,  C  4).  Its 
most  important  edifice  is  the  Romanesque  Church 
of  Saint  Gertrude,  dating  from  1048  and  contain- 
ing interesting  relics.  Xivelles  has  manufactiu'es 
of  linen,  cotton,  ami  lace,  and  carries  on  an  active 
trade  in  grain  and  live  stock.  The  town  grew 
up  around  the  ancient  convent  finnideil  in  the 
seventh  ccntuiy  by  the  daughter  of  Pepin  of 
Landcn.     Popiilation.  in  1900,  11.475. 

NIVEENAIS,  ne'var'ni'i'.  A  former  prov- 
ince in  tlie  miildle  of  France.  It  was  ruled  in 
the  Middle  Ages  by  the  Counts  of  Nevers,  who 
were  succeeded  by  the  Duke  of  Nevers.  It  is 
at  present  included  almost  entirely  in  the  De- 
partment  of  Nifvre. 

NIVOSE,  ne'vuz'  (Fr..  snow  month).  The 
fourth  month  in  the  French  Republican  calen- 
dar. It  ran  from  December  21st  to  .Januarv 
19th  in  the  years  I..  II.,  III.,  V..  VI.,  and  VII.'; 
from  December  20th  to  January  2flth  in  the 
years  IV..  VIII..  IX.,  X.,  XI.,  .and  XIII.:  an.l 
from  December  23d  to  Januarv  21st  in  the  vear 
XII, 


NIX  (Ger.  Xix,  OHG.  menus,  nihhus,  Icel. 
Hi/lcr,  AS.  Hicor,  water-goblin,  water-beast,  Kng. 
yiclc,  name  of  the  Devil;  connected  with  Cik. 
fiTTTciv,  iiipteiii,  Skt.  nij,  to  wash).  The  com- 
mon name  for  all  water  spirits  in  the  Teutonic 
mythology.  They  are  represented  as  of  human 
form,  or  sometimes  as  passing  into  that  of  a 
a  tisli  or  of  a  horse.  They  love  nuisic  and  dances, 
and  possess  the  gift  of  prophecy,  like  the  Greek 
muses,  sirens,  and  other  water-gods.  The  nix 
taught,  in  return  for  a  good  gift,  the  art  of 
playing  on  a  stringed  instrument;  and  in  the 
evening  .sunshine  tlie  nixes,  combing  their  long 
hair,  were  wont  to  mingle  in  the  dances  of  mor- 
tals; but  their  company  was  dangerous,  for,, 
though  sometimes  wearing  a  mild  appearance, 
they  were  more  frequently  cruel  and  malignant. 

NIX'OW,  JoHX  (1733-1808).  An  American 
soldier.  He  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  and  was 
the  son  of  a  shipping-merchant.  Upon  the 
passage  of  the  Stamp  Act,  in  1765,  he  became 
active  in  opposing  the  encroachments  of  the 
English  Government  upon  American  liberties, 
signed  the  non-importation  agreement,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  hrst  committee  of  correspond- 
ence in  Pennsylvania.  In  April,  1775,  he  became 
lieutenant-colonel  of  the  3d  battalion  of  the 
'Associators,'  and  he  was  also  a  member  of  the 
Committee  of  Safety.  From  May  to  July,  1770, 
he  had  charge  of  the  defenses  of  the  Delaware 
at  Fort  Island,  after  which  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  Philadelphia.  On  July  8th  he  made 
the  first  public  proclamation  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  from  the  steps  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Court  House.  He  resigned  from  the 
army  in  1780,  and  in  the  same  year  became  a 
director  of  the  so-called  'Bank  of  Pennsylvania.' 
Afterwards  he  assisted  in  organizing  the  Bank  of 
North  America,  of  which  he  was  president  from 
1792  till   his  death   in   1808. 

NIXON,  Lewis  (1861  —  ).  An  American 
naval  arcliitect,  born  in  Leesburg,  Va,  He  gradu- 
ated at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in 
1882,  being  first  in  his  class;  then  spent  three 
years  in  the  Royal  X'^aval  College,  (ireenwich, 
England,  where  he  specialized  in  ship-building 
and  graduated  in  1885;  and  having  been  ap- 
pointed naval  constructor  in  the  United  States 
Navy,  in  1884,  went  on  several  tours  of  inspec- 
tion through  European  navy  yards,  before  his 
return  to  America.  He  was  superintending  con- 
structor of  the  navy  at  Cramp's  shipyard  and 
assistant  constriu-tor  at  the  Brooklyn  Navy 
Yard,  and  in  1890  designed  the  battleships  of 
the  Indiana  class.  When  these  vessels  were  con- 
tracted for  by  the  Cramps  of  Philadelphia  Nixon 
became  their  superintending  constructor,  resign- 
ing from  the  navy.  Five  years  afterwards  he 
left  the  Cramps  and  leased  the  Crescent  Ship- 
yard. Elizabetli.  N.  .J,,  where,  with  only  four 
hundred  feet  of  water  front,  he  built  many  ves- 
sels. He  became  connected  with  many  other 
manufacturing  concerns,  and  in  1898  w'as  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  New  York  East  River 
Bridge  Commission.  In  1901  he  was  named 
head  of  Tammany  Hall,  but  resigned  the  post 
in  ilay  of  the  next  year  after  five  months'  ser- 
vice. He  became  president  of  the  United  States 
Shi|ibuilding  Company  of  New  York  City  in 
1902. 

NIZA,  •Sp.  pron.  ne'thn.  Marco.s,  or  Marco 
UE,  known  as  Fray  Marcos   (c,1495-c.l550).    An 


NIZA. 


586 


NIZHNI-NOVGOKOD. 


Italian  missionary  and  explorer  in  the  service 
of  .Spain,  born  at  Xiee,  whence  his  name. 
He  became  a  Franeisonn  monk,  was  sent 
to  America  in  1;>31,  and  went  first  to  Peru, 
then  to  (iuatcmala,  and  tiiially  to  .Mexico.  In 
lo;!!t.  undiT  the  inimcdiatc  diriclidii  of  Francisco 
N'asqucz  de  Coronado,  Govcrncjr  of  'Xcw  Galicia,' 
he,  accompanied  by  a  number  of  natives  and  a 
negro.  Estevanico  (or  .Stephen),  who  liad  been 
with  Cabeza  de  V'aca  on  his  journey  across  the 
continent,  made  an  extended  journey  of  ex- 
ploration into  the  Xorthwest  to  investigate  the 
stories  told  by  Cabeza  de  Vaca.  He  penetrated 
into  territory  now  forminj;  jiart  of  Arizona,  thus 
earniiij.'  the  title  'Discoverer  of  Arizona,'  by 
which  he  is  sometimes  known,  and  on  his  re- 
turn made  a  report,  Desciibrimicnto  de  las  siele 
ciudadcs,  in  which  he  gives  the  first  positive 
account  of  the  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola.  The  ex- 
act route  taken  by  Fray  Marcos  is  not  known, 
but  it  is  fairly  certain  that  he  crossed  Sonora 
and  Arizona  to  the  region  of  Zuni,  and  that 
the  seven  cities  to  wliich  he  referred  were 
Zuni  pueblos.  After  his  return,  Fray  ilarcos 
was  made  provincial  of  his  Order,  and  in  1.540- 
42  accompanied  Coronado  in  the  latter's  famous 
expedition  into  what  is  now  Arizona  and  Xew 
Mexico,  as  a  result  of  which  Fray  JIarcos's  ac- 
counts of  the  great  wealth  of  Cfbola  were  proved 
to  lie  fahMlinis. 

NIZAMI,  n^za'mii  ( 1141-1-203) .  A  Persian 
poet,  whose  full  name  was  Xizafli  ed-Din  abu 
Mohanuncd  Hyas.  He  was  one  of  the  canonic 
seven  ei)ic  poets  of  Persia.  His  place  of  birth 
is  uncertain:  from  his  early  home,  Cianjah,  he 
is  called  (Janjavi.  The  poet's  early  years  were 
spent  in  asceticism,  and  his  first  poem,  Makh- 
zJin  nl-'asrOr.  or  'Treasury  of  Mysteries,'  is 
didactic  in  tone  and  strongly  infiucnced  by  the 
8ufi  poets,  although  it  shows  in  the  narrative 
parts  traces  of  the  •S'/irt/i-.Ydmn/i  of  Firdausi.  It 
was  written  when  Xizami  was  forty.  Soon  after 
he  wrote  Khtisn'i  irn  Sliirin  (1180),  which  dealt 
with  the  love  of  Khusru  I'arwiz  and  his  rival, 
the  architect  Karhad,  for  Shirin,  an  Armenian 
princess  I  possibly  an  Irene  of  Hyzantiuni),  and 
the  Shah's  success.  The  poem  won  Xizami  high 
favor  at  court,  wliich  diil  not  corrupt  his  inde- 
pendence. The  Din'ni.  a  collcctinn  of  ethical 
poems,  dates  from  1188.  Willi  the  old  theme 
of  Laila  and  Majnun.  a  Hedoiiin  tale  of  lovers 
.separated  by  family  feud,  their  brief  joy  on 
earth  and  their  hapjiy  meeting  in  Paradise, 
the  poet  returned  to  his  own  ticld  of  the  ro- 
mantic epic.  The  Inl:riiid(ir\iim(ili.  an  account 
of  the  legendary  adventures  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  is  an  attemi>t  to  rival  Firdausi;  its 
latter  part  is  ethical  and  makes  Alexander  a 
searcher  for  Irulli.  In  1107  Xizami  wrote  his 
great  romance,  the  Ildft  I'nilciir.  or  "Seven  Hcan- 
ties.'  in  which  seven  princesses,  the  daughters 
of  Rehram  Our,  each  tell  a  story,  Xizami  died 
at  fianjah.  His  five  poems  called  I'niij  CInnj. 
or  the  'Five  Treasures.'  were  prototypes  of  sev- 
eral quintuples  or  series  of  five.  The  Miikh~iin 
al'nsnlr  was  edited  by  Inland  (London,  1844)  ; 
the  A'/ii/.vn?  in;  Shirin  was  translated  by  Ham- 
mer (Leipzig.  ISO!));  the  l.iiilii  tin  Mnjniin  was 
edited  at  T.ucknow  in  1888  and  translated  by 
Atkinson  (London.  18.10);  the  llaft  Paihilr  w.q'a 
edited  and  translated  by  Knlmann  (Kazan, 
1S44)  ;  the  first  part  of  th.-^  [ftl:iiiidnr\fnnnh  has 
been  edited  repeatedly,  as  at  Lahore  in  1889,  and 


translated  by  Clarke  (London.  1881),  and  in  part 
by  Kiickert  (Xuremberg.  1824)  :  the  second  part 
was  edited  by  Sprenger  (Calcutta,  1852-(i"J), 
Complete  editions  of  Xizami's  works  have  been 
issued  at  Bombay  in  1834  and  1839,  and  at 
Teheran  in  184.5.  Consult  Bacher,  yhamis  Lcben 
uiid   W'crkc   (Leipzig.   1872). 

NIZAM'S  DOMINIONS.     A  native  State  of 
India.     Sii'   llvi)KH.\ii.\ii. 

NIZHNI-NOVGOROD,  nyezh'nyi'^  n6v'g6-r6d. 
A  government  of  Kussia,  bounded  by  the  (iovern- 
ment  of  Kostroma  on  the  north,  Vyatka,  Kazan, 
and  Simbirsk  on  llie  east,  Penza  and  Tamliov  on 
the  south,  and  \'ladimir  on  the  west.    Area,  about 
20,000  square  miles    (Mai):    Kussia,   F  3).     The 
goveriuneut    is    divided    by    the    Volga    and    the 
Oka   into  two  parts,   of  which   the   northern   is 
low,    marshy,    and    covered    with    thick    forests, 
while  the  southern  is  more  or  less  elevated  and 
intersected  by  many   river  valleys.     The  district 
is  watered  by  the  Volga,  the  Oka,  the  Vetluga, 
and   a   number  of  smaller   rivers,   most  of   them 
navigable.   The  climate  does  not  difier  essentially      i 
from  that  of  otlier  parts  of  Central  Russia.     The      , 
mean  annual  temperature  is  about  40'.     Of  min-      ' 
erals   Xizlini-Xovgorod   has    iron,   alabaster,   and      ; 
various  kinds  of  clay.     Agriculture  is  the  founda-      i 
tion  of  the  economic  life  of  the  region.     Rye  and      ' 
oats   are   the   chief   agricultural    products.     The     ' 
forests  cover  nearly  40  per  cent,  of  the  total  area.      i 

In  the  development  of  the  house  industry  the 
Government  of  Nizhni-Xovgorod  is  inferior  only  . 
to  few  jjarts  of  Russia.  In  the  northern  section 
wooden  articles  are  the  chief  manufactures,  wiiile  , 
in  the  southern  nart  locks,  knives,  and  other  > 
small  articles  of  iron  are  manufactured.  Lc:(ther 
and  leather  pnxlucts  are  manufactured  all  over  ^ 
the  district.  Large  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  i] 
are  also  engaged  in  navigation.  The  factory  sys-  | 
teni  is  only  slightly  developed.  The  census  of  £ 
1895  gives  for  the  Government  of  Xizhni-Xov-  * 
gorod  301  establishments,  employing  over  20.000  ^ 
persons  and  yielding  an  output  of  over  .$10,000,-  ' 
000.  The  chief  products  arc  fiour,  maduncry,  jj 
chemicals,  leather,  spirits,  etc.  The  comiiii'rce  is  ."; 
practically  cnnlincd  to  the  capital.  Xizhni-Xov-  b: 
gorod.  Population,  in  1807,  1,(!00.304.  including  J 
a  considerable  ninnber  of  Monlvins  (q.v.)  and  y| 
Tatars.  | 

NIZHNI-NOVGOKOD,     Capital  of  the  gov-     i 
ernment  of  the  same  name,  and  a  great  coiiimcr-     ■ 
cial  centre  of  Russia,  sitmited  at  the  conlluence      . 
of  the  Oka   with   the  Volga,   273   miles  east  of   3 
iloscow  (Map:  Russia,  F  3).   -It  consists  of  the  ■ 
upper   town    with   the    Kremlin,   the    lower   town   * 
along    the    Oka    ;ind    the    Volga,    and    the    fair-     i" 
grounds   with    the  ;uljnining   suburli   on   Ji   sandy 
tongue  formed  by  the  cnnllucnic  of  the  two  rivers 
and  connecteil  by  a  liridgc  with  the  town  proper.      : 
The  upper   town,   situated   on   liillv  ground,  con- 
tains the  [irincipal  buildings — the  Kremlin,  sur- 
rounded   by    a    wall    dating    from    the    sixteenth 
century  and  inclnsing  two  catheilrals,  the  ancient 
)i;ilace  now  occupied  by  the  (Jovernor,  the  arsenal, 
and  the  law  ciiurts.   The  town  has  about  (iO  Greek 
Orthodox  churches,   a   number  of  moniisleries,  a 
mosqne,   ami   an   Armenian   church,      .\mong   the 
ecclesiastical  editii'es  arc  the  church  in  (be  Mon- 
astery  of   the    .\nmincialiiin,   containing   a    holy 
image  of  great   antiquity    (033),   which   attracts 
many  pilgrims,  the  thirteenth-centiirv  Cathedra! 
of  the  Archangel,  with  a  fine  treasurj',  and  the 


I 


NIZHNI-NOVGOROD. 


587 


NOAH. 


Cathedral  of  the  Transfiirmatioii.  n>l)iiilt  in  IS.'U 
Blid  hoKliii!<  the  tombs  of  the  princes  ami  jiriii- 
cesses  of  Xizhni-Novgorod.  The  chief  secular 
buildings  are  the  palace  of  the  Governor,  the 
JIuseum  of  Art,  housed  in  one  of  the  Kremlin 
towers,  and  the  theatre.  The  educational  insti- 
tutions inolude  a  theol(ii;ical  seminary,  an  insti- 
tution fur  llie  sons  of  noblemen,  a  military  acad- 
emy, two  gymnasia,  a  Kculschutc.  and  a  number 
of  special  schools. 

The  fair  to  \\hich  the  city  chiefly  owes  its 
fame  and  importance  was  transferred  to  Nizhni- 
Novgorod  from  Makariev  (about  ryo  miles  below 
the  city)  in  1817.  The  value  of  the  merchandise 
brought  annually  to  the  fair  averaged  somewhat 
over  .*lt;.n(IO.Ono'  for  tlie  decade  of  1S1---26.  about 
$II(i.()ll{).000  for  18T7-SU,  and  about  $89,000,000 
for  ISST-iMj.  Tlie  construction  of  railways  and  the 
general  modernization  of  commercial  metliods  in 
Russia  during  the  last  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury have  miturally  detracted  from  the  impor- 
tance of  the  fair.  It  is  still,  however,  a  great 
factor  in  the  economic  life  of  the  country,  and 
derives  additional  interest  from  the  fact  that  it 
is  the  most  important  representative  of  a  com- 
mercial system  which  is  rapidly  disappearing 
from  civilized  countries.  The  central  industrial 
governments  of  Russia  arc  represented  at  the 
fair  by  their  different  manufactures,  the  regions 
of  the  Lower  Volga  by  fish,  and  that  of  the  Kama 
by  salt.  The  Caucasus  sends  petroleum,  wine, 
and  native  manufactures;  the  southwestern  gov- 
ernments, .sugar;  and  the  region  along  the  middle 
course  of  the  Volga,  grain  and  lumber.  From 
Siberia  come  furs,  tallow,  and  oil;  from  China, 
tea:  from  Central  Asia,  furs  and  raw  cotton; 
from  Persia,  fruit;  and  from  Western  Europe 
manufactures  and  groceries.  The  fair,  which 
opens  in  the  last  week  of  July  and  lasts  till  about 
the  middle  of  September,  attracts  over  100,000 
merchants  from  every  part  of  the  Empire. 

There  are  thousands  of  shops,  the  material  of 
construction  being  stone,  and  a  splendid  fair 
palace  was  erected  in  1800.  The  grounds  are 
lighted  by  electricity  and  traversed  by  an  electric 
railway  line.  The  industries  of  tlie  city  are  com- 
paratively unimportant.  The  chief  products  are 
beer,  locomotives,  machinery,  and  candles.  There 
are  a  number  of  important  financial  institution.s. 
Population,  in  1807.  05.100.  which  is  increased 
during  the  fair  to  about  '200.000. 

The  town  was  founded  by  the  Graijd  Prince  of 
Suzdal.  Yuri  Vsevolodovitch.  in  1221.  It  was 
attacked  repeatedly  by  the  Tatars  and  the  neigh- 
boring princes  and  sufTered  much  from  famine 
and  pests.  It  was  annexed  to  the  Principality  of 
JIosciiw  about  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

NIZ;HNI-TAGILSK,  ta-gllsk'.  An  important 
mining  and  irnn  manufacturing  centre  in  tlie 
Government  of  Perm,  Russia,  situated  in  the 
Ural  Mountains,  88  miles  northwest  of  Ekater- 
inburg (Map:  Russia,  J  3).  In  the  vicinity  are 
€Xt<>nsive  iron,  copper,  gold,  and  platinum  de- 
posits and  large  iron  foundries  ;nid  steel  mills. 
The  first  iron  mill  in  this  region  was  founded  by 
Nikita  ncmidoff  in  1725.  Population,  in  1807, 
about  :in. 0(1(1. 

NIZHNI-TCHIRSK.  chirsk.  A  town  in  the 
territory  of  the  Don  Cossacks.  South  Russia, 
situated  on  the  Don.  210  miles  northeast  of 
NovoTcherkask.  It  lies  in  a  vinegrnwing  dis- 
trict and  has  an  important  annual  fair  lasting 
for  ten  days.  Population,  in  1807,  15,100. 
Vol.  XIV.— 38. 


NJORD,  nyerd.  In  Scandinavian  mythology, 
the  fatlicr  of  Frey.     See  /EsiB;  Fkey, 

NOACK,  mViik,  August  (1822—),  A  Ger- 
man historical  painter,  born  at  Darmstadt.  A 
pupil  of  Sohn.  Le>-.ing.  and  Schadow  at  the 
Diisscldort  Academy  in  18.'i0-42,  he  studied  after- 
wards in  Munich  and  Antwerp.  In  1855  he 
.settled  in  his  native  city  and  was  appointed 
grand  ducal  court  painter,  and  in  1871  profes.sor 
at  the  Polytechnicum.  Besides  a  "Visit  of 
Landgrave  Philip  the  .Magnianimous  to  Luther" 
(Rostock  Gallery),  and  •■The  Disputation  at 
JIarburg"  (Darmstadt  Gallery),  he  painted  .sev- 
eral fine  altarpieces. 

NOAH,  no'a  (Ileb.  .Yo(a)c/i).  According  to 
the  liixak  of  Genesis,  the  son  of  Laniech.  who  ap- 
pears in  tlie  Old  Testament  in  a  double  ca))acily: 
(a)  the  chief  survivor  of  the  Deluge,  which  in- 
volved the  destruction  of  all  mankind  (Gen.  vi.- 
i.\.  17),  and  hence  the  second  father  of  mankind; 
and  (b)  the  first  agriculturist  to  plant  vines 
(ib.,  ix.  20-27).  According  to  critical  scholars,  in 
the  biblical  study  of  Noah  two  traditions  have 
been  connected  with  him  and  combined,  the  one 
a  story  of  a  destructive  flood  which  came  to  the 
Hebrews  from  the  Babylonians  (see  Df.i.I'GE), 
the  other  a  tradition  as  to  the  beginnings  of 
civilization,  of  which  •wine'  is  a  general  symbol 
in  the  Old  Testament.  This  second  tradition  be- 
longs to  the  same  category  as  the  tracing  of  the 
arts  to  Tubal  Cain  and  Jubal  (Gen.  iv.  21-22) 
and  of  the  building  of  cities  to  Cain  (ib.,  17)  ; 
it  is  of  a  'scholastic'  character,  whereas  the 
other  rests  upon  popular  mythology  and  legend- 
ary lore.  The  attachment  of  various  originally 
independent  stories  to  one  and  the  .same  per- 
sonage is  a  common  phenomenon  in  the  process 
of  myth  and  legend  formation.  The  hero  of  the 
Babylonian  deluge  story  bears  two  names — Pir- 
napishtim  ('source  of  life')  and  Atra-hasis  or 
Hasis-atra  ( 'very  clever'  or  'very  pious' ) .  Both 
names  are  symbolical,  and  it  is  possible  that  a 
connection  with  Noah  appears  in  the  character  of 
the  latter  as  the  father  of  the  new  mankind — in 
this  sense  the  'source  of  life' — and  in  the  de- 
scription of  Noah  (Gen.  vi.  0|  as  .■tadilik  tuiiiiin, 
'pious  exceedingly.'  which  is  almost  a  literal 
translation  of  Hasis-ntra.  It  is  not  absolutely 
certain,  however,  that  the  name  of  the  hero  in 
the  Hebrew  story  was  Noah.  Gen.  v.  29  suggests 
that  it  was  Naliani  or  Nahman. 

NOAH,  Book  of.  See  Apoc'Kypn.\,  section  on 
Old  Testament. 

NOAH,  MoRDECAi  Mantel  ( 178.5- 18i31).  An 
American  journalist  and  politician,  born  in  Phil- 
adeljihia.  He  was  appointed  Consul-fJeneral  at 
Tunis  in  ISl:?.  at  a  time  when  the  second  war 
with  England  ofTered  the  Barbary  Powers  almost 
irresistible  inducements  to  |)rey  on  .\merican 
commerce.  After  his  return  to  the  I'nited  Slates 
the  following  year  he  edited  the  Xijlioiial  Adrcr- 
tificr  (a  Democratic  paper)  and  the  Couvirr  end 
Knijuvrcr.  He  established  the  Evrninij  Star  in 
18.34,  but  soon  withdrew  from  connection  with 
the  daily  press  and  became  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  weekly  Sundni/  Tiiiiex.  He  held  at  various 
times  the  otTiccs  of  sheritT  of  New  York  Comity, 
survev'or  of  the  port  of  New  York,  and  a  judge  of 
the  Court  of  Sessions.  He  was,  a  Jew,  and  in 
1820  attempted  to  found  a  Jewish  colony  on 
Grand  Island  in  the  Niagara  River.  He  wrote  a 
number  of   dramas   and   other   works,    including 


NOAH. 


588 


NOBEL. 


Travels  in  England,  France,  Spain,  and  the  Bar- 
bary  filates  (1810)  ;  and  a  Discourse  on  titc  lics- 
toriition  of  the  Jews  (1845). 

NOAILLES,  iK'i'ii'y'.  A  \whU'  Kicmli  family 
ot  l,ii]iiiu~iii,  wliicli  dates  t'l'iim  tlie  eli'vciitli  reii- 
tiiiy.  Adrif.n  if.wRicE.  Duke  do  Xoaillcs  ( IGTS- 
ITlili).  A  Marslial  <if  I'lamc.  lioin  in  Paris.  tlu> 
eldest  son  of  Anne  .lules,  Due  de  Noailles  (  KLiO- 
J70S).  who  was  Maislial  also.  Tlie  son  bore  the 
title  of  Count  d'Aven.  entered  the  Musketeers 
in  \iii)2.  and  served  in  Catalonia  in  l(in4-!).5 
and  in  Flanders  in  1606-97.  In  1715  the  Duke 
entered  the  couneil  of  regency  and  beeanie  ])resi- 
dent  of  the  Conseil  de  Finance,  a  post  which  he 
lost  three  years  afterwards  by  his  opposition  to 
Law.  After  tifteiii  years  of  retirement,  he  re- 
ceived a  command  under  the  Duke  of  Berwick  in 
the  war  of  the  Polish  Succession,  and  in  1734. 
after  his  chiefs  death,  was  made  Marshal  of 
France.  In  the  same  year  he  captured  I'hilips- 
burj;,  and  in  the  next,  at  the  head  of  the  Sardin- 
ian forces,  drove  the  Inijierial  army  out  of  Italy. 
His  last  eampai<rn  was  in  the  War  of  the  Austrian 
Succession,  and  at  Pcttingen.  in  1743,  he  was  de- 
feated. Entering  the  Conseil  d'Etat.  he  took  con- 
trol of  France's  foreign  policy,  went  to  Madrid 
in  1746.  prepared  th<'  campaigns  of  1747  and 
174S.  and  retired  in  1756.  His  two  sons.  Lotis 
(1713-03)  and  Philippe  (1715-04),  were  also 
Marshals  of  France. — Loiis  M.\RC  A.NToiM-:. 
Viscount  de  Noailles  (1756-isn4l.  horn  in  Paris, 
was  associated  with  Lafayette  (their  wives  were 
sistirs)  in  the  aid  given  to  the  American 
colonics  in  their  struggle  for  independence.  In 
1780,  at  the  opening  of  the  French  Slates-Gen- 
eral, he  was  a  Deputy  among  the  nobles  repre- 
senting Xeniowrs,  and  made  the  memorable  propo- 
sition for  the  abolition  of  titles  and  feudal 
privileges  of  all  kinds.  During  the  excesses  of  the 
Jacobins  he  went  to  the  United  States,  but  re- 
turned to  France  as  soon  as  the  persecution  of 
the  old  nobility  ceased,  and  a  few  years  later 
was  made  brigadier-general  in  Santo  Domingo, 
where  he  died  from  %\(iunds  received  in  the  cap- 
ture of  an  English  sloop  of  war  near  Havana  by 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  feats  of  naval  daring 
on  record.— P.VIL.  l-uke  de  Noailles  (1802-85), 
joined  the  Court  of  Louis  Philippe  in  1830.  He 
piddisbed  a  Hi.iloirr  ilr  tn  maiaon  roiialc  fir  fliiiiit- 
Louis  (Uahlic  a  SainlCpr  (1843)  and  a  Ilistnire 
(/('  Mmc.  de  Mainlrnon  (1848-50).  and  became  a 
member  of  the  Academy  in  1840.  His  son.  .Ifi.rs 
C1IARLE.S  ViCTfRXlEN  (1826-05).  devoted  himself 
to  the  studv  of  economies  and  published  Cent  ans 
dr  rrptililiiiur  aiix  rtnls-Unis   (1886-80). 

NO  AM'MON.  'Hie  name  given  to  Thebes, 
the  capital  of  I'ppcr  Eg}-pt.  in  the  Hebrew  text 
of  Nahuin  iii.  8.  The  sluuter  form  No  occurs 
in  .Ter.  xlvi.  25  and  Kzek.  xxx.  14:  1.5.  Ifi.  The 
Greek  version  has  ulpoi' Aiinav,  "part  of  .\mmon,' 
in  Nahuin.  and  elsewhere  AioiTTiXis  (OiVw/m/ts) , 
the  conuiion  later  de-^ignation  of  Thebes;  .lercime 
translated  .\ti .nindrin  iioiniloriim.  probably  in- 
fluenced by  the  description  of  the  city  in  Nahum 
as  "situated  among  the  rivers  having  the  waters 
round  about  her.  whose  strength  was  the  sen  and 
water  her  walls."  .As  the  .\ssyrians  called  the 
city  Vi.  and  the  Egyptians  themselves  after  the 
Twenty  first  Dynasty  called  it  Nt  (probably  pro- 
nounced yrl,  AV.  with  the  feminine  ending 
' ;  cp.  early  Coptic  Tic),  it  is  probable  (hat  the 
Hebrew    consonants    were    also    pronounced    .Yr. 


.Yet  iiieans  'city.'  The  addition  of  Amnion  renders 
the  reference  to  Thebes  certain.  Nahum  proba- 
bly tluuight  of  the  capt\ire  and  sack  of  Thebes 
by  Assurbanipal  in  B.C.  663.    See  Tuebes. 

NOBBE,  ni'be,  Friedrich  (1830—).  A  Ger- 
man agricultural  chemist  and  jilant  physiologist, 
born  in  Bremen.  He  studied  at  .Jena  ami  Berlin, 
in  1861  became  a  professor  in  the  Industrial 
School  at  Chemnitz,  and  in  1868  in  the  Academy 
of  Forestry  and  Agriculture  at  Tharandt.  There 
he  established,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Agiicul- 
tural  Union  of  Leipzig,  an  experiment  station  for 
plant  physiology.  In  1860  he  inaugurated  scien- 
tific seed-testing,  and  the  ])\iblication  of  the  re- 
sults of  his  investigations  in  this  subject  led  to 
the  system  of  European  seed  contrid.  with  its 
numerous  stations  conducted  both  independently 
and  as  branches  of  the  agricultural  experiment 
stations.  Among  his  publications  are  L'cbrr  die 
orfjanisehe  Lcistung  dvs  h'nliiim  in  der  Pjhinzc 
(with  Schroder  and  Erdmann.  1871),  and  \Vider 
den  Handel  mit  ^yaldgrassamen  fiir  die  IFieseii- 
liiltiir  (1870). 

NO'BEL,  Alfred  Bernard  (1833-96).  A 
Swedish  inventor  and  philanthropist,  horn  at 
Stockholm.  As  a  child  he  went  with  his  father 
to  Saint  Peter.sburg.  where  he  was  educated.  In 
1850-54  he  studied  mechanical  engineering  in  the 
United  States  as  a  i)upil  of  the  distinguished 
.Tolin  Ericsson,  and  in  1863  took  out  tlie  first 
))atcnt  for  the  manufacture  of  an  explosive  com- 
posed of  nitroglycerin  and  common  gun]iowdcr. 
in  1864  he  was  granted  a  second  patent.  The 
use  of  nitroglycerin  was  for  a  number  of  years 
attended  by  such  serious  accidents  that  the  prep- 
aration was  very  widely  discarded.  In  1867, 
however,  Nobel  invented  dynamite,  or  giant 
powder,  composed  of  75  per  cent,  of  nitro- 
glycerin and  25  per  cent,  of  kieselguhr,  a  finely 
]iiilvcrizcd  siliceous  material  derived  from  the 
shells  of  fossil  infusorians.  This  conqiouml  could 
be  handled  with  less  risk  than  could  gunpowder, 
and  was  not  inlluenced  by  heat  or  damp.  In 
1876  the  inventor  patented  an  improvement 
known  as  explosive  gelatin.  Further  inventions 
by  Nobel — ^the  total  number  reported  tiled  in  Great 
Britain  is  120 — include  ballistite.  a  propellent 
which  was  among  the  earliest  of  modern  smoke- 
less powders,  and  artificial  gutta-percha.  In 
1875,  by  his  own  statement,  he  contrnUed  fifteen 
dynamite  factories  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
including  those  near  San  Francisco  and  New 
York  City,  in  the  United  States.  Much  of  his 
experimentation  in  his  later  years  was  conducted 
in  his  great  laboratory  at  San  Remo,  near  Nice. 
He  subscribed  half  the  amount  necessary  for  the 
eipiipnient  of  the  aeronaut  Salomon  .-Indr^', 
and  gave  much  to  general  charities,  but  is 
best  known  as  the  founder  of  the  Nobel  prize 
fuuil  of  .■s0.200.0()0  (reduced  by  taxaticm  to  about 
.>?8.400,000) .  the  annual  interest  on  which  is 
yearly  to  be  divided  into  five  equal  parts,  to  be 
ilistributed  to  the  five  most  deserving  persons  in 
as  many  departments  of  human  activity,  .\ward 
is  made  for  (a)  the  most  important  invention 
or  discovery  in  |)hysics:  (b)  the  most  important 
discovery  or  improvement  in  ebemisfrv:  (c)  the 
most  important  discovery  in  physiology  or  medi- 
cine; (d)  the  most  remarkable  literary  work 
of  an  idealistic  nature;  and  (e)  the  most  or  best 
work  done  in  the  interests  of  universal  peace. 
The  first  four  prizes  are  awarded  by  the  Acade- 


i 


NOBEL. 


589 


NOBILITY. 


mips  of  Sweden,  the  tit'tli  by  the  Nor«ef»i!in  Stor- 
thing'. The  lirst  awarils  were  aiiiKJiinceil  on  Ueeeni- 
her  10,  1!K)1  :  In  ])liysies,  to  Willielni  R«)ntgen,of 
Munich  Liiiversity,  (ierniany,  discoverer  of  tlie 
K<)ntj,'en  rays;  in  clieniistry,  to  .1.  11.  Van  't 
Holl",  of  Berlin  University,  founder  of  a  new 
system  of  stereo-eheniistry ;  in  ]iliysioloi;y  and 
medicine,  to  Kniil  iielirinj.',  of  Marlnir^'  liiiversity, 
discoverer  of  anti-toxin  for  diphtheria;  in  liteia- 
ture,  to  Arnuuid  Sully-I'nidhcjninie.  of  the  French 
Academy,  author  of  Jiinlirc  (1878)  and  other 
poems,  and  Dc  rexprcssum  duns  Ics  ^^eaux•■ar^s 
(1884)  and  other  prose  works;  in  peace  work, 
divided  between  Henri  Dunant,  prime  mover  of 
the  (ieneva  Convention,  and  Krcdcrie  Passy, 
founder  of  the  Universal  Peace  Union. 

NOBILITY  (OP.  nobililc,  nohilitcd,  Fr.  no- 
biliti',  from  Lat.  nohililds.  nobility,  from  nohilis, 
noble,  from  noscere,  to  know;  connected  with  Gk. 
yiypuxrKdv.  fi!f/)wskein,  Skt.  ji'ia,  to  know,  and 
ultimately  with  Eng.  knoic).  A  class  possessing 
by  hereditary  transmission  social  rank  and  priv- 
ileges, and  often  political  privileges  as  well, 
greater  than  those  belonging  to  the  mass  of  the 
people,  and  aristocracy  of  birth  or  privilege.  In 
the  most  primitive  societies,  when  the  stronger 
and  abler  men  became  chiefs  of  tribes  or  clans 
there  was  frequently  a  body  of  supporters  who 
acquired  prestige  from  the  power  of  their  leader. 
The  ancient  empires — Egj'pt,  Babylonia,  .\ssyria 
— which  had  developed  out  of  earlier  tribal  con- 
ditions, had  a  noble  class,  priests  and  warriors, 
surrounding  and  upholding  the  throne,  except 
wlien  tlie  aristocracy  became  too  strong  and  am- 
bitious and  overthrew  the  despot  who  trampled 
on  its  privileges.  In  the  empires  acquired  by  con- 
quest the  warriors  who  had  shareil  success  for 
the  conqueror  became  through  his  gratitude  or 
his  necessity  a  special  caste,  above  the  con- 
quered, and  handed  down  to  their  descendants 
the  privileges  they  had  won.  In  more  ailvanced 
stages  of  society  wealth  or  political  inlluencc 
have  often  purclmsed  rank  for  their  possessors, 
and  in  the  highest  civilization  intellectual  ability 
has  been  rewarded  by  hereditary  rank.  There 
was  another  type  of  nobility  in  ancient  Athens 
and  Rome,  where  a  population  early  in  posses- 
sion retained  privileges  above  all  other  comers, 
forming  at  once  parties  and  privileged  orders 
in  the  State — the  eupatrids  and  the  patricians. 
Among  the  ancient  Germanic  tribes  class  dis- 
tinctions went  back  to  the  beginnings  of  the 
race,  for  at-  our  first  knowledge  of  them  they 
were  divided  into  nobles,  freemen,  and  slaves. 
The  constant  warfare  of  centuries  had  effaced 
these  distinctions  to  a  considerable  extent  at  the 
time  of  the  Germanic  invasions.  Tlie  nobility  of 
the  nations  of  modern  Europe  has  its  origin  in 
till'  feudal  aristocracy.     See  Ff.I'dali.sm. 

The  Krankish  Kingdom  in  Gaul  was  divided 
into  gnvernnicnts,  cacli  under  the  authority  of  a 
chieftain  called  a  count  or  coiii'f<^:i  designation 
derived  from  the  roinm  of  the  Roman  Empire — 

I  whose  Teutonic  equivalent  was  fiifif.  an  ollicial 
of  the  frown  in  the  time  of  Charles  the  Great, 

I  but  acquiring  in  the  later  confusion  hereditary 
rights.  (See  CorxT:  Grak.  )  A  higher  dignity 
and  more  extensive  jurispnnlencc  was  conferred 
on  the  (I11.T  or  duke  (q.v. ),  a  term  also  of  Roman 
origin,  and  implying  the  duty  of  leading  the 
armies  of  the  country.  In  tlie  Lombard  Kingdom 
of  Italy  the  same  term  was  applied  to  the  great 
oliicers   who   were    intrusted    with    the   militarv 


and  civil  administration  of  cities  and  their  sur- 
rounding provinces.  The  marquis  (q.v.)  was 
the  guardian  of  the  frontier  marches.  (See 
JIarcii.)  In  the  subinfeudations  of  the  greater 
nobility  originated  a  secondary  sort  of  nobility, 
under  the  name  of  vavasours,  castellans,  and 
lesser  barons;  and  a  third  order  below  them  com- 
prised vassals,  whose  tenure,  by  the  military 
obligation  known  in  England  as. a  knight's  ser- 
vice, ailmitted  them  within  the  ranks  of  the 
aristocracy.  In  France  the  allegiance  of  the 
lesser  nobles  to  their  intermediary  lord  long 
continued  a  reality;  in  England,  on  the  other 
liand.  William  the  Conqueror  obliged  not  only 
his  barons,  who  held  in  fief  of  the  Crown, 
but  their  vassals  also,  to  take  an  oath  of 
fealty  to  himself;  and  his  successors  alto- 
gether abolished  subinfeudation.  (See  BaroN; 
Kkigiit.  )  In  Continental  Europe,  the  nobles, 
after  the  tenth  century,  assumed  territorial 
names  from  their  castles  or  the  principal  town 
or  village  on  their  demesne;  hence  tin?  prefix  dc, 
or  its  German  equivalent  run.  still  considered 
over  a  great  part  of  the  Continent  as  the  cri- 
terion of  nobility  or  gentility.  In  England,  on 
the  contrary,  many  of  the  most  distinguished 
famil}'  names  of  the  aristocracy  had  no  terri- 
torial origin.  In  the  later  Carol ingian  Empire 
the  powerful  nobles  encroached  more  and  more 
on  the  royal  authority;  and  in  course  of  time 
many  of  them  openly  asserted  an  independence 
and  sovereignty  with  little  more  than  a  nominal 
reservation  of  superim-ity  to  the  King.  By  the 
end  of  the  ninth  century  the  Empire  had  been 
parceled  into  separate  and  independent  princi- 
palities, under  the  dominion  of  ])owcrful  nobles. 
During  the  entire  history  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  the  Crown  never  succeeded  in  vindicating 
its  power  against  the  feudal  ]irinces.  In  France 
the  royal  authority  gradiuUly  revived  under  the 
Capetians.  the  great  fiefs  of  the  higher  nobility 
being  one  by  one  absorbed  by  the  Crown.  In  Eng- 
land the  resistance  of  the  nobles  to  roj'al  en- 
croachments was  the  means  of  rearing  the  great 
fabric  of  constitutional  liberty.  All  those  who, 
after  the  Conquest,  held  in  ctipite  from  William 
belonged  to  the  nobility.  Such  of  them  as  held 
by  barony  (the  highest  form  of  tenure)  are 
enumerated  in  Domesda.y.  Their  dignity  was 
territorial,  not  personal,  having  no  existence 
apart  from  baronial  possession.  The  comes  was  a 
baron  of  superior  dignity  and  greater  estates; 
and  these  were  in  England  the  only  names  of 
dignity  till  the  time  of  Henry  III.  The  rest  of 
the  landholders,  who  held  by  other  tenures  than 
baron.y,  also  belonged  to  the  nobility  or  gentry'. 

After  the  introduction  of  heraldry,  and  its 
reduction  to  a  system,  the  jiossession  of  a  coat 
of  arms  was  a  recognized  distinction  between  the 
noble  and  the  plebeian.  On  the  Continent  the 
term  noble  still  generally  refers  to  those  to 
whom  or  their  ancestors  arms  have  been  granted. 
In  England  it  is  now  more  common  to  restrict 
the  words  noble  and  nobility  to  the  five  ranks 
of  the  peerage  constitutina  the  greater  nobility, 
and  to  the  head  of  the  family,  to  whom  alone  the 
title  belongs.  Gentility,  in  its  more  strict  sense, 
corresponds  to  the  nobility  of  Continental  coun- 
tries. 

The  higher  nobility,  or  nobility  in  the  exclu- 
sive sense,  of  England,  consists  of  the  five  tem- 
poral ranks  of  the  peerage — duke,  marquis,  earl, 
viscount,  and  baron    (in  the  restricted  significa- 


NOBILITY. 


590 


NOBLE. 


tion   of   the    word),    who   are   members   of   the 
Upper  House  of  rarliainent.     See  Pabliament. 

The  once  powerful  feudal  nobility  of  l'"rance 
had  been  reduced  in  the  time  of  Louis  Xl\'.  to 
a  mere  arislocracy  of  courtiers  thruii^'h  the 
steady  growth  of  the  royal  power.  Innncdiatcly 
before  the  Kevolution  80,01)0  families  claimed 
nobility,  many  of  them  of  obscure  station,  and 
less  than  3000  of  ancient  lineage.  The  Kevolu- 
tion overthrew  all  distinction  of  rank.  On  June 
18,  1790,  the  National  Assenddy  decreed  that 
hereditary  nobility  was  an  institution  incompati- 
ble with  a  free  State,  and  that  titles,  arms,  and 
liveries  should  be  abolisluMl.  Two  years  later  the 
records  of  the  nobility  were  burned.  A  new 
nobility  was  created  by  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I. 
in  1808,  with  titles  descending  to  the  eldest  son. 
The  old  nobility  was  revived  at  the  Restoration. 
All  marquises  and  viscounts  are  of  pre-Kevolu- 
tion  titles,  none  having  been  created  in  later 
times. 

Commercial  pursuits  have  in  different  coun- 
tries been  considered  more  or  less  incompatible 
with  nobility.  In  England  this  was  less  the  case 
than  in  France  and  tiermany,  where  for  long  a 
gentleman  could  not  engage  in  any  trade  without 
losing  his  raiik.  A  sort  of  commercial  'Biirger- 
Adel,'  or  half-gentleman  class,  was  constituted 
out  of  the  i)atrician  families  of  some  of  the  great 
German  cities,  particularly  .\ugsburg.  Niirem- 
berg,  and  Frankfort,  on  whom  the  emperors  be- 
stowed coats  of  arms.  (See  Fuggeb;  VVelser.) 
In  semi-feudal  Italy  there  was  on  the  whole  less 
antagonism  between  nobility  and  trade  than 
north  of  the  .\lps.  The  aristocracy  of  Venice  had 
its  origin  in  connncrce;  anil  though  untitled, 
they  were  among  the  most  distinguished  class  of' 
nobles  in  Europe.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Flor- 
ence, in  the  fourteenth  century,  under  a  con- 
stitution purely  mercantile,  nobility  became  a 
disqualification'  from  holding  any  office  of  the 
State.  In  order  to  be  admitted  to  the  enjoyment 
of  political  honors  the  nobleman  had  to  be  struck 
off  the  rolls  of  nobility,  and  an  unpopular  ple- 
lieian  was  sometimes  ennobled  in  order  to  dis- 
franchise him.  A  little  later  there  grew  up,  side 
by  side  with  the  old  nobility,  a  race  of  plebeian 
nobles— as  the  Kieci.  the  Medici — whose  preten- 
sions were  originally  derived  from  wealth,  and 
who  eventually  came  to  be  regarded  as  aristo- 
crats by  the  democratic  party. 

In  Spain  the  term  hiihilfio  {hijo  d'algo,  son  of 
somebody,  not  /Hi us  tiiillhin)  indicates  nobility. 
The  hidalgo  alone  has  in  strictness  a  right  to  the 
title  (loti.  which,  like  sir  of  the  British  knights 
and  baronets,  requires  the  adjunit  of  the  Chris- 
tian name.  When  the  Christian  name  is  omitted 
the  title  sfi'ior  instead  is  prefixed  with  the  addi- 
tion of  ilr.  Members  of  the  higher  nobility  bear  the 
title  of  grandee  (q.v,)  ;  formerly  the  title  was 
ricn-hnmhre.  and  the  ceremonial  of  creation  con- 
sisted in  granting  the  right  of  assuming  the 
pennon  and  caldron  {pe»6ii  y  caldrra) — the  one 
the  rallving  ensign  of  command,  the  other  of 
maintenance  of  followers.  In  cnntradistinction 
to  the  grandees,  the  class  of  nobilitV' below  them 
arc  called  h>s  tiliihulo.i  ilr  f'nstilla. 

In  Russia  what  nobility  existed  before  Peter 
the  Great  was  of  a  partriarehal,  not  a  feudal, 
kind  (see  Royah),  but.  in  his  anxiety  to  as- 
similate everything  to  n  Western  standard,  tin- 
C/ar  took  the  existing  aristocracies  of  States 
quite  differently  situated  as  the  model  to  which 


to  approximate  the  fortunate  of  his  own  sub- 
jects. Consult:  Mf-nestrier.  Les  divvrses  espiccs 
de  la  nublesse  (Paris,  Hi83)  ;  id.,  Lc  blason  de 
la  nohlessc  (ib.,  1083)  ;  Escherny,  Essui  sur  la 
noblesse  (ib,,  1814)  ;  Duvergier,  Memorial  his- 
toTiijue  de  la  noblesse  (ib.,  1839-40)  ;  Magny,  Le 
nobiliairc  des  maisoiis  nobles  de  VEurope  (ib,, 
1854-94);  Kotzebue,  Vom  Adel  (Leipzig,  1792); 
Laine,  Xoblesse  de  France  (Paris,  1825-50); 
Langlois,  Les  origines  de  la  noblesse  en  France 
(ib,,  1902);  Cerini,  La  noblesse  itllemande  et 
scs  origints  (ib,,  1899)  ;  Stranz,  (Icsrhiclilc  des 
deutsehen  Adels  (new  ed,,  Waldenburg,  1851); 
Rose,  Der  Adel  Veutsehlnnds  (Berlin.  1883); 
Vehse,  Geschiehte  des  iisterreiehiselieii  llofs  and 
Adels  (Hamburg,  1851);  Gneist,  Adel  iind  Rit- 
lersehaft  in  jingland  (Berlin,  1853)  ;  Lawrence, 
On  the  XobUity  of  the  llrilish  Gentry  (London, 
1824;   4th  ed,   1840). 

NOBLE,  no'b'l,  Alfred  (1844—).  An  Ameri- 
can civil  engineer,  born  at  Livonia,  Wayne  Coun- 
ty, ilich.  He  served  during  the  Civil  War  in  the 
Arniv  of  the  Potomac  ( lS(>2-(i5) ,  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Michigan  in  1870,  and  in  that 
year  began  practice  as  a  civil  engineer.  From 
1882  he  devoted  his  attention  to  bridge  engineer- 
ing. He  was  resident  engineer  of  the  Washing- 
ton Bridge,  New  York  City,  the  Cairo  (111.) 
Bridge  over  the  Ohio,  and  the  Memphis  (Tenn.) 
Bridge  over  the  Mississippi:  and  assistant  chief 
engineer  of  the  bridges  over  the  Missouri  at 
West  Alton  (Mo.),  and  Leavenworth  (Kan,), 
and  over  the  ^Mississippi  at  Alton  (111.).  In 
1895  he  was  api)ointed  a  member  of  the  Nica- 
ragua Canal  Board,  from  1897  to  1899  was  a 
menil)er  of  the  United  States  Board  of  Engi- 
neers of  deep  waterways,  to  make  surveys  and 
prepare  plans  and  estimates  in  connection  with 
a  slii])-canal  route  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  and  from  1899  to  1901  was  on 
the  Isthmian  Canal  Conunission.  He  became 
president  of  the  Western  Society  of  Civil  En- 
gineers in  1898,  His  writings  include  papers 
contributed  to  the  Proeredinr/s  of  the  Chicago 
.\cademy  of  Sciences,  and  of  the  Western  and 
American  Societies  of  Civil  Engineers, 

NOBLE,  Sir  Andrew  (18:i2— ).  A  Scot- 
tish ph\sicist  and  artillerist,  born  at  Greenock 
and  ediicated  at  the  Edinburgh  ,\cademy  and 
the  Royal  Military  .\cademy,  Woolwich.  Ill 
1858  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  Com' 
mittee  on  Rifled  Cannon,  and  to  the  Plates  and 
Gims  Connnitlee  in  1859,  when  he  was  also  made 
assistant  inspector  of  artillery.  In  1800  he  left 
the  iniblie  service  to  enter  that  of  Sir  W,  G. 
.\rmstrong  at  the  Elswick  .\rsenal.  There  he 
had  wider  opportunities  for  experimental  re- 
search, and  his  invention  of  the  chnmoscope  in 
18li2.  which  made  possilde  the  measurement  o( 
the  initial  velocity  produced  by  various  pow- 
ders, led  to  an  increase  in  the  substitution  of 
ritles  for  smooth-bores.  In  1900  Captain  Noble 
was  a  member  of  the  comnuttee  appointed  by  the 
Government  to  inipiirc  into  the  prnperlies  of 
smokeless  powder.  Besides  foreign  honors,  he  re- 
ceiveil  the  Royal  Society  medal  in  1S80,  war 
knighted  in  1893,  and  nuule  a  baronet  in  1902, 

NOBLE,  FREDERinc  Ai.piionso  (1S32— ), 
.Aniiriean  Congregational  clergyman,  born  IB 
Baldwin,  Me.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  18.58- 
and  nt  Andover  Tlienlogieal  Seminary  in  ISfil. 
His    first   pastoral    charge    was    in    Saint    Paul, 


4 


I 


NOBLE. 


591 


NODDY. 


Minn.,  where  he  reiiiaiiRHl  for  six  years.  After 
oa-iipyiug  churches  in  rittsburg.  Pa.,  and  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  he  was  called  to  the  Union  Park 
Church,  Chicago,  in  18711,  and  preaelied  there 
until  his  resignation  in  IHOI.  His  publications 
include:  Divine  Life  in-  Man  (lS!)(i)  ;  I)i.^courses 
on  I'liiHiipiiins  (1897);  and  Our  Rcdt'inplion 
{181IS). 

NOBLE,  .John  Willock  (1831—).  An  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  Cabinet  ollicer,  born  at  Lancaster, 
Ohio.  •  After  a  year  at  Miami  University,  he  en- 
tered Yale,  where  he  graduate<i  in  1851.  He 
then  studied  law  at  Columbus  and  Cincinnati, 
removed  to  Saint  Louis  in  1855,  and  a  year  later 
settled  in  the  practice  of  his  profession  at  Keo- 
kuk, Iowa.  There  he  took  a  prominent  part  in 
politics,  and  in  185'J-(!0  was  city  attorney.  In 
18G1  he  enlisted  in  the  Third  luwa  Volunteer 
Cavalry  as  .a  private,  gradually  rose  to  the  rank 
of  colonel,  and  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  at 
the  close  of  the  war.  Settling  again  at  Saint 
Louis  after  the  war,  he  was  I'nited  States  Dis- 
trict Attorney  for  the  eastern  district  of  Mis- 
souri from  1S()7  to  1870.  He  was  Secretary  of 
the  Interior  in  the  Cabinet  of  President  Harrison 
from  188!)  to  isn,3,  after  which  he  resumed  his 
law  practice  in  Saint  Louis. 

NOBLESVILLE,  no'b'Iz-vil.  A  city  and  the 
county-seat  of  Hamilton  County,  Ind.,  22  miles 
north  by  east  of  Indianapolis;  on  the  White 
River,  and  on  the  Chicago  and  Southeastern  and 
the  Lake  Erie  and  Western  railroads  (Map: 
Indiana,  C  2).  It  is  the  centre  of  an  agricul- 
tural section,  and  has  a  valuable  supply  of 
natural  gas.  Among  its  industrial  establish- 
ments are  a  strivvboard  mill,  foundries,  enamel- 
ing works,  carbon  works,  flouring  mills,  grain 
elevators,  etc.  Settled  in  IS24,  Noblesville  was 
incorporated  first  in  18.30.  The  government  is 
administered  under  a  charter  of  ISOO,  which 
provides  for  a  mayor,  elected  every  four  years, 
and  a  unicameral  council.  Population,  in  1S90, 
30.->4:    in    VMW.    4702. 

NO-BODY  CKAB,  or  Sea-spider.     See  Pan- 

TOPODA. 

NOBTJNAGA,  no'boo-nii'g^i  (1533-82).  A 
J:ipanese  soldier  and  ruler,  who  brouglit  order 
out  of  anarchy  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  Born  of  an  humble  family,  he  was  free 
from  the  hatreds  and  jealousies  of  the  nobles, 
and  won  his  way  by  his  own  powers  as  an  in- 
trejiid  and  skillful  soldier.  He  was  victorious 
in  many  contests,  and,  notably,  he  humbled  the 
militant  P)uddhist  priests,  destroying  two  strong- 
ly fortified  monasteries  and  putting  tlie  monks  to 
the  sword.  Buddhism  never  regained  its  politi- 
cal power.  As  an  aid  in  the  contest  with  liud- 
dliism  he  welcomed  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  his 
own  son  becoming  a  Christian.  But  his  favor 
was  wholly  for  political  purposes.  Nobun.aga 
was  .a  jovial,  pleasure-loving  man,  a  patron  of 
the  fine  arts  and  of  wrestling.  His  private  life 
was  stained  not  only  by  the  vices  common  to  the 
military  men  of  his  age,  but  by .  treachery.  In 
consequence  of  his  failure  to  respect  a  pledge 
given  by  one  of  his  lieutenants  he  was  assas- 
sinated, his  murder  being  speedily  avenged.  In 
a  desperate  age  Nobunaga  began  the  work  which 
was  carried  to  its  completion  by  his  greater  suc- 
cessors, Hideyoshi  (q.v.)  and  Ivevasu  (q.v.). 
Consult:  Brinkley,  ./rtpare  (Boston,' 1001 )  ;  Griffis, 
The  Mikado's  Empire,  new  ed.  (New  York,  1883) . 


NOCERA  DE'   PAGANI,   n6-cha'ril   da   pi- 

gii'ne.     A  city  in  Italy.     Sic  NocEK.\  I.NFERIOKE. 

NOCERA  INFEBIORE,  .'nfa-re  ./ra,  or 
NoeiJKA  he'  I'aua.m.  .\  city  in  the  Province 
of  Salerno,  Italy,  20  miles  east  by  south  of  Na- 
ples by  rail  (Jlap:  Italy,  F  11).  It  is  the  see 
of  a  bishop,  has  a  cathedral,  ruins  of  a  castle, 
formerly  an  Angevine  stronghold,  and  large  mod- 
ern factories  of  linen  and  woolen  goods.  The 
town  was  the  ancient  Nuceria  Alfatcrna.  de- 
stroyed by  Hannibal  in  210  B.C.,  but  rebuilt  by 
Augustus.  Population  (commune),  in  1881, 
15,8.58;   in   1891,   10,790. 

NOC'TES  AM'BROSIA'N.a;  (Lat.,  ambro- 
sial nights).  The  name  of  a  long  .series  of  criti- 
cal, political,  and  poetical  disquisitions  in  dia- 
logue published  in  Blackwood's  Mat/a::i»c  from 
1822  to  1835,  purporting  to  be  the  word-for-word 
report  of  the  meetings  at  Ambrose's  Tavern.  Ed- 
inburgh, and  elsewhere,  of  several  of  the  literary 
celebrities  of  the  day.  Por  the  first  throe  years 
they  were  the  work  of  many  hands,  liut  after 
1825  they  were  mostly  by  'Christopher  North,' 
John  Wilson  (q.v.).  The  scheme  was  evidently 
taken  from  the  symposia  of  the  ancients.  The 
'Nodes  had  an  immense  vogue,  but  they  are  now 
little  read.  Their  great  creation  is  the  character 
of  the  Ettrick  Shepherd,  an  idealized  portrait  of 
James  Hogg   (q.v.). 

NOCTILUCA  (Lat.,  that  which  shines  by 
night).  An  enormous  monad-like  form  repre- 
senting the  order  Cystofiagellata,  of  the  class 
Mastigophora  (q.v.).  It  is  a  highly  phospho- 
rescent organism,  so  small  as  to  be  scarcely  seen 
with  the  naked  eye,  being  frotn  y^  to  1  mm.  (.01 
to  .04  inch)  in  diameter,  and  occurs  in  great 
numbers  on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  including 
American  harbors.  It  has  a  nearly  spherical, 
jelly-like  body,  with  a  groove  on  one  side,  from 
which  issues  a  curved  filament  or  flagellum.  used 
in  locomotion.  Near  the  base  of  this  llagclhim  is 
the  mouth,  having  on  one  side  a  tooth-like  pro- 
jection. Connecting  with  the  mouth  is  a  .short 
oesophagus  or  gullet,  which  passes  into  the  diges- 
tive cavity,  in  front  of  which  lies  a  nucleus. 
Beneath  the  outer  skin  or  firm  membrane  sur- 
rounding the  body  is  a  gelatinous  Inyer.  con- 
taining numerous  granules.  The  yoting  result 
from  a  division  or  segmentation  of  the  entire 
mass  of  the  protoplasm  of  the  body,  forming 
small  oval  bodies  with  a  long  lash.  The  germs 
or  zoc'ispores  are  somewhat  like  those  of  other 
flagellate  infusoria,  but  very  unlike  the  a<liilt. 

The  only  other  representative  of  this  order  is 
Leptodisciis  mediisoides,  which  darts  through  the 
water  by  the  contractions  of  its  umbrella-shaped 
body.  It  was  discovered  at  Messina,  but  has  not 
yet  been  detected  in  American  Nvaters. 

NOCTU'ID.ffi  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat. 
naetiin,  night-owl,  from  nox,  night).  -'\  large  and 
important  family  of  moths,  containing  all  of 
those  forms  known  as  owlet  moths  (q.v.).  Their 
larva^  include  the  cutworms   (cj.v.). 

NOCTURNE,  nok-tflrn'  (Fr.,  night  piece). 
The  name  given  by  .Tohn  Field  (q.v.)  to  a  com- 
position of  a  soft,  dreamy  character  somewhat 
free  in  form.  The  greatest  master  of  the  noc- 
turne is  Chopin,  who  has  filled  this  form  with 
the    loftiest    contents. 

NODDY  (probably  from  nod.  OHG.  hnotoii, 
iiiinlnn.  dialectic  Ger.  notteln,  to  shake).  .\ 
brownish    black    tern    {Anou-s    stolidus)    widely 


NODDY. 


592 


NODIER. 


diffused  in  both  hemispheres,  and  familiar  to 
sailors,  as  it  not  infrequently  aliglits  on  vessels, 
and  sutlers  itself  to  be  taken  by  the  hand.  At 
its  breeding-places  also,  where  not  accustomed 
to  the  visits  of  man,  it  scarcely  gets  out  of  the 
way,  and  the  female  sits  undisturbed  on  the 
nest;  hence  it  commonly  shares  with  the  booby 
the  reputation  of  unusual  stupidity.  Tlie  noddy 
is  rare  in  the  North  Atlantic,  but  very  abundant 
in  warmer  latitudes,  and  on  some  of  the  keys 
of  the  West  Indies  breeds  in  immense  numbers, 
and  the  eggs  are  collected  as  food. 

NODE  (from  Fr.  node,  from  Lat.  nodus, 
knot).  A  small,  circumscribed  swelling  which 
occurs  upon  the  surfaces  of  the  bones  of  the 
head  and  extremities.  Nodes  are  nearly  always 
due  to  syphilis. 

Another  variety  of  node  occurs  in  one  form  of 
arthritis  deformans,  and  is  called  Heberden's 
nodosities.  These  bony  tul)ercles  appear  upon  the 
dorsal  and  lateral  surfaces  of  the  terminal  jiha- 
langes  of  the  fingers,  and  are  incurable.  They  are 
most  common  in  women  and  neurotic  persons. 

NODE.  An  astrououiical  term  tised  in  con- 
ne<tion  with  planetary  orbits.  If  we  disregard 
certain  small  perturbations  (q.v. )  of  planetary 
motion,  we  may  say  that  each  planet  moves  in 
an  elliptic  curve,  having  the  sun  in  one  of  its 
foci.  This  curve  lies  in  a  plane  called  the 
plane  of  the  orbit ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  earth 
this  orbital  plane  is  called  the  plane  of  the  eclip- 
tic. Now,  if  these  orbital  planes  are  imag- 
ined extended  to  the  celestial  sjjhere,  they  will 
cut  out  upon  it  great  circles,  one  correspond- 
ing to  each  orbital  plane.  Such  a  great  cir- 
cle cut  out  by  the  plane  of  the  earth's  orbit 
is  called  the  ecliptic  (q.v.}.  If  we  consider 
the  ecliptic  and  the  corresponding  great  circle 
belonging  to  any  other  planet,  we  shall  find 
that  they  intersect  at  two  points  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  celestial  sphere.  These  two  points, 
in  the  case  of  any  planet  other  than  the  earth, 
are   called  the   tindcs  of  its  orbit. 

Thus  all  the  planetary  nodes  lie  on  the  ecliptic 
circle;  and  the  position  of  any  node  is  given 
by  stating  its  celestial  longitude.  (See  L.\titi'de 
AND  LoNGiTiDE. )  This  longitude  of  the  node 
is  one  of  the  elements  (q.v.)  of  a  (danet's  orbit. 
Since  the  two  nodes  are  directly  opposite  one 
another,  their  longit\ides  must  ditl'er  by  exactly 
180°,  so  that  the  longitude  of  the  one  being 
given,  that  of  the  other  is  known  also.  By  com- 
7non  consent,  astronomers  select  that  one  of 
the  nodes  whose  longitude  is  to  be  given  as  an 
element  of  the  orbit  as  the  ascrnditiri  node.  This 
is  the  node  corresponding  to  the  |ia«sage  of  the 
planet  from  the  south  side  of  the  ecliiitlc  to  the 
north  side  in  the  course  of  its  orbital  revolution 
around  the  sun.  The  other  node  is  called  the  (/<- 
xrindiiifi  node. 

The  effect  of  planetary  perturbations  (q.v.)  is 
to  cause  the  nodes  to  move  backward  on  the 
ecliptic.  The  rate  of  motion  is  very  slow,  the 
most  rapid  being  in  the  ease  of  I'ranus,  whose 
node  will  travel  once  around  the  ecliptic  in  .37.000 
years,  while  that  of  ATercury  will  consume  IGO,- 
000  years  in  a  single  revolution. 

NODE,  Noi).\r,  Points.  When  a  string  or 
metallic  cord,  under  strong  tension,  is  made  to  vi- 
brate, there  are  heard  hc-ides  the  principal  sound 
secondary  and  shriller  sounds,  which  nre  denomi- 
nated overtones  or  harmonic  sounds,  and  arc  pro- 


duced by  a  certain  portion  of  the  cord  vibrating 
independently.  Investigation  shows  that  every 
vibrating  string  is  divided  into  a  number  of  seg- 
ments vibrating  independently,  and  that  the 
points  which  separate  these  portions  from  each 
other  are  at  rest.  These  points  are  known  as 
nodal  points,  and  their  situation  may  be  found 
by  placing  small  pieces  of  pa])er  on  a  stretched 
string,  and  causing  it  to  vibrate.  When  a  string 
vibrating  to  its  fimdamental  note,  that  is  as  a 
unit,  is  touched  at  its  middle  point  with  a  feath- 
er, it  will  immediately  resolve  itself  into  seg- 
ments of  equal  length  vibrating  twice  as  rapidly. 
The  point  where  the  string  is  touched  with  the 
feather  being  at  rest  would  accordingly  form  a 
node,  while  the  vibrating  portions  would  be 
known  as  ventral  segments.  C'hladni  discovered 
that  if  a  plate  of  glass  or  metal  be  clamped  at  the 
centre  and  then  be  touched  by  tlic  finger  at  some 
middle  point  on  one  of  the  sides,  and  a  well- 
resined  fiddle  bow  be  drawn  across  the  edge,  par- 
ticles of  fine  dust  or  sand  previously  placed  on 
the  plate  will  arrange  themselves  in  lines,  show- 
ing that  along  these  lines  no  vibration  has  taken 
place ;  these  lines  are  noditl  lines,  and  are  found 
in  most  cases  to  grovip  themselves  together  into 
geometrical  figures,  and  occasionally  to  jiresent 
the  most  beautiful  designs.  (See  Culadni  Kig- 
UBES.)  The  arrangement  of  the  nodal  lines  de- 
pends on  the  point  at  which  the  plate  is  touched, 
and  on  the  form  of  the  plate  itself.  Similarly, 
a  colunui  of  air  vibrating  in  an  open  or  closed 
organ  pijie  will  divide  itself  into  portions  each 
in  a  state  of  vibration,  and  separated  from  one 
another  by  transver.se  sectional  portions  in  which 
the  air  is'at  rest;  these  latter  sections  are  known 
as  nodal  sections.  In  the  open  pipe  the  node  is 
at  the  centre  of  the  pipe,  while  in  the  closed  pipe 
the  node  is  at  the  end.     See  Acoustics. 

NO'DIAK     (Papuan    name).      The     Papuan 
spiny  unt-cater.     See  Echidna. 

NODIER.  n.Vdya'.  Chabi.es  (1780-1844).  A 
I"n  iich  ]ihilo]ogist.  novelist,  ])oet,  and  critic,  born 
at  Hesangon.  April  29,  1780.  He  studied  at 
Strassburg.  In  1802  he  published  Stella  ou 
les  proscrits,  a  novel  after  the  manner  of  Rous- 
seau, and  in  1803  Le  peintrc  de  Sal ::hourg,. 
inspired  by  Goethe's  Werthei:  In  1804  appeared 
Essais  d'un  jeune  baade :  in  1815  the  Histoire 
des  sori<'le^  .<<eeretes  de  I'arniec.  TriUip  on  le 
Latin  dWrfinil  came  out  in  1822.  and  the  Ro- 
mantic School  liegan  to  gather  about  Nodier  in 
the  salon  of  the  Arsenal  toward  182.3.  Nodier, 
like  most  of  the  romantic  writers,  is  in  love  with 
the  sensational,  exotic,  and  fantastic,  and  is  fond 
of  turning  history  into  romance.  In  1830  he  put 
forth  the  ftoi  de  Bohfme  el  se.t  sept  elu'itcnuT, 
and  in  1832  La  ffe  aux  niiettes.  a  fairy  tale.  In 
1S34  he  became  an  .\cademician.  ten  years  after 
he  had  been  made  director  of  the  Lilirary  of  the' 
.\rscnal.  He  died  in  Paris.  .January  20.  1844. 
Nodier  outgrew  his  scntimentalism.  and  became 
through  his./rn/i  Shnijar  (1818).  Rutircn  (1820), 
Smarra  (1821).  and  Trilhii.  the  herald  of  roman- 
tic fiction  in  France.  liertram  oa  le  eln'iteau  de 
.'^aint-Aldehriind.  a  tragedy,  shows  English  in- 
llucncc.  particularly  that  of  Sir  Walter  Scott. 
His  versatility  is  shown  by  his  publication  in 
ISOS  of  a  Dietininmire  rni.tnnni'-  de.i  onomatupfei 
(2d  ed.  1828)  and  hy  hH  Diet ionnnire  nnii-ersel de 
la  Unique  frnnenise  (1823).  .\n  edition  in  twelve 
volumes  of  his  CEuvrcs  appeared  in  1832-34.   Con- 


NODIER. 


593 


NOIRE. 


suit  Mine.  Menessier-XodiiT,  Vharles  Xodier,  epi- 
sodes it  soucenirs  de  su  lU-  (Paris,  18U7). 

NODULAR  DISEASE  (from  Lat.  iiodulus, 
(liiiiiiuUivf  of  noiliis,  joint ),  A  disease  due  to 
till'  |)reseiK'e  of  a  roimduonii  ((EsuitJinyostoina 
coliiinijiuiiuiii)  in  llie  intestinal  walls  of  sheej). 
wliieli  lias  often  been  mistaken  for  Inliereulosis 
of  the  intestines.  Positiw  diai^nosis  can  be  made 
only  after  death.  Atl'eeted  animals  become 
ana'mie  and  debilitated,  the  wool  becomes  dry, 
ancl  there  may  be  profuse  diarrhoea.  The  larger 
tumors  will  be  found  to  contain  the  small  nema- 
tode woiiii,  surrounded  by  a  greenish,  cheesy 
mass.  The  adult  worm  is  found  free  in  the 
large  intestine. 

NOE,  n6'a',  Aii.\DEE  DE.  A  French  caricatur- 
ist.    See  his  pseudonym,  Cham. 

NOEL,  no'el.  Baptist  Wriotiie.sley  (1798- 
187.3).  An  English  clergy-man.  He  was  born  at 
I.eiglitmount,  Scotland,  and  educated  at  West- 
minster and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  stud- 
ied first  for  the  bar,  but  abandoned  this  pro- 
fession for  the  Church  of  England.  In  1827 
he  iK'came  minister  of  Saint  .John's  Chapel,  Bed- 
ford How,  London,  where  his  eloquence  won  for 
him  a  large  congregation  from  the  upper  classes, 
and  he  assumed  a  place  of  leadership  among  the 
lireachers  of  evangelical  tendencies.  Hi  1840  he 
assisted  in  organizing  the  Evangelical  Alliance. 
During  the  Goi-ham  controversy  (q.v.)  of  1848- 
50,  Noel  withdrew  from  the  Established  Church 
and  entered  the  Baptist  denomination,  at  the 
same  time  publishing  his  grounds  for  so  doing 
in  an  Essay  on  the  Union  of  Church  and  Stute 
(1848).  Later  he  published  an  Essay  on  the  Act 
of  Iiiii>tism  (1850).  A  permanent  contribution 
to  the  subject  of  American  all'airs  was  Free- 
dom and  Slavery  in  the  United  States  of  America 
(180:i). 

NOETIANS,  no-e'shans.     See  PatrH"AS.siax.- 

ISM. 

NOET'IC  CONSCIOUSNESS  (Gk.  i/oTjr^ij, 
noi'tikus,  relating  to  perception,  from  vStjo-is, 
noesis,  perception,  from  votTv,  noein,  to  perceive, 
from  »6os,  noos,  vom,  nous,  perception,  mind; 
probably  connected  with  -yiyvilxrKeiv,  gignoskein, 
to  know,  and  ultimately  with  Eng.  knotr) .  It 
is  affirmed  by  many  psychologists  that  the  es- 
sential characteristic  of  mental  process  is  its 
I'eference.  Ijeyond  itself,  to  some  object;  so  that 
the  only  jMis^ible  criterion  of  the  ultimateness 
and  iricilniibility  of  a  mental  function  is  the 
irrediieibillty  of  the  mode  in  wliicli  it  thus  refers 
to  its  object.  Brentano  distingtiishes  between 
ideation  (or  noetic  consciousness),  judgment  or 
iK'llef,  and  interest  or  liking.  Stout,  however, 
has  recently  raised  the  question  whether  it  is 
possible  for  a  sentient  being  to  exist  entirely  de- 
void of  thought,  i.e.  to  possess  an  anoetic  con- 
sciousness. To  such  a  consciousness  the  antithe- 
sis of  subject  and  object  would  be  meaningless; 
while  there  would  seem  to  be  no  road  from  mere 
sentience  to  thotight  by  any  process  of  dilTeren- 
tiation  or  enmplication.  Stout  leaves  the  ques- 
tion unanswered,  except  in  so  far  as  the  two 
diHiciilties  just  raised  appear  to  prevent,  for  him, 
any  genetic  passage  from  an  anoetic  to  a  noetic 
mind.  The  juoblems  raised  are  of  special  interest 
to  the  epistemologist  and  the  student  of  tlie  evo- 
lution of  mind.  The  term  noetic  has  had  a  long 
history   in   psychology.      Plato   distinguishes   be- 


tween a  noetic  or  incorporeal  world  ol  concepts, 
and  an  esthetic  or  corporeal  world  of  perceptions, 
the  latter  being  but  an  image  of  the  reality  of  the 
former.  Aristotle  uses  the  word  in  the  sense  of 
■capable  or  rational  apprehension.'  Hamilton 
employs  it  to  "express  all  those  cognitions  that 
originate  in  the  mind  itself,"  while  ""dianoetic 
denotes  the  operations  of  the  discursive,  elabora- 
tive,  or  comparative  faculty."  Stout  restricts  tlie 
phrase  "noetic  synthesis'  to  "that  union  of  presen- 
tational elements  which  is  involved  in  their  ref- 
erence to  a  single  object;  or,  in  other  words,  to 
their  combination  as  specifying  constituents  of 
the  same  thought."  Consult:  Stout,  Analytic 
Psychology  (London.  18'.)0)  ;  Brentano,  Psycho- 
logic  Torn  cmpirischcn  titandpunklc  (Leipzig), 
1874)  ;  Sir  \V.  Hamilton.  Lectures  on  Metaphys- 
ics, vol.   ii.    (London,    1859). 

NOGALES,  no-gii'lAs.  A  frontier  town  of 
Mexico,  situated  on  the  boundary  of  Arizona  and 
on  the  Santa  Cruz  River  (Map:  Mexico,  D  2). 
H  is  a  station  on  the  Sonora  Railroad,  and  is  the 
.seat  of  a  United  States  consul.  Population,  in 
1901,  2738. 

NOGENT-SUR-MARNE,  n'.'zhax'sur-marn'. 
A  town  of  France,  in  the  Department  of  Seine, 
situated  on  a  bend  of  the  Marne,  three  miles  east 
of  Paris,  to  the  east  of  the  Forest  of  Vineennes. 
The  Eastern  Railroad  from  Paris  here  crosses 
the  valley  of  the  Marne  on  a  long,  curving 
viaduct.  The  town  contaitis  numerous  fine  villas, 
and  has  manufactures  of  pottery  and  chemicals. 
Population,  in  1901,  10,391. 

NOHL,  nol,  LuDWiG  (1831-85).  A  German 
musical  lecturer,  scholar,  and  writer.  He  was 
educated  for  the  law,  but  subsequently  followed 
the  profession  of  music.  He  studied  under  Dehn 
and  Kiel,  and  in  1800  became  lecturer  at  Heidel- 
berg. He  held  several  other  important  university 
and  conservatory  appointments,  and  toward  the 
ciose  of  his  life  settled  in  Heidelberg  as  a  lec- 
turer at  the  university.  His  writings  are  stand- 
ard, and  have  been  translated  into  both  French 
and  English.  Thev  include:  Herthorrns  Lrhen 
(1804-77);  Bricfe'licethoi-cns  (1805);  Mo:arts 
Briefe  (1805)  ;  Beethoven,  Liszt,  Wagner  (1874)  ; 
and  Beethoven  nach  den  Schilderun^jen  seiner 
Zcitgenossen   (1880). 

NOILS  (OF.  noiel,  nuiel,  birtton.  buckle, 
ncirtl,  stone  of  a  fruit,  Fr.  noyau,  kernel,  from 
Lat.  nux,  nut,  or  possibly  a  diminutive  of  OF. 
noit,  knot,  from  Lat  nodus,  knot) .  The  short  and 
broken  hairs  which  are  removed  from  wool  in  the 
process  of  combing  and  preii.-uing  it  for  worsted 
manufactures.  The  noils  are  used  for  making 
inferior  yarns,  and  are  valuable  for  felting  pur- 
poses, in  which  they  are  largely  employed. 

NOIRE,  nwii'riV,  LtnwiG  (1829-89).  A  Ger- 
man philosophical  writer,  born  at  Alzey,  in 
Hesse.  From  1840  to  1848  he  pursued  his  studies 
at  Giessen,  after  which  he  became  a  teachfr  at 
the  gymnasium  in  ^lainz.  His  stuily  of  the 
works  of  Spinoza.  Schopenhauer.  Lazarus  (Jeiger, 
and  the  modern  naturalists  led  him  to  tlie  ettort 
to  construct  a  system  of  monistic  |)hilosophv 
according  to  which  the  tiniverse  is  a  single  reality 
of  which  sensation  and  motion  are  the  two  as- 
pects. In  1874  he  published  Pie  Welt  nls  Ent- 
tcickelung  des  Geistes.  This  was  followed  by  Der 
momstische  Oednnke.  Eine  Konkordanx  der  Phi- 
losophic Schopenhnuers,  Darwins,  Robert  Mayers, 


NOIRE. 


594 


NOLLE  PROSEQUI. 


iind  L.  Geigers  ( 1875) .  He  also  wrote  the  preface 
to  Max  Miiller's  Kiijilish  translation  of  Kant's 
Kritik  der  r€ininyernitiift,\\\ucb  is  a  sketch  of  the 
history  of  philosophy;  Der  Urnpruiui  dcr  .S/i/i/c/ie 
(1877)  :  Die  Dvpiicliiatur  dcr  Kuusulitat  (187())  ; 
and  Einlvitumi  tiiid  licyriindnng  einer  monis- 
tischen  Ericcniitnisthcoric   (1877). 

NOISSEVILLE,  nwiis'vel'.  A  village  of  Lor- 
raine, about  4  miles  east  of  >Ietz,  noted  as  the 
scene  of  a  battle  fouglit  between  the  'Frcneh  un- 
der Bazaine,  nuniberinj;  about  120.000  men,  and 
an  army  of  40.000  (iernians,  August  31-Septeni- 
ber  1,  i870.  Hoping  to  break  the  German  cor- 
don around  Met/,  and  etl'eet  a  junction  with  the 
army  of  MacMalion,  Hazaine  transported  his 
forces  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Moselle,  and  by 
a  fierce  attack  succeeded  in  taking  the  villages  of 
Jlontoy,  Courcy,  and  Servigny.  Tlie  Germans  ral- 
liixl  toward  the  evening  ami  recaiitured  Servigny. 
Fighting  was  resumed  on  the  following  day,  and 
resulted  in  the  retreat  of  the  French  across  the 
river. 

NOLA,  no'la.  A  city  in  the  Province  of  Ca- 
serta.  Italy,  l.i  miles  east-northeast  of  Naples  by 
rail  (Map:  Italy.  .J  7).  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop. 
The  cathedral,  dating  from  the  fifteenth  century, 
was  partly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1870.  The  semi- 
nary near  by  has  interesting  antique  inscriptions. 
The"  ancient  Nola  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Ro- 
man-i  in  the  Samnite  war,  li.c.  31.S.  The  town 
held  out  against  Hannibal  in  the  Second  Punic 
War.  Augustus  died  at  Xola  a.d.  14.  The  first 
bells  for  Christian  churches  are  said  to  have 
been  cast  here  in  the  fifth  century.  Numerous 
coins,  and  beautiful  vases  which  anciently  were 
made  here,  and  other  antiquities  have  been  found 
in  the  vicinitv.  Population  (commune) ,  in  1881, 
ll.n:il  :  in  lllOl,  14.t)-22. 

NOLDEKE,  nrl'd.-kf,  Tueodob  (IS.SG— ).  A 
distinguished  (ierman  Orientalist.  He  was  born 
in  Harburg  and  pursued  his  university  studies 
chiefly  at  Giittingen.  where  in  18(51  he  became 
privat-doeent.  In  1804  he  was  made  extraordi- 
nary professor  at  Kiel  and  in  1808  full  professor. 
In  1872  he  became  professor  of  Semitic  philology 
in  Strasslnirg.  Nrddeke  is  the  leading  authority 
in  general  Semitic  pliilolog\'.  Among  his  works 
may  be  mentioned  (Itucliiclih-  di's  Korans  (1800)  ; 
Das  Lehen  Molmmmrds  (1803);  Die  aUtcntii- 
meniUche  />i7(cr«f  !(r(  1808)  ;  (Irammatik  der  neii- 
suriachen  Uprache  (18(>8);  Unlcrstichungcn  ziir 
Kritik  des  ajtcn  Tcslnmciitii  (1800);  Die  In- 
schrift  des  Kiiiiifis  Mrsti  ro»  Moiih  (1870)  :  Mnn- 
diiischc  (Irammnlik  (1874)  ;  (Irschichte  d<r  I'cr- 
scr  inid  Arahcr  ziir  Zcit  dcr  ,^nsitniden  (187!l)  ; 
Kiirxficfnssfc  .si/iixr/ie  firiimmatik  (1880);  Die 
semiiischen  fljrrachcii  (1887);  Aufsiitze  zur  per- 
sisehen  Oeschichte  (1887):  Delectus  Vrtrrum 
Carminum  Arabicorum  (with  A.  Miiller,  1800)  : 
Orientnlische  Skizzeii  (1802).  He  wrote  besides 
several  humlrcd  contributions  to  enc\clopirdias 
and  magazines  and  many  valuable  reviews,  chief- 
ly in' the  organ  of  the  nriilsehe  morgenllindische 
Orsrlhehiifl  and  fjillcnirischcs  Ccnlralblalt. 

NOLHAC,  nATi'ik'.  Pierre  de  (18.5!)—).  A 
French  historian,  born  at  .Smbert.  Puyde-DAnie. 
He  received  bis  early  education  in  Paris,  and  was 
a  student  at  the  French  school  in  Rome  (1882- 
85).  On  his  return  he  received  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  letters  and  stinlied  at  the  Bibliotlii">que 
Nationale  for  a  year,  when  he  was  maile  professor 
at  the  Ecolc  des  Hautcs  Etudes.     His  contribu- 


tions to  the  history  of  Italian  literature  and  of 
the  French  Renaissance  are  specially  valuable. 
His  works  include:  Le  dernier  uiiujiir  dc  liunsard 
(1882),  an  edition  of  the  I.ettrcs  de  .Judeltiiu  du 
ISellay  (1883);  Le  "Vunzoniere"  autoyraphe  de 
Pelrur(juc  (1880);  La  bibliothiquc  de  Fiihio 
Orsini  (1887);  poems  entitled  I'uiisatjes  d'Au- 
vcrync  (1888)  ;  Erasme  en  Italic  (1888)  ;  Marie- 
Antuinette  (18'J0)  ;  Lc  ehiiteau  de  Versailles  sous 
Louis  XV.  (1898)  ;  and  Uisloire  du  chateau  dc 
Versailles  (1899).  In  1892  .M.  Nolhac  was  made 
dircctiu-  of  tlic  National  Museum  at  Versailles. 

NO'LI  ME  TAN'GERE(Lat.,  Touch  me  not). 
The  words  spoken  by  the  risen  Christ  to  Mary 
Magdalene,  used  as  the  title  of  a  luunber  of 
paintings,  including  those  by  Titian  in  llie  Na- 
tional Gallery,  London,  and  by  Rembrandt  in 
Buckingham  Palace. 

NOLL.     A  popular  name  for  Oliver  Cromwell. 

NOL'LEKENS,  Joseph  (1737-1823).  An 
English  si'ulplor.  He  was  born  in  London.  Au- 
gust 11,  1737,  tlie  son  of  a  painter.  In  1730  he 
studied  sculpture  with  Peter  Schcemakers.  and 
as  the  winner  of  several  prizes  oll'ercd  l)y  the 
Society  of  Arts,  was  enabled  in  1700  to  start  for 
Rome.  A  portrait  bust  of  G;irrick  was  followed 
liy  a  bust  of  Sterne  and  others.  While  at  Rome 
he  supported  himself  by  taking  active  part  in 
the  trallic  and  restoration  of  antiquities.  In 
1770  he  settled  in  London,  where  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1772.  His 
])ortrait  busts  are  "good  likenesses,  and  he  dis- 
played skill  in  the  treatment  of  his  draperies. 
His  portraits  include  busts  of  George  III.,  Prince 
and  Princess  of  Wales,  Duke  and  Ducliess  of 
York,  Oliver  Goldsmith,  Dr.  .lohnson,  and  War- 
ren Hastings,  the  statue  of  Pitt  in  Candjridge, 
the  sepulchral  monument  of  the  "Three  Cap- 
tains," Westminster  Abljey,  and  of  Mrs.  Howard, 
Corby  Oiurch,  Cumberland.  Of  his  ideal  statues 
the  most  jiopular  are  the  so-called  "V'enuses," 
the  best  of  which  are  "Venus  Cliiding  Cupid," 
"Venus  Anointing  Her  Hero,"  and  the  "Seated 
Venus,"  now  at  Petworth.  Nollekcns  died  in 
Lonilon.  April  23,  1S23. 

NOLTJE  PROS'EQUI  (Lat.,  will  not  prose- 
cute). An  entry  on  tlie  records  of  a  court  by  the 
public  prosecutor  in  a  <riminal  case,  or  the 
)daintitT  in  a  civil  action,  to  the  effect  that  the 
|)rocee<lings  against  the  defendant  shall  be  dis- 
continued!  This  method  of  terminating  legal 
proceedings  originated  in  F.ngland  during  the 
reign  of  Charles  IL.  and  seems  to  have  been 
devised  as  a  convenient  means  of  nullifying  cer- 
tain obnoxious  statutes,  by  thus  ending  any 
prosecution  under  them.  Tlie  practice  was  sub- 
sequentlv  adopted  into  the  civil  procedure  in 
England' to  enable  a  plaintiff  to  discontinue  his 
action,  but  it  was  later  suiierseded  by  the  com- 
mon-law nonsuit. 

In  the  United  States  to-day  Uie  practice  of 
entering  a  nolle  prosequi,  or  iiol.  ;n-o,s-..  as  it  is 
usually  called,  is  confinecl  almost  exclnsively  to 
criminal  procecilings.  The  right  to  thus  discon- 
tinue a  criminal  prosecution  is  a  iircrogative  of 
the  State,  ami  it  generally  rests  in  the  discretion 
of  the  prosecuting  officer  whether  to  exercise  it 
or  not:  but  where  the  case  has  proceedeil  to  trial, 
by  the  general  rule  he  should  make  a  motion  to 
the  court  for  leave  to  do  so.  A  noL  pros,  entered 
after  Hie  jury  has  been  sworn  and  trial  com- 
menced will  operate  as  an  acquittal  and  a  bar 


NOLLE  PROSEQUI. 


595 


NOME. 


to  any  futuio  indM-iuiiun  fur  tlip  ssnie  offense. 
(.Sec  Jeop.^hdy.)  L'luler  njoilfni  codes  of  civil 
procedure,  tlie  inetliod  of  abandoiiinf,'  lepal  pro- 
ceedings is  by  discontinuance,  or  by  allowinj;  a 
nonsuit ;  but  in  a  few  jurisdictions,  wliere  coni- 
mon-law  pleading  and  practice  still  obtains,  a 
nullc  prosequi  seems  to  be  a  permissible  way  of 
ending  an  action  on  tbe  part  of  the  plaintitl".  See 
Nonsuit;  Pleading;  1'I!a<jtice. 

NOMA.     See  Caxcrum  Ori.s. 

NOM'AD  (from  Lat.  nomas,  from  dk.  poyuds, 
roaming,  from  v^/ieiv,  nemciit,  to  pasture,  dis- 
tribute). A  term  primaril.y  applied  to  tliose  peo- 
ples whose  resources  were  cliielly  Hocks  and  herds. 
All  the  industries  and  conveniences  of  nomadic 
life  grow  out  of  this  one  fact.  Grass  and  water 
are  the  chief  essentials,  hence  nomads  dwell 
always  in  regions  where  pasture  is  the  best  and 
wat^r  is  not  far  to  seek.  Their  habitations  must 
admit  of  being  transported  from  place  to  place, 
and  hence  consist  of  tents;  their  furniture  is 
largely  of  skins;  they  clothe  themselves  in  hides 
and  woolen  cloth.  The  saddle  and  harness,  sleds 
and  wagons,  roads  and  land  commerce,  all  spring 
out  of  the  taming  of  horses,  asses,  cattle,  sheep, 
goats,  camels,  and  reindeer — the  characteristic 
wealth  of  nomadic  peoples. 

NOMA'DA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  vofxis.  Jiomas, 
roaming).  A  genus  of  bees  typical  of  the  family 
Nomadida^,  including  species  which  live  parasi- 
tically  in  the  nests  of  other  bees  and  are  called 
'cuckoo-bees.'  Often  there  is  enough  food  both 
for  the  larviP  of  the  cell-maker  and  the  larvse  of 
the  cuckoo-bee,  and  both  thrive  and  issue  simul- 
taneously as  adults.  The  larva  is  smooth,  taper- 
ing toward  each  end.  and  has  a  small  head.  The 
pupa  has  three  conspicuous  spines  on  the  upper 
and  posterior  edge  of  the  orbit,  which  seem  to 
aid  in  locomotion.     See  Cuckoo-Bee. 

NO  MAN'S  LAND.  (DA  region  170  miles 
in  lengtli  and  about  :i.5  in  width,  north  of  Texas, 
ceded  to  the  United  States  in  1850  and  made  a 
part  of  Oklahoma  in  1890.  Between  those  years 
the  district  was  under  no  form  of  government, 
and  became  a  resort  of  outlaws. 

(2)  A  narrow  district  on  the  line  between 
Delaware  and  Pennsylvania.  Although  it  is  held 
to  belong  to  Pennsylvania,  some  of  the  inhabit- 
ants perform  their  legal  obligations  in  Delaware, 
while  others  do  not  recognize  their  citizenship  in 
either  State. 

NOMARCHY,  ,,r  NOME.  The  largest  ad- 
ministrative division  of  Greece.  Since  1899  the 
nomarchies  have  numbered  twenty-six.  They  are 
subdivided  into  eparchies,  which  in  turn  are 
made  up  of  demarchies.  The  administration  of 
the-nomarchy  is  in  the  hands  of  a  nomareh.  ap- 
pointed by  the  Gnvernment  for  an  indefinite  term. 
His  duties  are  nuich  like  those  of  the  French 
prefect.  Like  him,  he  is  assisted  by  a  council 
elected  by  universal  suflrage,  but  for  a  fixed 
term.  The  eparchy  corresponds  to  the  French 
arrondissement  and  the  demarchy  to  the  com- 
minic. 

NOME  (Lat.  noiinis.  from  Ok.  fd/ios.  nomo.% 
province,  district,  from  viiuiv.  nemeiit,  to  pasture, 
distribute).  The  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to 
the  provinces  or  districts  into  which  Kg>'pt  was 
divided,  from  tlie  earliest  historical  period  down 
to  the  time  of  the  Roman  dominion.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  nomes  were  the  remains  of  small 


independent  States,  whicli  in  very  early  times 
were  united  under  a  single  monarchy.  Each 
nome  possessed  its  own  god  or  group  of  gods, 
worshiped  in  the  local  temple,  as  also  its  owa 
myths  and  religious  traditions.  The  government 
of  the  nome  was  a  copy,  in  miniature,  of  that 
of  the  State.  At  the  head  stood  the  nomareh, 
or  governor,  and  under  him  was  a  regular  grada- 
tion of  oHicials,  each  responsible  to  his  inunediate 
superior.  In  the  earlier  period,  each  nome  had 
its  own  treasury,  its  own  courts  of  justice,  and 
its  Own  military  establishment.  Under  the  feudal 
system  of  the  Middle  Empire,  the  nomarchs  were 
tile  heads  of  ancient  noble  families,  and  were 
])rompt  to  take  advant;ige  of  any  weakness  in 
tlie  Central  (iovernnient  to  make  themselves  prac- 
tically independent  ])rinccs.  The  old  nobility 
was.  however,  extinguished  in  the  Ilyksos  wars, 
and  from  the  time  of  the  Xew  Empire  the  nomes 
were  purely  ailministrative  districts  ruled  by 
royal  governors,  who  still  bore  the  title  of 
nomarchs.  In  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies  the 
chief  officer  of  the  nome  was  the  stratego.s,  under 
whom  the  nomareh  was  a  subordinate  official 
charged  with  supervising  the  collection  of  taxes 
and  other  financial  matters.  In  general  there 
were  some  42  nomes,  22  in  Upper  and  20  in 
Lower  Egs'pt,  but  the  number  was  not  invariable. 
So  far  as  is  at  present  known,  the  number  of 
the  nomes  never  fell  below  .'iO,  nor  exceeded  47. 
Consult:  Duemiclicn,  (I'lsriiichte  dcs  alien  Aegyp- 
tcns  (Berlin,  1878)  ;  Budge,  .1  History  of  Egypt 
(New  York,  1902)  ;  Brugsch,  (leoyrnphie  des 
alien  Aegyptens  (Leipzig,  1857);  Diciionnaire 
gcographiqne  dc  I'ancienne  Egypte  (Leipzig, 
1879-80)  ;  Egypt  Exploration  Fund,  An  Atlas  of 
Am'iciit   Egypt    (2d  ed.,  London,    1894). 

NOME.  A  term  used  in  the  ancient  Greek 
music  to  denote  any  melody  determined  by  in- 
violable rules. 

NOME,  nom.  The  largest  city  of  Alaska,  in 
the  Northern  District;  situated  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Snake  River,  13  miles  west  of  Cape  Nome, 
on  the  north  shore  of  Norton  Sound,  Bering 
Sea  (ilap:  Alaska,  C  3).  It  is  the  centre  of 
the  productive  Cape  Nome  gold-mining  district, 
which  extends  west  along  the  coast  for  about 
20  miles  from  Cape  Nome.  In  the  fall  of  1898 
the  small  streams  in  the  vicinity  were  prospected 
with  promising  results,  and  in  the  following 
summer  the  creek  diggings  were  being  actively 
operated  when  the  news  of  the  ricli  beacli  de- 
posits, first  discovered  in  January,  1899,  though 
their  importance  remained  unrecognized  until 
.July,  caused  a  rush  to  the  beach,  where  about 
2000  men  were  working  bv  October.  The  nutjiut 
of  the  district  for  1900  was  more  than  .$5,000,000, 
and  in  1901  it  was  estimated  at  .$7,000,000,  Dur- 
ing this  period  a  'mushroom'  settlement  of  tents, 
first  called  Anvil  City,  had  spr\mg  up.  This 
town  was  gradually  replaced  by  a  iicrmancnt 
city  of  frame  structures  after  the  arrival  in  June, 
1899,  of  the  first  consignment  of  lumber.  In 
the  early  days  the  matter  of  food  and  fuel  sup- 
))lies  was  a  source  of  great  anxiety;  and  the 
unsanitary  conditions  due  to  the  level  and  iin- 
draincd  site  of  the  town,  its  scanty  water-supply, 
and  the  climatic  changes  resulted  in  considerable 
sickness.  There  now  exists  a  fully  organized 
city,  compactly  built  nver  half  of  its  lengtli  along 
the  beach,  with  a  municipal  government,  fire  and 
police  departments,  sewerage,  water,  and  electric- 


NOUE. 


596 


NOMOCANON. 


light  systems,  telephone  service,  etc. ;  and  with 
a  number  of  substantial  coniniercial  buildings, 
banks,  coniniercial  organizations,  a  court  house, 
and  a  post  ollice,  hospitals,  clubs,  cte.  A  rail- 
road extends  from  the  coast  to  the  mining  claims 
at  the  foot-hills  of  the  mountains.  Population, 
in  I'JOO,  12,488. 

NOME,  C'.\PE.    See  Cape  Nome. 

NOMENCLATUBE,   Scientific.     See  Clas- 

SIFK  ATIU.N   OF  A.MMALS. 

NOMINALISM  (from  nominal,  from  Lat. 
nomiiKiHs.  relating  to  names,  from  noinen,  name: 
connccte<l  with  Gk.  6miui,  onoma,  Skt.  nainaii, 
OChurcli  Slav,  iiiie,  Olr.  uiitin,  tiuth.  namO,  OHG. 
namo,  Ger.  yaiiic,  AS.  luiinti.  Kiig.  ikiihc).  Tlie 
philosophical  theory  that  only  indiviihial  olijects 
have  real  existence,  and  that  so-called  universals 
(see  .Tl"i)(;.MK\T)  are  nothing  but  names  given  in 
common  to  actually  different  and  incommunicable 
objects.  These  names  were  considered  as  nolliing 
but  so  much  breath  {flaliis  vocis) ,  without  in- 
dicating any  real  identity  in  the  objects  sharing 
in  identical  names.  This  view  was  an  extreme 
development  of  the  Aristotelian  doctrine  that  all 
reality  is  individual,  and  that  universals  have 
existence  onl.v  in  individual  objects;  and  it  was 
called  forth  by  the  extreme  Xeo-1'latonism  of 
Krigena,  who  maintained  that  universals  have 
an  existence  prior  to  particulars  and  individuals, 
and  that  the  process  of  creation  is  only  the 
progressive,  logical  diflVrenliation  of  the  uni- 
ver.sal.  This  Xeo-Platonic  view  of  the  relation 
of  the  universal  and  tlie  particular  is  called 
realimii,  and  was  advocated  by  Bernard  of 
Chartres.  (iuillaume  de  Champeaux  (q.v.),  and 
Walter  of  Mortagne.  Xoniinalisni,  on  the  con- 
trary, was  maintained  bv  Koseelinus  (q.v.).  Alie- 
lard  represented  a  moditled  nominalism  in  main- 
taining that  the  universal  is  not  a  real  objective 
existence,  nor.  on  the  contrary,  a  mere  word 
(fox),  but  the  meaning  of  the  word.  This  view, 
which  is  called  scrmonism  (from  sermo,  which 
in  scholastic  Latin  meant  'predicate'),  is  a  type 
of  conce]ituali>m  (q-v.)  peculiar  to  .■Mx'dard.  and 
is  to  l)e  distinguished  frimi  other  forms  of  con- 
ceptualistic  doctrine  in  tliat  it  did  not  point 
expressly  to  the  fact  that  meanings  arc  mental 
facts.  \Vith  -Xbi'lard  meanings  seemed  to  reside 
in  words,  not  as  wnrdn.  but  as  predicates  of  prop- 
ositions. The  Arabian  philosophei's.  and  especially 
Avicenna  (q.v.),  succeeded  in  meiliating  between 
nominalism  and  realism  by  maintaining  that 
universals  are  before  individuals  (realism)  in  the 
mind  of  (Jod.  in  individuals  (.\ristotelianism)  as' 
their  developed  essence,  and  after  individuals 
(nominalism)  in  human  minds  ( concept  ualism ) . 
This  was  the  view  a(l(q)teil  l)y  Thomas  .\(|uinas 
(q.v.)  in  his  s.vstem  and  so  incorporated  in  the 
received  philosophy  of  the  Koman  Church.  N'omi- 
nalism  received  its  last  strong  support  in  the 
teaching  of  William  of  Occam  (q.v.)  in  the  four- 
teenth century:  but  the  inllnence  of  this  revival 
was  transitory,  coining  as  it  did  upon  the  eve 
of  the  Renaissance  anil  the  general  decline  of 
interest  in  scholastic  ]>rohlems.  See  LJhve,  Di-r 
Kiinipf  zirixchrn  Sowiiinlixmu/i  und  Itralixmus 
ill!  Millrlnllcr:  siiii  I'rspriiiiii  untl  xrin  yrrlanf 
I  Prague.  ISTfi)  ;  also  the  histories  of  philcjsophy 
by  Ueberweglleinze,  Windelband,  Erdnmnn. 

NOMINATION  (Lat.  nominnlio,  from  nnmi- 
Ufitf,  to  name,  from  nomen,  name).     In  politics. 


the  formal  selection  and  presentation  of  a  can- 
didate for  an  elective  ollice.  In  the  United  States, 
before  the  development  of  political  parties,  can- 
didates for  ollice  were  frequently  noniinated  at 
private  conferences  or  caucuse.-  of  the  leading 
citizens  of  the  community.  Sometimes  no  formal 
nominations  were  made,  and  candidates  were 
self-announced.  By  1800  parties  were  fairly 
well  organized,  and  the  necessity  arose  of  devis- 
ing some  means  of  selecting  the  candidates  for 
oltices.  In  national  elections  this  was  sup|ilied 
liy  the  Congressional  caucus,  which  assumed  the 
riglit  of  choosing  Presidential  and  \'ice- Presi- 
dential candidates,  and  of  determining  the  policy 
of  tlie  party.  (See  Cauci'.S;  Co.nvention.)  This 
method  lasted  until  1824.  With  the  comnuiice- 
ment  of  the  revolt  against  the  Congressional  cau- 
cus several  other  temporary  methods  of  nomina- 
tion sprang  into  existence.  These  were  nomina- 
tion by  the  State  legislatures. as  a  whole,  nomina- 
tion bv  party  caucuses  of  the  State  legislatures, 
nomination  by  State  conventions,  and  nomination 
by  public  meetings.  All  these  proved  to  be  in- 
elfectual  and  were  superseded  bv  the  method  of 
national  convention,  which  came  pcnnanentlv 
into  existence  between  18S0  and  1840,  the  lirst 
such  convention  being  that  of  tlie  Anti-Masonic 
Party  in  1832.  This  has  continued  to  be  the  ac- 
ce]ited  method  of  nominating  candidates  for 
President  and  Vice-President.  Generallv  the 
choice  of  the  convention  is  determined  by  the 
votes  of  a  majority  of  the  delegates;  but  in  the 
case  of  the  Democratic  Party  a  two-thirds  vote 
is  nccessar.y  for  a  choice.  In  tlic  nomination  of 
State  and  local  officers  the  convention  has  also 
come  to  be  the  recognized  niethod,  although  in 
case  of  some  of  the  minor  ollices  ninuiuations  are 
frequently  made  directly  by  the  party  voters  in 
the  so-called  primary  elections.  The  national 
nominating  convention  consists  of  a  certain  num- 
ber of  delegates  from  each  State,  while  local  con- 
venticms  are  made  up  of  delegates  representing 
the  several  local  units  of  the  electoral  district, 
the  principle  of  representation  according  to  the 
total  population  prevailing  in  both  eases.  Excep- 
tions to  the  general  rule  that  eandiihites  for  pub- 
lic ollice  are  nominated  liv  delegate  convention  are, 
first,  the  old  English  niethoil  of  self-announce- 
ment, which  exists  in  communities  like  some  of 
the  Southern  States,  where  practically  only  one 
political  party  exists,  and  where  the  success 
of  the  part.y  is  not  endangered  by  a  multiplicity 
of  canilidates;  second,  the  methoil  of  nomination 
by  primary  election,  where  the  individual  voters 
directly  select  the  candidate  without  the  inter- 
vention of  a  ccmvention;  and.  thinl,  tlie  niethod 
of  nomination  by  petition,  according  to  which 
the  candidate  may  be  put  forward  by  filing  with 
tlie  proper  officer  a  paper  signed  by  a  certain 
specified  number  of  qualified  voters.  In  those 
l)arts  of  the  country  where  the  New  England 
town  meeting  exists,  local  candidates  are  fre- 
quently put  in  nomination  by  that  assembly. 
In  the  cities  local  elective  officers  are  almost 
invariably  nominated  by  primary  caucus  or  dele- 
gate conventions.  Consult  Dallinger.  \omiiia- 
lioii.i  for  I'Acctirr  Office  in  Ihr  United  f!l<itPS 
( N'ew  York,  1807);  Brj'ce,  .InjcricaM  Common- 
iri'iillh.  vid.  ii..  chap.  Ixix. 

NOMINATIVE  CASE.     Sec   Declension. 
NOMOCANON    (Gk.    w^xdi-ui.,     nnmohinAn, 
from    liuot.     iiiiiiios,   law   -|-  xanii/,    kanon,   rule, 


i 


NOMOCANON. 


597 


NONCONFORMISTS. 


canon).  In  the  Greek  1  lunch,  the  collection 
,.1  ecclesiastical  laws,  both  those  pioceediiig  from 
ihe  Cnureh  (caiionts)  ami  those  from  the  Slate 
iHOmoi).  The  first  collection  was  made  in  the 
■•ixth  century,  but  the  most  important  in  the 
fourteenth,  the  so-called  iiyntagma. 

NO  NAME.  A  novel  by  Wilkie  Collins 
I  1S(12).  It  is  the  story  of  a  prosperous  Eiifjlish 
lamily,  but  it  turns  out  that  the  i)arents  have 
not  bi-cn  married.  That  having  lie<>ii  linally  done, 
before  a  new  will  can  be  drawn  up,  the  father  is 
killed  by  accident,  the  mother  dies,  and  the  ille- 
fiitimatc  daughters  are  left  destitute,  in  sjiite  of 
their  father's  wealth.  The  purjiose  is  to  show  the 
evils  resulting  from  the  Knglish  law  on  such 
cases. 

NON-COMBATANTS  (in  War).  Officers 
and  men  charged  with  the  administrative  duties 
of  the  military  or  naval  services,  who  do  not  fight 
excc]it   in  self-defense. 

NON-COMMISSIONED  OFFICER.  A  sol- 
dier holding  a  rank  intermediate  between  that 
of  the  enlisted  man  or  private  soldier  and  the 
commissioned  officer.  The  following  classifica- 
tion gives  the  various  non-commissioned  grades 
of  the  United  States  Army  in  the  order  of  their 
j)recedence:  ( 1 )  Sergeant-major,  regimental,  and 
sergeant-major,  senior  grade,  artillery  corps; 
(2)  quartermaster-sergeant,  regimental;  (3) 
commissary-sergeant,  regimental;  (4)  ordnance 
sergeant,  post-commissary-sergeant,  post-quarter- 
master-sergeant.  electrician  sergeant,  hospital 
steward,  first-class  sergeant  signal  corps,  chief 
musician,  chief  trumpeter,  and  principal  mu- 
sician; (5)  squadron  and  battalion  sergeant- 
major,  and  sergeant-major,  junior  grade,  artillery 
corps;  (6)  first  sergeant  and  drum-major:  (7) 
sergeant  and  acting  hospital  steward:  (S)  cor- 
poral. In  each  grade,  date  of  appointment  deter- 
mines the  order  of  precedence.  See  Corporal; 
Sekge.\xt;  Staff. 

The  non-commissioned  officer  of  to-day  must 
possess  the  ability  to  assume  executive  command 
in  any  emergency  demanding  prompt  action  and 
tactical  ability;  consequently  only  the  most  in- 
telligent of  the  enlisted  men  are  selected  for 
promotion.  United  States  Army  regulations  per- 
mit a  certain  proportion  of  non-commissioned 
officers  to  obtain  commissions  annually,  and  in 
other  ways  make  tlie  rank  \ery  desiral)le.  In 
the  English  army,  except  in  rare  instances, 
social  conditions  preclude  the  possibility  of 
any  non-conunissioned  officer  of  humble  birth 
attaining  the  commissioned  rank  as  a  combatant 
officer:  for  although  commissions  are  granted  as 
quartermasters,  riding  masters,  and  occasionally 
as  officers  in  certain  divisions  of  the  artillei-y 
and  in  the  engineers,  tliey  are  only  given  after 
a  lifetime  of  service,  and  are  to  all  intents  and 
purposes  honorary  positions.  During  the  Boer 
\\'ar  of  lSnn-1902  the  heavy  casualties  among 
olhccrs  made  it  necessary  in  many  instances  to 
admit  qualified  non-commissioned  officers  to  the 
conunissioned  ranks,  apart  from  any  family  or 
social  consideration — and  it  is  expected  that  this 
initiative  will  lead  to  an  order  of  things 
similar  to  that  of  the  United  States  Army.  In 
Italy  nearly  one-third  of  the  officers  of  each  arm 
of  the  service  are  taken  from  the  non-commi*- 
.sioned  ranks.  (See  Military  Education.)  The 
German   army  system,   as   also   that   of   France, 


makes  special  provision  for  the  training  of  non- 
conuni.ssioned   officers. 

NON  COMPOS  MENTIS  (Lat.,  not  having 
]iowcr  over  the  mind  I.  A  legal  term  for  lunacy. 
See  Ix.sAMTY. 

NONCONFORMISTS  ( from  iioii-,  not  +  con- 
formist, from  Lat.  conformis,  similar,  from  co»i-, 
together  +  forma,  form).  A  name  given  gen- 
erally to  those  who  do  not  conform  to  the 
religion  of  an  established  Church.  The  most  fre- 
quent use  of  the  word,  however,  is  in  relation 
to  those  who  at  any  period  in  English  history 
since  the  Reformation  have  refused  to  conform 
to  the  doctrines  and  ])ractices  of  the  Church  of 
England;  though  even  here,  in  ordinary  usage,  it 
designates  only  Protestant  dissenters.  The  unifi- 
cation of  the  English  Xoneonformists,  in  spite 
of  their  varying  beliefs,  as  one  body  over  against 
the  Established  Church  practically  dates  from 
the  repressive  measures  enacted  soon  after  the 
Restoration  in  the  first  flush  of  reactionary  zeal. 
The  Act  of  Uniformity,  requiring  assent  from  all 
clergv'men  to  everything  contained  in  the  Prayer- 
Book,  drove  out  nearly  2000  of  them,  or  about 
one-fifth  of  the  whole  number  of  clerg>' :  these 
were  the  first  to  be  formally  known  as  Xoncon- 
formists.  In  the  place  of  Puritanism,  now  ex- 
tinct, came  political  nonconformity,  which  has 
since  had  its  seat  principally  in  the  middle  or 
lower-middle  classes  of  Enghuul,  and  whose  in- 
cessant efl'orts  have  by  this  time  succeeded  in 
depriving  the  Church  of  England  of  most  of  its 
exclusive  privileges.  The  Act  of  Uniformity  was 
followed  by  the  Corporation  Act,  which  attacked 
the  dissenters  in  one  of  their  strongholds;  the 
Conventicle  Act,  which  prevented  their  gathering 
in  any  number;  and  the  Five  Mile  Act,  whose 
result  was  in  many  places  to  deprive  them  of 
religious  teaching  of  their  own  sort. 

The  next  epoch-making  date  is  that  of  the 
Toleration  Act  of  1080,  which,  while  it  only 
rela.xed  and  did  not  repeal  the  penal  statutes, 
was  at  the  time  regarded  as  a  great  charter  of 
religious  liberty.  Xonconformists  acquired  legal 
security  for  their  chapels  and  funds,  with  some- 
thing approaching  a  clerical  status  for  their 
ministers.  But  its  policy  of  grudging  and  par- 
tial indulgence  perpetuated  the  division  of  the 
'  nation  into  two  more  or  less  hostile  bodies  of 
Churchmen  and  Dissenters.  Niggardl.v  as  it  was, 
it  recognized  dissent,  and  shook  (he  belief  that 
the  State  was  bound  to  provide  all  its  members 
with  a  religion  and  to  force  it,  if  necessary, 
upon  their  acceptance. 

The  history  of  the  nineteenth  century,  or  at 
least  the  last  two-thirds  of  it,  is  that  of  a  per- 
tinacious struggle  for  further  recognition  on  the 
])art  of  the  Nonconformists,  crowned  with  con- 
siderable success — though  the  great  object  of 
political  nonconformity,  the  disestablishment  of 
the  Church  of  England,  seems  further  off  than 
it  was.  In  183G  Dissenters  were  allowed  to  be 
married  by  their  own  ministers  and  rites;  the 
commutation  of  tithes  (q.v.)  into  a  rent-charge 
rendered  their  collection  less  odious;  registra- 
tion of  births,  deaths,  and  marriages  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  Church  to  the  State :  and  a 
charter  was  given  to  the  free  I'niversity  of  Lon- 
don, which  imposed  no  religious  tests.  Perhaps 
the  most  important  of  the  later  gains  of  non- 
conformity have  been  in  the  department  of  educa- 
tion—the great  universities  having  been  thrown 


NONCONFORMISTS. 


598 


NONSUIT. 


open  to  its  younj;  men  in  1871.  ;iihI  a  system  of 
State  schools  reiuleriiig  them  iiulcpendent  uf  the 
Church  for  primary  eilucatioii.  The  Burials  Act 
of  1880,  allowing  ttieir  ministers  access  to  the 
churchyards  for  funerals,  was  another  conces- 
sion tliat  had  been  loudly  demanded  by  tliem. 
Generally  of  an  aggressive  liberal  type  in  politics, 
and  still  smarting  under  a  sense  of  social  in- 
feriority, they  form  a  compact  body  of  no  small 
political  power.  See  Establishments,  Eccle- 
siASTifAL;   Liberty,  Religious. 

NON-EFFECTIVE.  Tliis  term  in  its  mili- 
tary sunsi;  api>lics  lo  all  ollicers  or  men  not  avail- 
able for  etl'ective  service.  Retired  or  half-pay 
officers,  pensioners,  deserters,  sick  or  wounded, 
and  those  held  prisoner  by  an  enemy  are  rejjorteil 
as  nonelVectivcs. 

NONES.     S<'<.   Kalends. 

NON-EUCLIDEAN  GEOMETRY.  See 
Geometiiv. 

NONFEASANCE  (from  non-.  not  -|-  fea- 
sance, deed,  from  Fr.  faisant,  pros.  part,  of  faire, 
from  Lat.  facere,  to  do,  make).  The  omission  to 
do  an  act  which  one  is  under  a  legal  obligation 
to  do.  It  is  the  view  of  some  writers  that  non- 
feasance never  amounts  to  a  tort  (q.v. );  that 
to  avoid  committing  a  tort  one  need  only  to  for- 
bear to  act.  But  this  is  clearly  erroneous:  as.  if 
an  owner  of  a  facttuy  fails  to  comply  with 
a  law  requiring  him  to  equip  it  with  fire-escapes, 
in  case  of  fire  he  is  liable  in  damages  to  the 
per.son  burned.     His  nonfeasance  is  a  tort. 

The  term  is  frequently  used  in  connection  with 
the  liability  of  an  agent  or  servant  to  third 
persons.  The  owner  of  property  employs  an 
agent  to  manage  it  and  keep  it  in  proper  re))air. 
The  agent  omits  to  make  repairs.  Clearly  he  has 
violated  his  contract  with  his  principal,  who 
may  call  him  to  acccuuit  therefor;  but  the  weight 
of  judicial  authority  in  this  country  holds  there 
is  no  privity  between  the  agent  and  a  third 
person,  and  that  in  such  a  case  there  must  be 
misfeasance  or  nuilfeasance  by  the  agent  to 
render  him  liable.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has 
been  held  by  a  number  of  courts  that  the  agent 
is  liable  to  the  injured  person.  His  liability 
should  be  determineil  by  the  rules  applicable  to 
negligence  (q.v).  not  by  a  dictum  of  two  hun- 
dred years,  although  its  author  was  the  distin- 
guished Lord  Chief  .Tustice  Holt  (q.v.),  that 
"a  servant  or  deputy  cannot  be  charged  for  non- 
feasance, but  for  a  misfeasance  an  action  will 
lie  against  him."  Consult:  .Tagganl,  lldiiilHunh 
of  the  Law  of  Tnrts  (Saint  Paiil,  ISflf.)  ;  HulTcut, 
Thr  I, (lit-  "f  Afiniri/    (Boston,   lillH). 

NO'NIUS.     See  Vernier. 

NO'NIUS  MARCEL'LUS.  .\  Latin  gramma- 
rian, born  at  TlMilnn^ic-um  N'limidaruni,  in 
Africa,  at  the  lM>ginning  of  the  fourth  century 
A.».  iiis  wfirk  entitled  Dc  Compendiosa  Doc- 
trina  consisted  originally  of  twenty  books,  of 
which  the  sixteentli  is  now  lost,  and  was  in- 
fended  as  a  book  of  referi'nce  on  points  of  lexi- 
cography, grammar,  ami  antiipiities.  Though  it 
shows  little  critical  sagacity,  the  work  is  valued 
for  its  citations  from  the  lost  authors,  particu- 
larly of  the  archaic  period.  There  are  editions 
hyMercier  (Paris.  1.58.'}:  reprinted  lS2t!),  by 
Quieherat  (Paris,  1871),  and  by  L.  Milller  (I^eip- 
zig,  188S).  Consult  also  Nettleship,  Kssai/a  in 
Latin  lAtcrature   (London,  1885). 


NON-JUROR,  The.  A  comedy  by  Colley 
Ciblier,  produced  in  1717.  It  was  adapted  from 
-Molifre's  Tartiife.  Tartufe,  transformed  into 
an  English  Catholic  priest,  tampers  with  the 
loyalty  of  an  English  gentleman.  It  gained  for 
Cibbcr  much  favor  from  the  ILanoverian  party. 

NONJURORS  (from  non-,  not  -f  juror,  from 
Lat.  jurator,  swearer,  from  jurarc,  to  swear, 
from  jus,  law,  right).  The  name  given  to  those 
clergy  of  the  Church  of  England  who  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  William  and 
Mary,  believing  themselves  still  bound  by  their 
allegiance  to  James  IL  They  had  been  avowed 
champions  of  the  doctrine  of  passive  obedience 
on  the  part  of  subjects  toward  kings;  indeed. 
Lake,  Bishop  of  Chichester,  said  on  his  deatblied 
that  he  looked  on  the  doctrine  as  the  distinguisli- 
ing  character  of  the  Cluirch  of  England,  for 
which  he  would  lay  down  his  life.  The  House 
of  Commons  allowed  the  clergy  six  months  longer 
than  the  laity  to  take  the  oath.  Saneroft, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  with  seven  bishops 
and  about  400  other  clergy,  refused  it,  and  were 
deprived  of  their  sees  and  benefices.  The  most 
distinguished  of  the  Nonjurors  was  the  saintly 
Bishop  Ken:  the  scholars  Hiekes  and  Dodwcll 
were  also  Nonjurors.  Tliey  treated  all  who  took 
the  oath  as  schismatics,  and  themselves  and  their 
adherents  as  the  only  true  members  of  the  Church 
of  England,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  draw 
up  a  new  liturg>'  of  their  own.  Their  organiza- 
tion, unsubstantial  as  it  was.  lingered  for  over 
a  century,  its  last  bishop  dying  in  1805.  Two 
of  the  early  missionaries  in  America.  Welton 
and  Talbot,  were  said  to  have  received  episcopal 
consecration  from  them,  and  there  is  evidence 
that  the  latter  occasionally  exercised  episcopal 
functions  in  the  United  States  half  a  century 
liefore  Bishop  Seabury's  consecration.  Consult 
Lathbury.  Ilistori/  of  the  Xnnjiirors  (London, 
1845),  a  careful  work,  as  far  as  it  goes,  supple- 
mented rather  than  superseded  In'  the  most  recent 
authority.  Overton,  The  Xonjurors   (ib..  lOO^). 

NON'NUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Sovvos,  Xonnos). 
A  Greek  poet  of  Panopolis,  in  Egypt,  probal)ly 
of  the  fifth  century  A.n.  While  a  pagan  he  wrote 
a  vast  epic,  preserved  under  the  name  of  Dion;/- 
siaca  (AionxrmKd)  in  forty-eight  books.  Though 
somewhat  bond)astic  in  style,  the  work  is  not 
without  poetic  s]>irit,  and  is  one  of  the  chii'f 
sources  of  information  on  the  growth  and  de- 
velopment of  the  Uionysiac  cycle  of  myths.  After 
adojiting  Christianity,  he  nia<le  a  paraphrase 
of  the  Gospel  of  Saint  .John  in  Greek  hexameters. 
The  l)est  editions  of  the  Dioniixinca  are  tho.se  of 
Graefe  (Leipzig,  1819-20)  and  Kiichly  (ib., 
1858).  The  paraphrase  has  been  edited  by  Pas- 
sow  (Leipzig,  1834),  Consult:  Kiihier,  Uclnrilie 
Dioni/siaka  drs  A'oiihi/.s  (Halle.  1853)  ;  and  Liul- 
wich.  licitniqc  zur  Krilik  des  yonniix  (Kiinigs- 
berg,  187.?),' 

NONPAREIL,    See  Printing. 

NONSUIT.  The  termination  of  an  action  by 
entry  of  judgment  against  the  plnintifT  upon  his 
failure  to  ap]>ear  or  prosecute  the  action,  or 
liccaiHe  of  his  inability  to  sustain  his  ca-^e  .it 
the  trial,  in  consequence  of  which  the  action  is 
eniled  without  a  determination  of  the  merits. 
I'nder  the  early  system  of  conunon-law  practice 
a  nonsuit  was  entered  only  on  motion  of  the 
defendant  when  the  plaintilT  was  in  default  in 
prosecuting  his  action,  and  if  the  latter  wished 


NONSUIT. 


599 


NOBDATJ. 


to  end  the  suit,  he  was  obliged  to  resort  to  the 
procedure  known  as  nolle  prosequi  or  retraxit. 
H<iwi'ver.  in  modern  comnion  law  procedure,  a 
plaintiir  is  sometinii's  allowed  to  end  his  action 
by  nonsuit,  in  the  discretion  of  the  court,  and 
usually  upon  payment  of  costs.  Under  the 
various  codes  of  procedure  at  the  present  time, 
tlie  same  result  is  efl'ected  by  a  discontinuance. 
Where  the  plaintill'  fails  to  introduce  sullicicnt 
evidence  to  make  out  a  prima  facie  ease,  in  many 
jurisdictions  a  nonsuit  may  be  ordered  by  the 
court  before  the  defendant  has  introduced  any 
testimony  whatever.  But  wliere  the  plaintill 
does  make  out  a  prima  facie  ease,  even  though 
the  defendant's  evidence  appeans  to  the  court 
to  disprove  conclusively  the  truth  of  the  testi- 
mony introduced  by  the  plaintill'.  tlie  court  cannot 
allow  a  nonsuit,  against  the  objection  of  the 
plaintill',  as  the  latter  is  entitled  to  have  the 
facts  of  his  case  determined  by  a  jury. 

A  nonsuit  ditTer.s  from  a  ''dismissal"  of  the  com- 
lilaint  or  declaration,  only  in  that  the  latter  is  a 
broader  term  and  may  involve  a  determination 
of  the  merits  of  the  action.  A  direction  of  ver- 
dict is  also  distinguishable  from  a  nonsuit  be- 
cause it  involves  tlie  merits  of  the  controversy. 
It  is,  therefore,  important  whether  an  action  is 
terminated  by  dismissal  on  the  merits,  verdict, 
or  direction  of  verdict,  in  which  cases  the  party 
against  whom  the  court  decides  must  appeal  if 
he  thinks  the  judgment  erroneous;  or  whether 
a  nonsuit  is  entered,  as  in  the  latter  case  the 
plaintiff  can  immediately  commence  a  new  action 
on  the  same  state  of  facts.  See  Action  ;  Judg- 
iiext;  Appeal;  Nolle  Prosequi ;  Verdict.  Con- 
sult the  authorities  referred  to  under  Practice. 

NOOTKA,  noot'ka.  A  name  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  a  group  of  closely  related  tribes  of 
\Vakashan  stock  (q.v. ),  occupying  the  west  coast 
of  Vancouver  Island,  southern  British  Columbia, 
and  including  also  the  JIakaw  (q.v.),  who  have 
conquered  for  themselves  a  territory  upon  the 
opposite  coast  of  Washington.  From  their  fre- 
quent repetition  of  the  word  icakash,  'good,' 
Vancouver  in  1792  called  them  Wakash  Indians, 
whence  their  stock-name  Wakashan  is  derived. 
They  are  also  frequently  known  as  Aht,  from 
the  termination  of  the  tribal  names.  The  official 
Canadian  report  distinguishes  eighteen  tribes, 
but  Boas  counts  twenty-two,  including  the 
Makaw.  Those  under  Canadian  jurisdiction  have 
decreased  from  :!l(iO  in  1S88  to  about  •2(100  at 
present,  of  whom  liiOO  are  professedly  Christians 
of  various  denominations,  the  others  retaining 
their  ancient  forms.  For  general  characteristics 
ami  cus((.nn.  sec  Wakashan  Stock. 

NOOTKA  SOUND.  An  inlet  on  the  west 
I  iiast  of  Vancouver  Island,  British  North 
America,  in  latitude  40°  35'  N..  longitude 
1-20°  34'  W.  (Map:  British  Columbia,  D  5). 
Its  entrance  is  ])rotected  by  an  island  of  the 
same  name,  and  the  Sound  can  be  entered  on 
both  sides  of  the  island.  It  extends  inland  for 
ten  miles  in  a  north-northeast  direction,  and 
all'nrds  good  anchorage.  According  to  some 
writers,  the  Sound  \v;is  discovered  by  the  Span- 
iard Don  .Juan  Perez,  in  1774 ;  according  to 
others,  by  the  English  navigator  Cajit.  .James 
Cook,  in  i778.  In  17HS  Capt.  .lohn  Meares  estab- 
lished an  English  settlement  on  the  coast,  which, 
however,  in  the  following  year  was  broken  up 
by  the  Spaniards,  who  at  the  same  time  captured 


several  British  vessels  in  the  Sound.  War  for 
a  time  seemed  inuninent,  but  Spain  finally  agreed 
in  1700  to  restore  the  property  of  British  citizens 
and  make  due  restitution. 

NOK'BERT,    Saint.      See    Peemonstbaten- 

.SLV.NS. 

NORD,  nor.  The  most  northerly  department 
of  France.  It  is  conterminous  with  the  former 
Province  of  Flandre  (French  Flanders),  and 
stretches  along  the  Belgian  frontier,  with  a 
shore  line  on  tlie  North  Sea  (Map;  France,  J  1). 
Area.  '2228  square  miles.  It  is  well  watered, 
exceedingly  fertile,  and  well  cultivated,  being  one 
of  the  luost  densely  populate<l  departments  of 
France.  The  chief  agricultural  products  are 
wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  and  sugar  beets.  Stock- 
raising  and  fisheries  are  important,  and  the  de- 
partment is  very  rich  in  coal  deposits.  The 
Nord  i.s  also  one  of  the  foremost  industrial  de- 
partments, producing  machinery,  textiles,  porce- 
lain, glass,  chemicals,  and  sugar.  The  chief  of 
its  many  large  cities  are  Lille,  the  capital,  Dun- 
kirk, Roubaix,  and  Valenciennes.  Population,  in 
ISOl.   1,7.S0.341;   in   1001,   l,8G(i,9!)4. 

NORDAU,  nor'dou.  Max  Simon  (1849—). 
A  German  author,  pathological  critic  of  literature 
and  of  morals,  and  a  prominent  leader  in  the 
Zionist  movement  in  Europe.  He  was  born  in  . 
Budapest  of  an  educated  Jewish  family;  studied 
medicine  in  the  university  of  that  city,  getting 
his  degree  in  1872,  and  after  six  years  of 
travel  throughout  Europe  practiced  in  his  native 
town  for  two  years.  His  earlier  writings,  chiefly 
for  newspapers  and  .showing  .something  of  his  later 
censorious  manner,  were  reprinted  under  the 
titles.  Alls  deiii  imhren  Milliardciiland  (1878); 
Torn  Kreml  ziir  Alhamhra  (1880);  and  Paris 
wiier  dcr  driltcn  Rcpuhlik  (1881).  Two  years 
(1880-82)  were  spent  in  further  medical  study 
in  Paris,  where  Nordau  established  himself  in 
practice.  In  France  and  Germany  his  literary 
reputation  began  with  Konventionelle  Liigen 
der  Kiillurmenschhcil  (1884;  French  trans. 
1880;  Eng.,  2d  ed.  1805),  a  bold  attack  on  the 
ethics  of  modern  civilization  in  general,  with 
particular  treatment  of  the  'religious  lie,'  or 
false  reverence  for  the  Bible ;  of  the  'govern- 
mental lie,'  or  the  falsity  of  monarchy  and 
aristocracy;  of  the  'economic  lie.'  or  the  untruth 
of  our  social  sv'stem ;  of  the  'social  lie,'  urging 
the  falsity  of  conventional  marriage  laws,  and 
not,  as  some  of  his  critics  have  urged,  a  frenzied 
treatise  against  the  white  lies  of  society.  In 
the  same  spirit  was  Panidoxe  (1885;  7th  ed. 
1901  ;  French  trans.  ISOfi;  and  in  English,  1895), 
ironic  rather  tliaii  pessimistic  in  tone.  Nordau's 
fame  in  England  and  America  rests  almost  en- 
tirely (unfortunately)  on  the  third  of  his  satiric 
works.  Dcricneration  (1893),  from  the  German 
Entartiaifi.  a  vigorous  polemic  against  vice  or 
abnormality,  and  a  eulogium  of  decency  in 
literature  and  art,  at  times  apjiroaching  prudery. 
The  work  was  dedicated  to  Cesare  Lombro.so, 
and,  like  the  studies  of  that  alieni.st,  has  for 
its  theme  the  relation  between  genius  and  de- 
generacy. Nordau  .Tpproaehes  the  question 
from  the  artistic  and  moral  side;  examines 
the  work  of  art  produced,  and  if  it  be  immoral 
and  foul  argues  that  the  artist  is,  ergo,  degen- 
erate, and  no  genius.  Tlie  manner  of  treatment 
is  large  and  loose,  and  the  chief  value  of  the 
work    is   ethical.      Nordau's   other    writings    in- 


NORDAU. 


600 


NOKDHAUSEN. 


elude  the  novels,  Die  Krankkeit  des  Jahrhun- 
derts  (1889),  Gefiihlskomodie  (1891),  and 
Vrohnenschlacht  (1897);  tlie  plays,  Xeuc  Jour- 
nalislcH  (1880.  with  Ferdinand  IJross),  Krieg  d<:r 
Millioncti  (1882),  Das  Uccht  :ii  lichen  (1893); 
Die  Kiigcl  (1894),  and  Dr.  liohn  (1898);  and 
a  volume  of  essavs,  Zcitgeiuissisohe  Franzosen 
(1901). 

NORDEN,  nCir'df  n,  Edu.\.rd  ( 1868— ) .  A  Ger- 
man classical  [iliilologist,  born  at  Emden:  pro- 
fessor in  tlic  liiivcrsity  of  Brcslau.  His  most 
important  publication  is  a  brilliant  and  com- 
preliensive  history  of  ancient  prose  style  from 
the  sixth  century  B.C.  to  the  time  of  the  Renais- 
sance, entitled  Die  antike  Kunstprosa  (2  vols., 
Leipzig.  18!IS|. 

NORDENBERG,  nOr'den-bar-y',  Bengt 
(1822-1902).  A  Swedish  genre  painter,  born  at 
Kompinkulla,  Province  of  Blekinge.  For  seven 
years  employed  as  a  liouse  painter,  lie  went  in 
1841  to  Stockholm,  and  wliile  still  followinj;  liis 
trade,  frequented  the  Academy  until  18.51,  wlien 
he  proceeded  to  Diisscldorf.  There  he  studied 
under  Tlicodor  Ilildebrandt  and  in  Paris  ( 18.57- 
.58)  under  Couture.  Then  he  visited  Italy  and 
finally  settled  at  Diisseldorf.  Mudi  inlhienced 
by  Tidemand,  he  chose  his  subjects  almost  ex- 
clusively from  Swedish  peasant  life,  which  he 
depicted  with  a  keen  sense  of  observation  and 
deep  feeling.  Prominent  among  such  popular 
scenes  are:  "Connnunion  in  a  Village  Church" 
(1856,  National  Gallery.  Christiania)  ;  '"The  Or- 
ganist" (1.S61,  Leipzig  Museum):  "■Levying  the 
Tithe  in  Sclioncn"  (18(12)  and  "Wedding  Pro- 
cession in  Viirend"  (1873),  botli  in  the  Stock- 
liolm   ilu^cuMi. 

NOR'DENFELT     MACHINE     GUN.      See 

JlAtlUNE    (il  NS. 

NORDENSKJOLD,  nOr'dcn  sheld,  XiLS  Adolf 
Eric,  Baron  (1832-1901).  A  famous  geographer 
and  explorer.  He  was  born  at  Helsingfors,  Fin- 
land. He  entered  the  university  of  his  native 
town  in  1849,  where  he  devoted  himself  especially 
to  chemistry  and  mineralogy.  In  1853  he  accom- 
panied his  fatlier  to  the  I'rals  and  studied  )(ar- 
ticularly  the  iron  and  copper  mines  at  Tagilsk. 
Returning  home,  he  published  his  first  papers, 
dealing  with  tlie  minerals  and  mollusca  of  Fin- 
land, and  received  an  ap|w>intment  as  curator 
of  the  mathematico-physical  faculty.  He  was 
suddenly  dismissed,  however,  because  he  offered 
a  toast  at  a  banqiiet  to  which  the  Governor 
gave  an  obnoxious  political  significance.  Visit- 
ing Berlin,  he  engaged  in  researches  in  mineral 
analysis  at  Rose's  laboratory,  and  in  1857  re- 
turned to  Finland,  obtained  the  Alexander 
traveling  sti|)end  from  his  university,  together 
with  his  degree  as  master  and  doctor,  and  pre- 
pared for  a  geological  expedition  to  Siberia  and 
Kamtchatka.  .Another  unhicky  toast  gave  offense 
to  the  Riissian  (Jovernor-tieneral.  and  he  drove 
the  offender  from  the  country,  following  him  up 
with  a  dispatch  depriving  him  of  the  right  of 
ever  holding  oflicc  in  the  university.  This  dis- 
qualification lasted  until  a  new  Governor-General 
was  appointed  in  1862.  Nordenskjiild  settled  in 
Slockliidm  in  the  winter  of  1857-58.  and  Sweden 
became  his  adopted  country.  During  1858  he 
made  his  first  voyage  to  Arctic  seas  as  companion 
to  the  Swedish  geologist  Torell.  and  made  vain- 
able  discoveries  of  the  remains  of  Tertiary  plants. 
After  his  return  he  was  appointed  professor  and 


director  of  the  Royal-JIuseum,  Stockholm.  In 
1861  he  made  a  second  expedition  to  Spitzbergun 
with  Torell,  and  surveyed  the  nortliern  part  of 
tlie  arcliipolago.  Upon  invitation  of  tlie  Royal 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  Sweden.  Xordenskjijld  led 
an  expedition  to  Spilzbergen  in  1864,  completing 
a  preliminary  survey  for  the  arc  of  the  meridian, 
mapping  the  southern  ])art  of  Sjjitzbergen,  and 
collecting  new  data  as  to  fauna  and  flora.  His 
next  expedition  was  in  1868,  when  in  the  .So/ia 
he  [lenetrated  to  latitude  81°  42'  X.  A  visit  to 
Greenland  had  important  scientific  results  in  that 
he  was  enabled  to  formulate  a  theory  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  ice-sheet  that  once  covered  the 
greater  part  of  Europe  by  his  examinations  of 
similar  formations  upon  the  (ireenland  ice-cap. 
The  expedition  of  1873  accomplished  the  discovery 
of  what  he  supposed  to  be  cosmic  dust  on  polar 
ice  and  the  survey  of  part  of  Northwest  Land. 
Crossing  the  Kara  Sea  in  1875.  he  penetrated  to 
the  Yenisei  and  returned  home  overland,  believing 
that  a  northeast  passage  could  be  made  from 
Europe  to  the  eastern  shore  of  Asia.  The  opinion 
was  put  to  the  test  in  1878-79.  He  left  Tromso 
on  .luly  21,  1878.  in  the  IVfld,  and  continued  his 
journey  eastward  till  the  end  of  September,  wlieii 
he  became  ice-bound  in  latitude  67°  7'  N.  and 
longitude  173°  23'  W..  not  far  from  Bering  .Strait. 
Here  he  remained  imi>risoned until  .July  18,  1879. 
when  the  expedition  was  released.  He  then  passed 
through  Bering  Strait  and  sailed  to.lapan.  For  this 
achievement  the  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway  con- 
ferred upon  Nordenskjiild  the  rank  of  a  baron  in 
the  Swedish  peerage,  and  he  was  apjiointed  com- 
mander of  the  Order  of  the  North  Star.  In  1883 
he  made  his  last  expedition  to  Greenland.  Nor- 
den^kjiild  was  a  lilieral  in  ]>olitics  and  sat  in 
1870-72  in  the  Lower  House  of  the  Swedish  Diet. 
He  discovered  uranium  in  many  varieties  of  coal, 
and  showed  that  fresh  water  could  be  found  any- 
where in  Sweden  at  a  depth  of  100  feet  through 
the  Arehiran  roeks.  Besides  scientific  reports  and 
monographs,  his  principal  works  are:  The  Voi/age 
of  the  Vega  Around  Asia  (1881):  The  Second 
Sucdish  Expedition  to  (Ireenlund  (1885);  Fac- 
simile Atlas  to  the  Eurlg  liistorii  of  Cartography 
(1889)  ;  and  Peri  plus  (1897).  Consult  the  auto- 
biographical sketch  in  Bej&r's  Swedish  Jiiographi- 
eal  IjC.rieon.  a  translation  of  parts  of  which  may 
be  f(nmd  in  The  Arctic  Voyages  of  Adolf  Erik 
Xordenskjold,  edited  by  Alexander  Leslie  (Lon- 
don, 1879)  ;  also  articles  and  bibliography  in 
Ymer.  vol.  xxii.    (Stockholm,   1902). 

NORDERNEY,  nor'dcr-ni.  The  most  impor- 
tant (if  the  K.ast  Frisian  Islands,  lying  off  the 
northwest  coast  of  Germany,  and  belonging  to 
the  Prussian  Province  of  Hanover  (Map:  Prus- 
sia. B  2).  It  is  eight  miles  long,  about  a  mile 
wide,  and  covered  with  dunes  50  to  75  feet  high. 
The  island  is  the  most  popular  German  seabath- 
ing  resort,  visiteil  annually  by  over  14.000  ])er- 
sons.  The  village  at  the  western  end  is  pro- 
tected by  a  large  sea-wall.  It  has  a  handsome 
Konversationshaus  with  a  museum,  and  a  na- 
tional hospital  for  children.  A  large  lighthouse 
stands  in  the  centre  of  the  island.  The  per- 
iiKiTHiit  ]Mi|i\il;itiiiii  is  about  4000. 

NORDHATJSEN,  norf -hou'zrn.  A  city  in 
the  Province  <if  Saxony,  Prussia,  on  the  Zorge.  38 
miles  north-northwest  of  Erfurt  (Map:  Prussia. 
D  3).  The  Church  of  Saint  Blasius  with  paint- 
ings by  Lucas  Cranach,  the  Roman  Catholic  late- 


NORDHAUSEN. 


601 


NORFOLK. 


Gothic  Catlietlralj  and  tlie  imiscuiii  of  antiqui- 
ties, are  xvcjitliy  of  note.  The  town  is  the  centre 
of  a  hirge  general  trade,  espeeially  in  grain  and 
cattle.  It  has  extensive  distilleries  and  brew- 
eries, and  considerable  rnanufaetures  of  tobacco, 
chemieals,  leather,  cloth,  sugar,  and  machinery. 
Population,  in  1800,  20,847;  in  1900,  28,.50b. 
Nordhausen  is  mentioned  in  the  tenth  century, 
and  was  made  a  free  Imperial  city  in  1253. 

NORDHOFF,  nord'h^f,  Charles  (18.S0- 
liiDli.  An  American  journalist,  descriptive  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Erwitte,  West- 
jihalia.  He  came  to  America  in  1835, 
was  educated  in  Cincinnati,  and  was  for  nine 
years  at  sea,  in  the  navy  and  merchant  service; 
from  1853  to  1857  in  various  newspaper  oHiees; 
was  then  employed  editorially  by  the  Harpers 
1  I8fll  ) ,  and  for  the  next  ten  years  on  the  stall'  of 
the  Xcw  York  Ei-ening  Post.  From  1871  to  1873 
Xordhofl'  traveled  in  California  and  visited  Ha- 
waii. He  then  became  Washington  correspondent 
of  the  Xew  York  Herald.  The  more  noteworthy 
of  his  books  are:  Uun-of-^Y<^r  Life,  largely  au- 
tobiograjihieal  (1855);  The  Merchant  Vessel 
(1855)  :  Whaliiifi  and  Fishing  (185G),  both  the 
result  of  ])ersonal  experience,  as  was  also  Sine 
Years  a  t?ailur  ( 1857)  ;  then  for  ten  years  polities 
and  soeiologA'  were  his  themes  in  Secession  Is  Rc- 
hcllion.  (IS(iO)  ;  The  Frccdmcn  of  South  Carolina 
(1863)  ;  America  for  the  Working  Men  (1865). 
To  sociology  he  contributed:  Politics  for  Young 
Americans  (1875),  perhaps  the  best  known  and 
most  useful  of  his  books;  The  Communistic  So- 
cieties of  the  United  States  (1875).  Later  vol- 
ximes  are  God  and  the  Future  Life  (1881)  and 
Prniiisiihir  California  (1888).  Xordhoff  died  in 
California  in  July,  1901. 

NOR'DICA,  Lillian,  born  Xortox,  (1859 — ). 
An  American  soprano,  born  at  Farniington,  Me. 
Mie  was  iiu|iil  of  the  Xew  Englanil  Conservatory 
and  of  .T.  O'Xeill.  making  her  clfbut  in  1S76.  Then 
followed  two  years  of  successful  concert  work,  on 
the  conclusion  of  which  she  accompanied  Gil- 
more's  band  to  Europe,  and  later  took  up  the 
-tudy  of  opera  with  San  Giovanni.  She  was  an 
■  arnest  student,  and  possessed  of  considerable 
~tage  aptitude,  which,  together  with  her  magnifi- 
fent  voice  and  pleasing  presence,  won  her  an  im- 
mediate success.  After  touring  Germany  and 
Russia,  she  appeared  in  1881  in  Paris,  where 
her  success  was  absolute.  Her  marriage  with 
Frederick  A.  Gower  in  1882  turned  out  to  be  un- 
fortunate, and  three  years  later  she  sued  for  a 
separation,  the  proceedings  in  which  were  brought 
to  a  close  by  the  disappearance  of  Gow-er,  sup- 
posedly in  a  balloon  accident.  In  1887  she  ap- 
])eared  in  London,  and  in  1895  made  her  first 
appearance  in  opera  in  her  native  land,  at  the 
lletropolitan  Opera  House,  Xew  Y'ork.  Two 
years  later  she  married  Diime,  an  Hungarian 
>inger.  She  achieved  her  greatest  successes  in 
.iida.  Lcs'  Huguenots,  and  the  soprano  parts  in 
the  Wagnerian  operas,  and  came  to  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  greatest  prima  donnas  of  her  day, 
being  espcrinlly  noteil  for  her  coloratura  work, 

NORDLINGEN,  nerd'ling-rn.  .V  town  in  the 
western  part  of  Bavaria,  Germany,  on  the  Eger, 
.■!9  miles  northwest  of  .Augsburg  (Atap:  Germany, 
H  4),  H  is  an  ancient  town  with  walls  and 
towers.  The  Gothic  Saint  George's  Church,  and 
the  late-Gothic  Rathaus.  with  a  collection  of  old 
German   pictures   and  fine  mural   paintings,  are 


worthy  of  mention.  The  town  has  a  Realschule 
and  a  fine  library.  Among  the  manufactures  of 
Xiirdlingen  are  furniture,  linen,  wcjolen.  and 
leather  goods,  carpets,  and  agricultural  imple- 
ments. Population,  in  1890,  8004;  in  1900,  8299. 
Xiirdlingen  is  mentioned  for  the  first  time  about 
900,  and  became  an  Imperial  city  under  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  11.  The  town  is  best  known 
for  the  two  battles  of  which  it  was  the  scene 
during  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  In  the  first, 
fought  on  August  27  (new  style,  September  16), 
1C34,  the  Protestant  army  of  Bernhard  of  Wei- 
mar and  the  Swedes  under  General  Horn  were 
overwhelmed  by  a  superior  force  of  Imperial 
troops  under  Ferdinand,  the  King  of  the  Romans. 
This  was  the  first  defeat  of  the  Swedes  on  Ger- 
man soil,  and  its  efi'cct  was  the  delivery  of  South 
Germany  from  the  foreigner.  The  second  battle, 
fought  on  August  3  (13),  1645,  between  the 
French  and  the  Imperial  troops,  resulted  in  the 
defeat  of  the  latter  and  the  death  of  their  com- 
mander. General  Mercy. 

NORDMANN,  nort'man.  Joiiaxnes  (1820- 
87).  An  Austrian  author,  whose  family  name 
was  Runipelmaier.  He  was  born  at  Landersdorf, 
and  studied  at  Vienna,  whitlier  he  returned  in 
1848,  after  several  years  in  Dresden  and  Leipzig, 
and  where  as  a  member  of  the  .Academic  Legion 
he  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  Revolution. 
From  1859  to  1869  he  edited  the  Wanderer,  and 
subsequently  wrote  for  the  Xeuc  Freie  Presse  and 
otlier  papers.  Oedlchte  (1847),  a  volume  of 
lyrics,  contains  the  best  of  his  poetical  works.  A 
posthiunous  volume  of  poems  appeared  in  1889. 
He  also  wrote  the  epic  Fine  Romerfahrt  (1875- 
77);  various  novels  and  tales.  Zn-ei  Frauen 
(1850),  Friihlinr/smjchte  in  Salamanca  (1857; 
3d  ed.  1880)  .  Em  Wiener  Biirger  (1860;  2d  ed. 
1882),  and  Der  zerbrochene  Spiegel  (1870)  ;  and 
books  of  travel. 

NOREEN,  no-ran',  Adolf  Gotthard  (1854—). 
A  Swedish  philologist.  He  was  born  at  Oestra 
Emtervik,  Sweden.  After  graduating  from  the 
University  of  Upsala  in  1877,  he  became  a  privat- 
dncent  there  and  in  1887  professor  of  the  Scandi- 
navian langiuiges.  Among  his  principal  publica- 
tions are:  Aeldre  Vastgotalagen  (1876);  Altis- 
liindische  tind  altnorwegische  flrammatik  (2d  ed. 
1892)  :  Ahriss  dfr  urgermanischen  Lautlehre 
(Strassburg,  1894)  ;  Altschircdische  (1-rammatik 
mit  Finschlus  des  Altgutnischen  (1898).  Xorecn 
contributed  the  article  on  the  Scandinavian  lan- 
guage to  Paul's  Grundriss  der  Germanischcn  Phi- 
lologie,  and  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  articles 
published  in  the  .4rA-i'r  frir  Xordisk  Filologi.  of 
which  he  is  one  of  the  editors.  He  holds  a  very 
high  place  among  European  philologists. 

NORFOLK,  nor'fak.  A  maritime  county  of 
Englaml,  bounded  north  and  northeast  by  the 
Xorth  Sea.  anil  south  by  the  county  of  SufTolk 
(Map:  England.  G  4).  .\rea,  2037  square  miles, 
mostly  level  ground.  The  soil,  consisting  chiefly 
of  light  sands  and  loams,  is  not  naturally  of  a 
productive  character,  but  has  been  made  so  by 
systematic  treatment,  and  Xorf(dk  is  chiefly  an 
agricultural,  stock  and  poultry  raising  county. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Ouse,  Y'are,  and 
Bure.  Capital.  Xorwich.  Population,  in  .1891, 
454,.500;  in  1901,  460,000.  Consult:  .Mason, 
Hisiorg  of  Norfolk  (London.  1882-85)  ;  Rye.  His- 
tory of  the  County  of  Norfolk  (London,  1885). 


NORFOLK. 


602 


NOEMA. 


NORFOLK.  The  second  largest  city  of  Vir- 
ginia, i.nil  a  port  of  entry,  in  Norfolk  County, 
8S  miles  in  a  direct  line,  and  IIU  by  water,  south- 
east of  Kicliniond;  on  the  Klizabeth  Kiver,  an 
arm  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  opposite  Portsmouth  and 
Berkley,  the  three  cities  practically  forming' 
one  municipality,  having  a  population,  within  a 
radius  of  three  miles,  of  more  than  115,000 
(Map:  Virginia,  Ho).  Norfolk  is  the  terminus 
of  nmny  steamship  lines,  including  transatlantic, 
coastwise,  and  interior  lines,  the  Albemarle  and 
Chesapeake  and  the  Dismal  Swamp  canals  afford- 
ing additional  means  of  comnumication  with  in- 
land towns.  The  railroad  facilities  comprise  the 
Atlantic  Coast  Line,  the  Seaboard  Air  Line,  the 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio,  the  Norfolk  and  Western, 
the  Norfolk  and  Southern,  the  New  York,  Phila- 
<lel|)hia  and  Norfolk,  and  the  Southern.  Nor- 
folk has  an  area  of  about  3%  square  miles,  and  is 
irregularly  laid  out  on  level  ground.  The  more 
prominent  l)uildings  include  the  custom-house, 
the  city  hall.  Saint  Vincent's  Hospital,  the  Nor- 
folk Protestant  Hospital,  the  post-ollice.  and  the 
Citizens'  Bank.  Saint  Paul's  Church  is  of  his- 
toric interest,  having  been  built  in  1737.  The 
city  maintains  a  public  library  ( 10,500  volumes), 
and  has  several  private  secondary  schools,  among 
which  is  the  Norfolk  Mission  College  (United 
Presbyterian),  an  institution  for  colored  stu- 
dents. There  is  a  public  park  of  95  acres.  The 
Korfolk  Na\-j'  Yard  is  at  Portsmouth    (q.v. ). 

Norfolk  is  one  of  the  most  important  Southern 
ports,  its  excellent  transportation  facilities  con- 
tributing largely  to  its  commercial  prominence. 
The  harbor  is  commodious,  accessible  for  the 
largest  .ships,  has  a  channel  30  feet  deep,  and 
is  well  protected,  the  defenses  including  Fort 
Iklonroe  (q.v.).  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth  to- 
gether constitute  a  Federal  customs  district,  the 
foreign  trade  of  which  in  1001  comprised  ex- 
ports valued  at  .$10,308,000  and  imports  aggre- 
gating $51)4.000.  The  commerce  of  the  port  is 
principally  in  hunber.  coal,  grain,  cotton,  pea- 
nuts, oysters,  vegetables,  and  fruit.  One  of  the 
largest  coaling  stations  in  the  world  is  here — 
Lambert's  Point  coal  piers,  which  handle  an- 
nually some  2.500.000  tons.  Norfolk  is  develop- 
ing rapidly  also  as  an  industrial  centre,  a  num- 
ber of  large  plants  having  been  established  since 
1000.  when  its  manufactures,  according  to  the 
census,  represented  capital  to  the  amount  of 
.$(1.425,000. and  had  a  production  valiU'd  at  .*n,3<17.- 
000.  a  notable  gain  in  output  over  that  of  18110 
(.$5,100,000).  The  most  important  industrial  es- 
tablishments are  fertilizer  works,  hnuber  mills, 
hosiery  and  knitting  mills,  cotton  ami  silk  mills, 
oil  mills,  carriage  and  wagon  shops,  foundries 
and  machine  shops,  a  steel  shutter  and  blind 
mantifnctory,  ship  and  boat  building  yanls,  creo- 
soting  works,  agricultural  implement  works,  to- 
bacco and  cigar  factories,  a  large  pickling  cstah- 
lishment,  etc.  Under  the  charter  of  1884,  as 
subsequently  amended,  the  government  is  vested 
in  a  mayor,  elected  every  two  years,  and  a  coun- 
cil consisting  of  two  bodies,  the  members  of  the 
select  council  being  chosen  by  all  the  councilmcn 
from  among  their  own  number.  The  council  con- 
trols appointments  of  all  administrative  ofTu'crs, 
<"xcepting  those  elected  by  popular  vote — school 
trustees,  treasurer,  attorney,  street  inspector, 
ronuni^sioner  of  revenue,  collector  of  taxes, 
health  olTic.r  .nnd  minor  officials.    Norfolk  spmds 


annually  in  maintenance  and  operation  about 
$845,000,  the  principal  items  being:  for  interest 
on  debt,  $250,000;  for  streets,  $80,000,:  for  water, 
$05,000;  for  the  police  department,  $00,000:  for 
schools,  $00,000;  for  the  fire  department,  $45,- 
000.  There  are  municipal  water-works,  bviilt  in 
1S72,  and  acquired  by  the  city  in  the  following 
year;  the  .system  cost  $1,235,000  and  has  al>out 
50  miles  of  mains.  Population,  in  ISliO,  14,020; 
in  1880,  21,900;  in  1S90,  34.871;  in  UU)0,  40.024. 
Organized  as  a  town  in  1082,  Norfolk  was  in- 
corporated as  a  borough  in  1730,  and  was  char- 
tered as  a  city  in  1845.  On  January  1,  1770,  it 
was  bombarded  and  set  on  tire  by  the  Englisli  un- 
der Lord  Dunmore,  and  nine-tenths  of  tlie  build- 
ings were  destroyed.  In  1855  the  city  sulVered 
se\erely  from  the  ravages  of  yellow  fever.  In 
April,  1801.  Cieneral  Taliaferro,  at  the  head  of  a 
body  of  Virginia  troops,  entered  the  city,  and 
soon  afterwards  the  navy  yard  was  tired  b.v  or- 
derof  the  Federal  commandant,  but  comparatively 
little  damage  was  done.  Until  May,  1802,  when  the 
Federal  forces  took  possession,  the  city  was  the 
chief  naval  station  of  the  Confederacy.  Cons\ilt: 
Forrest.  Ilistorical  aitd  Dcscriplirc  Sketches  of 
Norfollc  and  Vicinitu  (Philadelphia,  1853)  ;  Bur- 
ton, 2'hc  History  of  yorfolk.  Virginia  (Norfolk, 
1877)  ;  Lamb,  Our  Ticin  Cities  of  the  yinctccnth 
Centura    (ib,,  1887-88). 

NORFOLK,  DcKES  of.     See  Howard. 

NORFOLK  ISLAND.  An  isolated  island  in 
the  Paeilic  Ocean.  500  miles  northwest  of  New 
Zealand,  and  1200  miles  northeast  of  Svdncv : 
latitude  29°  3'  S.,  longitude  107°  58'  E.  "(Map: 
.\ustralasia,  J  5).  Its  area  is  10  sqiuire  mih-s. 
The  coasts  are  high  and  steep,  and  the  interior 
is  moimtainous,  rising  in  Mount  Pitt  to  a  height 
of  1040  feet.  In  its  forests  the  most  conspicuous 
tree  is  the  magnificent  Norfolk  Island  pine 
{Araucaria  exeelsa).  The  soil  is  fertile  and  the 
climate  is  healthful.  The  inlialiit;ints  in  1001 
numbered  870,  most  of  whom  are  the  descendants 
of  the  mutineers  of  the  Bount/i.  who  in  1850  were 
transferred  hither  by  the  British  Government 
from  Pitcairn  Island  (q.v.).  Others  are  ])upil3 
in  the  ^lelanesian  mission  school  established  here. 
The  island  is  governed  by  a  resident  magistrate 
and  council  under  the  administration  of  New 
South  Wales.  It  was  discovered  by  Cook  in  1774, 
and  was  used  by  New  South  Wales  as  a  jienal 
settlenii'ut   do\\"n  to    1851, 

NORFOLK     ISLAND     PINE.      See    Arau- 

CAIilA. 

NORFOLK  SPANIEL.     See  Spaniel. 

NOR'ICUM.  A  province  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire. c<jrresponding  to  Styria.  Carinthia.  ])arts  of 
Upjjer  and  Lower  .\ustri:i  and  Bavaria,  and  Siilz- 
burg.  It  was  bounded  on  tlie  north  bv  the  Dan- 
ube, on  the  east  and  south  bv  Panimnia;  also 
south  bv  Illvricum  and  Cisalpine  flaul :  on  the 
west  by  Phietia.  The  region  is  mountainous,  the 
Noric  Alps  stretching  through  the  centre  of  the 
]irov!nce:  the  chief  rivers  were  the  (Fnus  (mod- 
ern Inn).  Dravus  (Drave).  and  Murius  (Mur). 
The  chief  town  was  Noreia.  mentioned  by  Ca-sar 
in  his  Commentaries.  The  province  wa»  subdued 
by  the  generals  of  Augustus  (c.1.1.  n.c) ,  The 
Romans  obtained  iron  and  salt  from  the  region, 
and,  it  is  said,  gold, 

NOR'MA,  .\n  o)wra  bv  Bellini  (q.v.).  pro- 
duced at   l.n   Seala,  Milan  "( 18.32) .     The  libretto 


NORMA. 


603 


NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


by  Remain  was  based  on  Saumet's  tragedy 
.\o)»i«,  which  appeared  in  1831.  Norma,  a 
high  priestess  of  the  Druids,  secretly  married 
PoUio,  tlie  Roman  geneiial.  He.  faitliless  to  her, 
urges  the  virgin  Adclgiza  to  lly  witli  him.  She 
confesses  to  Norma,  who  in  fury  calls  the  Druids, 
and  Pollio  is  condemned.  Norma,  confessing  lier 
broken  vuws,  dies  with  him. 

NOB'MAL.  A  town  in  McLean  County,  111., 
Gl  miles  northeast  of  Springfield;  on  the  Illinois 
Central  and  the  Chicago  and  Alton  railroads 
(Map:  Illinois,  C  3).  It  is  tlie  seat  of  the  Illi- 
nois State  Normal  University,  and  of  the  State 
Soldiers'  Orphans'  Home.  Nursery  stock,  fruit, 
and  vegetables  are  e.\lensively  cultivated  in  this 
vicinity;  and  Normal  is  also  an  important  liorse 
market.  There  are  municipal  water-works.  Pop- 
ulation, in  IS90,  3459;  in  1900,  3795. 

NORMAL  (Lat.  normaUs,  according  to  rule, 
from  itonna,  rule,  carpenter's  square).  In  mathe- 
matics, a  straight  line  perpendicular  to  a  tangent 
at  the  point  of  its  contact  with  the  given  curved 
line  or  surface.  The  evolute  (q.v. )  of  a  curve 
may  be  considered  as  the  envelope  of  the  nor- 
mals to  tlie  given  curve.  This  relation  is  evi- 
dent since  tlie  centres  of  curvature  of  wliicli 
the  evolute  is  the  locus  are  the  intersections  of 
normals  at  adjacent  points  of  the  curve:  e.g.  the 
semicubical  parabola,  an  evolute  of  the  common 
parabola,  is  an  envelope  of  the  normals  to  this 
curve.     See  P.^rabola. 

Tlie  suhiiormal  corresponding  to  any  curve  is 
the  segment  of  the  axis  intercepted  by  the  nor- 
mal and  tlie  ordinate  of  the  point  of  contact. 

NORMAL  COLLEGE.  An  institution  for 
the  training  of  teachers,  in  New  York  City,  found- 
ed in  1S69  and  having  its  inception  in  the  grow- 
ing demand  for  professionally  trained  teachers  in 
the  public  schools  of  New  York.  Previous  to  its 
foundation  the  secondary  education  of  women  in 
New  York  was  sup]ilicd  by  private  schools  and 
the  supplementary  classes  of  the  public  grammar 
schools.  The  inadequacy  of  this  inethod  was, 
however,  soon  felt,  and  as  early  as  1847  the  State 
Legislature  contemplated  an  institution  similar 
to  the  City  College.  (See  New  York,  College 
OP  THE  City  of.)  In  185(5  a  Daily  Normal  School 
was  actually  established,  but  it  ceased  to  exist 
after  a  precarious  career  of  about  three  years. 
The  Saturday  Normal  School  was  then  organized 
for  the  training  of  teachers.  While  these  make- 
shifts were  being  resorted  to  in  New  Y'ork,  the 
State  at  large  was  rapidly  increasing  its  number 
of  normal  schools,  and  otherwise  multiplying 
the  facilities  for  the  training  of  teachers.  This 
educational  awakening  throughout  the  State  had 
the  effect  of  hastening  the  establishment  of  a 
normal  institution  in  New  York  City.  In  IS69 
the  Board  of  Education  was  empowered  to  estab- 
lish a  female  institution  similar  to  the  City  Col- 
lege, and  the  same  year  the  Normal  and  High 
School  was  established.  The  name  was  changed 
in  the  following  year  to  Normal  College.  The 
pupils  of  the  various  supplementary  classes  were 
admitted  to  advanced  standing  and  a  three  years' 
course  was  organized.  The  task  of  arranging  the 
work  of  the  new  institution  fell  to  Dr.  Thomas 
Hunter,  the  president  since  its  inception.  Under 
his  vigorous  administration  the  college  grew 
rapidly.  A  buildin;;  erected  on  the  block  bounded 
by  Lexington  and  Park  Avenues  and  Sixty-eicbth 
and  Sixty-ninth  streets,  at  a  cost  of  over  $350,- 

VOL.  XIV.— 39. 


000,  was  opened  in  1873.  A  model  primary 
school  was  opened  for  practice  te,aching  ;it  an 
additional  cost  of  $80,000,  and  the  first  free 
public  kindergarten  in  the  United  States  was 
established  at  the  Normal  College  in  1871.  The 
Board  of  Education  and  the  president  of  the  col- 
lege have  since  its  organization  constituted  an 
e.x  officio  board  of  trustees.  The  attendance, 
which  in  1870  numbered  909,  with  a  graduating 
class  of  97,  increased  by  1902  to  2844.  In  the 
same  year  the  staff  of  instructors,  including  those 
in  the  training  department,  numbered  101.  The 
total  number  of  graduates  since  the  foundation 
of  the  college  was,  in  1902,  over  9000.  There  has 
been  a  constant  tendency  to  raise  the  require- 
ments for  graduation ;  the  course  was  extended  to 
four  years  in  1879,  to  five,  for  students  taking  a 
degree,  in  1888,  and  in  1902  a  professional  course 
of  six  and  a  collegiate  course  of  seven  years  were 
organized,  the  institution  thus  being  raised  to 
the  standard  required  by  the  University  of  the 
State  of  New  York  for  degree-conferring  insti- 
tutions. The  college  includes  five  fully  equipped 
laboratories  and  the  Alumna'  library.  High 
school  graduates  are  admitted  to  advanced  stand- 
ing. 

NORMAL  SCHOOL.  In  general,  any  insti- 
tution for  the  professional  training  of  teachers. 
In  a  special  sense,  the  terra  is  used  to  designate 
a  school  for  the  training  of  elementary  school 
teachers,  carried  on  usually  by  the  State,  some- 
times by  private  enterprise,  which  receives  stu- 
dents who  have  had  more  or  less  high  school 
training,  and  give.s  them  academic  and  profes- 
sional courses.  Normal  schools  in  some  form  are 
now  found  throughout  the  civilized  world,  usual- 
ly as  integral  parts  of  the  systems  of  public 
education  in  the  several  countries  or  States.  The 
earliest  successful  normal  school  appears  to 
have  been  that  established  by  La.  Salle  in  1085 
at  Rheims,  France.  Not  until  early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  however,  were  public  normal 
schools  established  in  France.  In  Germany  the 
first  attempt  to  provide  professional  training  for 
teachers  is  attributed  to  August  Hermann 
Francke,  who  in  1704  founded  the  normal  school 
at  Halle,  which  still  bears  his  name.  Durii\g 
the  reign  of  Freileriek  the  Great,  and  especially 
during  the  period  after  the  French  Revolution, 
many  normal  schools  (or  teachers'  seminaries, 
as  they  are  called)  were  founded,  especially  in 
Prussia.  There  are  to-day  in  Prussia  alone  no 
fewer  than  116  normal  schools.  In  Great  Brit- 
ain there  is  a  well-developed  system  of  public 
normal  schools  (called  also  teachers'  training 
colleges),  the  gi'owth  chiefly  of  the  last  fifty 
years.  The  British  system  has  been  successfully 
extended  to  Canada,  Australia,  and  South  Africa. 
In  America  the  first  normal  schools  were  founded 
in  Massachusetts  in  1839  and  1840  at  Lexington, 
Barre,  and  Bridgcwatcr.  They  were  the  result, 
in  particular,  of  the  combinc<l  efforts  of  the  fol- 
lowing men  toward  securing  higher  qualifications 
among  teachers:  Charles  Brooks,  who  visited 
Prussian  norma!  schools  in  1834.  and  dissemi- 
nated the  ideas  he  had  gained  during  the  follow- 
ing two  years;  of  Henry  Barnard,  the  distin- 
guished pioneer  in  educational  journalism  and 
educational  progress:  of  Edmund  Dwight,  who 
offered  the  Legislature  $10,000  on  condition  that 
it  should  appropriate  an  equal  amount  to  pro- 
mote  the  preparation  of  teachers   for   the   com- 


NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


604 


NORMAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


mon  schools;  aud  especially  of  Horace  Mann, 
who  as  secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Education 
did  more  than  any  other  man  to  develop  the  nor- 
mal school  idea  and  to  make  it  ellective.  The 
course  in  these  early  normal  schools  included  ( 1 ) 
the  science  and  art  of  t»'achin{,'  the  common 
school  branches;  together  with  (2)  the  subject 
matter  of  these  branches,  and,  if  possible,  of  such 
higher  studies  also  as  algebra,  geometry,  general 
history,  natural  philosophy,  and  astronomy;  and 
(3)  practice  teaching  in  a  model  school.  In  the 
thirty  years  following  the  establishment  of  these 
schools,  no  fewer  than  fifteen  leading  normal 
schools  of  the  highest  type  were  established  in 
as  many  dillerent  States;  and  many  more  of 
inferior  (luatily.  In  181l8-('!t  there  were  in  the 
United  States  100  public  anil  Ki.")  i)rivate  noniial 
schools,  with  a  total  enrollment  of  08,380  stu- 
dents. 

In  standards  and  courses  of  study  the  normal 
schools  of  the  United  States  vary  widely.  The 
minimum  entrance  requirements  are  indicated  by 
the  subjects  in  which  examinations  are  required 
for  admission,  viz.  arithmetic,  geography,  gi-nm- 
mar,  composition,  orthography,  American  his- 
tory, civil  government,  physiology-  and  hygiene, 
and  penmanship.  Students  presenting  tliese 
qualifications  may  be  grailuatc'<l  on  cimipletion 
of  a  two-year  course,  including  one  year  devoted 
to  the  theorj-  and  ])ractice  of  teaching.  The 
more  advanced  courses  include  high  school  sub- 
jects, methods  in  elementary  subjects,  psy- 
chology, the  science  of  education,  history  of  edu- 
cation, child  study,  and  practice  teaching,  ilany 
normal  schools  offer  special  courses  for  the 
training  of  kindergarten  teachers. 

The  name  Xoniial  College  has  been  given  to 
certain  institutions,  like  tlie  Albany  State  Nor- 
mal College,  and  tlic  Michigan  State  Normal  Col- 
lege, which  reiiuire  a  full  high-school  course  for 
admission,  and  which,  in  addition  to  more  ex- 
tended professional  ccmrses  (ban  arc  usually  of- 
fered by  normal  schools,  undertake  the  prepara- 
tion of  teachers  for  secondary  schools.  Such  in- 
stitutions are  empowered  to  grant  pedagogical  de- 
grees. 

The  establishment  of  university  chairs  and  de- 
])artments  of  education,  a  movement  of  the  great- 
est significance  for  education,  has  been  the 
growth  of  the  past  fifty  years.  Its  beginnings 
were  weak  and  tentative.  In  America  the  honor 
of  the  earliest  attempts  is  due  to  President  Fran- 
cis Wayland  at  Tirown  University  (in  1850),  to 
Horace  Mann,  at  Antioch  College  (in  18;)3|,  and 
to  President  Harnard,  at  Columbia  College  (in 
18.58),  The  first  chair  of  education  to  be  estab- 
lished on  a  solid  l)asis  in  an  .Vmerican  college 
or  university  was  that  at  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan under  I'resident  .\ngell  in  1870,  since  which 
time  such  departments  have  been  established  in 
large  inimliers  thro\igho>it  the  countn,'. 

The  rapid  growth  of  large  cities  has  created  a 
demand  for  traine<l  teachers,  which  all  tlie 
agencies  thus  far  mentioned  have  proved  entirely 
inailequate  to  supply.  This  need  has  been  met  in 
part  by  the  establishment  of  city  training  schools. 
The  I5rofiklyn  Training  Sehoid.  organized  by 
Superintendent  William  II.  Maxwell,  is  a  type 
of  the  bi'-t  of  sueli  schools.  It  receives  on  exam- 
ination the  graduates  of  public  high  schools, 
and  prepares  them  to  be  teachers  in  elemen- 
tarv  schools  by  a  course  in  the  history  of 
education,    pedagogy,    methods    of    teaching    ele- 


mentary subjects,  etc.      A  half  year  is  also  spent 
in  substituting  for  pay  in  the  public  schools. 

For  the  benefit  of  teachers  in  the  service,  par- 
ticularly those  who  have  had  little  or  no  pro- 
fessional training,  teachers'  institutes  have  been 
organized,  and  have  been  a  feature  of  American 
education  for  the  past  sixty  years.  The  teachers' 
institute  is  a  short-time  school,  whose  aim  is  to 
give  stimulus  and  guidance  to  teachers  in  per- 
sonal knowledge  and  skill,  and  in  ]ier.sonal  cul- 
ture. Its  curriculum  usually  includes  methods 
of  teaching  and  school  management,  the  subject 
matter  of  .some  branch  or  branches  of  literature, 
science,  or  art,  together  with  general  lectures 
for  culture  or  recreation.  The  method  of  instruc- 
tion is  usually  by  lectures;  but  sonu'times  les- 
sons are  assigned  and  recitations  held — the  best 
institutes  having  modified  the  formal  lecture 
system.  The  instruction  is  given  either  by  a 
regular  institute  corps,  as  in  the  State  of  New 
York,  or  by  a  special  corps  organized  for  each 
institute,   as    in    Pennsjlvania.      See    Natiox.vl 

Emc.VTUJN.      SVSTE.M.S      OF;      NOR.M.VL      Col.l.KOE; 

PE.\noi)v    NoRM.\L    College:    Summer    School; 
Te.\ciier.s  College. 

BiiiHOtiRAPiiY.  Arnold,  Extracts  from  Reports 
on  Truininij  CoUfyes  (London,  1880);  Atkin- 
son, "Study  of  American  Normal  Schools."  in 
Americdn  Institute  of  Instruction  Lectures  (Bos- 
ton, 1890)  ;  Bramwcll  and  Hughes,  Trnining  of 
Teachers  in  the  United  i^tates  of  America  (Lon- 
don, ISOO)  :  (lOrdy,  "Itise  and  Growth  of  the  Nor- 
mal School  Idea  in  the  United  States,"  in  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  Report  for  Jf^!)I 
(Washington)  ;  Hinsdale, ''Training  of  Teachers," 
in  Butler,  Education  in  the  United  States  (Al- 
bany. 1(100)  :  Laurie,  Training  of  the  Teachers 
(Cambridge,  1901);  Horace  Mann,  liejHirts  on 
Education   (Boston,  1868). 

NOR'MAN.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Cleveland  County.  Okla.,  50  miles  south  of 
(iuthrie;  on  the  Atchison,  Tojieka  and  Santa  Fe 
Kailroad  (Map:  Oklalumia,  F  3).  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  University  of  Oklahoma,  which  was  ojiened 
in  1892,  and  of  the  Territorial  Insane  Asyhim. 
There  are  manufactures  of  cottonseed  oil,  tlour, 
etc.,  and  some  trade  with  the  fertile  agricultural 
section  adjacent.  The  waterworks  are  owned 
by  the  municipality.  Population,  in  1890,  787; 
in  1900,  2225. 

NORMAN,  Henry  (1S58-).  An  English 
trav.'lcr  ami  author,  born  in  Leicester,  Septem- 
ber 19,  1858.  He  graduated  from  Harvard 
and  studied  at  Leipzig  University.  For  some 
years  he  was  on  the  I'att  Mall  (lazctte,  and  later 
he  became  assistant  editor  of  the  Daitji  Chronicle, 
from  which  he  withdrew  in  1899.  His  voyages 
include  the  United  States  and  Canada,  .Japan, 
China.  Siberia,  Korea,  India,  Siam,  the  Jlalay 
Peninsula,  and  Egj-pt.  We  may  nu-ntion  these 
works:  .In  .U'cohh*  of  the  Harvard  Creel,-  I'lay 
(1881);  The  Ileal  Japan  (1892):  The  I'eoples 
and  I'olities  of  the  Far  East  (1895)  :  The  \ear 
East  ( 1899)  :  All  the  h'u.isias  ( 1902)  ;  and  Delhi: 
An  Account  of  the  Great  Mutinji  in  India  ( 1902). 
The  work  of  this  writer  is  characterized  by  keen 
in^iLibt.   fairness,   nnd   lirilliant   sobriety  of  tone. 

NORMAN  ARCHITECTURE.  A  style  orig- 
inated and  chiefly  used  by  the  Normans,  and  a 
subdivision  of  Romanesque  (q.v. )  architec- 
ture, under  which  its  principal  monumcnt-s  arc 
described.      Soon    after    their    conquest    of    the 


NORMAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


605 


NORMANDY. 


noi'tli  of  France,  during  wliifh  tlicy  Inid  indulged 
in  wholesale  burning  of  cliurches  and  monaste- 
ries, the  Normans  began  to  rebuild  religious 
structures  on  a  larger  scale,  as  a  consequence  of 
their  conversion.  They  accordingly  e-vpanded  the 
dimensions,  while  to  a  great  e.xlent  at  lirst  re- 
taining the  style  of  the  buildings  they  found  in 
France.  Tliey  seem  also  to  liave  borrowed  some 
of  their  ideas  from  the  Rhine,  and  from  Loni- 
bardy,  especially  the  use  of  vaulting.  They  car- 
ried the  architecture  of  their  province  and  of 
France  with  them  to  England  with  the  Conquest, 
and  even  to  South  Italy,  where  tliey  established 
a  great  kingdom  in  the  eleventh  century.  The 
leading  characteristics  of  their  style  were  great 
size,  simplicity',  and  massiveness.  They  adopted 
the  old  Basilical  plan  of  central  and  side  aisles 
and  semicircular  apse,  though  the  square  apse 
was  sometimes  used  in  England  toward  the  close 
of  the  style.  They  seized  on  the  tower  as  a  dis- 
tinguishing feature,  and  developed  it  a.s  their 
style  progressed,  placing  one  usually  on  each  side 
of  the  facade.  The  ornaments  are  simple  and 
of  great  variety;  but  the  most  common  and  dis- 
tinctive are  the  zigzag,  billet,  chevron,  nail-head, 
etc.  The  windows  and  doors  are  simple,  with 
semicircular  arched  heads — the  former  without 
tracery.  The  tynijianum  of  the  door-arcli  is  oc- 
casionally filled  with  sculpture.  The  nave  arches 
are  carried  sometimes  on  heaN-y  single  pillars  in 
English  examples,  but  more  frequently,  espe- 
ciallj-  as  the  style  advanced,  on  piers  with  shafts. 
Owing  to  the  great  size  of  the  buildings,  the 
architects  were  unable  at  first  to  vault  the  main 
aisle,  which,  accordingly,  had  usually  a  wooden 
roof,  the  side  aisles  onl.y  being  vaulted.  In 
France,  however,  vaulting  of  the  nave  became 
common  after  1100,  though  not  in  England. 

Tlic  masonry  was  at  first  rude,  the  joints  be- 
ing large,  and  the  stones  hewn  with  the  axe;  but 
in  the  twelfth  century  the  technique  improved 
with  the  use  of  the  cliisel.  The  style  prevailed 
from  about  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century 
until  the  rise  of  Gothic  in  the  thirteenth.  There 
are  many  examples  in  Xormandy.  the  churches 
at  Caen  being  well-known  buildings  of  the  date 
of  William  the  Conqueror.  The  chapel  in  the 
white  tower  of  the  Tower  of  London  is  the  ear- 
liest example  of  pure  Xorman  work  in  England. 
The  development  of  vaulting  in  the  French  sec- 
tion of  the  Norman  school  furnished  the  models 
for  the  development  of  the  (iothic  method  of 
ribbed  vaulting,  while  the  English  section  re- 
mained stationary  and  maintained  itself  longer 
than  in  France,  until  early  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  Normans,  while  good  builders,  did 
little  in  sculpture,  painting,  or  the  minor  arts. 
HlliLiOGR.\PiiY.  The  most  important  publica- 
tion is  Ruprich-Robert,  L'nrchitecture  nnrmande 
(Paris,  1SS4-00),  which  illustrates  the  principal 
I  buildings  both  in  Normandy  and  in  F.nglnnd.  An 
I  even  fuller  illustration  is  given  in  Dehio  and 
1  Bezold,  Kirchlirhe  Baukunst  des  Abendlandes 
{      (Stuttgart,  1802). 

NOR'MANBY,  Coxstantine  Henry  Piiipps, 

'  Maniuis  of  (  17i)7-186.3) .  An  English  states- 
I  man  and  author.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  the 
I  first  Earl  ihilgrave.  He  was  educated  at  Har- 
row and  Cambridge,  and  became  member  of  Par- 
liament for  Scarborough  in  181 S.  Although  of 
a  Tory  family,  he  acted  with  the  Liberals :  his 
first  speech  was  in  favor  of  the  political  claims 


of  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  his  second  advocated 
Lord  John  KusselTs  proposals  for  Parliamentary 
reform.  He  succeeded  to  the  title  in  1831,  and 
soon  after  was  made  Governor  of  Jamaica,  where 
he  successfully  executed  the  act  for  the  emanci- 
pation of  the  slaves,  and  suppressed  without  loss 
of  life  a  mutiny  of  the  soldiers.  Returning  to 
England,  he  succeeded  the  Earl  of  Carlisle  as 
Lord  Privy  Seal  in  1834.  He  was  T-ord  Lieuten- 
ant of  Ireland  (1835-39),  and  displayed  an  im- 
partiality which  won  the  approbation  of  O'Con- 
nell.  He  was  made  a  marquis  at  the  coronation 
of  Victoria,  and  was  Colonial  .Secretary  for  a 
short  time  in  1839,  but  was  soon  transferred  to 
the  home  department,  where  he  remained  till 
1841.  From  1840  to  1852  he  was  Ambassador  at 
Paris,  and  from  1854  to  1858  at  Florence.  He 
published  A  Year  of  RecoUition  (1857),  contain- 
ing his  personal  observations  at  Paris,  and  a 
number  of  novels,  including:  Matilda  (1825), 
Yes  and  A"o    (1828),  and  The  Contrast    (1832). 

NORTVCANDY  (Fr.  yormandie) .  A  former 
province  of  France,  bordering  on  the  English 
Channel.  Its  capital  was  Rouen.  It  is  com- 
prised in  the  modern  departments  of  Seine-In- 
ffrieure,  Eure,  Orne,  Calvados,  and  La  ilanche. 
In  the  northeastern  part  of  Normandy  (formerly 
Tapper  Normandy)  are  the  towns  of  Rouen, 
Dieppe,  Havre,  Harfleur,  Honfieur,  Lisieux,  Ev- 
reux,  Yvetot;  in  the  southern  and  western  parts 
(Lower  Normandy)  arc  Caen,  the  chief  town, 
Falaise,  Saint-Lo,  Bayeux,  Coutances,  Avranches, 
Granville,  Alengon,  and  Cherbourg. 

In  the  time  of  the  Romans  the  region  was  in- 
cluded in  Gallia  LiiriduHcnsis  Srcuiida.  L'nder 
the  Frankish  monarchs  it  formed  a  part  of 
Neustria,  and  came  to  be  known  as  Normandy 
after  Charles  the  Simple,  in  911  (912?),  bail 
given  it  to  Hrolf  or  Rollo,  the  leader  of  a  band  of 
Norse  rovers  (see  Normans),  as  a  fief  of  the 
French  Crown.  From  Hrolf  (baptized  under  the 
name  of  Robert)  and  Gisela.  the  daughter  of 
Charles  the  Simple,  sprang  the  dukes  of  Nor- 
mandy, of  whom  Richard  I.  (grandson  of  Hrolf) 
vigorously  maintained  his  aiithority  against  his 
liege  lords,  Louis  IV.  and  Lothaire.  William  IL, 
son  of  Robert  II. ,  le  Diahlc.  became  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy in  1035.  and  in  lOtJO  established  a  Nor- 
man djTiasty  on  the  throne  of  England  (see  Wil- 
liam I.),  thereby  politically  luiiting  Normandy 
with  the  latter  country.  In  1077  his  eldest  son, 
Robert,  wrested  Normandy  from  him,  but  it  was 
again  united  to  England  under  Henry  I.  in  IIOG. 
With  this  monarch  the  direct  male  line  became 
extinct.  Henry  II.,  the  son  of  Henry  l.'s  daughter, 
Matilda,  after  the  death  of  Stephen  of  Blois.  ob- 
tained in  1154  the  government  of  England  and 
Normandy;  but  in  the  reign  of  his  son,  .Tohn, 
Normandy  was  conquered  by  Philip  Augustus  of 
France  (1202-04).  It  remained  a  portion  of  the 
French  monarchy  for  over  two  centuries,  save 
when  conquered  by  Edward  HI.  in  1346;  but  af- 
ter the  battle  of  Agincourt  (1415)  it  was  recon- 
quered by  the  English,  who  held  it  till  1449.  when 
it  was  finally  wrested  from  them  by  Charles  VII. 
The  Channel  Islands,  which  were  once  a  part  of 
Normandy,  have  remained  in  possession  of  Eng- 
land. Consult:  Dumoulin.  Tiisfnirr  (ifn^'ralr  dp, 
yarmnndie  (Rouen.  1631);  Gonbe,  llisloire  du 
ducli^  de  Normandie  (Rouen  and  Paris.  1815)  ; 
BartlK^lemy,  Uistoire  dp  la  Normandie  ancienne 
et  moderne   (Tours,  1857). 


NORMAN  FRENCH. 


606 


NORMAN  LAW. 


NORMAN  FRENCH.  A  Trench  dialect 
which  originated  iu  Normandy  after  the  Scandi- 
navian invaders,  under  Hollo,  had  settled  there 
about  Ull.  (See  Normandy  and  Normans.)  At 
a  very  early  d.ntc  these  Scandinavians  adopted 
the  French  lanj;uage,  together  with  French  re- 
ligion and  culture.  The  Normans  in  adopting 
French  as  a  medium  of  communication  and  for 
])urposes  of  literary  expression  retained  many 
Scanilinavian  words,  which  are  still,  though  in 
a  greatly  changed  form,  characteristic  of  this 
French  dialect.  It  is  not  always  possible,  how- 
ever, to  distinguish  these  elements,  because  the 
Norman  French  has  been  intluenced,  though 
undoubtedly  to  a  much  less  extent,  by  another 
Germanic  tongue,  the  Saxon.  The  largest  class 
of  Scandinavian  derivatives  in  Norman  French 
is  that  of  proper  names  of  persons  and  places. 
Among  the  first  of  these,  occurring  in  early 
woi'ks,  may  be  mentioned  Boudrc,  from  liuldr ; 
Ueniult,  from  Haraldr ;  Tiirijuctil,  from  Thor- 
l.clill;  ^iijiiird,  from  tUgicarth.  In  place  names 
suggestions  of  a  Danish  origin  are  numerous,  as 
in  Oanneval,  La  Dennerie.  Daiiemarche,  Dan- 
court.  Many  Northern  suHixes  occur  in  Norman 
place  names,  as  dalle  in  lirecquedalle,  bcc  in 
Cuudebcc.  Iloulhtc,  etc.,  torp.  familiar  in  English 
words  of  Northern  origin,  in  Tortiistorp,  and 
stein,  iu  Crcstein  and  (louestnin.  Among  other 
words  of  possible  Scandinavian  origin  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  noted:  bniman,  a  ueuly  married 
man;  rin  Intel,  white  wine;  rnr/ner,  to  shave  or 
rake;  lang,  seaweed.  Old  Icelandic  Ihang.  Sev- 
eral nautical  terms  in  use  in  Norman  French 
seem  to  be  of  Norse  origin,  as  hrunt,  the  bow  of 
a  ship,  Old  Norse  hrandr,  esctiif,  a  ship ;  hiine, 
top  of  a  nutst.  Old  Icelandic  hunn.  A  few  of  these 
words  have  passed  into  standard  French,  but 
most  of  them  are  used  only  dialcctically.  Nor- 
man French  is  also  distinguished  by  its  sounds, 
])romincnt  among  which  is  the  pronunciation  of 
initial  h,  which  in  the  other  French  dialects  is 
silent.  During  the  early  period  Norman  French 
plaj'cd  an  important  part  in  French  literature, 
some  of  the  most  important  monuments  being 
written  in  this  dialect. 

Of  greater  interest  to  English  readers  than 
the  peculiarities  of  Norman  French  at  home  is 
its  development  in  England  after  the  Conquest. 
In  order  to  distinguish  between  the  French  used 
on  the  Continent  and  that  used  in  England,  the 
latter  is  often  called  Anglo-Norman  or  Anglo- 
French,  of  which  terms  the  seccmd  is  now  the 
moie  generally  used.  One  of  the  most  obvious 
of  these  inllucnees  in  the  ca.se  of  Anglo-French 
was  the  introduction  of  English  words,  especially 
those  that  expressed  specilically  English  ideas, 
for  which  no  French  word  existed.  The  pro- 
nunciation, too,  was  influenced  by  the  English, 
especially  in  connection  with  the  accent.  The 
inlUience  of  French  had  begun  before  the  Con- 
quest, as  a  result  of  the  strong  French  sym- 
pathies of  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  for  several 
centuries  after  the  Conquest  French  continued 
to  be  the  Court  language.  A  considerable  French 
literature  wa.s  produced  in  England,  both  in 
poetry  and  prose,  and  many  works  of  a  non- 
literary  character,  such  ns  law  codes,  wills,  etc., 
have  been  preserved.  JIany  French  words  were 
borrowed,  forming  the  first  period  of  the  French 
element. 

The  best  popular  account  of  the  Anglo-French 
is    found    in    Skent,   Principles   of   English    Ety- 


mology, second  series  (Oxford,  1891).  The 
best  technical  treatment  is  by  D.  Behrens,  ia 
Paul's  (rrundriss  dcr  germanisclien  I'liiloloyie  (2d 
ed.  1897).  There  is  no  complete  dictionary  of 
Anglo-French,  though  a  number  of  texts  have 
been  edited.  L'seful  lists  of  English  words  found 
iu  Anglo-French  have  been  ]niblished  by  Skeat 
{ 1882-89) .  The  question  of  the  intluencc  of  Scan- 
dinavian culture  on  the  Normans  has  been  dis- 
cussed from  opposite  sides  by  Le  llericher.  Lea 
tictindinaies  en  yormandie  (Paris,  1877),  and  A. 
Fabricius,  Danske  Minder  i  Xormandiet  (Copen- 
hagen, 1897). 

NORMAN  LAW.  When,  about  911.  Charles 
the  Sinqilc  ceded  to  the  Scandinavian  pirate  Hrolf, 
or  KoUo,  that  portion  of  Neustria  which  was 
thenceforth  known  as  the  Duchy  of  Normandy, 
the  institutions  and  customs  of  the  country  were 
Frankish.  These  institutions  and  customs  the 
conciuerors  apparentl,v  accepted,  for  there  is  little 
trace  in  the  later  Norman  law  of  Scanilinavian 
iuUuences.  Some  at  least  of  the  Frankish  im- 
perial institutions  were  more  fully  preserved 
under  the  Norman  dukes  tlian  in  other  parts  of 
France.  Our  knowledge,  however,  of  Norman 
law  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  is  very 
im])erfect;  it  is  based  largely  on  inferences  from 
earlier  Frankish  and  later  Anglo-Norman  scnirces. 

For  the  period  from  the  Norman  conquest  of 
England  in  IO(i(i  to  the  French  conquest  of  Nor- 
mandy in  1202-(I4  we  have  considerable  material; 
we  have  twelfth  century  documents  (printed  by 
Bigelow  as  an  appendix  to  his  History  of  Proce- 
dure in  England,  1880)  and  more  or  less  com- 
plete Exchequer  Kolls  of  various  dates  from  1180 
to  1203  (published  by  Stapleton,  with  valuable 
observations,  1840,  1844).  That  the  organization 
of  the  exchequer  was  originally  Norman  and  not 
English  is  shown  bv  its  existence  in  tlie  Norman 
Kingdom  of  Sicily  in  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth 
century.  .\s  later  in  England.  ex(he(|uer  was  a 
judicial  as  well  as  an  administrative  authority, 
and  from  the  time  of  Henry  I.  it  included  trained 
lawyers.  Like  the  Frankish  emperors,  the  Nor- 
man dukes  sent  out  mi.isi.  or  itinerant  justices, 
who  held  court  in  various  parts  of  the  duchy. 
In  the  ducal  court  an<l  in  the  circuit  courts  proce- 
dure was  initiated  by  ducal  writ  (brere),  and 
proof  by  wager  of  battle  was  supplanted  by  an 
inquest  of  the  vicinage.  This  was  a  further  de- 
velopment of  the  Frankish  im/nixilio ;  and  the 
Norman  'jury  of  proof,'  as  Brunner  calls  it, 
was  transferred  to  England  and  l)ecame  the  jury 
of  judgment.  That  in  other  respects  the  in- 
fluence of  Nornian  law  upon  English  law  was 
very  great  is  universall.v  admitted:  but  there 
is  as  yet  no  agreement  as  to  the  extent  to  which 
it  superseded  the  older  Saxon  law. 

When  Philip  .Augustus  conquered  Normandy 
he  promised  that  tjie  duchy  should  preserve  its 
privileges.  Shortly  befori'.  about  1200.  a  private 
compilation  had  been  made,  known  as  the  Slaluta 
et  Cdnsnehidines  Xormannia-.  To  this  was  added, 
about  1218,  a  Trnetntus  de  lirrribu.i  el  Rerngni- 
tinnibus.  Later  in  the  same  century  apjieared 
compilations  of  judgments  rendi'red  in  the  ex- 
chequer an<l  of  judgments  rendered  in  assize.  The 
most  complete  statement  of  Norman  law,  how- 
ever, is  the  Grand  Coutumirr  dr  \nrinandir,  de- 
scribed in  the  oldest  Latin  texts  as  tbi-  Siininia 
de  Ijei/ibiis  .Vo/xuiiuiiir  or  Jura  el  Consueludinet 
Stinnannia:  See  Gband  CoutumIEB  OF  NOB* 
MA  NOV. 


NORMAN  LAW. 


607 


NORMANS. 


Gradually,  by  judicial  interpretation,  the  law 
of  Normandy  was  assimilated  to  that  of  Paris 
and  of  Northern  France  generally.  Not  only 
were  the  courts  filled  with  French  judges,  but 
cases  were  carried  to  the  Parliament  in  Paris. 
U'he  notes  or  glosses  which  acconi]iany  the  fif- 
teenth century  copies  of  the  (Inuid  Voutuinkr 
misinterpret  some  passages  and  declare  that 
others  are  no  longer  in  force.  About  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century  Guillaume  Terrien  wrote 
a  commentary  on  the  laws  of  Normandy,  which 
wa.s  printed  in  1574.  This  work  and  the  original 
Grand  Couttnnier  still  constitute  the  basis  of  the 
law  of  the  English  Channel  Islands. 

In  1577  Henr.v  HI.  ordered  that  a  new  coutume 
be  drawn  up  for  Normandy.  The  royal  commis- 
sioners stated  in  their  report  that  the  old  cou- 
tume  was  largely  unintelligible  and  for  the  most 
part  no  longer  in  use;  and  in  their  revision  they 
omitted  some  of  the  most  important  institutions, 
which  give  to  the  Norman  law  its  historical  im- 
portance, including  the  incompletely  developed 
jury.  The  new  coutiime  remained  in  force  until 
the  Code  Napoleon  gave  France  a  common  law. 

Bibliography.  Brunner,  Das  awjlonorman- 
nischc  Erhfolgesystem  (Leipzig,  I8G9)  ;  id..  Die 
Entstc.hung  der  Schwiirgerichlc  (Berlin,  1871); 
id..  "Die  tjuellen  des  normannisehen  Rechts,"  in 
HoItzendorlV.  Enciildojmdir  dcr  Ix'rrlilstrissrn- 
srliaft  (5th  ed.,  Leipzig,  ISOO)  ;  and  "Die  (>)uellen 
lies  angionormannisclien  Rechts"  (ibid.)  ;  Pollock 
and  Maitland,  Eistory  of  English  Law  (2d  ed., 
Boston,  1899).  Both  in  Brunner's  encycloprpdia 
articles  and  in  Pollock  and  Maitland  full  refer- 
ences are  given  to  the  sources  and  the  older  liter- 
ature. 

NORMANN,  nor'man,  Ellert  Adelsten 
(1848 — ).  A  Norwegian  landscape  painter,  bom 
at  Bodii.  He  studied  (1809-73)  umler  Eugen 
Diicker  at  the  Academy  in  Diisseldorf,  whence  he 
afterwards  made  annual  trips  to  his  native  coun- 
try. The  Norwegian  fjords  and  their  majestic 
surroundings  furnished  the  themes  for  most  of 
his  works,  executed  with  truly  poetic  conception 
and  luminous  in  color.  In  1887  he  removed  to 
Berlin,  where  his  style  gradually  changed  to  a 
more  realistic  treatment.  His  best  known  views 
include:  "Harbor  of  Bodij"  (Diisseldorf  Gallery) , 
"Midnight  in  Lofoten  Islands"  ( Cologne  Mu- 
seum), "Romsdals  Fjord"  (Stockholm  ■\luseum), 
"Summer  Night  in  Lofoten  Islands"  (National 
Gallery,  Berlin),  "Narii  Fjord"  (Dresden  Gal- 
lery and  Museo  Civico,  Turin),  "Sogne  Fjord" 
(Rudol[)hinum,  Prague,  and  National  ^Mu.seum, 
Budapest) . 

NORMANS  (OF.  ^■ormaji.  ^^ormand,  from 
Dan.  Xormand,  Icel.  Norpma\>r,  Northman,  from 
Icel.,  AS.  norf .  OHG.  nord.  Ger.  Nord,  north, 
probably  connected  with  Umbrian  nrrtro,  to  the 
left,  Gk.  vipTcpot.  ncrtcros,  lower  +  nta]>)\  Goth. 
manna.  AS.,  OHG.  man,  Ger.  Mann,  man).  A 
name  generally  restricted  in  its  application  to 
those  sea  rovers  who  established  themselves  in 
the  part  of  France  called,  after  them,  Normandy; 
but  sometimes  embracing  also  the  early  inhal)it- 
ants  of  Norway.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the 
name  Northmen,  or  Norsemen,  was  often  used  in 
a  broader  sense,  to  denote  the  entire  population 
of  .Scandinavia.  The  Germans  and  French  called 
the  piratical  hordes  who  ravaged  their  shores 
Normans  or  Northmen:  the  Saxons,  usually 
Danes  or  Eastmen.    Thev  were  also  distinguished 


by  the  latter  as  Mark{oi  March)men  (from  Den- 
tnark),  as  As/i-men  (i.e.  men  of  the  (w/tt/i-sliips) , 
and  as  the  Heathen.  The  primary  cause  of  the 
jilundering  expeditions  southward  and  westward 
across  the  seas,  undertaken  by  the  Norse  Vikings, 
■Sea-Kings,'  was  doubtless  the  overpopulation 
and  consequent  scarcity  of  food  in  their  native 
homes;  besides,  the  relish  for  a  life  of  warlike 
adventure,  conjoined  with  the  hope  of  rich  booty, 
strongly  attracted  them.  P^inally,  discontent  with 
the  ever-increasing  power  of  the  greater  chiefs 
or  kings  induced  many  of  the  nobles  with  their 
followers  to  seek  new  homes. 

The  fir.st  Danish  Norsemen  made  their  appear- 
ance on  the  eastern  and  southern  coasts  of  Eng- 
land about  787.  In  795  they  settled  in  some  of 
the  towns  on  the  coast  of  Ireland.  After  832 
their  invasions  of  England  were  repeated  almost 
every  year.  In  851  they  wintered  for  the  first 
time  in  the  island,  and  after  800  obtained  firm 
footing  there.  The  Anglo-,Saxon  Ethelred  1.  fought 
valiantly  against  them.  His  brother,  Alfred  the 
Great  (q.v. ),  after  a  long  and  doubtful  struggle, 
partially  reduced  them  to  subjection ;  neverthe- 
less, he  was  compelled  to  leave  them  in  possession 
of  Northumbria  and  East  Anglia,  and  had  not 
only  to  defend  himself  against  a  new  and  fierce 
invasion  led  by  the  famous  rover  Hastings  (q.v.), 
but  to  contend  against  the  revolts  of  his  Dano- 
Norman  subjects,  which  continued  to  trouble  his 
immediate  successors.  A  period  of  external  peace 
ensued;  but  in  991  the  invasions  of  the  Danes  and 
Norwegians  began  anew.  The  Saxon  King,  Ethel- 
red  II.,  at  first  sought  to  buy  them  off  by  paying  a 
sort  of  tribute  money,  called  Danegeld  (q.v.)  ;  but 
the  massacre  of  the  Danes  living  in  England,  by 
command  of  that  monarch,  November  13,  1002, 
was  avenged  by  four  expeditions  under  the  Danish 
King,  .Sweyn,  who  frightfully  wasted  the  country, 
and  finally  conquered  it  in  1013,  dying  the  fol- 
lowing year.  His  son,  Knut,  or  Canute  (q.v.), 
after  carrying  on  a  struggle  for  the  supreme 
power  with  Ethelred  and  his  successor  Edmund 
Ironside  (q.v.),  at  length,  on  the  death  of  the 
latter,  became  sole  monarch  of  England,  which 
now  remained  under  Danish  or  Norse  rulers  till 
1042.  The  government  of  the  country  then  re- 
verted into  the  Saxon  hands  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor (q.v.),  who  was  succeeded  in  1000  by 
Harold  II.  (q.v,).  son  of  the  powerful  (ioilwin 
(q.v.) .  Earl  of  Wessex;  but  in  October  of  the  same 
year  Harold  lost  his  life  and  crown  at  the  battle 
of  Hastings,  and  William  the  Conqueror,  a  de- 
scendant of  a  Norwegian  chief  who  had  settled 
in  Normand}',  once  more  established  a  Norse 
dynasty  on  the  throne  of  England. 

It  was  also  Danish  Norsemen,  in  particular, 
who  ravaged  the  western  coasts  of  the  European 
mainland,  from  the  Elbe  to  the  Garonne.  As 
early  as  810  the  Danish  King,  Gottfried,  had 
overrun  Friesland ;  but  the  power  of  Charles  the 
Great  was  too  much  for  these  undisciplined  bar- 
barians, and  they  were  overawed  and  subdued  for 
a  time.  .Soon  after  his  death,  however,  they  re- 
commenced (c.820)  their  piratical  expeditions, 
and.  favored  by  the  w-eaj;ness  and  dissensions 
of  the  Carolingian  rulers,  became,  during  the 
ninth  century,  the  terror  and  scourge  of  North- 
western Germany  and  France.  They  plundered 
Hamburg  several  times,  ravaged  the  coasts  of 
the  Frisians  (whose  country  then  extended  as  far 
as  the  Scheldt),  and  in  843  firmly  planted  them- 
selves  at   the   mouth    of   the   Loire.      Ere    long 


NORMANS. 


608 


NORNS. 


they  swarmeil  up  the  great  rivers  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  country,  which  they  devastated  far 
and  wide.  In  842  tliey  were  at  Rouen.  In  845 
they  ascended  tlie  Seine  and  plundered  Paris — an 
exploit  which  was  frequently  repeated.  In  885 
not  less  than  40,000  of  these  Vikings,  in  700  ves- 
sels, are  said  to  have  ascended  the  river  from 
Kouen,  under  the  leadership  of  one  Siegfried,  and 
besieged  the  cajHtal  for  ten  months.  It  was  only 
saved  at  the  expense  of  Burgundy,  which  was 
abandoned  to  their  ravages.  In  881  Louis  III., 
King  of  the  West  Franks,  inflicted  a  severe  defeat 
on  the  invaders  at  \ineu,  near  Abbeville,  in 
I'ieardy;  but  neither  that  nor  the  repulse  which 
they  sustained  from  the  brave  German  monarch 
Ariiulf  near  Louvain  in  801  could  hinder  them 
from  making  fresh  irruptions.  In  8!)2  they  ap- 
peared before  Bonn,  and  tradition  says  that  bands 
of  Danish  rovers  ])enctrated  even  into  Switzer- 
land, and  established  themselves  in  the  Canton  of 
Schwyz  and  the  Vale  of  Hasli.  From  their  settle- 
ments in  Aquitania  they  proceeded  at  an  early 
period  to  Spain,  plundered  the  coasts  of  Galieia 
in  844,  and  subsequently  landed  in  Andalusia, 
but  were  defeated  near  Seville  by  the  Arab  prince 
AbdurRahman.  In  859-800  they  forced  their 
way  into  the  Mediterranean,  ])lundered  the  shores 
of  Spain,  Africa,  and  the  Balearic  Isles,  and 
penetrated  up  the  Rhone  as  far  as  Valence;  then, 
turning  their  piratical  |irows  in  the  direction  of 
Italy,  entered  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  burned  Pisa 
and  Lucca,  and  actually  touched  distant  Greece 
before  their  passion  for  destruction  was  satiated. 
Doubtless  Norwegian  rovers  also  took  part  in 
these  so-called  Danish  expeditions.  We  know 
that  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  cen- 
turv  they  made  voyages  to  the  north  of  Ireland, 
Sco'tland",  the  Hebrides,  the  Orkney  and  Shetland 
Isles;  and  the  increasing  power  of  Harald  Uaar- 
fagr  (q.v.),  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries, 
exciting  great  discontent  among  the  smaller 
chiefs,  great  emigrations  took  place,  and  these 
islands  became  the  new  homes  of  these  Norwegian 
Vikings.  About  the  same  period  colonies  were 
settled  in  the  Faroe  Isles  and  Icelaml,  from  which 
some  Vikings  proceeded  westward  across  the 
North  Atlantic  to  Greenland  about  1183,  and 
thence  alxiut  20  years  later  southward  to  a 
region  which  they  called  ]'iithi»<l,  believed  by 
some  to  be  the  coast  of  Canada  or  of  New  Eng- 
land, thus  probably  anticipating  the  discovery  of 
America  by  Columlius  by  nearly  500  years.  From 
Norway  also  issued  the  last  and  most  important 
expedition  against  the  coast  of  France.  It  was 
led  by  Hrolf  or  Rollo  (q.v.).  Hrolf  forced  Charles 
the  Simple  to  grant  him  possession  of  all  the  land 
in  the  valley  of  the  Seine,  from  the  Eple  and  Eure 
to  the  sea'  (911  or  912).  The  invaders  firmly 
planted  themselves  in  the  country,  which  hence- 
forth went  by  the  name  of  Normandy  ((].v.). 
They  and  their  descendants  are,  strictly  speak- 
ing, the  Normans  of  history.  They  rapidly  adopt- 
ed the  more  civilized  form  of  life  tliat  prevailed 
in  the  Frankish  kingdom— its  religion,  language, 
and  manners.  .\t  a  later  ])eriod,  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, they  even  develoi)ed  a  great  school  of  nar- 
rative poetry,  whose  cultivators,  the  Trouiciirs, 
or  Trouvcrcs,  rivaled  in  celebrity  (he  lyrical  trou- 
badours of  Southern  France.  But  though  the 
Normans  had  acquired  comparatively  settled 
habits  in  France,  the  old  passion  for  adventure 
was  still  strong  in  their  binod  ;  and  in  the  course 
of  the  eleventh  century  many  nobles  with  their 


followers  betook  themselves  to  Southern  Italy, 
where  the  strifes  of  the  native  princes,  Greek  and 
Arab,  opened  up  a  tine  prospect  for  ambitions 
designs.  In  1059  Robert  Gui.scard  (q.v.),  one  of 
the  ten  sons  of  the  Norman  Count  Tancrcd  de 
Ilauteville,  all  of  whom  had  gone  thither,  was 
recognized  by  Pope  Nicholas  II.  as  Duke  of  .\pu- 
lia  and  Calabria.  His  brotlier  and  liegeman. 
Roger,  conquered  Sicily.  Roger  II.  of  Sicily 
united  the  two  dominions  in  1127  and  in  IKiO 
assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Sicily;  but  in  the 
person  of  his  grandson,  William  II„  the  Norman 
dvTiasty  became  extinct,  and  the  kingdom  passed 
into  tiie  hands  of  the  Hohenstautlen  family. 
These  Normans  of  Italy  played  also  a  consider- 
able role  in  the  Crusades,  especially  in  the  first, 
of  which  Bohemund  I.  (q.v.)  and  Tancred  (q.v.) 
were  among  the  principal  leaders.  See  CKi'.s.\nE. 
The  Swedish  Norsemen  directed  their  expedi- 
tions chielly  against  the  eastern  coasts  of  the 
Baltic — Courland.  Estlidnia.  and  Finland — where 
they  made  their  appearance  in  the  ninth  century, 
at  the  very  time  when  their  Danish  and  Nor- 
wegian brethren  were  roving  over  the  North  Sea, 
the  English  Channel,  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and 
were  establishing  themselves  on  the  shores  of 
England  and  France.  Acconling  to  the  narra- 
tive of  the  Russian  annalist  Nestor,  they  ajipear 
to  have  penetrated  into  the  interior  as  far  as 
Novgorod,  whence  they  W('re  quickly  lianished  by 
the  native  Slavic  and  Finnish  inhabitants,  but 
were  as  quickly  solicited  to  return  and  assume 
the  reins  of  government.  Rurik  (q.v.)  founded 
one  kingdom  at  Novgorod  (8(52),  which  stretched 
northward  as  far  as  the  White  Sea.  His  successor, 
Oleg,  united  with  that  a  second,  established  by 
other  Swedish  adventurers  at  Kiev.  (See  Rus- 
SIA.)  For  a  long  period  these  Norsemen,  who, 
it  appears,  became  completely  identified  with 
their  Slavic-speaking  subjects  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, were  dangerous  enemies  of  the  Byzantine 
Kni])ire.  whose  coasts  they  reached  by  way  of 
the  Black  Sea,  and  whose  capital,  Constantinople, 
they  frequently  menaced,  as.  for  instance,  when 
Igor  is  said  to  have  appeared  before  the  city 
with  upward  of  1000  ships  or  boats,  about  the 
middle  of  the  tenth  century.  Earlier  in  the 
same  century  these  warriors  had  fouml  their 
way  into  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  actually  |ipne- 
trated  as  far  as  Persia.  Partly  from  them  and 
partly  from  native  Scandinavians  came  those 
soldiers  who  from  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury formed  the  bodygmird  of  the  Byzantine  em- 
perors, the  celebrated  Varangians  (q.v.).  Con- 
sult: Depping,  flinloirr  dru  rxjUililions  iiiori- 
timcs  rfc.s  Xormand-s  (2d  ed..  Paris,  1,843)  ;  Free- 
man, Historii  of  the  yonniin  Comiiirxl  (Oxford, 
]807-7(>)  ;  Dclarc,  Lcs  ynrmnndx  en  ItnUr  (Paris, 
1883)  :  Keary.  ViLinps  in  BV.s/rni  Chrixlrmlom 
(London.  1891):  Du  Chaillu,  ViAin(7  .4src  (New 
York.  1890)  :  Oman,  History  of  the  Art  of  War 
(Lnndnn.    18!I8». 

NORMANTON,  ni".r'mon-ton.  .V  town  in  the 
West  Rilling  of  Yorkshire,  England,  near  the 
Calder,  eight  miles  southeast  of  Leeds  (Map: 
England,  E  .1).  It  is  an  important  railway 
junction,  and  has  coal-mining  industries  and  iron 
works.  Population,  in  1891.  10.200;  in  1901. 
12.3.50. 

NOBNS  (Icel.  .A'oniir,  Fates).  The  Fate-  of 
the  Scandinavian  mythology-.  They  were  three 
young    women,    by    name    L'rd,    X'erdandi,    and 


NORNS. 


609 


NORRISTOWN. 


Skuld — i.e.  past,  present,  anil  future.  They  sit 
by  tlie  UrJarwoll  under  the  worhltree  Ygjidrasil, 
and  there  determine  tlie  fate  both  of  pods  and 
men.  Every  day  tliey  draw  water  from  tlie 
sprhif;.  and  with  it  and  the  clay  that  lies  around 
the  wells  sprinkle  the  ash-tree  Vggdrasil,  that 
its  branches  may  not  rot  and  wither  away. 
Besides  these  three  great  norns,  there  are  also 
many  inferior  ones,  both  good  and  bad;  for, 
~ays  the  prose  Edda.  when  a  man  is  born  there 
is  a  norn  to  determine  his  fate;  and  the  same 
authority  tells  us  that  the  unequal  destinies  of 
men  in  the  world  are  attributable  to  the  different 
dispositions  of  the  norns.  These  lesser  norns 
corresponded  to  the  genii  of  classic  mythology. 
Women  -who  possessed  the  power  of  prediction 
or  magic  also  bore  this  name. 

NORONA,  no-ro'nya,  Ga.spar  IfARL^  nE  Nava 
Alvarez,  Conde  de  (1760-1815).  A  Spanish  poet 
niul  soldier,  born  at  Castellon  de  la  Plana.  He 
~(  rved  with  distinction  at  the  siege  of  Gibraltar 
and  afterwards  was  made  lieutenant-general.  He 
liad  meanwhile  been  Ambassador  to  Russia.  At  the 
time  of  the  French  invasion  he  was  Governor  of 
Cadiz.  His  works  include:  Madnnin  Gonzales,  a 
tragedy;  El  hombre  marcial  and  El  cortejo 
rnrcdndor.  comedies;  Poesias  (1799)  ;  and  Omini- 
iiila  (1810),  an  epic  poem  of  15,000  verses,  pro- 
nounced very  dull  reading.  A  selection  of  his 
works  is  found  in  Bibliotcca  de  autores  espa- 
iiolcs.  vol.  Ixiii.    (Madrid.   1871). 

NOR'RIDGEWOCK  (properly  Nailrantsicak, 
where  tlie  river  falls  again).  A  tribe  of  Algon- 
(piian  stock  (q.v. ),  the  leading  member  of  the 
Alinaki  (q.v.)  confederacy.  Their  principal  vil- 
lage, which  bore  the  tribal  name,  was  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Kennebec  River,  just  below  the 
rapids  at  Indian  Old  Point,  near  the  present  Nor- 
ridgewock,  iiaine.  Their  territory  embraced  the 
H'hole  Kennebec  River  region  nearly  to  the  coast, 
whence  they  were  frequently  called  Kennebec  In- 
dians. The  French  established  a  mission  at  Nor- 
ridgewock  in  1688,  and  in  1095  the  .Jesuit  Rasle 
took  u])  his  residence  there,  where  he  remained 
for  the  rest  of  his  life,  and  succeeded  in  attach- 
ing the  trilje  so  warmly  to  the  French  cause 
that  they  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  most  dan- 
gerous enemies  of  the  English  colonists.  In 
1724  an  expedition  was  sent  against  the  settle- 
ment, which  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  the 
village  and  the  dispersion  of  the  tribe,  Rasle 
liiniself  being  shot.  A  part  of  the  fugitive  Nor- 
ridgewock  afterwards  returned  and  rebuilt  their 
village,  but  on  a  second  attack  by  the  English 
in  1749  they  retired  to  Canada,  mo.st  of  them 
joining  the  other  New  England  refugees  at  Saint 
Francis. 

NOR'RIS,  Edwin  (1705-1872).  An  English 
Orientalist,  born  in  Taunton,  Somerset.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  to  decipher  the  Assyrian  cunei- 
form inscriptions,  was  intimately  associated  with 
Rawlinson  at  various  times,  and  published  three 
parts  of  an  Assiirinn  Dirtionari/  (1868-72).  His 
other  works  include  studies  of  African  dialects, 
an  Ellindfirnphical  Librriri/.  of  which,  under  his 
cditorshi]),  there  appeared  two  volumes,  and  The 
Anrient  Cornish  Drama  (1859),  with  an  essay 
on  Cornish  gi'ammar. 

NORRIS,  Frank  (1870-1902).  An  American 
novelist,  born  in  Chicago,  111.  He  studied  art 
in  Paris  from  1887  to  1889.  and  pursued  literary 
courses  at  the  University  of  California  and  at 


Harvard.  Ybcrvillc,  a  storj-  of  Spanish  life  in 
old  California,  appeared  in  1891.  He  was  corre- 
spondent in  South  Africa  for  the  San  Francisco 
Chronicle  at  the  time  of  the  .Jameson  Raid, 
in  1896  and  1897  edited  the  San  Francisco 
Wave,  and  in  1898  was  a  war  correspondent  in 
Cuba.  ilcTeague  (1899),  a  realistic  story,  was 
his  first  novel  to  attract  attention.  Moran  of  the 
Lady  Eetfi/  (1000)  is  a  story  of  adventure  off 
the  California  coast.  I'he  Octopus,  the  first  novel 
of  a  trilogy  embodying  an  "epic  of  the  wheat,' 
was  published  in  1901.  It  concerns  the  growing 
of  the  wheat  and  arraigns  the  oppressive  methods 
of  railroad  monopoly  a.s  existing  in  California. 
The  Pit  (1903)  deals  with  the  battles  over  the 
exchange  of  the  wheat.  The  last  part,  Tkc  Wolf, 
as  planned,  was  to  depict  the  struggle  for  the 
wheat  in  a  famine-stricken  community  in  Europe. 
At  the  time  of  his  death  he  held  a  position  as 
literarv  adviser  in  a  publishing  house  in  New 
York  City. 

NORRIS,  Henry  (J-1536).  An  English  cour- 
tier, son  of  Sir  Edward  Norris  of  Norreys.  As 
a  young  man  he  became  a  favorite  with  Henry 
VIII.,  and  was  an  opponent  of  Wolscy,  to  whose 
fall  he  contributed.  Norris's  attempts  to  ad- 
vance Anne  Boleyn  were  entirely  successful,  but 
his  intimacy  witli  her  gave  his  enemies  at  court 
a  means  of  attack.  He  was  accused  of  an  intrigue 
with  her,  quite  unjustly  it  would  seem,  and  was 
executed  in  1536.  His  son  became  Baron  Norris 
of  Rycote. 

NORRIS,  William  Edward  (1847—).  An 
English  novelist,  born  in  London.  After  going 
through  Eton  he  went  to  the  Continent  to  study 
languages,  with  the  intenticm  of  entering  the 
diplomatic  service,  but,  changing  his  plans,  he 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1874,  though  he  has  never  practiced.  His  short 
stories,  contributed  to  the  Cornhitl  Magazine, 
attracted  the  especial  notice  of  the  editor,  Leslie 
Stephen,  by  whom  he  was  encouraged  to  attempt 
the  longer  novel.  Heaps  of  Money  ( 1877 )  was 
followed  by  Mademoiselle  de  Mersac,  a  serial  in 
Cornhill  for  1879,  and  Matrimony  (1880),  a 
novel  showing  fine  discrimination  in  character- 
drawing.  Among  his  other  novels  are:  A'o  JVfW 
Thing  (1882);  Thirlby  Ball  (1883);  Adrian 
Vidal  (1884);  A  Bachelor's  Blunder  (1885); 
My  Friend  Jim  (1886);  Major  and  Minor 
(1887)  :  The  Rogue  {ISSS)  ;  Miss  l^hafto  (1889)  ; 
Mrs.  Fenton  (1889);  Marcia  (1890);  Mr. 
Chaine's  Sons  (1891);  77 is  flraec  (1892);  A 
Deplorable  Affair  (1893)  ;  The  Dancer  in  Yellow 
(1800)  ;  Clarissa  Furiosa  (1897)  ;  The  Widoicer 
(1808)  ;  Giles  Ingilby(\8S9)  ;  An  Octave  ( 1900)  ; 
Lord  Leoneird  the  Luckless   (1903). 

NOR'RISTOWN.  A  borough  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Jlontgomery  County,  Pa.,  18  miles  west 
by  north  of  Philadelphia:  on  the  Schuylkill 
River,  the  Schuylkill  Canal,  and  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  rail- 
roads (Alap:  Pennsylvania,  F  3).  It  is  beauti- 
fully situated  among  hills  and  on  the  Schuylkill 
and"  two  tributaries,  and  is  popular  as  a  place 
of  residence.  Among  the  institutions  here  are 
the  coimty  prison,  the  Norristown  Hospital  for 
the  Insane  (State),  Charity  Hospital,  the  Agnes 
Stinson  Home  for  Aged  Ladies,  p'ricnds'  Home, 
Saint  Joseph's  Protectory  (Roman  Catholic)  for 
girls,  llcCann  Library  (public),  and  jMontgom- 
ery  County  Historical  Society.     Other  prominent 


NORKISTOWN. 


610 


NORTH. 


buildings  and  places  of  interest  are  the  county 
court  house,  municipal  building,  high  school, 
ilasonic  Temple,  ilontgomery  Cemetery,  with  a 
tomb  of  Geu.  \V.  S.  Hancock  and  a  shaft  to  Gen. 
John  F.  Hartranft,  the  Schuylkill  J5ridge  (1829), 
and  Valley  Forge,  but  six  miles  distant.  Norris- 
town  is  in  a  rich  agricultural  and  mining  re- 
gion, and  has  extensive  manufactures  of  glass, 
wire,  screws,  iron,  hosiery,  knitting  machines, 
shirts,  etc.  The  government  is  administered  by 
a  burgess,  elected  every  three  years,  and  a  xmi- 
camcral  council,  which  controls  elections  of  sub- 
ordinate municipal  departments.  The  borough 
owns  and  operates  its  electric  light  plant.  Found- 
ed in  1785  and  named  in  honor  of  Isaac  Xorris, 
who  had  formerly  owned  a  large  part  of  the  land 
in  tills  vicinity,  Norristown  was  incorporated  as 
a  borough  in  1812,  its  pop\ilation  then  being 
about  .jUO.  It  was  enlarged  in  1853.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  earliest  settlement  here  was  in 
1088  by  Friends  from  Wales.  Population,  in 
18;K),  rst.Tni  :  in  1900,  22,265. 

NORRKOPING,  nOr'che-ping.  A  seaport  on 
the  east  coast  of  Sweden,  situated  at  the  head 
of  the  Bri'ivik,  75  miles  southwest  of  Stockholm 
(Map:  Sweden,  G  7).  It  is  regularly  laid  out 
with  streets  crossing  at  right  angles,  and  has 
several  beautiful  parks,  squares,  and  promenades. 
There  are  many  fine  modern  buildings,  among 
the  best  of  which  are  the  almost  palatial  public 
schools,  the  new  Church  of  Saint  Matthew,  the 
city  hall,  and  the  labor  lyceum.  The  ilotala, 
which  Hows  through  the  town,  is  extensively 
utilized  for  water  power,  and  Norrkoping  is  one 
of  the  foremost  nuiuufacturing  towns  of  Sweden. 
In  1900  there  were  175  factories,  whose  products 
for  the  year  were  valued  at  $9.0.50.000.  The 
most  imj)ortant  nuuiufactures  are  woolen  and 
cotton  textiles,  paper,  tapestries,  and  sugar. 
Norrkoping  is  also  one  of  the  most  im])ortant 
commercial  ports  in  the  country.  Us  harbor 
admits  the  largest  vessels.  The  shipping  in  1899 
amounted  to  nearly  375,000  tons.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  manufactured  goods,  grain,  wood,  and 
dairy  products.  Population,  in  1890,  32,826;  in 
19ll(i.  41.008. 

NORRLAND,  nOr'lant.  The  northernmost 
and  largest,  but  least  populous,  of  the  three 
historical  divisions  of  Sweden.  It  extends  south 
as  far  as  Gelle.  and  has  an  area  of  80,785  sijuare 
iiiib-.  Willi  a  pnpiilali.)!!  in   liKll   of  800,254. 

NORSEMEN,  or  NORTHMEN.  See  Nor- 
ma n.s. 

NORSE  MYTHOLOGY.  See  ,EsiR;  Scan- 
dinavian  .Mythology. 

NORTH,  (iiiRisTOPiiER.  The  pseudonym  of 
tlic  part  author  of  the  yoctes  Amhrosianw,  John 
Wilscn    ((|.v.). 

NORTH,  Francis,  Baron  Guilford  (1637-85). 
A  celebrated  English  jurist.  He  was  born  No- 
vember 2,  l(i37.  the  third  son  of  the  fourth  Lord 
North.  Prejudiced  against  Presbyterians  by  the 
sternness  of  his  early  teachers.  North  was  con- 
firnie<I  in  this  feeling  by  Dr.  Stevens,  a  sturdy 
Royalist,  heail  of  the  school  at  Bury  Saint  Ed- 
mund, where  he  finished  his  preparation  for  col- 
lege. Matriculated  at  Saint  .tohn's  College.  Cam- 
bridge, he  withdrew  in  two  years  to  become  a 
student  of  law  in  the  Middle  Temple.  He  was 
admitted  to  its  practice  in  1601,  and  as  he  had 
always  been  n   sl\ident  of  great  application,  he 


soon  gained  a  high  rank  at  the  bar.  Inde»d,  his 
rise  in  favor  at  the  Court  was  so  rapid  that  he 
has  been  accused  of  using  unworthy  means  to 
gain  his  end.  He  became  Solicitor-General  in 
1071,  Attorney-Cieneral  in  1073,  and  Lord  Chief 
Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas  in  1675.  In  1682 
he  was  made  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal. 
With  other  members  of  the  Court  party  he  was 
hostile  to  Titus  Gates,  and  as  juilge  ruled  in 
such  a  manner  against  Stephen  College  that  it 
aided  in  securing  a  death  .sentence.  This  act 
constitutes  the  most  serious  blot  on  his  fame  as 
a  judge,  for  in  most  cases  his  decisions  were 
marked  by  their  ability  and  justice.  He  was  a 
Royalist,  true  to  Charles  II.  at  all  times.  In 
1083  he  entered  the  House  of  Lords  as  Baron 
Guilford,  but  took  little  part  in  its  proceed- 
ings. He  was  a  man  of  vast  knowledge  and  wide 
culture,  an  excellent  musician,  a  patron  of 
artists,  and  a  friend  of  natural  'sciences,  yet 
withal  too  complaisant  to  the  corruptions  of  his 
day.  As  a  lawyer  his  ability  and  learning  were 
undoubted,  and  his  decisions  did  much  to  in- 
crease the  jurisdiction  of  the  Court  of  Common 
Picas.  Consult  Roger  North,  The  Lives  of  the 
yorths   (London,  1890). 

NORTH,  Frederick.  Lord,  Earl  of  Guilford 
(1732-92).  An  English  statesman.  He  was  a 
son  of  Baron  Guilford.  After  a  course  at 
Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  and  a  period 
of  Continental  travel.  North  was  at  the  age  of 
twenty-two  sent  to  the  House  of  Commons  as 
member  from  Banburv.  a  borough  controlled  by 
his  father.  From  1759  until  the  fall  of  the 
Rockingham  IMinistry  in  1765  he  held  the  posi- 
tion of  a  junior  lord  of  the  treasury.  In  Dc- 
cendjcr,  1766,  after  a  short  tenure  of  the 
office  of  paymaster,  he  was  admitted  as  a  member 
of  the  Prix-j-  Council.  His  ability  won  for  him, 
in  ilarch.  1767,  an  ofTer  of  the  chancellorship 
of  the  exchequer,  which  he  at  first  declined,  but 
upon  the  death  of  Townshend  in  September  finally 
accepted.  With  this  post  went  the  leadership  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  for  which  he  was  well 
qualified  by  his  eloquence,  good  humor,  wit,  and 
readiness  of  resource.  His  attitude  on  the 
Townshend  tea  tax,  however,  was  one  of  the 
immediate  causes  of  the  American  war.  It  was 
North's  own  boast  that  as  a  member  of  the 
Commons  he  had  "voted  against  all  popular  and 
in  favor  of  all  unpopular  measures."  In  1770  he 
succeeded  the  Duke  of  Grafton  as  Prime  Minister. 
He  was  called  by  Horace  Walpole  the  ostensible 
Minister:  for  the  real  Minister  was  King  (Jeorge 
III.  It  has  since  been  proved  that  North  as 
early  as  1776  believed  that  the  unyielding  policy 
he  was  pursuing  with  regard  to  the  American 
colonies  would  end  in  ruin  to  the  King  and  to 
the  country:  yet  in  the  face  of  the  powerful 
opposition  of  Fox  and  Burke,  he  allowed  his 
own  convictions  to  be  overborne  by  the  obstinacy 
of  King  George's  ultra-Tory  purpose.  In  1778 
he  was  forced  to  a  renunciation  of  the  right 
to  tax  the  colonies;  but  the  concession  came 
too  late,  and  in  1782.  finding  it  impossible  to 
carry  on  the  war  any  longer,  he  resigni'd.  With 
North's  retirement  came  to  an  end  George  III.'s 
scheme  of  governing  the  country  by  his  own 
will,  and  of  ruling  the  House  of  Commons.  Soon, 
however,  Fox  entered  into  a  coalition  with  North, 
against  whom  he  had  for  so  many  years  in- 
veighed.    North  and  Fox  took  olTice  imdcr  the 


NORTH. 


611 


NORTHAMPTON. 


Duke  of  Portland  in  1783,  but  the  coalition 
lasted  only  a  few  niontlis.  He  succeeded  his 
father  as  Earl  of  Guilford  in  17!tO.  Durinj;  the 
last  five  years  of  his  life  North  was  totally  blind. 
He  bore  his  afflictions  with  preat  cheerfulness, 
lie  died  August  5,  17!l2.  Xorlli  was  an  aniial)le 
man,  possessed  of  considerable  wit  and  talent, 
but  lacking  those  powers  necessary  to  carry  a 
country  well  through  a  crisis  like  that  which 
England  experienced  during  his  administration. 
Consult  Donne,  Correspondence  of  George  III. 
icilh  Lord  Xorih  (London,  1807). 

NORTH,    Sir    Thomas     (1535?-1602?).      An 
Elizabethan  translator,  the  son  of  Edward,  first 
Baron    Xorth,    and    younger    brother    of    Roger 
North   (1530-1600),  the  courtier  and  soldier.     He 
was  probably  educated  at  Peterhouse,  Cambridge, 
and   certainly   studied   at   Lincoln's   Inn    (1.557). 
In  15SS  he  was  captain  of  three  hundred  men  at 
Ely ;    was    styled    a    man    of    courage ;    and    was 
knighted  in  1591.     In  ICOl  he  received  a  pension 
of  £40  for  his  'good  and  faithful  service.'     North, 
a  master  of  clear  and  robust  English,  performed 
i      still   greater   service    to    literature.      Under   the 
'       title  The  Diall  of  Princes    (1557),  he  Englished 
<      tlie   Spaniard   Guevara's  Libro  aureo.       North's 
1       version    was    exceedingly    popular.      From    the 
I       Italian  of  Antonio  Francesco  Doni  he  published 
'       the   Morall  Philosophie  of  Doni    (1570;    reprint 
I       by    J.    Jacobs,    London,    1891),    a    collection    of 
Eastern  fables.    Better  known  now  is  his  version 
of  Plutarch's  Lives    (1579:   2d  edition   1595;  en- 
larged  1003),  made  from  the  French  of  Amyot. 
It    wa.s    the    source     of     Shakespeare's    Roman 
tragedies.     Consvilt  the  reprint  of  the  first  edi- 
tion   of    North's     Plutarch,     ed.     by    Wyndham 
(Tudor  Library,  London,  1895). 

NORTH,  William  (17521830).  An  Ameri- 
can soldier,  born  at  Fort  Frederick,  JIaine.  He 
entered  the  Revolutionary  army  in  1775,  and  in 
1778  was  a  captain  at  the  battle  of  Jlonmouth. 
The  next  year  he  was  transferred  to  the  staff  of 
Baron  Steuben  and  remained  with  him  until  the 
surrender  of  Cornwallis.  He  left  the  army  with 
the  brevet  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and  went  to 
live  with  Steuben,  whose  favorite  he  had  become. 
A  zealous  Federalist,  he  took  an  active  interest 
in  politics,  and  was  a  member  of  the  LTnited 
States  Senate  in  1798-99.  During  the  trouble 
with  France  in  1798  he  was  appointed  adjutant- 
j  general  of  the  army  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
I  general.  He  wrote  a  valuable  memoir  of  Baron 
Steuben. 

NORTH  AD'AMS.  A  city,  including  several 
villages  within  its  corporate  limits,  in  Berkshire 
r'minty,  Mass.,  21  miles  nortli  of  Pittsfield;  on 
the  Hoosac  River,  and  on  the  Boston  and  Al- 
bany and  the  Boston  and  Maine  railroads  (Map: 
Massachusetts,  A  2).  An  attractive  feature  of 
the  city  is  its  beautiful  location,  amid  mountain 
scenery,  at  the  foot  of  Greylock,  the  highest 
niountiiin  in  the  State.  It  is  near  the  western 
end  of  the  famous  Hoosac  Tunnel,  and  the  nat- 
ural bridge  which  spans  Hudson  Brook  at  a 
height  of  50  feet  is  in  North  Adams.  The  more 
prominent  institutions  are  a  State  normal  school. 
North  Adams  Library,  and  North  Adams  Hos- 
pital. The  principal  industries  include  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton,  woolen,  and  print  goods,  boots 
and  shoes,  machinery,  etc.  North  Adams  was 
one  of  the  first  places  in  the  L'nited  States  east 
of  the  Pacific  slope   where  Chinamen   were  em- 


ployed. The  government  is  administered,  under 
the  charter  of  1S95.  by  a  mayor,  annually  elected, 
and  a  unicameral  council,  elected  on  a  general 
ticket.  The  majority  of  subordinate  municipal 
officials  are  appointed,  either  absolutely  or  with 
the  consent  of  the  council,  by  the  executive,  but 
with  these  exceptions:  city  clerk  and  auditor  of 
accounts,  elected  by  the  council,  and  assessors, 
trustees  of  public  library,  and  school  committee, 
chosen  by  popular  vote.  The  water-works  are 
owned  and  operated  by  the  nmnicipality.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890,  10,074:  in  1900,  24,200'.  Settled 
about  1705,  North  Adams  was  separated  from 
Adams  and  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1878.  In 
1895  it  became  a  city.  The  site  of  Fort  Massa- 
chusetts, which  was  captured  by  the  French  and 
Indians  under  Vaudreuil  in  1740.  is  in  the  west- 
em  part  of  the  city.  Consult  Spear,  History  of 
Sorth  Adams  (North  Adams,  1885). 

NORTHAL'LERTON.  A  market-town  in 
the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  England.  30  miles 
northwest  of  York  (ilap:  England,  E  2).  It  ha3 
a  large  number  of  public  schools  and  other  in- 
stitutions, manufactures  of  linen  and  leather, 
brick-making,  and  malting.  It  is  famous  as  the 
place  where  the  battle  of  the  'Standard.'  so  called 
from  a  high  standard  erected  on  a  car  by  the 
English,  was  fought,  August  22,  1138,  between 
the  English  under  the  earls  of  Albemarle  and 
Ferrers  and  the  Scotch  under  King  David.  The 
latter  were  defeated.  Population,  in  1891,  3802; 
in  1901,  4009.  For  the  history,  consult  Ingledeiv 
(London,  1858)  and  Sa^nvell  (Northallerton, 
1880). 

NORTH  AMERICA.     See  America. 

NORTHAMP'TON.  The  capital  of  North- 
amptonshire, England,  a  market-town.  Parlia- 
mentary and  municipal  borough,  on  rising  ground 
on  the  Nen,  67  miles  northwest  of  London  (Map: 
England,  E  4).  The  principal  edifices  are  the 
shire  hall,  the  handsome  town-hall,  the  corn  ex- 
change, the  luimerous  churches,  several  of  which 
are  unusually  interesting,  as  Saint  Peter's,  a 
restored  specimen  of  enriched  Norman,  and  Saint 
Sepulchre's,  one  of  the  four  round  churches  in 
the  Kingdom,  and  dating  from  the  twelfth 
century.  Northampton  has  numerous  endowed 
charitable  and  educational  establishments.  It 
is  a  horse-racing  centre,  and  two  meetings 
annually  are  held  on  a  fine  co\irse  in  the 
suburbs.  The  town  ow'ns  the  water  supply, 
markets,  and  a  sewage  farm;  maintains  a  free 
library,  museum,  cemetery,  fire  l)rigade,  and 
police  force;  and  provides  technical  instruction. 
Northampton  is  the  centre  of  the  English  shoe- 
making  industry,  and  has  currying  works,  iron 
foundries,  mailings,  breweries,  fiour  and  paper 
mills,  and  brick  and  tile  works.  Of  early  English 
origin,  in  the  Saxon  Chronicle  it  is  called  Jlamp- 
tune.  It  was  long  in  the  possession  of  the  Danes, 
who  burned  it  in  1010.  It  was  walled  and 
strongly  fortified  by  Simon  de  Saint  Liz  in  1075. 
During  the  Civil  War  it  was  held  for  Parliament. 
The  meadows  below  the  town  witnessed  the  de- 
feat of  Henrv  VI.  bv  the  Y'orkists  in  1460. 
Population,  iii  1891,  "75.075;  in  1901,  87.021. 
Consult:  Liber  Custinnarum :  the  Ancient  Cus- 
tomes  of  the  Town  of  Sorthampton  (Northamp- 
ton, 1895)  :  Adkins.  yorthampton  in  English 
History    (London,   1898). 

NORTHAMPTON.  A  city,  including  several 
villages,  and  the  county-seat  of  Hampshire  Coun- 


NORTHAMPTON. 


612 


NORTH  BRABANT. 


ty,  Mass.,  17  miles  north  of  Springfield;  on  the 
Connecticut  River,  and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine 
and  the  Js'ew  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
railroads  (Map:  Massachusetts,  B  3).  The  city, 
which  occupies  elevated  ground  and  is  noted  for 
its  beautiful  scenery,  has  become  widely  popular 
as  a  summer  resort.  It  has,  among  noteworthy 
institutions.  Smith  College  (q.v.),  the  Clarke 
Institute  for  Deaf  Mutes,  richly  endowed  by  .John 
Clarke,  Northampton  Insane  Hospital  (State), 
Smith  Charities,  Coolev  Dickinson  Hospital, 
Home  for  Agcil  and  Invalid  Women,  the  Bwrnliam 
Classical  School.  Public,  Forbes,  and  Lilly  li- 
braries. Memorial  Hall,  and  Academy  of  Music. 
Among  the  conspicuous  edifices  are  the  court 
house  and  high  school  building.  In  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  Xorthampton  are  Mount  Tom 
and  Jlount  Holyoke,  both  ascended  by  mountain 
railways  and  commanding  magnificent  views.  The 
principal  industries  are  the  manufactures  of  silk, 
cutlery,  brushes,  lumber  products,  furniture, 
hosiery,  wood  pulp,  emery  wheels,  boxes,  foundry 
products,  baskets,  sewing  machines,  pockctbooks, 
etc.  The  government  is  administered,  under  the 
charter  of  1883,  by  a  mayor,  annually  elected, 
and  a  bicameral  council,  which  controls  appoint- 
ments of  the  subordinate  departments,  excepting 
those  of  schools  and  the  Forbes  Library,  chosen 
by  popular  vote.  The  water-works  are  owiicd 
and  operated  bv  the  municipalitv.  Population, 
in  1890,  14.000':  in  1900.  18.043."  Xorthampton 
was  first  settled  in  1654  by  a  small  company 
from  Springfield,  and  was  named  (in  1055)  after 
Xorthampton,  England.  In  1070.  during  King 
Philip's  War.-  it  was  attacked  by  Indians.  Jona- 
than Edwards  was  minister  here  from  1729  until 
dismissed  in  1750.  Xorthampton  was  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1883.  Consult  Trumlnill.  Uistory 
of  XortJiampioii  (Xorthampton,  1808). 

NORTHAMPTON,  As.size  of.  A  royal  de- 
cree issued  in  .hniuary,  1170,  by  Henry  II. 
of  England.  Like  the  Assize  of  Clarendon 
(q.v.),  it  is  in  the  form  of  instructions  to 
the  itinerant  justices.  The  ])en:ilties  are 
severer  than  they  were  in  the  earlier  document, 
and  there  are  special  orders  in  regard  to  difii- 
culties  due  to  the  rebellion  of  1173  against  Henry 
II.  (q.v.),  which  bad  centred  about  Henry's 
eldest  son  and  namesake.  Consult :  Stubbs.  Con- 
stitutio)wl  Ili.iti»ii  of  En(jland.  vol.  i.  (6th  cd., 
Oxford,  1807):  id,,  Helert  Charters  (Sth  ed., 
Oxford.  1805).  for  the  Latin  text:  Adams  and 
Stephens,  Sclrct  Documents  of  English  Constitu- 
tional Tlistori/  (Xew  York,  1901),  for  an  English 
translation  of  the  dociiinent. 

NORTHAMPT'ONSHIRE,  or  Nortii'ants. 
A  southern  midland  county  of  England,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Lincoln,  Hulland,  and  Leicester, 
on  the  east  by  Bedford,  Huntingdon,  and  Cam- 
bridge, on  the  south  by  Oxford  and  Buckingham, 
and  on  the  west  by  Wanvick  and  Oxford  (Map: 
England,  F  4).  Area,  098  square  miles.  The 
surface  generally  is  undulating  and  well  wooded; 
the  northeast  l)elongs  to  the  Bedford  Level  (q.v.). 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Xen,  Wclland.  and  Avon. 
Stock-raising  and  the  cullivation  of  pasture  land 
are  the  chief  branches  of  agriculture,  but  Xorth- 
nmptonshire  is  principally  an  iron-producing  and 
manuf;ictiiring  county.  S'ortbampton  (the  capi- 
tal). Peterborough.  Wellingborougb.  D.iventry. 
and  Kettering  are  the  principal  towns.  Popula- 
tion, in   1801,   302,183;    in   1901,  338,064.     Con- 


sult Baker,  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Coun- 
ty of  Xorthami/tonshire  (London,  1841). 

NORTH  AN'DOVER.  A  town  in  Essex 
County,  ^lass..  28  miles  north  of  Boston  and  two 
miles  southeast  of  Lawrence:  on  the  Boston  and 
ilaine  Kailroad  (Map:  ilassachusetts.  E  2  ) .  It 
is  important  both  as  a  residential  place  and  as  a 
manufacturing  centre.  There  are  several  large 
woolen  mills  and  manufactories  of  woolen  mill 
m;uliinery.  Xorth  Andover  was  set  oil  from  An- 
dover  and  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1855,  the 
original  form  of  government,  by  town  meeting, 
still  prevailing.  The  town  owns  and  operates 
the  water-works.  Population,  in  1890,  3742;  in 
1900.  4243. 

NORTHANGER  (nOrth-.an'jer)  ABBEY.  A 
novel  by  .Jane  Austen  (1818).  It  is  a  picture 
of  commonplace  English  life  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century  at  Bath  and  at  the  Aljbcy, 
the  countryplace  of  friends  of  the  heroine.  Cath- 
erine ilorland.  It  was  written  early  in  her  ca- 
reer (though  not  published  till  after  her  death) 
with  a  view  of  showing  that  the  every-day  life 
of  ordinary  people  could  be  made  as  interesting 
as  the  absurd  romances,  like  the  Mysteries  of 
Udolplio.  wliich  were  then  popular. 

NORTH  AT'TLEBORO.  A  town,  including 
several  villages,  in  Bristol  County,  Mass.,  32 
miles  south-southwest  of  Boston :  on  the  Xew 
Y'ork,  Xew  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad  (Map: 
^Massachusetts,  E  4).  It  has  the  Richards  Memo- 
rial Library  (ptddic),  with  6000  volumes.  There 
are  extensive  manufactories  of  jewelry,  also  es- 
tablishments producing  jewelers'  supplies,  cotton 
yarn,  silverware,  rope,  braid,  boxes,  buttons,  etc. 
X'orth  Attleboro  was  incorporated  in  1887 :  its 
government  is  administered  by  town  meetings. 
The  water-works  and  electric  light  plant  are 
owned  bv  the  municipalitv.  PopiUation.  in  1890, 
0727:  in  1900.  7253. 

NORTH  BAY.  A  town  in  Xipissing  district, 
Ontario,  Canada:  on  Lake  Xipissing,  and  the 
Canadian  Pacific  and  Grank  Trunk  railroads 
(.Map:  Ontario.  D  1).  Small  steamers  ply  on 
the  lake,  and  the  place  is  nuich  visited  by  toiuists 
and  fishing  parties.  There  is  a  J'nitcd  States 
consular  agent.     Population,  in  1901,  2530. 

NORTH  BER-WICK,  br-r'wik.  A  seaport 
town  ill  lladdingtiin^liire.  Scotland,  at  the  en- 
trance to  the  Firth  of  Forth.  19  miles  east-north- 
east of  Edinbvirgh  (Map:  Scotland.  F  3).  For- 
merly a  fishing-village.  Xorth  Berwick  has  now 
become  a  watering-place,  noted  for  its  fine  sandy 
beach,  and  its  five-mile  course  golf  links.  Xear 
by  are  Bass  Rock.  X'orth  Berwick  Law.  and  the 
ruins  of  Tantallon  Castle,  graphically  described 
in  Scott's  Marmion.  Tantallon  Castle  is  an  ir- 
regular jiile.  two  miles  east  of  the  town,  on  a  high 
rock,  surrounded  by  the  sea  on  three  sides,  with  a 
ditch  on  the  land  side,  where  there  was  formerly 
a  <lrawbridge.  Xorth  Berwick  Law  is  a  conical 
hill  of  an  elevation  of  012  feet,  on  the  south, 
close  to  the  town.  Population,  in  1891,  1500; 
in  1901,  2784, 

NORTH  BRABANT',  A  province  of  the 
Xethirliind'i,  adjoining  Belgium  and  occupying 
the  northern  part  of  Brabant  (q.v.)  (Map:  Xeth- 
erlands,  D  3),  Area,  1080  square  miles.  It  has  a 
low  surface  and  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Mcuhc. 
.Agriculture  and  the  raising  of  domestic  animals 
arc  the  chief  occupations,  but  the  manufacturing 


NORTH  BRABANT. 


613 


NOBTH  CAROLINA, 


industries  are  also  well  developed.  The  chief 
iiianufuclures  arc  cotton  and  woolen  fabrics, 
linen,  hats.  leather,  etc.  Poi)uhition.  in  188!), 
r>0!).02S;   in  1899,  5.53,84.5. 

NORTH  BRAD'DOCK.  A  borough  in  Alle- 
lilu-ny  County.  I'a..  ti'U  miles  from  Pittsburg,  on 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  (ilap:  Pennsylvania, 
]!  3).  It' is  mainly  a  residential  and  manufac- 
turing place,  and  has  a  large  plant,  making 
chiefly  steel  rails,  of  the  United  States  Steel 
t'orporation.  Organized  from  a  part  of  Braddock 
Township.  Xorth  Braddock  was  incorjxjrated 
in  ISO";  its  government  is  administered  by  a 
liurgcss.  elected  cverv  three  years,  and  a  council. 
Population,  in  1900."6535. 

NOBTH'BRIDGE.  A  towTi,  including  eev- 
cral  villages;  in  Worcester  Country,  ilass.,  13 
miles  southeast  of  Worcester;  on  the  Blackstone 
and  Ivlumford  rivers,  and  on  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad  (Map:  Massachu- 
setts. D  3).  The  town  has  a  public  library,  and 
its  industrial  interests  are  represented  by  ex- 
tensive manufactures  of  cotton  mill  machinery, 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  etc.  Settled  in  1062, 
Xorthbridge  was  set  off  from  Mendon  and  incor- 
]iorated  as  a  separate  town  in  1772.  The  gov- 
ernment is  administered  by  town  meetings.  The 
water-works  are  owned  and  operated  !)}•  the 
Whitin  Machine  Works,  one  of  the  town's  great 
manufacturing  plants.  Population,  in  1890, 
4(303;   in  lOOf/.  7036. 

NORTH'BROOK,  Eabl.  See  Babing,  Thomas 
Geokge. 

NORTH  CAPE.  A  promontory  projecting 
into  the  Arctic  Ocean  from  the  island  of  Magero 
( q.v. ) ,  oft'  the  north  coast  of  Norway,  in  latitude 
71°  11'  north  (ilap:  Norway.  LI).  It  is  gen- 
erally considered  as  the  northernmost  jjoint  of 
Kurope.  though  a  little  to  the  west  of  it  a  low 
jioint  of  land,  the  Knivskjoerodde,  extends  a  few 
minutes  farther  north.  The  northernmost  point 
of  the  European  mainland  is  C'a])e  Nordkyn,  44 
miles  east  of  North  Cape,  in  latitude  71°  7'. 
North  Cape  is  a  precipitous  rocky  headland,  ris- 
ing 968  feet  above  the  .sea.  Its  summit  is 
crowned  by  a  granite  monument ;  in  summer  it  is 
visited  by  niunerous  tourists. 

NORTH  CAR'OLI'NA  (popularly  called  the 
'Old  North  State.'  also  the  "Turpentine  State'). 
A  South  Atlantic  State  of  the  United  States. 
It  lies  between  33°  50'  and  36°  33'  north  latitude, 
and  between  75°  27'  and  84°  20'  west  longitude. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  liy  Virginia,  on  the 
cast  and  southeast  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the 
south  by  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  and  on  the 
west  by  Tennessee.  Its  extreme  length  from  east  to 
west  is  50314  miles,  and  its  extreme  breadth  1S71*; 
miles,  the  average  breadth  being  about  100  miles. 
Its  area  is  52,250  square  miles,  including  the 
large  coast  lagoons,  the  land  surface  covering 
48..580  square  miles,  or  31.091,200  acres.  Its 
gross  area  is,  according  to  the  latest  official 
figures,  exactly  equal  to  that  of  Alabama,  and 
is  exceeded  by  23  of  the  other  States.  In  land 
area  North  Carolina  ranks  25tli. 

TopOGRAPnY.  The  State  may  be  divided  into 
three  distinct  topographical  belts,  the  Appala- 
chian movmtain  region  in  the  west,  tlie  Pieilmont 
plain  in  the  middle,  and  the  coastal  plain  in  the 
east,  the  dividing  lines  between  these  running 
obliquely    across    the    State    from    southwest    to 


northeast.  The  mountain  belt,  taken  as  a  whole, 
consists  of  a  higli  plateau  covering  about  GOOD 
square  miles  and  lying  at  an  average  elevation 
of  2000  to  .5000  feet.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east 
by  the  Blue  Riilge,  which  rises  in  a  sleep  and 
rugged  escarpment  from  the  Piedmont  plain  to 
a  height  of  nearly  4000  feet  above  sea  level  in  the 
north,  becoming  lower  southward.  On  the  west  the 
plateau  is  bounded  by  the  Great  Smoky  Mountains, 
whose  crest  separates  North  Carolina  from  Ten- 
nessee. Between  these  ridges  the  plateau  itself  is 
much  dissected  by  river  valleys  running  in  all  di- 
rections, and  broken  up  into  cross  ranges  and  ir- 
regular mountain  groups.  These  are  generally 
rounded,  forest-covered  heights,  but  there  are  sev- 
eral pointed  peaks,  and  some  precipitous  slopes 
and  rocky  cliffs.  Jlore  than  twenty-five  peaks  are 
over  6000  feet  high.  Their  summits  are  general- 
ly liare.  The  highest  is  ilount  Mitchell,  in  the 
group  known  as  the  Black  Jlountains.  the  cul- 
minating point  of  the  Appalachian  system  and 
the  highest  peak  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  conti- 
nent. It  rises  from  the  centre  of  the  plateau 
in  North  Carolina  to  a  height  of  6711  feet  above 
the  sea. 

The  portion  of  the  State  east  of  the  mountain 
belt  is  about  equally  divided  between  the  Pied- 
mont and  the  coastal  iilains.  The  former  reaches 
its  widest  development  in  this  State,  of  whose 
area  it  includes  nearly  one-half.  It  slopes  grad- 
ually from  an  elevation  of  1000  feet  at  the  foot 
of  the  Blue  Ridge  to  less  than  500  feet  w'here 
it  merges  into  the  coastal  plain.  Its  surface  is 
undulating,  rugged,  and  hilly  near  the  moun- 
tains, but  gradually  levels  toward  the  east.  It 
is  partly  forested,  but  consists  largely  of  cul- 
tivated land,  being  the  most  populous  and  best 
developed  region  of  the  State.  The  coastal  plain 
occupies  the  eastern  belt  stretching  from  100  to 
150  miles  from  the  coast.  It  is  level  and  sandy, 
consisting  in  parts  of  pine  barrens,  and  every- 
where is  less  than  500  feet  in  elevation.  It  merges 
through  low  swamps  into  the  shallow  coast 
lagoons,  of  which  Pamlico  and  Albemarle  sounds 
are  the  largest.  They  are  bounded  on  the  ocean 
front  by  narrow  sand  beaches. 

Htdbographt.  The  greater  part  of  the  State 
belongs  to  the  Atlantic  slo])e.  but  the  western 
mountain  region  beyond  the  Blue  Ridge  belongs 
to  the  Mississippi  basin,  being  drained  by  the 
headstreams  of  the  Tennessee  River,  chief  among 
which  are  the  Little  Tennessee  and  the  French 
Broad  River.  The  eastern  slope  of  the  Blue 
Ridge  in  this  State  is  the  watershed  for  nearly 
all  the  Atlantic  rivers  of  both  North  and  South 
Carolina,  all  of  tliem  having  a  generally  south- 
east course.  In  the  northern  half  of  the  State 
the  Roanoke,  the  Tar,  and  the  Neuse  enter  Al- 
bemarle and  Pamlico  sounds  through  deej)  and 
wide  estuaries.  The  southern  portion  is  drained 
by  the  Cape  Fear  River,  and  the  western  part 
of  the  Piedmont  plain  by  the  Yadkin  or  Great 
Pedce  and  the  Catawba,  both  of  which  flow  into 
South  Carolina.  The  large  rivers  of  the  coastal 
plain,  especially  their  magnificent  estuaries, 
offer  facilities  for  communication,  and  on  the 
Piedmont  plain  they  furnish  a  vast  amount  of 
water-power. 

Cltmate.  North  Carolina  lies  in  the  warmer 
part  of  the  temi)erate  zone.  The  climate  becomes 
almost  sub-tropical  in  the  southeastern  corner. 
The  mean  temiierature  near  the  coast  is  61°,  and 
in  the  mountains  5G°  ;  the  mean  summer  tempera- 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 


614 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 


tures  for  the  two  regions  are  77°  and  72°,  and 
the  winter  temperatures  45°  and  40°.  The  nor- 
mal maximum  is  about  100°,  and  the  minimum 
for  the  central  part  of  the  State  10°,  tliough 
such  cold  is  rare.  In  the  mountains  the  winters 
are  more  severe,  but  the  Blue  Ridge  protects 
the  rest  of  the  State  from  the  cold  northwest 
waves.  The  rainfall  is  abundant  and  very  evenly 
distributed,  both  in  regard  to  seasons  and  locali- 
ties, though  tlip  ccnlral  region  receives  some- 
what less  rain  tliau  the  coast  and  mountain 
regions,  and  the  summer  somewhat  more  than  the 
other  seasons.  Tlie  annual  average  for  the  State 
is  53..3  inches.  The  average  snowfall  is  about 
five  inches,  but  snow  rarely  remains  on  the 
ground  more  tlian  one  or  two  days.  The  pre- 
vailing winds  are  from  the  northeast  and  south- 
west. The  State  lies  outside  the  path  of  the 
cyclonic  storms,  and  tornadoes  are  extremely 
rare ;  but  the  sub-tropical  storms  from  the  south- 
west sometimes  endanger  navigation  along  the 
coast. 

Flora.  North  Caiolina.  being  the  meeting 
ground  of  the  temperate  and  sub-tropical  floras, 
and  having  all  varieties  of  climate  from  sub- 
tropical to  sub-arctic,  is  unrivaled  by  any  State 
cast  of  the  Mississippi  in  the  variety  of  its  plant 
life,  and  is  probably  surjiassed  by  no  region  of 
similar  area  elsewhere.  In  the  swamps  along  the 
coast  the  prevailing  tree  is  the  bald  cypress,  with 
the  wliite  cedar  and  live  oak.  Here  also  are 
numerous  bulrushes  and  several  species  of  car- 
nivorous plants  (l<(irraci'nia  and  l)ri>srra).  In 
the  sandy  parts  of  the  coastal  plain  the  long-leaf 
pine  (Piiius  Aiistralis)  is  predominant,  together 
with  the  loblnlly-pine  {Pinun  tcnlii)  and  scrub 
oak.  Composite  and  leguminous  plants  are  here 
abundant,  as  well  as  blueberries,  sumacs,  alders, 
a  profusion  of  wild  grapes  and  other  vines,  and, 
in  the  south,  palmettos.  In  the  Piedmont  plain 
the  indigenous  species  have  been  largely  sup- 
planted by  those  introduced  by  settlers.  Oaks, 
hickories,  and  elms  arc  predominant  in  tlie  for- 
ests of  this  plain.  In  tlie  mountains  the  forest 
of  the  common  northern  trees  covers  a  remark- 
able and  typical  northern  undergrowth  of  gor- 
geous shrubbery,  magnolias,  rhododendrons,  and 
similar  species. 

For  Fauna,  see  that  section  under  L'nited 
States. 

Geologv  and  Mineralogy.  The  main  geo- 
logical surface  formations  are  coincident  with 
the  topographical  belts  described  aliovo:  in  fact, 
the  lattor  are  a  result  of  the  former,  and  the 
coastal  plain  is  a  geological  rather  than  a  topo- 
graphical division.  It  consists  of  Cretaceous  and 
Tertiary  sands,  gravels,  clays,  and  marls  covering 
the  underlying  bedrock  of  granites  and  lime- 
stones. The  remainder  of  the  State,  the  Pied- 
mont plain  and  the  mountains,  has  as  its 
principal  feature  an  immense  belt  of  granites 
and  gneisses  running  across  the  State  from  south- 
west to  northeast,  and  tlankeil  on  the  east  by  a 
narrower  belt  of  crystaUinc  schists  and  other 
slates.  Between  the  latter  and  the  coastal  plain 
deposits  is  a  still  narrower  belt  of  more  recent 
formation — the  Triassic  red  sandstone.  The 
fireat  Smoky  Mountains  in  the  extreme  west 
and  the  southern  portion  of  the  Blue  Bidge 
consist  of  rocks  of  the  Ocoee  formation.  The  red 
sandstone  formation  contains  coal  deposits,  and 
also  yielils  the  most  valuable  building  stones. 
The   crystalline   rocks,   which    arc    much    folded. 


tilted,  and  broken,  are  penetrated  in  many  places 
by  quartz  veins,  some  of  which  are  auriferous. 
Other  veins  are  impregnated  with  copper  ores, 
and  valuable  iron  deposits  are  also  found  both 
in  the  granite  and  slate  belts,  while  ores  of 
silver,  lead,  and  zinc  are  also  found,  sometimes 
associated  with  gold. 

Mixing.  Gold-mining  began  early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  yet  tlu- industry  shows  little  signs 
of  extensive  develo]inieiit.  and  the  annual  outi)ut 
remains  small.  Tlu'  .State  is  noteworthy  for  its 
jiroduction  of  corundum  and  mica,  there  being 
lew  other  regions  in  the  country  where  these 
are  found.  In  1000  the  corundum  mined  for 
the  year  was  valued  at  .$102,715,  and  represented 
all  that  was  mined  in  the  United  States  during 
that  year.  Both  corundum  and  mica  are  found 
in  the  counties  west  of  the  Blue  Ridg4.  In  1(100  the 
ores  mined  included  the  red  and  brown  hematite 
and  the  magnetite  varieties  of  iron  ore.  their  re- 
spective outputs  being  55,844  tons,  259,803  tons, 
and  20.479  tons.  Coal-mining  has  been  carried 
on  in  Chatham  County  since  1889,  liut  the  output 
is  small.  (;ranite  qiuirried  in  1900  was  valued 
at  .*257,0fi2 — much  in  excess  of  any  other  year 
between  1890  and  1900.  The  production  of  talc 
and  soapstone  is  rapidly  increasing,  the  value 
in  1900  being  .$75..i08.  Some  sandstone  and 
phosphate  rock  are  also  obtained.  In  1900  the 
value  of  Iirick  and  tile  was  estimated  at  $797,- 
112.     A  little  pottery  is  also  produced. 

Fisheries.  Fishing  is  the  most  important  in- 
dustry in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Stale.  Xortli 
Carolina  is  naturally  adapted  for  this  pursuit  by 
its  sounds  and  other  coastal  bodies  of  water, 
fresh  and  salt.  The  annual  catch  is  more  than 
twice  that  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
Florida  (Atlantic  Coast  side)  combined.  In 
1897,  the  last  year  in  which  fishery  statistics 
were  compiled,  there  were  12.045  men  engaged  in 
the  industry.  The  value  of  the  product  reported 
was  .$1.31o!oi7.  Shad  and  oysters  are  liy  far 
the  most  iiromiuent,  the  value  of  the  former  be- 
ing .$302,811.  Of  the  many  other  varieties  the 
more  important  are  squeteague.  alewifc.  mullet, 
striped  tiass,  clams,  and  blnefish.  The  seine 
fisheries  of  the  Albemarle  Sound  section  are  the 
most  important  in  the  State.  Vessel  fishing  is 
not  yet  extensive. 

AcRici'LTfRE.  Agriculture  is  the  leading  in- 
dustry. Yet  the  largest  part  of  the  swampy  coast 
land  is  unreclaimed.  an<l  there  is  also  much 
waste  land  in  the  mountainous  area  of  the  west. 
In  1900.  73.2  per  cent,  of  the  land  surface  was 
included  in  farms — the  largest  per  cent,  recorded 
since  1800.  While  the  per  cent,  of  improved  land 
is  still  small,  being  in  1900  only  36.0  of  the  farm 
land,  there  was  a  large  gain  from  1850  to  1900, 
the  corresponding  figures  for  18.50  being  26.0. 
The  most  remarkable  ngricnltural  development 
of  that  half  century  was  the  change  from  large  to 
small  farms,  the  average  size  having  decreased 
steadily  fnmi  3(!S.(!  acres  in  1850  to  101.3  acres 
in  1900.  This  decrease  is  a  part  of  the  general 
process  which  the  overthrow  of  slavery  jirecipi- 
tatcd.  Negroes  who  were  formerly  slaves  on 
large  plantations  became  renters  or  owners  of 
small  holdings.  ,\lso  the  holding  of  the  white 
farmer  was  reduced  more  nearly  to  an  area 
which  it  was  possible  to  cultivate  by  his  own 
efforts.  In  1900.  24.4  per  cent,  of  the  farms  were 
operated  by  coloreil  farmers,  the  average  size  of 
the   farms   being   53.0   acres,   or   less   than    half 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  NORTH   CAROLINA 
BY  COUNTIES. 


County. 


Alamance. . 
Alexander. . 
Alleghany. . 

Anson 

Ashe 


Beaufui-c . . . 

Bertie 

Bladen 

BrunBwick . 
Buncombe  . 


Burke  ... 
Cabarrus. 
Caldwell . 
Camden. , 
Carteret  . 


Caswell . . 
Catawba. . 
Chatham 
Cherokee. , 
Chowan. . . 


Clay 

Cleveland . . . 
Columbus. . . 

Craven  

Cumberland. 


Currituck . 

Bare 

Davidson. . 

Davie 

Duplin 


Durham 

Edgecombe.. 

Forsyth 

Franklin 

Gaston 


Gates  .... 
Graham.. 
Granville. 

Greene 

Guilford  ., 


Halifax.... 
Harnett  ... 
Ilayu  ood  . . 
Hcnilerson . 
Hertford... 


Hyde 

Iredell... 
Jinknon. . 
JoliTiHton. 
JoneB    . . . 


Map 
Index. 


C  1 

A  2 

A  1 

B  3 

A  1 

F  2 
E  1 
D3 
D  3 
B  4 

C  4 

B  2 

C  1 

F  1 

F  3 

C  1 
A  2 
C  2 
A4 
F  1 

A  4 

A  3 

D  3 

E  a 

C  2 

P  1 

G  2 

B  2 

B  2 

E  3 

D  I 

E  2 
B  1 
D  1 
A  2 

F  ] 
A  4 
D  1 
E  2 
C  I 


E  1 

D  2 

A  4 

B  4 

E  1 

F  2 

B  2 

A  4 

D2 

E  3 

County  Seat. 


Graham .... 
Taylorsville . 

Sparta 

Wades  boro. . 
Jefferson 


Washington 

Windsor 

Elizabethtowu  . 

Southport 

Asheville 


Morgantou . 

Concord 

Lenoir  .... 

Camden 

Beaufort . . . 


Havesville... 

Shelby 

Whiteville... 

Newbern 

Fayetteville. 


Currituck  .. 

Manteo 

Lexington . . . 
Mocksville,. 
Kenansville . 


Tarboro 
Winston-Salem, 

Louisburg 

Dallas 


Gatesville 

Robbinsville . 

Oxford 

Snowhill 

Greensboro. . . 


Halifax 

Lillington 

Waynesville 

Hendersonville 
Winton 


Swanquarter. 

Statesville 

Webster 

Sraithlield.... 
Trenton 


Area  in 
square 
miles. 


494 
297 
223 

551 
399 

819 
712 
1,013 
812 
624 

534 

387 
507 
218 
538 


Yanceyville 

Newton 408 

PittBboro 785 

Murphy 451 

Edenton itjj 


185 
48,5 
937 
685 
1,008 

273 

405 
563 
264 
830 


Durham 2^ 


515 
369 
471 
359 

356 
302 
504 

258 
674 

681 
596 
541 
362 
3.39 

596 
.592 
494 
688 
403 


Population. 


1890. 


18,271 

9,430 

6,523 

20,027 

15,628 

21,072 

19,176 
16,763 
10,900 


14,939 
18,142 
12,298 
5,667 
10,825 

16,028 
18,689 
25,413 
9,976 
9,167 

4,197 
20,391 
17.a56 
20,6*3 
27,321 

6,747 
3,768 
21,702 
11,621 
18,690 

18,041 
24,113 

28,4,34 
21,090 
17,764 

10,252 
3,313 
24,484 
10,039 
28,052 

28,908 
13,700 
13.346 
12.589 
13,851 

8,903 
25,462 

9,512 
27,239 

7,403 


1900. 


25,665 
10,960 
7.759 
21,870 
19,581 

26,404 
20,588 
17,677 
12,657 
44,288 

17,699 
22,458 
15,094 
5,474 
11,811 

15,028 
22,133 
23,912 
1.1,860 
10,268 

4,532 

26.078 
21,274 
24,160 
29,249 

6,529 

4,757 

23,403 

12,115 

22,405 

26.233 
26,491 
35,261 
25,116 
27,903 

10,413 
4.343 
23,263 
12.038 
39,074 

30,793 
15,988 
16,222 
14,104 
14,294 

9,878 
29,064 
11,853 
32,250 

8,226 


r) 


n 


Greenwich    78 


,3inltMIl' 

J. 


to. 

Hatteraa 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


^ 


710  20  30 

CouDty  Towns    • 


50  60 

Railroads  - 


=i!> 


COPYRIGHTi  laOl  AND  1003,  BY  DODO,  MEAD  A  CQUPAMV. 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  NORTH  CAROLINA 
BY  COUNTIES.  (Continued.) 


Connty. 


T^noir 

LiiicolD 

McUowull.... 

Mucuii 

Madibun 

Martin 

Mecklenburg. 
Mitchell 
Montgomery 
Moore 

Naeh 

New  Uanover 
Nortlianipton 

Onelow 

Orange 

Pamlico 

Pasquotank.. 
Pender 
Perquimans. . 
Person    . 

Pitt 

Polk 

Randolph 

Richmond  . . . 
Robeson  ...   . 

Rockingham . 

Rowan 

Rutherford. . . 
Sainpeon   . . . . 

♦Scotland 

Stanly 

Stokes   

Surry  

Swtiin.. 
Transylvania 
Tyrell 

Union 

Vance 

Wake    

Warri-n    

Washington.. 

Watimgn 

Wayne 

Wilkes 

Wilson 

V'adkin 

Yancey  


Map 
Index. 


E  2 
A  2 
B  4 
A  4 
B  4 

E  2 

B  2 

B  3 

C  2 

C  2 

D  2 

E  3 

E  1 

E  3 

C  1 

F  2 
F  1 
D3 
F  1 
C  I 

E  2 

B  4 

C  2 

C  S 

C  8 

C  1 
B  2 
B  4 
D  2 
C  3 
B2 

B  1 
B  1 
A  4 
B  4 
F.2 

B  3 
DC 
1)  2 
D  1 
F  2 

A  1 

D  2 

A  1 

V  2 

B  1 

B  4 


Comity  Seat. 


Kinston 

Lincolnton 

Marion  

Franklin 

Marshall 

Williamston  . 

C'harlotte   

BakersvUle. . . . 

Troy 

Carthage 

Nashville 

W^ilmingtou. . . 

Jackson 

Jacksonville  . . 
Hilieboro 

Bayboro 

Elizabeth  City 

Burgaw 

Hertford 

Rosboro 

Greenville 

Columbus 

Ashboro  

Rockingham  .. 
Lumberton. ... 

Wentworth 

Salisbury 

Rutherford  ton 
Clinton 

Albemarle 

Danbury 

Dobson 

Bryson  City... 

Brevard 

Columbia 

Monroe 

Henderson.  ... 

Raieigh 

W'arrenton 

Plymouti 

Boone 

(To'dsboro 

Wiikesboro 

Wilson 

Yadkinville  . . . 
Burnsville 


Area  in 
square 
miles. 


436 
29G 
437 
531 
431 

43K 
590 
3U2 
489 

T98 

199 
523 
645 


356 
231 


251 


C44 
258 
T95 
4(S6 
l.WS 

578 
483 
547 
921 

4i3 

472 
581 
560 
371 
897 

561 
276 
»11 
434 
834 

830 
5»7 
718 
3a2 
384 
302 


Population. 


1890. 


14.879 
12.586 
10,939 
10,102 

n,«u5 

15,221 
42,673 
12.807 
11,239 
20,479 

20.707 
24,026 
21,242 
10,803 
14,948 

7.146 
10,748 
12,514 

U,2<)3 
15,151 

25,519 
5,902 
25,195 
2:1,948 
31,4NS 

25,363 

24,  rw 

18,770 
25,096 

12,136 

17,199 
19,281 
6,577 
6,881 
4,225 

21,259 
17,581 
49,207 
19  :it» 
10,200 

10,011 
26i00 
22,1  75 
18.614 
13  790 
9,490 


1900. 


18,639 
15.498 
12,567 
12.104 
20,6t4 

15..383 
65,268 
15.221 
14,l»r 
23,622 

25,478 
25,785 
21, ISO 
11,940 
14,690 

8,W5 
13,600 

i;).:i8i 

10.091 
16,685 

30,889 
7,004 
28,232 
28.406 
40,371 

13,163 
31,066 
25,101 
26,380 


15,220 

19,866 
25,515 
8.401 
6,620 
4,980 

27.156 
16.6»« 
M,626 
19.151 
10,608 

13.417 
81,856 
26.878 
23,506 
14,0<«l 
11,464 


•  Establlabed  since  the  laet  ceneus  was  taken.. 


NORTH  CAKOLINA. 


615 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 


that  of  the  farms  operated  by  «hite  farmers. 
The  per  cent,  of  rented  farms  is  high,  having  been 
41.4  per  cent,  of  tlie  total  number  of  farms  in 
1900.  Keuting  is  iiiucli  more  common  among  the 
negroes  than  among  thqj whites,  tlie  percentage 
of  renters  among  each  being  respectively  6S.0 
and  33.4.  In  the  western  counties,  where  nearly 
all  the  farmers  are  white,  the  share  system  of 
renting  prevails.  Among  the  colored  farmers  of 
the  cotton-growing  counties  the  cash  and  share 
tenants  are  about  equal.  The  negro  farmers 
usually  mortgage  their  crops. 

As  may  be  inferred  from  the  paragraphs  un- 
der Topoyraphy,  there  is  a  great  diversity  of 
agricultural  products,  three  agricultural "  sec- 
tions being  recognized.  These  are  the  east- 
ern or  coastal  plain  region,  containing  much 
sandy  and  barren  soil;  the  middle  or  Piedmont 
section,  more  undulating,  and  with  a  soil  more 
fertile  and  better  adapted  to  diversified  farming; 
the  western  or  mountainous  section,  character- 
ized by  a  fertile  loam  and  best  suited  to  grazing 
and  the  raising  of  temperate  zone  crops.  The  crop 
which  stands  out  prominently  as  to  acreage  is 
corn,  the  acreage  for  1900  exceeding  47  per  cent, 
of  tlie  total  crop  area,  and  the  receipts  equaling 
25.2  per  cent,  of  the  total  crop  receipts.  Since  the 
Civil  War  the  corn  acreage  has  steadily  increased. 
Wheat,  the  next  most  prominent  cereal,  has  only 
one-fourth  as  large  an  acreage.  The  acreage 
devoted  to  oats  and  rye  each  decreased  one-half 
from  1890  to  1900.  The  yield  per  acre  of  all 
these  crops  is  very  low.  The  acreage  of  hay 
and  forage  crops  is  comparatively  small.  The 
two  crops  which  yield  the  largest  receipts  from 
sales  are  cotton  and  tobacco.  The  acreage  of 
each  fluctuates  greatly.  An  increase  in  one 
usually  is  accompanied  by  a  decrease  in  the 
other,  the  respective  acreages  being  determined 
by  the  rise  or  fall  in  the  price  of  one  or  the 
other  crop.  The  State  ranks  about  eighth  as  a 
cotton  State,  and  cotton  does  not  hold  the  domi- 
nant position  it  maintains  in  the  Commonwealths 
farther  south.  However,  there  was  a  very  de- 
cided increase  in  production  from  1850  to  1900, 
the  crop  for  1900 — 459,707  bales — being  over 
three  times  that  of  1850.  The  utilization  of  the 
seed  has  greatly  increased  the  value  of  the  cotton 
yield. 

Likewise  there  has  been  a  large  increase  in 
the  attention  given  to  tobacco-raising.  From 
1890  to  1900  the  acreage  was  more  than  doubled, 
and  Xorth  Carolina  took  rank  next  to  Kentucky. 
The  State  holds  third  rank  in  the  production  of 
peanuts  and  second  in  the  production  of  sweet 
potatoes.  The  former  are  grown  most  exten- 
sively in  the  northeastern  counties.  They  are, 
however,  put  on  the  market  bearing  the  Virginia 
label,  being  sold  to  Virginia  factories.  The  area 
of  production  increased  enormously  during  1890- 
1900.  Garden  farming  has  become  a  prominent 
industrial  feature.  The  climate  enables  garden- 
ers to  produce  for  the  early  Northern  market, 
and  cheap  transportation  is  furnished  by  ocean 
navigation.  Tlie  southeastern  or  Wilmington 
section  has  made  the  greatest  progress  in  this 
line.  Watermelons,  cabbages  and  other  vege- 
tables, and  strawberries  and  other  small  fruits 
are  there  grown  in  abundance.  Orchard  fruits 
are  most  common  in  the  western  part  of  the 
State,  the  apple  being  the  principal  variety. 
Peaches  are  raised,  but  not  in  such  great  quan- 
tities as  in  other  Southern  States.    Rice  is  raised 


along  the  tide-water  rivers,  where  the  construc- 
tion of  dikes  makes  possible  a  system  of  flood- 
ing and  draining.  In  Hyde  County,  however, 
irrigation  is  accomplished  by  pumping.  The  last 
census  reported  22,279  acres  devoted  to  rice. 
Peas  and  sorghum  are  among  the  other  crops 
grown. 

The  following  table  of  acreages  explains  itself: 


Corn 

Wheat 

Oats 

Kye 

Hay 

Cotton 

Tobacco 

Peanuts 

Sweet  potatoes.. 


1900 


1890 


2,720,206 

2.360.627 

746,984 

666,509 

270,870 

5+1.851 

28,074 

56.4% 

229,998 

190,7.54 

1,007.020 

1,147,136 

203,023 

97.077 

95,856 

17,767 

68,730 

71,752 

Stock-raising.  Stock-raising  is  of  secondary 
importance.  Swine  is  about  the  only  variety  of 
farm  animal  raised  on  a  scale  which  permits 
any  considerable  outside  shipments.  There  were 
five  times  as  many  mules  and  asses  in  1900  as  in 
1850.  During  that  period  the  number  of  sheep 
decreased  almost  two-thirds,  the  decrease  being 
the  most  marked  in  the  last  decade.  The  num- 
ber of  horses  has  increased  considerably  since 
1870,  particularly  since  1890.  Dairying  is  be- 
coming more  important.  The  following  table 
needs  no  further  comment: 


1900 

1890 

233,178 
:)91.340 
159.153 
136,435 
208,412 
1,300,469 

223,416 

other  cattle 

407,487 
131,451 

100,011 

402,247 

1,251,006 

IIanufactubes.  Prior  to  1880  the  manufac- 
tures were  little  more  than  such  necessary 
neighborhood  industries  as  are  common  to  rural 
communities.  In  the  two  decades  following  1880 
the  value  of  products  increa.sed  100.9  anil  135.1 
per  cent,  respectively,  and  the  corresponding  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  wage-earners  engaged 
was  85.7  and  109.9  per  cent.  In  1900  the  total 
number  of  wage-earners  was  70,570,  or  3.7  per 
cent,  of  the  total  population.  The  absence  of 
legislation  bearing  upon  child  labor  is  reflected 
in  the  unusually  large  total  of  persons  employed 
who  are  under  sixteen  years  of  age.  They  num- 
ber one-tenth  of  the  total  employed.  Jlost  mill- 
owners,  however,  have  agreed  to  discontinue  the 
employment  of  children  under  twelve  years  of 
age. 

From  the  table  appended  it  will  be  seen  not 
only  that  each  of  the  ten  leading  industries  made 
gains  from  1890  to  1900,  but  in  a  number  of 
them  the  value  of  the  product  increased  three- 
fold or  more.  The  manufacture  of  cotton  goods 
has  realized  the  largest  growth.  Several  favor- 
able conditions  have  united  to  bring  about  this 
result.  The  fact  that  the  cotton  fields  are  near 
the  factories  results  in  the  saving  of  the  cost 
of  transportation;  the  cheajiness  of  living  results 
in  lower  wages:  there  is  a  plentiful  supply  of 
wood  for  fuel;  and  there  is,  as  already  mentioned, 
plenty  of  water  power.  The  streams  of  the 
State',  it  is  estimated,  can  furnish  3,500,000 
horse  power,  only  a  little  more  than  one-fifth  of 
which  is  now  utilized.  From  1890  to  1900  the 
value   of   the   manufactured   cotton   product   in- 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 


616 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 


creastd  l'JG.7  per  cent.,  aniounliiii;  in  1900  to  20.0 
per  cent,  ol  the  total  value  of  the  proiliicts  of 
the  State.  The  cotton  manufactures  cniplovcd 
42.9  per  cent,  of  the  wage-earners,  the  rank 
of  North  Carolina  during  that  period  rising  from 
tenth  to  third  in  the  value  of  this  product,  Mas- 
sachusetts and  South  Carolina  alone  exceeding 
it.  North  Carolina  was  exceeded  by  Jlassachu- 
setts  alone  in  the  number  of  wage-earners  in  this 
branch  of  industry.  The  spindles  now  running 
annually  consume  an  amount  of  cotton  almost 
ecjual  to  the  crop  grown  in  the  State.  The  in- 
dustry is  carried  on  for  the  most  part  by  small 
mills  scattered  over  the  Commonwealth.  The 
value  of  cottonseed  oil  and  cal<e  increased  over 
400  per  cent,  in  the  decade  18!)0-1'J00. 

A  number  of  other  important  industries  are 
included  in  tlie  group  dependent  upon  agricul- 
tural products,  the  manufactures  of  tobacco  be- 
ing of  greatest  importance.  Tliis  is  one  of  the 
earliest  established  industries  in  the  State.  North 
Carolina  has  a  wide  reputation  for  certain  brands 
of  smoking  tobacco  and  cigarettes.  The  value  of 
the  product  increased  184.7  per  cent,  from  1800 
to  1900.  The  manufacture  of  Hour  and  grist- 
mill products  is  another  large  and  flourishing  in- 
dustry. The  tanning  and  currying  of  leather 
developed  from  comparative  insignificance  into 
an  industry  of  some  |)rominence  during  1890- 
1900.  The  following  table  of  the  leading  indus- 
tries explains  itself: 


net  increased  from  less  than  $1,000,000  in  1850 
to  $5,898,742  in  1890,  and  $14,802,593  in  1900. 
The  dependent  industries — the  manufactures  of 
phuiing-mill  pruilucts.  etc. — made  large  gains 
in  the  decade  1890-!900fas  is  shown  in  the  above 
table.  The  turpentine  and  resin  product  was 
valued  at  over  $1,000,000  in  1900. 

Tkaxspout.\tiox  and  Commerce.  The  Raleigh 
and  Gaston  Railroad  Company  was  the  first  to 
begin  construction,  in  18;i().  This  and  the  Wil- 
mington and  Weldon  Railroad  were  completed  in 
1840.  The  most  active  decade  in  railroad  con- 
structiim  Avas  1880-90.  when  the  mileage  in- 
creased from  1840  to  3128  miles.  In  lOOO"  there 
were  3732  miles  in  operation.  The  major  part 
of  the  mileage  belongs  to  the  three  principal  sys- 
tems, namel.v:  The  Seaboard  Air  Line  (014 
miles),  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line  (949  miles),  and 
the  Southern  (1220  miles).  .\  number  of  the 
rivers  are  navigable  through  the  coast  plain  re- 
gion, and  together  with  the  coast  waters  are  of 
considerable  importance  in  the  local  commerce. 
There  arc  two  customs  districts — Wilmington 
and  Pamlico.  The  former  ranks  eighth  among 
the  Atlantic  districts  in  the  value  of  its  foreign 
trade,  the  greater  part  of  which  consists  of  ex- 
poi'ts. 

Banks.  There  were  no  banks  in  North  Caro- 
lina until  1804.  \vhen  two  were  chartered.  The 
State  subscribed  for  shares  in  both.  The  State 
Bank  of  North  Carolina  was  organized  in   ISIO 


INDUSTRIES 


Total  Tor  selected  industries  tor  State i 

Increase,  1890  to  1900 

Per  cent,  of  increase 

Per  cent,  of  total  of  all  industries  In  State j 

Cotton  goods j 

Cottonseed  oil  and  cake | 

Tobacco — chewing,  smoliing,  and  snuff I 

Flouring  and  griet-nilll  jiroducta 

Leather — tanned,  curried,  and  finished ' 

Fertilizers | 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by  steam  rail-  i 
road  companies i 

Lumber  and  timber  products j 

Lumber,  planing-mill  products,  Including  sash,  doors,  and  blinds  j 
Furniture,  factory  product 


1900 
1890 


1900 
1890 

1900 
1S90 
1900 
1H90 
1900 
1S90 
1900 
lS9a 
19(K) 
1  K'.H) 
I'.Hlll 
1  H<ll  I 
19011 
1K9U 
]9(K) 
1890 
V.KIO 
IH'.IO 
1900 
1H90 


Number  of 

estalilish- 

ments 


4.071 
2,008 


2,003 
96.9 

SC.S 
SC.4 

177 
91 
21 
11 

SO 

90 
1,773 
1.039 

7.5 

m 

IS 
12 
12 
9 
1,770 
713 

nil 

42 

44 

0 


Average 
number 
wage- 
earners 


65,f42 
24.045 


31.697 
131.4 

78.8 
71.6 

30.273 

8..')15 

664 

318 

6.40!) 

6.002 

1.019 

1,124 

366 

107 

427 

34;i 

1,141 

434 

11.7.'-.l 

6.466 

1,9.39 

584 

1,759 

l.'iQ 


Value  of  prod- 
uotR.  inrhuiing 
custoni  worlv 
anil  repairing 


$77,351,282 
28.707,151 


$48,644,131 
109.4 

81.5 
71.1 

$2«..372.798 
9.563.443 
2,676.871 

529.746 
13.620.816 
4.783,481 
8.867.462 
6.279.068 
1,. '502.378 

190,887 
1,497.625 

994.1.35 
1.511.376 

393.576 

14.862.593 

5.898.742 

2.S92.0,'i8 

915.070 
1.547.305 

159.000 


Forests  and  Forest  Proditts.  The  total 
wooded  area  in  1900  was  35,300  square  miles,  or 
73  per  cent,  of  the  State's  area.  Over  a  portion 
of  this  the  best  timber,  particularly  the  oak  and 
poplar,  has  been  removed.  Kxtt-nsivc  areas  of 
yellow  pine  have  been  cut,  ami  the  bulk  of  the 
lumber  product  consists  of  this  vari<>ty.  The 
cypress  forests  have  contributed  but  little  to  the 
lumber  supply.  In  1001  an  examination  in  the 
mountain  regions  was  made,  ami  the  report  esti- 
mated the  stand  of  timber  at  10.050,000.000  feet, 
of  which  41.41  per  cent,  was  oak.  17.20  chestnut, 
and  5.30  hemlock.    The  value  of  the  lumber  prod- 


in  Raleigh,  with  branches  in  six  towns.  In  this 
bank  also  the  State  was  heavily  interested,  as 
its  notes  were  the  main  currency  in  the  Com- 
monwealth.   There  were  31  banks  in  18C1,  but  the 


National 
banlvs 

Stat<> 
banks 

Private 
banks 

Ravines 
banks 

38 

81 

21 

14 

S.'J.S.W.OOO 

1.073.00(1 

951 .000 

8,978.(KX) 

11,437,000 

$2,858,000 

551.000 

1.029.(K»I 

9.403.000 

10.020,000 

$205,000 

95.000 

77.000 

925.000 

902  000 

$28,000 

t*n«h,  Pt4r 

DepoHlta 

81.1X10 
2.461  000 
2.399.000 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 


617 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 


vicissitudes  of  tlie  next  four  years  destroyed  tlieir 
linaucial  standing.  In  ISUti  an  act  was  passed 
enaliling  them  to  close  tlicir  business.  A  revival 
of   lianking  came  only  during   ISIlO-l'.tOO. 

The  condition  of  the  banks  in  l'J02  is  shown 
on  the  preceding  page. 

t;ovERXMENT.  The  present  Constitution  was 
adopted  in  18G8.  An  amendment  requires  a 
tlirce-fifths  vote  of  each  House,  and  approval  by 
a  majority  of  the  popular  vote.  A  proposal  to 
rail  a  constitutional  convention  must  receive  a 
two-thirds  vote  of  each  House  and  a  majority  of 
tlie  popular  vote. 

\'oters  must  have  resided  in  the  State  two 
years,  in  the  county  six  months,  in  an  election 
(li-trict  four  months.  Persons  who  were  not  en- 
liiled  to  vote  in  any  State  prior  to  1807,  or  are 
lint  descendants  of  persons  entitled  to  vote  prior 
to  that  time,,  must  be  able  to  read  and  write  any 
-I  'tion  of  the  Constitution  in  the  Knglish  lan- 
guage. Privileged  illiterates  nuist  register  be- 
tn  re  December  1,  1908.  Sull'rage  is  further  con- 
ditioned upon  the  payment  of  poll  tax. 

Legi.si..\tire.  The  I^egislature  consists  of  50 
Senators,  representing  districts  of  uixlivided  con- 
tiguous counties,  and  120  Representatives,  at 
least  one  for  every  county.  All  members  are 
elected  for  two  years  and  receive  .$4  a  day  and 
mileage.  They  meet  biennially  on  the  Wednesday 
after  the  first  Monday  in  January,  and  the  ses- 
sion is  limited  to  sixty  days.  State  elections  are 
held  biennially  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first 
-Monday  in  Xovember.  The  power  of  impeach- 
ment rests  with  the  House,  the  trial  of  impeach- 
ment with  the  Senate. 

Executive.  The  Governor,  Lieutenant-Gover- 
nnr.  Secretary  of  State,  Auditor,  Treasurer,  Su- 
perintendent of  Public  Instruction,  and  Attorney- 
(ieueral  are  elected  for  four  years.  The  Gover- 
nor has  the  usual  power  to  convene  extra  ses- 
f-icms  of  the  Legislature  and  grant  pardons.  The 
Secretary  of  State,  Auditor,  Treasurer,  and  Su- 
perintendent of  Public  Instruction  constitute  a 
Council  of  State  to  advise  with  the  Governor. 

.Ti'mci.\RY.  The  Supreme  Court  consists  of  a 
f'liief  .Tustiee  and  four  associates.  The  State  is 
divided  into  judicial  districts,  a  judge  being 
chosen  in  each  district.  A  Superior  Court  must 
be  held  in  each  county  at  least  twice  each  year. 
The  Legislature  provides  special  courts  for  cities 
and  towns.  Each  county  elects  a  clerk  of  the 
Superior  Court  every  four  years.  A  solicitor 
serving  four  years  is  elected  in  each  judicial  dis- 
trict. 

Local.  Each  county  elects  a  sheriff,  coroner, 
treasurer,  register  of  deeds,  surveyor,  and  five 
commissioners,  who  hold  office  for  two  years. 
The  commissioners  have  charge  of  the  penal  and 
charitable  institutions,  schools,  roads,  bridges, 
and  finances.  Each  township  elects  biennially  a 
clerk  and  two  justices  of  the  peace,  who  consti- 
tute a  board  of  trustees.  They  act  under  the 
supervision  of  the  county  commissioners.  The 
townships  also  elect  for  a  similar  period  a  con- 
stable and  a  school  committee  of  three  persons. 
These  provisions,  however,  may  Ije  changed  by 
statute. 

■Miscellaneous.  Atheists  arc  disqualified  for 
office,  and  also  all  persons  who  have  been  con- 
victed of  treason,  perjury,  or  other  infamous 
crimes,  and  not  legally  restored  to  the  rights  of 
citizenship.  The  property  of  a  married  woman 
is  her  own,  and  not  liable  for  the  debts  of  her 


hu.sband.  Personal  property  is  exempt  for  debt 
to  the  value  of  $500.  There  are  also  provisions 
for  liberal  homestead  exemptions.  A  local-option 
liquor  law  was  passed  in  1887.  The  legal  rate 
of  interest  is  6  per  cent.;  8  is  allowed  by  eon- 
tract.  The  State  has  ten  members  in  the  Lower 
House  of  the  National  Congress.  The  capital  of 
the  State  is  Raleigh. 

Finances.  North  Carolina  had  no  debt  until 
the  advent  of  the  epoch  of  railroad  building.  In 
1848-58  several  issues  of  bonds  were  authorized 
in  aid  of  railroad,  plank  road,  an<l  canal  com- 
panies, and  as  security  the  State  received  stock 
in  these  companies.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
Civil  War  the  debt  of  the  State  amounted  to 
$18,107,000.  The  financial  troubles  of  the  war 
greatly  aggravated  this  condition,  but  the  enor- 
mous loans  for  war  purposes  were  repudiated  by 
order  of  President  Johnson  in  1805.  Great  in- 
jury to  the  finances  of  North  Carolina  was  done 
during  the  five  years  of  the  'carpetbag'  regime 
that  followed.  Large  issues  of  bonds  for  pur- 
poses of  railroad  construction  ftdlowed  one  an- 
other in  rapid  succession.  The  Constitution 
of  1808  forbids  the  issue  of  any  bonds  unless 
a  special  tax  for  payment  of  interest  be  levied. 
But  this  did  not  stop  the  growth  of  the  debt,  for 
in  the  following  two  years  more  than  .$10,000,000 
of  the  'special  tax  bonds'  were  issued.  Another 
cause  for  issuing  bonds  was  the  refunding  of  old 
obligations  and  their  unpaiil  coujions.  Alto- 
gether, in  1805-70,  $24,375,800  of  bonds  were  is- 
sued, and  the  total  debt  exceeded  .$42,000,000. 
As  against  this  the  State  held  $22,000,000  of 
railroad  stocks,  out  of  which  only  $.3,000,000  paid 
dividend.  The  rest  were  worthless,  as  the  money 
obtained  from  sale  of  the  State  bonds  was  squan- 
dered. The  burden  of  the  interest  on  these  bonds 
lay  very  heavily  upon  the  State,  and  there  was 
constant  defaulting. 

This  condition  of  affairs  caused  great  popular 
dissatisfaction  and  a  tendency  toward  repudia- 
tion. Payment  of  interest  on  the  'special  tax' 
loans  was  .stopped  in  1870,  the  special  tax  laws 
were  repealed,  and  all  the  efforts  of  the  bond- 
holders to  enforce  payment  through  courts  re- 
mained futile.  In  1879  a  compromise  was 
reached  with  regard  to  the  rest  of  the  State  debt. 
Under  this  compromise  the  old  bonds  were  re- 
funded at  the  rate  of  15  per  cent,  to  40  per 
cent.,  according  to  issues.  The  conversion  pro- 
ceeded from  1880  to  1900,  and  the  debt  remained 
almost  the  same.  The  compromise  has  im- 
proved the  finances  considerably.  The  budget 
of  the  State  is  small,  but  instead  of  the  large 
deficits  there  is  a  small  surplus.  On  November 
,30,  1902,  the  State  debt  was  $0,527,770.  The 
total  receipts  for  the  year  were  $1.924.1.34;  ex- 
penditures. $1,800,640;  the  balance  in  the  treas- 
ury, $111,280.  The  main  sources  of  income  are 
a.  general  property  tax  (about  40  per  cent.), 
North  Carolina  Railroad  dividends  ( 10  per 
cent.),  railroad  and  corporation  taxes,  earnings 
of  the  State  prison,  etc.  Of  the  disbursements 
almost  $300,000  a  year  goes  for  payment  of  in- 
terest. 

Militia.  The  State  had  326.202  men  of  mili- 
tia age  in  1900.  The  militia  numbered  1860 
in  1901. 

Population.  The  following  figures  show  the 
growth  of  the  population:  1790.  393.751;  1820, 
038.829;  1850.  869.039;  1800.  992.022:  1870, 
1.071,301;  1880.  1,399,750;  1890,  1,617,947;  1900, 


i 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 


618 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 


1,893,810.  l-'ioni  tliinl  rank  in  1700  the  State 
fell  to  tenth  in  1850,  and  lil'teenth  in  I'JOO.  The 
I)er  cent,  of  gain  for  IS'.tO-l'JOO  was  17.1,  as  com- 
pared with  20.7  for  the  United  States.  The 
State's  licavy  contribution  to  tlie  westward  tide 
of  iiiiniiyration  reached  its  climax  in  tlie  decade 
1830-40, Which  accounts  for  the  .stationary  posi- 
tion of  the  population  for  that  decade.  North 
Carolina  has  the  smallest  forei{,ni-horn  popula- 
tion— 1492 — of  any  State.  In  1!>00  there  were 
624,400  negroes,  the  State  holding  seventh  rank 
in  negro  pojiulation.  The  increase  in  this  ele- 
ment from  18110  to  1000  was  101.451.  The 
negroes  are  much  less  numerous  in  the  western 
or  mountainous  counties.  As  is  true  of  most  of 
tHe  Southern  Conmionwealths,  the  urban  popula- 
tion constitutes  but  a  small  percentage  of  the 
total.  In  moo  17  places  had  over  4000  inhabit- 
ants each,  and  together  contained  8  per  cent. 
of  the  total  population. 

Cities.  The  pojjulation  of  the  four  largest 
towns  in  lltOO  was:  Wilmington.  20,!)7t!:  Char- 
lotte, 18,0'Jl;  Asheville,  14.004:  and  Raleigh, 
13.043. 

Religion.  The  leading  religious  denomina- 
tions are  the  Baptist  and  the  Jlethodist,  com- 
prising respectively  about  one-half  and  two-fifths 
of  all  church  members.  The  Presbyterians, 
Lutherans,  Disciples  of  Christ,  Episcopalians, 
Congregationalists,  and  Roman  Catholics  are 
largely  rc])resentcd. 

EurtwTiox.  Education  in  the  State  of  North 
Candina  received  a  consideralile  impetus  from 
the  innnigration  of  the  Scotch-Irish  during  the 
second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Classical 
schools  were  maintained  by  many  of  the  Pres- 
byterian inissi<maries,  and  as  these  were  mostly 
graduates  of  Princeton  University,  that  institu- 
tion had  a  considerable  inlluenee  on  higher  educa- 
tion in  the  State.  Moravians  and  Germans  also 
played  a  c(ins])iciious  part  in  this  development. 
The  first  State  Constitution  contained  a  clause 
providing  for  public  education,  but  nothing  was 
done  toward  carrying  it  out  before  1825.  when 
the  dividends  from  stocks  held  by  the  State  in 
several  banks  and  navigatiim  companies,  and  the 
revenue  derived  from  liquor  licenses,  etc..  as  well 
as  the  vacant  and  unappropriated  swamp  lands 
of  the  State,  were  appropriated  for  a  common 
school  fund.  This  fund  was  subsequently  aug- 
mented by  $1,133.757— the  State's  share  "of  the 
surjilus  revenue  distributed  among  th<'  States  by 
the  act  of  Congress  of  1830.  The  ])ublic  school 
system  was  established  in  1840,  and  the  first 
Stale  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  was 
appointed  in  1852.  By  1800  North  Carolina  was 
in  education  the  most  advanced  of  the  slave- 
holding  States. 

Only  a  comparatively  small  part  of  the  school- 
age  population  is  provided  with  schools.  North 
Carolina  has  neither  a  compiilsory  attendance 
law  nor  uniform  requirements  for  teachers,  the 
professional  standing  of  whom,  especially  in  the 
colored  schools,  is  in  many  eases  very  low.  Ac- 
cording to  the  census  of  1000,  the  illiterate 
population  of  North  Carolina  amounted  to  28.7 
per  cent,  of  the  total  population  of  ten  years 
of  nge  and  over,  being  10.5  per  cent,  for  the 
native  whites  and  47.0  per  cent,  for  the  colored. 
The  illiteracy  of  the  native  whites  shows  a 
decrease  of  3.6  per  cent,  for  the  decade  of  1800- 
1000,  as  compared  with  the  decrease  of  12.5  per 
cent,   for  the   colored   during  the   same   period. 


In  1900  North  Carolina  liad  a  school  population 
(6  to  21)  of  430.431  white  and  220.108  colored. 
The  enrollment  for  the  same  year  was  270,447 
white  and  130,005  colored ;  and  about  one-half 
each  of  the  colored  and  white  enrollment  was 
in  average  attendance. 

The  lengtli  of  the  school  term  in  1000  was 
73  days  for  the  white  and  05  days  for  the  colored, 
or  an  average  of  70.5  days,  the  lowest  of  any 
State.  Of  the  7387  teachers  employed  in  1000, 
the  men  constituted  40.4  per  cent.  Tlie  average 
monthly  salaries  of  white  teachers  in  1000  were 
.$20.18  for  male  teachers  and  $23.41  for  female; 
the  average  salaries  of  the  colored  male  ami  female 
teachers  were  $21.14  and  $19.82,  respectively,  as 
compared  with  $24.00  and  $20.36,  respectively,  in 
1884.  The  total  revenue  for  the  public  schools 
for  1900  amounted  to  $1,031,327,  and  the  ex- 
])enditure  to  $950,317.  or  about  $4.00  per  pupil 
in  average  attendance.  The  school  revenue  is 
derived  principally  from  a  general  property  tax, 
a  general  ])c>ll  tax.  liquor  licenses,  fines,  for- 
feitures, and  ]>cnallics. 

Secondary  education  is  provided  chiefly  by 
the  private  high  schools  and  academies.  There 
are  seven  normal  schools  for  the  colored  youth, 
and  a  State  normal  and  industrial  college  for 
white  women.  The  chief  institutions  for  higher 
education  are  the  University  of  North  Carolina, 
at  Chapel  Hill;  the  College  of  Agriculture  and 
Mechanic  Arts,  and  Davidson  College  (Presb.), 
at  Davidson;  Trinity  College  (il.  E.).  at  Dur- 
ham; Wake  Forest  College  (Bajjt.).  at  Wake 
Forest;  Elon  College  (Christian),  at  Elon  Col- 
lege; Cuilford  College  (Friends),  at  Guilford; 
and  Saint  Jlary's  College  (R.  C),  at  Belmont. 
Higher  education  for  the  colored  race  is  provided 
by  the  Agricultural  and  Slechanieal  College 
(State),  at  Greensboro;  Shaw  University 
(  Bapt. ) ,  at  Raleigh  ;  Biddle  University  (  Presb.) , 
at  Charlotte;  and  Livingstone  College  (A.  M.  E. 
Zion).  at  Salisbury. 

Cii.\RiT.\iiLE  AM)  Penal  Institutions.  Tliere 
is  an  unsalaried  Board  of  Public  Charities  which 
has  supervision  of  the  State  charitable  and  penal 
institutions,  and  of  the  coiinty  and  municipal 
jails,  workhouses,  and  'homes.'  County  'homes' 
are  inspected  by  county  boards  of  visitors.  The 
State  maintains  an  insane  asylum  for  the  whites 
at  Kaleigh  and  one  at  Morganton ;  also  an  a.sylum 
at  Ciolilslioro  for  colored  insane — the  first  in 
the  world  for  this  class.  There  are  a  Stale  in- 
stitute for  the  blind  at  Raleigh,  a  school  for  the 
deaf  at  Morganton.  and  another  for  the  colored 
deaf.  dumb,  and  blind  at  Raleigh.  A  Confederate 
sohliers'  home  is  located  at  Raleigh,  ami  an 
orphan  asylum  for  whites  and  for  blacks  at 
Oxford.  The  State  penitentiary  is  located  nt 
Raleigh.  Only  those  .sentenced  for  the  highest 
crimes  are  confined  in  the  penitentiary  ])ro]ier. 
About  nine-tenths  of  the  convicts  are  employed 
on  State  farms.  The  convicts  are  controlled  by 
State  olliccrs  and  not  under  the  lease  system. 

History.  On  .Tuly  4.  1584.  Philip  Amadas 
ami  Arthur  Barlow,  sent  by  Sir  Walter  Kaleigh 
under  a  charter  granted  by  Queen  Elizabeth  to 
make  explorations  in  .America,  dropped  anchor 
ofl  the  present  coast  of  North  Carolina.  On  their 
return  they  gave  the  most  flattering  accounts  of 
the  country.  The  next  year  a  colony  of  men  was 
sent  out  under  Raljili  Lane  to  make  a  permanent 
settlement.  They  ma<Ie  no  attempt  to  provide  a 
food  supply,  and  in   158G  abandoned  the  settle- 


I 


NORTH  CAROLINA.         619  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

ment  which  they  liad  founded  on  Uoanoke  Island,  being  transferred  without  tlieir  consent,  revolt- 

The   next   year  John   White   was  sent  with   men,  ed  and  set  up  the  State  of  Kranklin.     Governor 

women,  and  children.     He  went  l)ael<  to  Knghind  Caswell  was  able  to  cause  the  dissolution  of  tliis 

for   supplies,   but   on   his   return    tlie   colony    had  abortive  Stale,  and  the   lands   were  ajj;ain  ceded 

ullerly  vanished;  tradition  relates  that  they  were  in   1790.     The  next  year  the  capital  was  located 

ili-nrbed  by  an  Indian  tribe  in  the  neighborhood,  at  Raleigh.     In   1705  the  State  University  was 

Jii  l(i2!l  Charles  1.  granted  to  Sir  Robert  Heath,  opened  for  students.     The  question  of  a  market 

uriiier  the  name  of  Carolina,  the  territory  between  for    their    products    was    a    serious    one    to    the 

;ir  and  36°  N.,  but  the  proprietor  failed  to  make  residents    of   tlie   middle   and    eastern    counties. 

u-e  of  his  grant,  and  in  166.3  Charles  II.  conferred  After   1820  much  money  was  spent  in  the  fruit- 

. in  eight -Lords  Proprietors' the  territory  l)etween  less   attempt   to   make   the   shallow   rivers   navi- 

31-  and  36"  extending  to  the  Paeilie  Ocean.     The  gable,    and    to    connect    them    l)y    canals.      Tlfe 

limits  were  enlarged  in   166.5  to  2n°  to  30°  30'.  measures  were  opposed  by  the  eastern  counties, 

'I  lie    proprietors    received    palatine    powers,    di-  which  had  abundant  water  transportation.     The 

\iiled   the   territory   into   two   parts,   Nortli    and  question    of   constitutional    revision    was    one   of 

.•^I'uth  Carolina,  and  began  to  send  out  settlers,  great  interest  for  a  long  time.     The  Constitution 

.\lready  tliere  were  scattered  settlements  along  of  1776  gave  equal  representation  to  every  coun- 

Ihc    streams    and    sounds    in    the    eastern    part,  ty,   and   this   gave   an   unfair  advantage   to   the 

I'or  the  government  of  the  colony,  an  elaborate  smaller  counties  of  the  east.     After  much  etiort 

>. Lome,     the    'Fundamental     Constitution'     was  the  Convention  of  1835  was  called  and  drafted 

drawn  up  by  the  philosopher  .John  Locke.     This  a  constitution  giving  representation  in  tlie  Sen- 

]ircivided   for  three   orders   of   nobility   and   four  ate  according  to  property  and  in  the  House  ac- 

hnuses  of  Parliament.     It  was  never  put   fully  cording  to  population.     But  during  this   jjcriod 

into  operation,   and  was  abandoned   entirely   in  tliousands  of  people  had  gone  to  Ohio,  Indiana, 

11103.     The  population  was  hardy  and  rude  and  and  Illinois. 

I  J  id  little  attention  to  any  sort  of  government.  The   State   opposed   secession   as   a  matter   of 

.Mrn-ionally  driving  awav  a"n  obnoxious  Governor  expediency,    and    in    February.    1861,    refused    to 

by  force.    "Up  to  1710,  wlien  Edward  Hvde  was  call  a  convention,  but  with   President  Lincoln's 

apjiointed  Governor  of  North  Carolina,  tliere  was  demand  for  troops  to  coerce  the  seceding  States 

but  one  Governor  for  Carolina  with  deputies  for  sentiment   changed.      An   ordinance   of   secession 

the    divisions.      A    strong    hand    was.    however,  was    unanimously    passed.    May    20th.    and    the 

nc.iled.      In    1711    the    Tuscarora    Indians    had  State   lost  the   first  soldier  of   the   war   at    Big 

fallen   upon   the   scattered   farms  and   massacred  Bethel.      North    Carolina    furnished    more    than 

several   hundred    people,   and    the    power   of    the  120,000  soldiers  to  the  Confederate  cause,  nearly 

Indians  was  broken  only  by  aid   from  Virginia  twice    her    proportion,    lost   more    soldiers    than 

and     South     Carolina.    '(See    Moore,    J.\mes.)  any  other  Southern  State,  and  during  the  last 

Pirates  also  were  ravaging  the  coast.  year  of  the  war  practically  fed  Lee's  army.     At 

Carolina  did  not  prove  a  success  from  a  finan-  ^^e  close  of  the   war   W.   W.   Holden,   formerly 

rial   standpoint,  and  in   1728   seven  of  the   pro-  ^  '''ibifl  secessionist,  was  appointed   Provisional 

Iirietors  sold  to  the  Crown  their  shares  for  £2.500  Governor.     A   convention  was   called   winch   re- 

ci.rli.      Lord    Carteret    (afterwards    Lord    Gran-  pealed  the  ordinance  of  secession,  abolished  slav- 

ville)    retained   his,  and  in   1744   it  was  laid   off  ery,   and   ordered   an   election    for    State   olheers. 

in  severalty  for  him.     Affairs  were  more  settled  Jonathan    Worth   was   elected    Governor,   but    in 

after  tlie  Crown  assumed  control,  and  the  west-  f'e  following  year  the  new  Constitution  was  re- 

fvn   portion  of  North   Carolina  began  to   receive  jected.      With    the    beginning    of    reconstruction 

-it  tiers,  largely  Scotch-Irisli  from'  Pennsylvania,  "'  1S67  the  civil  authority  was  superseded  by  the 

nn.l    Germans  "from    the    Palatinate.      After   the  military.     Another  convention  was  called  in  1808, 

linltle  of   Culloden    (1746)    a   number   of   Scotch  and  a  constitution  allowing  negro   suffrage  was 

s.  ttled  on  the  Upper  Cape  Fear  River.     Many  of  adopted.     Under  this  W.  W.  Holden  was  elected 

the  roval  Governors  came  into  conflict  with' the  Governor.       In     this     year     the     KuMux-Klan 

inhabitants,    and   during   the    administration   of  '^l-'*'-'    appeared,    and    Alamance    and    Granville 

William  Trvon  the  Regulators   (q.v.)   threatened  eounties   were   placed   under   martial    law.      The 

to  overturn  the  Government  in  1771  Conservative  Democrats   secured  the  Legislature 

Tl,e  First  Provincial  Congress  met  in  defiance  i^l   l^^*''  and  Governor  Holden  was   inn'cached. 

of  Governor  Josiah  Martin    (c|.v.)    in   1774,  and  ^'•?  present  Constitution  was  adopted   in   18/6, 

s.nt  delegates  to  the  Continental  Congress.     (See  ""^  '°   ^^^'^  "  ,''  "V^''  '"^''""''^   *?  >-ostrict  negro 

MixKLENBiruG  Declakation  OF  INDEPENDENCE.)  ^"ff'iag?  Was  added.     The  State  has  been  Derao- 

Ih..    colony    was    the    first    to    authorize    her  eratic  in  national  elections  since  the  beginning 

deU^gates   in   Congress  to  Vote   for  independence,  °'r.l'''^    '''■!'    *.    ,   ^''7,      ,"y,"      the    years 

on  April   12,   1776,  and  a  State  constitution  was  '*'i'^,f;c''^'r'  \^  '■"■!''  ^T  *   '^           7  candidates, 

adopted,  on  December  18,  1776.     North  Carolina  "'"^  1868-,2.  when  its  vote  was  cast  for  Grant. 

ti..ops  took  part  in  many  of  the  important  battles  The  Governors  of  the  colony  and  State  have  been 

of  the  war,  and  in  1780-81  the  State  was  invaded  '^'^  follows: 

l'\    the  British.     The  State  sent  delegates  to  the  cndeb  the  lords  pkopkietors 

ii;ilional   constitutional    convention    in    1787,    but      William  Drummond infiS-fiT 

1.  fused   to   ratify    the    instrument,    in    1788,    and      Samiipl  St_e,>lien3 K.[.7-70 

jirc'sented    twenty-six    amendments.      The    State  snniupl  st<>phena"!!!!!!!l!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!l!!!!!'.!!!!!!!!!!!!!  ir,70-74 

did   not   vote   in   the   first    Presidential   election.     .lolin  .Ipiikins  laetliic) 117.') 

but  aft^r  the  adoptiori  of  the  first  ten  amend-  ^j:^^:'^:^!:^^:z:z=::z:z:::z:zz  Y^tl' 

luents  to  the  Constitution,   ratified   that   instru-     Thomas  Millpr  (aotinK) ir,77-78 

nient.  on  November  19.  1780.     The  western  lands,      .Inhn  Harvp.v  (actinsr. ir.7.i      , 

now  the  State  of  Tennessee,  were  offered  to  Con-  ?;;:;,';/^(:|^l;]^io;i:;::;;;:;::;;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;::  JSt" 

gress    in    U84.      The    inhabitants,    indignant    at     Seth  Soutliwell  (or  Sothel) 1683-89 

Vol.  XIV.— lu. 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 


620 


NORTHCOTE. 


Philip  Ludwell 1C89-91 

Alexander  LillingtOQ 10iH-'J4 

Thomas  Harvey 1094-99 

Heuderaou  Walker 1699-1704 

Kobert  Daniel 1704-05 

Thimias  Cary 1705-06 

William  Glover  (acting) 170C-(.i7 

Thomaa  Cary  (acting) 1707-08 

S'!;rs?i"r.;"  i  -..testant* 170*^10 

Edward  Hyde 1710-12 

Thomas  Polloclt  (acting) 1713-14 

Charles  Eden 1714-22 

Thomas  Pollock  (acting) 1722 

William  Reed  (acting) 1722-24 

George  llurrington 1724-25 

Edward  Miisely  (acting) 1723 

Sir  Uichard  Everard 1725-29 

ROTAL 

George  Burrington 1729-34 

Nathaniel  Rice  (acting) 1734 

Gabriel  .Johnston 1734-52 

Nathaniel  Rice  (acting) 1752 

Matthew  liowau  (acting) 1752-54 

Arthnr  Dobbs 1754-65 

William  Tryon 1765-71 

Jameri  Hazell  (acting) 1771 

Josiab  Martin 1771-75 

OOTEBNOR8  OP  THE  STATE 

Blchard  Caswell 1777-79 

Abner  Nash 1779-«1 

Thomas  Burke 1781-82 

Alexander  Martin 17S2-84 

Richard  Caswell 1784-87 

Samuel  Johnston Federalist 1787-89 

Alexander  Martin •■  1789-92 

Uichard  Dobbs  Spaight.. Democratic  llepublican 1792-95 

Samnel  Ashe •■  "  1795-98 

Wm.  Uiohardson  Davie..  "  '■  1798-99 

Benjamin  WilUams "  "  ..  1790-1802 

James  Turner "  "  1802-05 

Nathaniel   Alexander •■  "  1805-07 

Benjamin  Williams ■'  "  1807-08 

David  Stone "  •■  1808-10 

Benjamin  .Smith "  "  1810-11 

WilUiim  Hawkins "  ••  1811-14 

William  .Miller ■•  ■'  1814-17 

John  Branch "  "  1817-20 

.Tesse  Franklin •'  "  1820-21 

Gabriel  Holmes ■■  ■'  1821-24 

Hutchings  G.  Burton "  "  1824-27 

James  Iredell 

John  Owen ** 

Montford  Stnkes •* 

David  L.  Swain " 

Kichard  Dobbs  Spaight,  Jr.     " 

Edward  B.  Dudley Whig 

John  M.  Morehend " 

Willi.am  \.  Graham " 

Charles  Manly " 

David  S.  Reid Democrat 1851-j>4 

Warren  Win.slow  (acting) 18.54-5.5 

Thomas  Bragg Democrat 1855-.59 

John  W.  Ellis,: "  18.59-«1 

H.  T.  Clark  (acting) 1861-62 

Zebulon  B,  Vance 1802-65 

W.  \V.  Holden  ([>rovi8ional) 1865 

Jonathan  Worth Conservative 1865-67 

Gen.  Daniel  E.  Sickles  (Military) 1867 

Gen.  E.  R.  S.  Canby •■        1867-68 

W.  W.  Holden Republican  (impeached) 1808-70 

Tod  U.  Caldwell "  1870-74 

Curtis  H.  Brogden "  1874-77 

Zebulnti  B.  Vance Democrat 1877-78 

Th.inias.l.  .larvls '•  )878-85 

Altre.l   M.  Scoles ■■  18a5-89 

Daniel  G.  Fowlo "  1889-91 

Thomas  M.  Holt "  1891-93 

Ellas  (Jnrr ■•  1893-97 

Daniel  L.  RnH.sell Republican 1897-lSKil 

Charles  B.  Aycock Democrat 1901  — 

BiBLiOGR.vPHY.  yorth  Carolina  and  Its  lir- 
sonrrr.i  ( Riilei-zli,  ISilfi)  :  I'nlk.  Ilanilhnnk  of 
yorth  f'arolina,  F'mbrncinri  Hislorical  and  I'hi/si- 
Ofiraphicnl  fikctrlics  of  tlir  folate {KaMjih.  18"!>)  ; 
yorlh  Carolina  Oeolottiral  flurnt/  Rrportft  (T?a- 
Ipiffli)  ;  Halp.  /;i  llir  Coal  and  Iron  Counties  of 
yorth  Carolina  (Raloifrh,  ISS."?)  ;  Hawks.  Tlixtorii 
of  yorth  Carolina  (Fayetteville.  N.  C.  IS.")': 
•T.nwson.  The  Tlixtorii  of  yorth  Carolina  (Ralrish. 
IRfiO)  :  Moore.  TUstory  of  yorth  Carolina  CRt\- 
Icigh.  1880)  ;   Bassctt,'  The  ConMitutional  Begin- 


...Democrat 1827-28 

■'  1828-30 

1830-32 
1832-35 
1835-37 
ia37-41 
1841-43 
184.5-49 
1849-51 


nings  of  yorlh  Carolina  (Baltimore,  188i)  ; 
Saunders,  The  Colonial  lieconh  of  yorth  Caro- 
lina (10  vols.,  Raleigh,  1892)  ;  Weeks,  "Bibliog- 
raphy of  Historical  Literature  of  North  Caro- 
lina." in  the  Library  of  Harvard  University 
Bihiiographieal  Contributions,  No.  48  (Cam- 
bridge, 1895)  ;  Clark,  *7a<c  Records  of  yorth 
Carolina    ( lS!i.'i-l!i02) . 

NORTH  CAROLINA,  Univeksity  of.  A 
State  institution  at  Chapel  Hill,  N.  C,  chartered 
in  178!),  and  opened  in  1795.  It  comprises  a 
college  and  schools  of  law,  medicine,  and  phar- 
macy, together  with  a  summer  school  for  teach- 
ers. It  confers  the  bachelor's  degree  in  arts, 
science,  philosophy,  and  law,  the  degree  of  gi'adu- 
ate  in  pharmacy,  the  master's  degree  in  arts 
and  science,  and  the  doctor's  degree  in  jjhilosophy 
and  medicine.  Free  instruction  is  oll'cred  to  grad- 
uates of  colleges  and  universities,  to  candidates 
for  the  ministry,  to  teachers  and  young  men  who 
are  preparing  to  teach,  and  to  those  who  are. 
laboring  under  bodily  infirmities.  A  loan  fund, 
established  by  Rev.  C.  F.  Deems  of  New  York, 
and  enlarged  by  Mr.  \V.  H.  Vanderbilt,  furnishes 
temporary  assistance  to  indigent  students.  Wo- 
men are  admitted  to  the  higher  courses.  In  1903 
the  university  bad  an  attendance  of  Ii98,  a  fac- 
ulty of  CG,  and  a  librar^y  of  41,000  volumes. 
The  campus  covers  48  acres,  and  with  the  build- 
ings, fifteen  in  iiumlier,  is  valued  at  .$500,000. 

NORTH  CONWAY.  A  village  of  New  Hamp- 
shire.    See  Co.Nw.w. 

NORTHCOTE,  nArtli'kfit.  .James  (174G-1831). 
An  F,iigli>h  historical  and  jwrlrait  painter  and 
author,  born  at  I'lymoulh.  Tlie  son  of  a  ]K)or 
watchmaker,  who  insisted  upon  apprenticing 
James  to  his  trade,  he  was  hampered  in  his 
early  artistic  aspirations,  but  in  1771  man- 
aged to  mal<e  his  way  to  London,  where  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds  admitted  him  into  his  studio 
as  an  assistant,  and  soon  after  invited  him  to 
live  in  his  house.  Northcote  studied  also  at 
the  Royal  Academy,  exhibited  there  some  gooil 
])ortraits,  and.  after  remaining  with  Reynolds 
five  years,  returned  home  anil  thence  went  to 
Italy  in  1777.  For  two  years  in  Rome  he  studied 
the  great  masters,  especially  Titian,  then  visited 
Florence,  where  he  was  requested  to  paint  his 
own  portrait  for  the  UfTizi  Gallery,  and  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academy.  Back  in 
London  in  1780,  he  became  a  regular  exhibitor, 
first  of  portraits,  and  from  17s;i  on  of  subject 
pictures,  Tlie  success  of  one  of  tliese  led  to 
his  being  employed  by  Boyilell,  the  publisher,  to 
paint  nine  i)ictures  for  the  famous  Shakespeare 
t;allery,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  are  "The 
^lurder  of  the  Princes  in  the  Tower,"  "The 
Burial  of  the  Princes,"  "Prince  Arthur  and  Hu- 
bert,"' and  "Kntry  of  Bolingbroke  and  Richard 
II,  into  London,"  Their  popularity  brought  him 
the  conuiiission  for  a  large  jiaintiiig  of  the 
"Deatli  of  Wat  Tyler  in  LiSI"  (KSC),  now  in 
the  (iuililhall.  London.  Of  his  other  numerous 
historical  sulijeets.  the  only  one  in  a  public 
collection  is  tlie  "Presentation  of  British  Offi- 
cers to  Pope  Pius  VI.."  in  the  South  Kensing- 
ton Museum.  He  also  obtained  consideralilc 
success  with  pictures  of  animals,  but  his  fame 
is  due  chiefly  to  his  portraits.  The  National 
Callerv  contains  those  of  Dr.  .Tenner,  of  Viscount 
E\montb.  and  one  of  himself  (1827).  His  lite- 
rary ability  is  proved  by  his  Memoirs  of  Sir. Joshua 


NORTHCOTE. 


621 


NORTH  DAKOTA. 


Reynolds  (1813),  to  whicli  a  supplement  was 
added  in  1815,  and  by  One  Hundred  Fahlvs 
(1828),  illustrated  with  numerous  wood  cuts 
after  liis  own  designs.  In  1830  lie  published 
a  Life  of  Titian,  and  after  liis  death  appeared 
a  second  series  of  fables  under  the  title  The 
Artists'  Book  of  Fables.  Consult:  Cunningham, 
hires  of  the  Most  Eminent  British  Painters, 
edited  by  Heaton    (London,  1879). 

NORTHCOTE,  Sir  Stafford  Henry,  first 
Earl  uf  Iddesleigh  (1818-1887).  An  English 
statesman  and  tinaneier,  born  in  London.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford,  graduating  at 
Balliol  College  in  1839  with  high  honors.  His  first 
position  in  political  life  was  tliat  of  private  secre- 
tary to  Gladstone,  wlien  the  latter  was  president 
of  tlie  Board  of  Trade.  In  1847  he  was  called  to 
tlie  bar  and  was  made  legal  secretary  to  the  Board 
of  Trade.  In  1851  be  succeeded  to  the  family  title 
and  estates  as  eighth  baronet  of  his  line.  He  was 
member  of  Parliament  for  Dudley  and  Stamford 
ls."io-(it;,  and  was  then  returned  for  North 
Devon,  which  place  he  continued  to  represent 
in  the  interest  of  the  Conservative  Party.  He 
was  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  in  1800-67, 
and  in  1807  was  made  Secretary  of  State  for 
India.  From  1869  to  1874  he  was  chairman  of  the 
Hiulson's  Bay  Company,  and  promoted  the  trans- 
fer of  Prince  Rupert's  Land  to  the  Canadian  C4ov- 
eriinient.  He  visited  Canada  and  the  L'nited  States 
in  1870  to  study  conditions,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  joint  high  commission  which  signed  the 
Treaty  of  Washington  on  May  8.  1871.  On  the 
formation  of  Disraeli's  Cabinet  in  1874,  Sir 
StalTord  Northcote  was  made  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  and  when  his  leader  was  elevated  to 
the  peerage  under  the  title  of  Lord  Beaconsfield, 
Xiirthcote  became  leader  of  the  Commons.  In 
the  first  Salisbury  Administration  (1885-86)  he 
was  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury.  He  was  created 
Karl  of  Iddesleigh  and  Viscount  Saint  Cyres  in 
Iss.'j,  When  Salisbury  became  Premier  for  the 
second  time  (1880)  the  Earl  of  Iddesleigh  was 
made  Foreign  Secretary.  He  died  suddenly  on 
January  12,  1887,  in  the  presence  of  Lord  Salis- 
bury, the  Premier,  in  the  ofliicial  residence, 
Lon<lon.  Northcote  published  a  number  of  polit- 
ical and  financial  pamphlets,  such  as  Ticentij 
Years  of  Financial  Policii  (London,  1862).  His 
character  was  distinguished  by  unselfishness, 
pure-mindedncss,  and  sincere  patriotism.  Con- 
sult his  collected  Lectures  and  Essays  (London, 
lss7)  :  Lang,  Life,  Letters,  and  Diaries  of  Staf- 
fnrd  Xorthcote,  First  Earl  of  Iddesleigh  (Lon- 
dnn.  lS9n). 

NORTH  DAKO'TA.  A  north  central  State 
of  the  United  States,  lying  between  latitudes  45° 
5">'  and  49°  X.,  and  between  longitudes  96°  25' 
and  104°  3'  W.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
(  aiiadian  provinces  of  .Assiniboia  and  Manitoba, 
cm  tlic  east  by  Jlinnesota,  on  the  south  by  South 
Dakota,  and  on  the  west  by  Montana.  Its 
li'iundaries  are  straight  lines,  except  the  eastern 
border,  which  is  formed  by  the  Red  River  of  the 
Xnrth.  Its  shape  is  that  of  a  rectangle,  with  an 
extreme  length  east  and  west  of  360  miles,  and 
li'a  breadth  of  210  miles.  The  area  is  70,795 
square  miles,  of  which  70,195  cover  the  land 
s\irfaoe.  North  Dakota  ranks  fourteenth  in  size 
among  the  States. 

TopooRAPiiY.  The  eastern  part  of  the  State  is 
the    perfectly    level    bed    of    the    ancient    Lake 


Agassiz,  now  traversed  by  the  Red  River  and  its 
tributaries.  It  lies  about  1000  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  merges  westward  into  the  rolling 
prairies  of  the  central  region.  In  the  north  the 
land  rises  to  a  lieight  of  over  2000  feet  in  the 
small  forest-covered  jjlateau  known  as  the  Turtle 
Mountains.  This  range  extends  about  20  miles 
south  of  the  ilanitoba  boundarj'.  Southwest- 
ward  the  prairies  rise  toward  the  grassy  Plateau 
du  Coteau  du  Missouri,  which  has  an  elevation 
of  2000  feet  near  the  centre  of  the  State,  and 
rises  gradually  to  3000  feet  in  the  extreme 
southwestern  corner.  There  are  no  great  alti- 
tudes above  the  general  level.  In  the  central 
region  there  are  rounded,  grassy,  and  boulder- 
crowned  hills  of  glacial  drift ;  and  in  the  south- 
west isolated  conical  buttes  capped  with  sand- 
stone become  more  and  more  frequent  until  the 
rough  and  rocky  'bad  lands'  of  the  southwestern 
corner  are  reached. 

The  principal  rivers  lie  from  100  to  300  feet 
below  the  surrounding  plains,  and  are  lined  with 
bluff's.  The  western  half  of  the  State  is  traversed 
in  a  winding  southeast  course  by  the  Missouri 
River,  which  enters  on  the  western  boundary  and 
leaves  the  State  near  the  middle  of  the  southern 
boundary.  Its  chief  tributaries  from  the  State 
are  from  the  right  and  drain  the  southwestern 
plateau.  They  are  the  Little  Missouri.  Knife, 
Heart,  and  Cannon  Ball  rivers.  The  Yellowstone 
also  joins  the  ilissouri  in  North  Dakota  imme- 
diately east  of  the  ilontana  boundary  line.  The 
northern  portion  is  drained  by  the  Souris  or  ilouse 
River,  which  flows  southeast  from  Canada  and  re- 
enters that  country  in  the  opposite  direction  after 
making  a  long  narrow  loop  toward  the  centre  of 
the  State.  From  this  central  section  the  .James 
River  flows  southward  into  South  Dakota,  where 
it  joins  the  ifissouri.  The  remaining  eastern 
portion  is  drained  by  the  Red  River  of  the  North, 
chief  of  whose  numerous  tributaries  is  the  Shey- 
enne.  Scattered  over  the  central  and  eastern 
plains  are  numerous  lakes,  the  largest  of  which 
is  Devil's  Lake,  an  irregular  body  of  water  32 
miles  long  and  1  to  5  miles  wide,  with  wooded 
shores. 

Climate,  Soil,  and  Vegetation.  North  Da- 
kota has  a  typical  continental  climate  charac- 
terized by  enormous  extremes  of  temperature, 
which,  however,  the  dry  atmosphere  renders 
bearable,  healthful,  and  invigorating.  The  mean 
temperature  for  January  is  3°,  and  for  .July  70°. 
The  extremes  have  a  range  of  nearly  155°  for  the 
year,  a  maximum  having  been  recorded  as  high 
as  114°,  while  a  minimum  of  40°  below  zero 
is  not  rare.  The  average  annual  rainfall  of 
17.29  inches  would  scarcely  suffice  for  the  needs 
of  agriculture  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  full.y 
three-fourths  of  the  precipitation  falls  during  the 
growing  season  (.\pril  to  September).  In  the 
western  half  of  the  State,  however,  the  rainfall 
is  insufficient  for  successful  agriculture.  The 
deep  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Red  River  Valley 
are  of  inexhaustible  fertility,  and  ai'c  conspicu- 
ously favorable  to  wdieat-growing.  The  glacial 
drift  of  the  prairies  forms,  in  addition,  an  ex- 
cellent subsoil,  but  toward  the  west  it  grows 
poorer  and  more  scanty,  especially  in  the  south- 
west. Forest  growth  is  found  only  along  the 
river  banks,  and  on  the  Turtle  Mountains  in  the 
north,  and  in  some  sections  of  the  Red  River 
Valley.  The  remainder  of  the  State  is  a  tree- 
less  prsirie    covered   with   numerous    species    of 


NORTH  DAKOTA. 


622 


NORTH  DAKOTA. 


grasses  and  other  foraj:e  plants.  Tlie  principal 
trees  are  Cottonwood  alonp  the  rivers,  and  oak, 
elm,  birch,  ash,  and  poplar  in  the  Turtle  Moun- 
tains. 

Geology  and  Mineral  Re.sovbces.  The  rock 
formations  of  the  State  include  the  Archa'an, 
Cambrian,  Silurian,  Cretaceous,  and  Tertiary 
systems.  The  Dakota  sandstone  of  tlie  Creta- 
ceous system  is  an  important  member,  Iwing  the 
chief  water-bearing  stratum  on  which  the  arte- 
sian wells  of  North  Dakota  de])end.  Most  of  the 
rocks,  however,  are  covered  by  a  deposit  of  glacial 
drift,  composed  of  sand,  gravel,  and  clay.  In 
the  Red  River  Valley  there  is  a  thick  layer 
of  alluvium  deposited  by  Lake  Agassiz,  whose 
ancient  shore-lines  have  been  traced  all  around 
the  valley.  The  central  and  western  portions  of 
the  State  are  underlaid  with  extensive  beds  of 
lignite,  which  is  being  more  and  more  utilized. 
The  ])roduction  in  I!)01  amounted  to  IGG.GOl 
tons,  valued  at  .^SU.lyl.  Clay  is  the  only  other 
mineral  utilized  to  any  considerable  extent, 
though  some  building-stone  is  available,  and 
lime,  salt,  and  a  little  iron  are  found. 

AcRictLTi'RE.  Although  stock-raising  made 
considerable  progress  in  the  decade  1870-80,  the 
putting  of  the  land  imder  plow  was  almost  wholly 
the  work  of  the  succeeding  decades.  The  number 
of  acres  included  in  farms  doubled  from  1890 
to  1000,  and  amounted  in  tlie  latter  year  to 
34.0  per  cent,  of  the  total  area.  Of  the  farm 
area.  (>.i.l  per  cent,  was  improved.  During  the 
same  decade  the  average  size  of  farms  increased 
from  277.4  acres  to  342.9  acres — a  larger  average 
than  is  found  in  any  other  State.  In  1900,  1346 
farms  contained  over  1000  acres  each.  Excepting 
that  of  the  'bad  lands.'  in  the  southwest,  the 
soil  is  not  only  unusually  fertile,  but  also  easily 
tilled.  Its  composition  is  fortvinately  such  as  to 
favor  the  retention  of  moisture.  Nevertheless, 
there  are  occasionally  severe  droughts. 

Evcrvwhere  wheat  is  the  dominant  crop.  In 
1899  it  constituted  56  per  cent,  of  the  total 
crop  area.  In  the  same  year  the  per  capita  acre- 
age of  wheat,  13.9  acres,  was  larger  than  in  any 
other  State.  The  Red  River  Valley,  which  ex- 
tends entirely  across  the  eastern  end  of  North 
Dakota,  is  jx>rhaps  the  most  famous  wheat-pro- 
ducing region  in  the  world.  In  the  six  counties 
bordering  the  Red  River  almost  half  of  the  total 
area  i<  devoted  to  wheat.  Oats  is  tlie  next  most 
important  cereal.  The  cultivation  of  llax  in- 
creased during  the  decade  1890-1900  from  a  few 
thousand  acres  to  an  acreage  exceeding  that  of 
any  other  State.  Barley  is  most  extensively  pro- 
duced in  the  northeastern  counties  and  corn  in  the 
southeastern.  Potatoes  yield  abundantly  and  are 
an  important  crop.  But  very  little  fruit  is  raised. 
The  following  table  gives  the  acreage  of  the 
leading  crops  for  the  census  years  indicated: 


of  domestic  animals  showed  large  gains  from 
1890  to  1900.  Cattle  and  horses  are  the  most 
important  varieties. 

Lhe  following  table,  taken  from  the  census, 
shows  the  relative  prominence  of  the  principal 
varieties  of  farm   animals: 


CBOP8 

1900 

1890 

V^Prtt          

4.451.231 

780.617 

773.999 

2<«7.092 

42.373 

27.995 

1,410,534 

21,036 

2.709.421 

402,855 

Flnx 

43.724 

109.400 

Tom     

11.954 

L.^S 

Hny 

558.720 

Potntoos.... 

18.262 

Stock-Rai.sixo.  The  prairie  lands  afford  ex- 
cellent pasturage,  and  large  areas  of  wild  salt 
and  prairie  grasses  are  annually  cut  for  wint«r 
feed.      With    the   exception   of   nniles,   all   kinds 


1900 

1890 

125..'-.03 
531.931 
339.948 
6.976 
451,437 
191,798 

88.289 

193.585 

Horses 

i:».931 
S.709 

136,413 

92,213 

!M.4.NUFACTURES.  But  little  manufacturing  is 
carried  on  besides  the  so-called  ncigh\)orliood 
industries.  In  1900  the  wage-earners  numbered 
2398,  and  the  total  value  of  the  product  was 
$9,183,114.  of  which  .'j^t. 134.023  represented  the 
Hour  and  grist-mill  output. 

Tbaxsportatiox.  In  1S70  the  combined  mile- 
age of  the  railways  in  what  is  now  North  and 
South  Dakota  was  only  05  miles.  In  1890  North 
Dakota  alone  had  2116  miles,  which  figure  had  in- 
creased in  1900  to  2810.  The  eastern  |iart  of  the 
State  is  well  supplied  with  railroad  facilities. 
The  Great  Northern  crosses  the  northern  part, 
and  the  Northern  Pacific  the  southern  part.  In 
addition,  the  Saint  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Sault 
Ste.  Marie  enters  the  State  at  the  southwest 
corner  and  e.xtends  in  a  northwest  dircctio!i  en- 
tirely across  the  Commonwealth.  These  three 
lines  with  their  branches  constitute  the  greater 
part  of  the  total  mileage.  All  three  have  con- 
nections witli  the  Canadian  system  of  railroads, 
the  two  former  by  wa.v  of  the  Red  River  ^'alley. 
There  is  a  railroad  commission  empowered  to 
alter  tariffs,  to  make  rules  and  regulations,  and 
to  hear  and  decide  complaints  subject  to  the  re- 
vision of  the  courts.  The  Red  River  is  naviga- 
ble part  of  the  year,  but  is  not  extensively  used. 

Ba.nking.  Until  the  organization  of  the  State 
there  was  very  little  banking  within  its  con- 
fines. In  1873  the  first  private  bank  conunenced 
operations.  The  first  incorporated  bank  opened 
in  1878  as  a  national  bank.  At  the  time  of  ad- 
mission to  Statehood  there  were  30  national 
and  8  State  banks.  One  of  the  first  measures 
of  the  Legislature  in  1890  was  to  pass  a  strin- 
gent banking  law  prohibiting  private  banking; 
creating  the  ollice  of  Superintendent  of  Banks; 
and  providing  for  reports  and  examinations. 
Under  the  security  of  this  law  many  Stale  banks 
were  organized,  and  the  number  of  national 
banks  diminished  somewhat.  In  1892-93  the 
reputation  of  the  North  Dakota  banks  was  se- 
riously injured  by  the  long  list  of  failures  of  the 
so-called  'Mears  Banks.'  organized  by  E.  Mear» 
according  to  the  Territorial  law.  and  therefore 
not  amenable  to  the  new  regulations.  The  last 
of  these  banks  went  into  liquidation  in  1896, 
and  the  reputation  of  the  l)anks  of  the  State! 
was  restored.  The  condition  of  the  banks  ii 
1902  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Number.. 


riil)itiil 

SurphiB 

rii»h.  etc... 
Depositfl.... 
Lnnim 


Nntionnl 
li.inks 


49 


$2,076,000 

K9.C1II0 

794.000 

9.772.000 

9,218,000 


State 
liaiiks 


163 


$1,782,0001 

223.0001 

917.000 

9.326.000  i 

5,840,0001 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  NORTH  CAKOtA  BY  COUNTIES. 


County. 

srap 

Index. 

County  Seat. 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Population. 

1890. 

190O. 

(i3 

F  1 
B  3 

E  1 

e"3 
IIS 
C!  1 

G3 

F2 
E3 

F  8 

ii'i 

G8 

F  3 
«3 
F  3 
E  ] 
F  3 

Hi 

C  2 
D3 

(}2 
1)3 
Ul 
F  1 
F  1 

n3 
ii'3 

F  1 
113 

C  3 

n2 

F3 

F  1 
US 

<i  l" 
C  1 

F  3 

n  1 

U  3 

l,.W(i 
l,:wo 
G,150 
1,137 

\\m 

1.753 

1,S13 

7,045 

3,400 

170 

3,803 

0 

803 

4,347 

19,613 

6,471 

74 

5,573 

11)9 

1,377 

1,971 

72 

1,310 
33 

18,357 

3,817 

81 

1,311 
3,187 
597 
1,584 
3,S48 

3 

800 

438 

4,738 

133 

4,393 

464 

14,334 

905 

4,418 

5,393 
99 
10,751 
3,437 
5,070 

5 

2,304 

3,777 

16 

5,366 

1,450 

1U,S17 

24 

16,587 

1,081 

1,212 
109 

'  sii 

13,1.59 

8,.330 

BilliiM's        

975 

liultiiiL-au 

Bottineau.. , 

7,533 

Bnforil 

6',6si 

38,035 

Cavalier 

Laugdon 

13,580 

Dickey 

EUendale 

1,146 

"648 
1,550 

0.001 

Eddy         

New  Rockford 

3,330 

Willianisport 

4,349 

Flaunery 

Foster 

Carrington .... 

041 

i',433 
730 

1,308 
1,148 
'J80 
1,408 
1,000 

3,770 

Grand  Forks 

34,459 

4,744 

Ilettiugcr    

Steele 

Kidder  

1,751 

0,048 
1,035 

Napoleon 

6,253 

Ashley 

4,818 

Washburn 

3,.3-18 
1,0.30 
4,740 

4,791 

1,778 

Morton 

Mandan 

8,069 

990 

737 

1,134 

1,008 

1,300 

804 

7,310 

Oliver 

Sanger 

990 

17,869 

Pierce          

Rugbv 

4,765 

Kamacy 

Devils  Lake 

9,198 
6,919 

Renville           

Wahpeton 

Rolla        

1,445 
943 
804 

17,387 

Rolette       

7  995 

Sargent     

Forman 

6,039 

Sheridan 

Stark        

Dickinson 

Sherbrooke        

6.003 
730 

3,290 

1,048 
873 

7  031 

Steele 

5,888 

9,143 

0,491 
13,107 

Towner 

Traill 

Wallace 

Walsh 

1,308 
0,090 

1,296 
3,512 

20,388 

Ward 

Minot 

Wells 

8,310 
l,5-"> 

3,208 

WillianiB 

Standing    Rock    Indian 
reservation 

COPVHXiHT,  ISei  AND  KM,  I 


I,  WEAD  A  COMPANY. 


^ 


\0:^sW    -A 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OP  SOUTH  DAKOTA  BY  COUNTIES. 


County. 

Map 
Index. 

County  Scat. 

.\rei»  in 
square 
miles. 

Population. 

1890. 

1900. 

D5 
G  6 
(i  5 
117 
1)4 
J  5 
G  4 

F  6 
F  5 
B  5 
K  4 
G6 

ii's 

117 
114 
U  0 

G6 
114 
J  5 

D  4 
0  G 

F4 

b'e 

F  4 
J  4 

F  6 
115 
F  5 
H6 

E  5 
11  6 
F  5 
D  6 
(i  5 
116 
115 
B  5 

J  6 
1)6 
F  (i 
11  6 
F  4 
Ui 

B  5 
K  0 
116 
J  0 

J  6 
H  5 
E  4 

J'  '4 
G  5 

1)   1 
C  (i 
C  5 
E5 
1)5 
E5 

K6 
116 
.1  7 
E  4 

(";■  '(i 

117 
V  5 
I)  4 
C  0 
£S 
1)3 

1,460 
724 

1,270 
569 

1,231 
817 

1,745 

808 
483 

7,834 
765 

1,123 

"973 
408 
786 

1,612 

486 
1,077 

031 
8,219 

445 

1,176 

i",767 

1,010 

694 

1,004 
543 

1,418 
486 

766 
817 
875 

548 
831 
549 
814 

579 
1,068 
3,456 

575 

1,146 
880 

3,003 

1,407 

569 

802 

517 

2,.590 

900 

6,645 
9.6S6 
9,057 

I0,i:i2 
16,855 

6,737 
903 
1.037 
3,510 
4,178 

8 
6,728 
7.509 
7,037 
4,891 

5,449 

9,168 
4,,574 

i.COO 

4,399 
16 
4,478 
4,062 
6,814 

296 
4,625 
0,.546 
4,267 

6.044 

10,469 

1,860 

30 

3,605 

8,.562 

7,508 

11,673 

9,143 

■  23.3 

0,448 
5.1M0 
4,W4 

4,640 

Km 

21,879 

5.941 

6,540 

2,910 

23 

181 

34 

1,997 

4,610 

io,.wi 

1,028 

96 

2,412 

188 

10,256 
9,i:ifl 
S,163 

'"'46 
10,414 

£10 

1,011 

8  OSl 

Rpiidle     

Huron  

Tyndall 

10,379 

12,561 

Abertlucn ....        

15,286 

Bnilc        .               .... 

ChanilH'rliiin 

5  401 

1,7'JO 

Butte          .          

Bellcfoiirdie 

2,907 

Campbell. 

4,.527 

Wheeler 

8,498 

Clioteau 

Clark 

Now  belongs  to  ButteC'r. 

Clark 

Vermilion 

6,942 

Cla/ 

Codington 

9,316 
8.770 

Custer 

2,«8 

Mitclnll 

Webster 

7,48.3 

12.254 

Clearlake 

6,656 

Armour 

5,012 

Ipswich 

4,910 

Jawing 

T^ow  belongs  to  Butte  Co. 
Hot  Sprint's 

Fall  River       

8,.'>41 

Fanlk  

Faulkton 

3.547 

Grant    

Millbank 

9,103 

Gregory 

Fairfax 

Ca,«tlewood 

Miller .  .. 

.Alexandria 

2,211 
5,945 

Hand .' 

4.,525 
4,917 

Pierre .... 

3,6»l 

Hutchinson 

Olivet 

11,897 

Hvde 

1,492 

*»l'iickson 

Wessington  Springs... 
Desmet 

2,798 

Kingsbury 

9,8W 

9,13 

Lawrence     

Deadwood 

17,897 

Lincoln       

Canton 

12,161 

*Liigenbeel 

Lyman 

<">acoma 

2,632 

8,683 

McPherson 

Leola 

6,327 

5,i)48 

Sturgis 

4,007 

♦Meyer 

Miner 

5,861 

Minnehaha 

23,920 

8.326 

Pennington 

6,010 

2,988 

♦Pratt 

♦Pratt 

Roberta 

Sisscton  Agency 

i,i6i 

576 

1,563 
1.060 
1.618 
4.882 

12,2i6 

4,464 

lied  flcid  ■.■.'..!'.;!'; '.'.;!!' 

Spink 

9,187 

Stanley 

1,319 

•Sterling 

SuMy 

Onida 

1,052 

1,480 
B21 
447 
745 

1,228 

515 

1,715 

Todd 

•Tripp 

TiiniiT 

Union 

Farker 

Kikpoint 

13.175 
11,16;) 

3,»39 

•WaBhington 

12,649 

Cheyenne  River  Indian 

2,35r 

T'Inp  Kidgc  Indian  rewT- 

6,827 

U<>Mebud  Indian  reserva- 

.'.,201 

Stjinding    Rnck    Indian 

i,ia8 

•CoudUcs  aa  yet  not  fully  organized;  parts  of  Indian  rvgervatioua. 


NOBTH  DAKOTA. 


633 


NORTH  DAKOTA. 


(ioNTRNMEXT.  The  State  Constitution  was 
ailiiptecl  in  October.  1S80.  A  proposed  amendment 
iiiu~t  receive  the  approval  of  a  majority  of  the 
numbers  elected  to  two  successive  legislative  as- 
M  iiililies,  and  of  a  majority  of  the  qualified  elect- 
m~  at  a  popular  election.  Voters  must  be  either 
(iiizens.  or  civilized  Indians  who  have  severed 
ilirir  tribal  relations  two  years  before  election. 
\oUts  must  also  have  resided  in  the  State  one 
M  ir,  in  the  county  six  months,  and  in  the  pre- 
cinct ninety  days.  The  Legislature  may  pre- 
M  ribe  penalties  for  failinsr.  neKlectin<;.  or  rcfus- 
iii'.'  to  vote  at  any  general  election.  The  capital 
lii  the  State  is  Bismarck. 

Legisl.\tive.  The  Senate  must  consist  of  not 
l(--s  than  .30  or  more  than  oO  members;  the 
iiuuse  of  Representatives  of  not  less  than  CO 
or  more  than  140  members.  The  Senators  are 
elected  from  districts  of  contiguous  undivided 
cniuities  for  a  term  of  4  years.  The  Representa- 
tives are  elected  at  large  from  the  Senatorial  dis- 
tricts for  a  term  of  2  years.  Both  receive  $5 
]irr  day  and  mileage.  Sessions  are  biennial,  be- 
ginning on  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Mon- 
il.iy  in  .January-,  and  are  limited  to  00  days. 

KxECi'TivE.  The  Governor.  Lieutenant-Govern- 
I  r.  Secretary  of  State.  Auditor.  Treasurer.  Su- 
|iiiintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  Commissioner 
lit  Insurance,  three  Commissioners  of  Railroads. 
:in  Attorney-General,  and  a  Commissioner  of 
-\jiiculture  and  Labor  are  elected  every  two 
viars.  The  Governor  can  veto  all  bills  or  any 
item  of  any  appropriation  bill,  but  his  veto  is 
iiMiridden  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  both  Houses. 
An  unrcfurned  bill  becomes  a  law  after  three 
(hiys.  The  Governor  may  call  extra  sessions, 
and.  in  conjunction  with  a  board  of  pardons,  may 
exercise  the  pardoning  power. 

.rrDiciAKY.  There  is  a  Supreme  Court  of  three 
judges  elected  by  the  State  at  large  for  the 
period  of  6  years.  There  are  6  district  courts, 
a  judge  being  elected  in  each  district  for  4  years. 
The  Legislature  can  increase  the  number.  A 
clerk  of  the  district  court  is  elected  in  each 
county  for  4  years.  County  court  judges  are 
elected  for  2  years.  The  Legislature  provides 
by  law  for  the  election  of  justices  of  the  peace 
and   police  magistrates. 

Local  Goverxmext.  General  laws  provide  for 
organizing  new  counties  and  changing  county 
lines.  There  must  be,  however,  at  least  24  Con- 
grissional  townships  and  1000  inhabitants  in 
caili  county.  Changes  in  boundaries  must  be  ap- 
proved by  popular  vote  of  the  cotinties  affected. 
Township  organization  is  also  provided  for  by  a 
general  law.  Every  two  years  the  counties  elect 
a  register  of  deeds,  auditor,  treasurer,  sherifl', 
and  attorney.  Other  county,  township,  and  dis- 
trict ollicers  may  be  provided  for  by  law. 

Other  Legai,  Provisioxs.  Trusts  or  combina- 
tions controlling  the  price  or  cost  of  exchange 
of  articles  are  unlawful.  The  importation, 
manufacture,  sale,  or  gift  of  intoxicating  li- 
quors is  prohibited.  The  legal  rate  of  interest 
is  7  per  cent.,  though  12  may  be  allowed  by  con- 
tract. .Judgments  outlaw  in  10  years,  notes  in 
6  years. 

Fixaxces.  The  small  public  debt  was  created 
mainly  in  1884-89.  before  admission  to  State- 
hood, for  purposes  of  construction  of  public 
buildings.  It  bore  6  per  cent.,  but  was  refunded 
after  1800  in  4  per  cent,  bonds.  At  the  time 
of  admission  the  debt  was  .$089,000,  and  the  Con- 


stitution prohibits  any  increase  of  this  debt  by 
more  than  .$200,000.  The  income  of  the  State 
is  derived  from  a  general  property  tii.x  limited 
by  the  Constitution  to  4  mills,  from  a  tax  on 
corporations  and  railroads,  and  from  sale  of 
public  lands.  All  the  proceeds  from  the  last 
source  must  go  into  the  ])ermancnt  school  fund. 

On  .June  30,  1902,  the  State  had  a  balance  on 
hand  in  the  treasury  of  .$.5G2,.582.81.  The  total 
receipts  from  .June  30.  1900,  to  .Jtine  30,  1902, 
were  $3,120,435.08,  and  the  expenditures  for  the 
same  period  amounted  to  .$2,740,278.27.  The 
bonded  indebtedness  on  June  30,  1902,  was  $722,- 
300. 

JIilitia.  The  number  of  men  of  militia  age 
in  1900  was  80,191.  The  militia  in  1901  num- 
bered 718. 

PopuL.^Tiox.  The  population  of  Xorth  Dakota 
by  decades  is  as  follows:  1870.  2403;  1880, 
30,909;  1890,  182,719;  1900,  319,146.  North 
Dakota  at  the  first  two  censuses  was  a  part 
of  the  Territory  of  Dakota.  The  increase  in 
the  last  decade  amounted  to  74.7  per  cent.  The 
counties  along  the  Red  River  are  the  most  dense- 
ly populated.  But  few  people  are  located  in  the 
western  half  of  the  State.  There  is  a  larger  per 
cent,  of  foreign-born  than  is  found  in  any  other 
State.  In  1900  this  element  of  the  population 
numbered  113.091,  and  there  was  a  still  larger 
number  of  native  whites  of  foreign  parents, 
these  two  elements  almost  equaling  four-fifths  of 
the  total  population.  The  Canadians  and  Swedes 
are  the  chief  foreign  nationalities  represented. 
Onlv  two  towns  had  more  than  4000  inhabitants 
in  1900:  Fargo,  9589;  and  Grand  Forks,  7052. 
The  State  sends  two  members  to  the  National 
House  of  Representatives. 

Religion.  The  principal  Protestant  denomina- 
tion is  the  Lutheran.  It  represents  about  one- 
third  of  all  the  church  members.  The  Roman 
Catholics  form  over  one-seventh  of  the  total  popu- 
lation. The  other  denominations,  in  order  of  im- 
portance, are  Methodist,  Presbyterian,  Baptist, 
and  the  Congregational. 

Educatiox.  The  Constitution  provides  for  a 
free  public  school  system  unilcr  the  supervisicm 
of  a  board  of  commissioners  consisting  of  the 
Governor,  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  and  the  president  of  the  State  L'ni- 
versity.  The  system  of  high  schools  is  under  the 
control  of  local  boards  of  education,  city  super- 
intendents, and  State  high  school  boards;  and 
there  are  a  State  normal  school  and  institutions 
for  higher  education.  The  proportion  of  illiteracy 
in  1900  was  5.6  per  cent.,  being  the  highest 
(with  the  exception  of  Missouri)  in  the  North 
Central  division  of  States.  This  proportion 
ranges  from  0.9  per  cent,  for  the  native  white 
population,  to  6.7  per  cent,  for  the  foreign  white. 
and  to  59.2  per  cent,  for  the  colored.  The  2641 
common  schools  (245  graded)  had  in  1900  an 
enrollment  of  77,686,  and  an  average  daily  at- 
tendance of  43,560.  The  length  of  the  school 
term  in  1900  was  155.7  days,  as  against  113 
days  in  1890.  The  average  monthly  salaries  of 
male  and  female  teachers  in  1900  were  $41.72 
and  $36.80  respectively. 

The  total  income  for  school  purposes  in  1900 
was  $1,456,496.  the  revenue  being  derived  prin- 
cipally from  local  taxes,  from  the  permanent 
sciiool  fund,  and  from  the  sale  and  rental  of  school 
lands.  The  expenditure  per  pupil,  based  on 
average  attendance,  was  $35.03 — the  highest  ex- 


NORTH  DAKOTA. 


624     NORTHEAST  BOUNDARY  DISPUTE. 


penditurc  found  anioiif;  tlie  Xorlli  Central  States 
uiui  a  ligiire  e.\ceoded  in  but  few  States.  Under 
the  enabling  act  admitting  the  State  of  Xorth 
Dakota  to  the  Union,  the  lUth  and  3tilh  see- 
tions  of  every  township  were  granted  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  common  schools.  The  State 
thus  acquired  about  2.300,000  acres.  In  1900 
North  Dakota  had  27  public  high  schools  with  a 
total  attendance  of  1130.  Normal  education  is 
provided  by  two  public  schools  (at  ilayville  and 
Valley  City)  and  one  private  normal  school.  The 
institutions  for  higher  education  are  the  Uni- 
versitv  of  North  Dakota,  at  (inind  Forks;  Fargo 
College  !Con<,'.).  at  Fargo;  lied  Ri-cr  Valley 
University  (M,  E.),  at  Wahpeton;  and  the  Agri- 
cultural College,  at  Fargo. 

CllAKnABLE  AND  Pexal  Ixstitutioxs.  The 
State  maintains  a  school  for  the  deaf  at  Devil's 
Lake,  an  asylum  for  the  insane  and  a  school 
for  the  feeble-minded,  both  at  Jamestown,  and 
a  soldiers'  home  at  T.islion.  The  State  peniten- 
tiary is  located  at   Bismarck. 

HisTOKY.  The  whole  territory  of  Dakota  was 
a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  and  was  for 
a  long  time  unorganized.  Lewis  and  Clark  in 
their  expedition  of  1804-OG  spent  the  first  winter 
near  Mandan.  British  subjects  had  posts  for  the 
fur  trade  within  the  territory,  and  Lord  Selkirk, 
considering  it  British  territory,  built  a  fort  near 
Pembina  in  1810.  Previously,  about  1780,  French 
Canaiiians  had  settled  at  this  phice.  Fremont  in 
183!)  explored  much  of  the  country,  and  Lieuten- 
ant Warner  in  18.5.5  made  a  report  on  the  region 
for  the  Covcrnment.  The  Sioux  Indians  in  18.51 
ceded  a  i)ortion  of  their  lands  to  the  Ciovernment 
and  they  were  opened  for  settlement.  The  part 
oast  of  the  Missouri  River  was  first.attached  to 
the  Territory  of  .Minnesota  in  1849.  The  part 
west,  together  with  much  of  Idaho.  Wyoming, 
and  Montana,  became  part  of  Nebraska  Tcrritorv 
in  18,54.  On  March  2,  1801,  the  Territon,-  of  Da- 
kota was  organized. 

The  Indians  were  hostile  and  population  was 
sparse  until  after  1800.  With  the  growth  of 
jjiipulation  came  agitation  for  Statehood,  and  the 
Territory  was  divided  into  two  (see  South 
Dakota"),  and  on  February  22,  1889,  Con- 
gress authorized  the  calling  of  conventions  to 
form  <'onstitutions.  Tlie  convention  for  North 
Dakota  met  at  Bismarck  .Tuly  4.  and  formed 
a  ccinstitulion.  It  was  ratified  in  October,  to- 
gether with  a  prohibition  article  whicli  was  sub- 
Uiitti'd  separately.  On  November  2d  President 
Harrison  declared  the  State  admitted.  Politi- 
cally the  State  has  been  Republican  from  its  ad- 
mission, with  the  exception  of  one  election 
(1802),  when  a  fusion  of  the  Farmers'  Alliance 
with  the  Democrats  gave  them  control. 

0OVKBXOR8  OF  NOHTn  DAKOTA 

.lohn  Mlllpr Repuhllcan 1889-91 

Anilrpw  H.  Burke "         1891-93 

E  C.  I).  .siiortrl<lge..P('niocrntlo-Inriependent 1893-95 

RoiriT  Allln Uepubllcaii l«9,'>-97 

Friiiik  A.  BrlKiTH "  1897-99 

Frc'ilorii-  n.  Kancher "         1899-1901 

Vrnnk  WliiN' ■■         1901  — 

Consult:  the  report  by  the  Commissioner  of 
Immigration,  Ilagerty.  The  HInlF  of  \orlh 
Dnlolii :  An  0/firial  SIntislical.  Ilistoriral.  and 
l'(iliHrnlAtisli(i(l  tAhcn\vri\,i<.  1)..  1S89)  ;  Beadle, 
Dill.:, hi    (Saint    I'aul.   1889). 

NORTH  DAKOTA,  Uxt\-ersitt  of.  A  co- 
educational   Stat«   institution   at   Grand   Forks, 


N.  D.,  established  in  1883.  By  the  enabling  act 
of  Congress  under  which  the  State  was  admitted, 
the  university  received  a  grant  of  80.080  acres  of 
land,  and  the  School  of  Mines,  a  grant  of  40.000 
acres.  The  univer-sity  comprises  a  college  of  arts, 
a  normal  college,  and  departments  of  law,  min- 
ing engineering,  mechanical  and  electrical  engi- 
neering, military  science,  and  pharmacy,  together 
with  a  preparatory  department.  In  1902  it  had 
500  students.  35  instructors,  and  a  library  con- 
taining 10,000  volumes.  The  college  property 
was  valued  at  .$2,500,000,  including  a  campus  of 
80  acres,  valued  with  the  college  buildings  at 
.$350,000,  and  the  income  was  .$80,000.  Univer- 
sity extension  work  is  carried  on  by  means  of 
lectures  given  in  dirt'erent  parts  of  the  State. 

NORTH  DOWNS.  A  ridge  of  hills  in  Eng- 
land.    Sec  under  Downs. 

NORTHEAST      BOUNDARY      DISPUTE. 

In   American    history,    llie    name   applied    to   the 
long-standing.  <lispute  between  the  United  States 
and   Great   Britain   concerning   the   northeastern 
boundary  of  the  United  States.     The  controversy 
grew  out  of  a  difference  in  interpretation  of  the 
second  article  of  the   Treaty  of   Paris   of    1783, 
which  undertook  to  define  the  boundaries  between 
the  United  States  and  Canada.   In  this  article  the 
boundary    between    Maine    and    New    Brunswick 
was  described  as  the  Saint  Croi.x  Kivcr,  and  it   J 
was  soon  found  to  be  a  diflicult  matter  to  deter-     I 
mine  what  was  the  Saint  Croix  River.    Complaints    1 
were    made    that    the    British    were    encroaching    I 
upon   .-Vmerican  territory,  and   collision   between 
the   .\niericans   and   the   English    intruders   gave    I 
forelKHlings    of    international    trouble.      In    1794     j 
John  Jay  was  charged,  among  other  things,  with 
the  settlement  of   the   dispute.     The   only   thing    I 
he  accomplished  in  this  connection  was  the  secur-     | 
ing  of  a  provision  in  the  treaty  negotiated  by  him    \ 
(see  Jay  Treaty)    for  the  appointment  of  three    I 
commissioners    to    determine     the    Saint    Crnix     [ 
Kiver.      The    commissioners    met    at    Halifax    in 
ilarch,    1798,    and    determined    the    Saint    Croix 
River,  but  left  unsettled  the  place  of  its  sourci'. 
A  new  difficulty  arose  over  the  ownership  of  the 
Passamaquoddy  Bay  Islands,  which   lie  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Saint  Croi.x  River.    No  settlement 
could  be  reached  on  this  point  until   1814.  when 
an    article    was    incorporated    in    the    Treaty    nf 
(ihent   for   the  appointment  of  a   contmission   to 
bring  about  some  adjustment.     By  a  decision  of 
the  commission  rendered  in  1817.  Moose.  Dudley, 
and  Frederick  islands  were  awarded  to  the  United 
States,  the  others  to  (Ireat  Britain. 

Still  another  disputed  point  was  the  determina- 
tion of  the  boundary  line  from  the  source  of  the 
Saint  Croix  to  the  liighlands  which  separate  the 
waters  flowing  into  the  Saint  Lawrence  from 
those  which  nmke  their  way  into  the  .\tlantio 
Ocean,  ^'arious  <dTorts  were  made  by  the  two 
govermnents  to  reach  an  agreement  on  this  point, 
and  provisions  for  this  purpose  were  made  in 
treaties  both  in  1803  and  in  1807.  but  neither 
treaty  was  ever  ratified.  Finally  the  Treaty  of 
Ghent  provided  for  the  appointment  of  a  commis- 
sion to  settle  the  disiuite.  with  the  reservation 
that  if  an  agreement  could  not  be  reached  the 
disputed  question  should  be  referred  to  the  arbi- 
tration of  a  friendly  sovereign.  The  chief  task 
of  the  commissioners  was  the  determination  of 
the  'northwest  angle  of  Nova  Scotia'  mentioned 
in  the  treatjr  and  the  'northwesternmost  head  ol 


I 


NOKTHEAST  BOUNDARY  DISPUTE.     625    NORTH  GERMAN  CONFEDERATION. 


tin;  Coniiectieut  Hiver.'  The  ooininissioiiers  were 
unable  to  agree  as  to  tlie  location  of  these  points. 
Ill  ISliT  a  convention  was  eonchideil  between  the 
two  Powers  for  the  reference  of  the  ijuestion  to  tlie 
King  of  the  Netherlands.  In  .laiiuary,  1831,  ho 
made  his  decision  awanliiig  part  of  the  disputed 
Icrritory  to  the  United  States  and  part  to  Great 
liritain.  Finding  it  ne.xt  to  impossible  to  execute 
t  he  treat}'  of  17S3.  the  King  drew  a  boundary  line 
III  his  own.  The  decision  was  satisfactory  to 
iirither  party,  and  was  formally  rejected  by  the 
I  .iivernnient  of  the  United  .States.  Jleantime 
liiirder  riots  and  collisions  were  occurring  in  the 
disputed  territorj-  to  the  disturbance  of  the  gen- 
eral ])eace  and  security.  Several  elTorts  were  then 
made  to  reach  a  compromise,  but  without  effect. 
I'iiially,  the  dispute  was  settled  by  the  Webster- 
A-libu'rton  Treaty   (q.v.)    of  1842. 

NORTHEAST  CAPE.  Tlie  most  northerly 
point  of  Asia.     See  Skvkuo  r.xi-E. 

NORTHEAST   PASSAGE.      See   Polae   Re- 

SExVRCII. 

NORTHEN,  nSr'ten,  Adolf  (1828-76).  A 
German  battle  painter,  born  at  Miinden.  Hanover. 
He  studied  from  1847  to  18.51  at  the  Acadeniy  of 
Diisseldorf,  and  made  that  city  his  permanent 
home  after  having  declined  to  accept  a  Han- 
overian stipend  coupled  with  the  condition  that 
he  should  complete  his  studies  under  Horace 
Vernet  in  Paris.  Most  of  his  pictures  represent 
episodes  from  the  campaigns  of  Napoleon,  such 
as  "Encounter  Near  the  Giihrde  Forest"  (18.52, 
Hildesheim  Museum);  ""Battle  of  Waterloo" 
(18.35)  and  ""Defense  of  a  Farm"  (both  in  the 
Hanover  Museum);  "Napoleon's  Retreat  from 
Moscow"  (several  times)  ;  ""Episode  in  Battle  of 
Waterloo"  (1801)  and  "'Storming  of  Planche- 
nois  in  1815"  (1802,  both  in  the  Hamburg  Gal- 
lery). His  observations  on  the  battlefields  in 
Denmark,  1804,  and  in  Bohemia,  1860,  resulted 
in  the  depiction  of  various  scenes  in  those  cam- 
paigns, notably  the  "Engagement  Near  Oeversee" 
(IStiO,  RuJolphinum,  Prague).  Although  his 
health  was  failing  at  the  time  of  the  Franco- 
•  iirman  War.  he  followed  the  armies  to  France, 
and  among  other  war  scenes  he  produced  '"Attack 
of  Prussian  Hussars  at  Vionville,"  his  last  paint- 
ing. 

NORTHER.     See  r'oi.n  W.^ra. 
NORTHERN  LIGHTS,      See  AunoR.i  Bore- 

ALIS, 

NORTHERN  TERRITORY.  A  vast  region 
in  the  northern  part  of  South  Australia,  under 
whose  control  it  is  (Map:  Australia,  El).  It 
has  an  area  of  523,620  square  miles.  The  Min- 
ister appointed  to  have  charge  of  the  district 
has  his  official  residence  at  Palmerston.  The 
climate  is  tropical,  and  sections  of  it  are  well 
adapted  to  the  growing  of  tropical  plants,  par- 
ticularly sugar-cane.  Parts  of  it  are  devoted  to 
sheep  and  cattle  grazing,  hut  the  greater  portion 
is  wholly  unoccupied.  Tin,  copper,  silver,  and 
gold  are  found.  A  telegraph  line  connects  Port 
Darwin  with  Adelaide,  and  all  messages  for  the 
southern  colonies  are  received  by  way  of  Port 
Darwin.  In  1900  the  population,  exclusive  of 
aborigines,  was  estimated  at  1500  Europeans,  220U 
Chinese,  and  515  others.     See  South  Ai'.stralia. 

NORTH'FIELD.  A  town  in  Franklin  Coun- 
ty. Mass.,  .50  miles  northwest  of  Worcester;  on 
the  Central  Vermont  P.ailroad   (Map:  Massachu- 


setts, C  2).  The  birthplace  of  Dwight  L.  Moody 
(q.v.),  Northfield  has  become,  as  a  result  of  his 
influence,  a  noted  centre  of  religious  education 
and  training,  being  the  seat  of  Northfield  Sem- 
inary for  Young  Ladies,  founded  in  1879,  and  the 
Northfield  Training  School.  ilount  Hernion 
School  for  Boys,  which  is  associated  with  the 
work  of  Northfield,  is  in  the  town  of  Gill.  The 
annual  summer  conference  of  Christian  workers 
and  the  student  conference  have  made  the  town 
of  considerable  repute  as  a  summer  resort.  North- 
field  has  the  Dickinson  Public  Lilirary.  The  in- 
habitants are  interested  principally  in  agricul- 
ture. It  was  incorporated  in  1072.  Its  atl'airs 
are  administered  bv  town  meetings.  Population, 
in  1890,  1809;  in  1900,  1900. 

NORTHFIELD.  A  city  in  Rice  County, 
Minn.,  43  miles  south  of  Minneapolis;  on  the 
Cannon  River,  and  on  the  Chicago,  ililwaukee 
and  Saint  Paul  and  the  Chicago  Great  Western 
railroads  (Map:  Minnesota,  E  6),  It  is  the 
seat  of  Carleton  College  ( Congregational ) ,  opened 
in  1870,  and  of  Saint  Olaf  College  (Lutheran), 
opened  in  1875,  and  has  an  Odd  Fellows'  Widows' 
and  Orphans'  Asylum,  Scoville  Library,  Goodsell 
Observatory,  and  a  handsome  Y.  M.  C.  A.  build- 
ing. The  city  is  the  centre  of  a  productive  farm- 
ing section,  and  has  manufactures  of  brick  and 
woolen  knit  goods.  Settled  in  1856,  Northfield 
was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1875,  the  charter  of 
that  date,  as  revised  in  1889,  being  still  in 
operation  and  providing  for  a  government  vested 
in  a  mayor,  elected  every  two  years,  and  a  uni- 
cameral council.  The  water-works  are  owned 
and  operated  by  the  municipality.  Population, 
in  1890,  2059;  in  1900,  3210. 

NORTHFIELD.  A  village  in  Washington 
County,  Vt.,  10  miles  south  by  west  of  Mont- 
pelier,  the  State  capital ;  on  the  Dog  River,  and 
on  the  Central  Vermont  Railway  (Ma]):  Ver- 
mont, D  5).  It  is  the  seat  of  Norwich  Univer- 
sity, established  in  1S19  and  incorporated  in 
1834.  The  village  has  a  Soldiers"  Monument  and 
another  to  Charles  Paine,  Governor  of  the  State 
(1841-43);  other  features  of  interest  are  the 
neighboring  heights,  Paine  and  Bald  mountains. 
Valuable  deposits  of  granite  and  black  slate  are 
found  in  this  vicinity.  Granite-working,  dairy- 
ing, and  the  manufacture  of  lumber  products 
and  woolen  goods  are  the  principal  industrial 
interests.  The  village  of  Northfield  was  first 
incorporated  in  1855.  There  is  a  municipal  elec- 
tric light  plan*.  Population,  in  1890,  1222;  in 
1900,  1508. 

NORTH'FLEET.  A  town  in  Kent,  England, 
on  the  Thames,  one  and  one-half  miles  west  of 
Gravesend  (Map:  England,  G  5).  Its  industries 
comprise  shipbuilding,  chemical  works,  chalk  and 
lime  pits,  cement  factories,  and  brick  yards.  It 
has  an  interesting  church  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury; Huggen's  College,  established  in  1847:  and 
a  workingman's  club.  Population,  in  1891,  11,- 
700;  in  1901,  13,000. 

NORTH  FORELAND.   See  Foreland.  North 

ANn   SotTH. 

NORTH  GERMAN  CONFEDERATION.    A 

union  of  German  States  north  of  the  JIain. 
formed  in  1800  under  the  hegemony  of  Prussi:i, 
following  on  the  defeat  of  .-\ustria  in  the  Seven 
Weeks'  War  (q.v.)  and  the  dissolution  of  the 
Germanic   Confederation.      (See  Germany.)      It 


NORTH  GERMAN  CONFEDERATION.     626 


NORTH  SEA, 


was  lii-st  m-^iaiiizeil  in  Aujrust  with  IS  States,  the 
iiiimliiT  bL-inj;  increased  to  22  hel'ore  tlie  end  of 
OetiilK-r.  A  constitution  was  adopted  which,  with 
sli^'ht  niodifications,  is  that  of  the  present  Ger- 
many. Ollcnsive  and  defensive  alliances  were 
concluded  with  Bavaria,  Baden,  and  Wiirttera- 
berg.  by  which  tliese  States  agreed  to  place,  in 
case  of  war,  their  military  forces  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  King  of  Prussia.  The  Franco-German 
War  broufrht  complete  unity  to  Germany.  On 
January  18,  1871.  the  Kinjr'of  Prussia,  at  Ver- 
.sailles.  assumed  the  title  of  German  Emperor, 
and  in  .Vjiril  tlu;  Constitution  of  the  Confedera- 
tion, so  amended  as  to  provide  for  the  rights  of 
the  newly  admitted  South  German  States,  was 
promulgated  for  the  Empire. 

NORTH  HOLLAND.  A  province  of  the  Xeth- 
erlands  occtipyiug  llie  peninsula  lying  between 
the  Zuider  Zee  and  the  Xorth  Sea,  and  bounded 
on  the  .south  by  the  provinces  of  Utrecht  and 
South  Holland  (Jlap:  Xetherlands,  0  2).  It  in- 
cludes also  the  islands  of  Te.\el  and  Vlicland  of 
the  West  Friesian  Islands.  Area,  lOD!)  square 
miles.  The  province  contains  but  little  forest, 
the  greater  part  being  low  meadow  iind  moor- 
land protected  along  the  coast  by  dunes  and 
dikes.  Agriculture,  gardening,  and  cattle-raising, 
and  in  the  cities  linen  manufacturing  are  the 
principal  industries.  The  province  is  traversed 
by  a  number  of  canals,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  the  Xorth  Holland  Canal,  between 
Amsterdam  and  Helder,  and  the  Xorth  Sea  Canal, 
connecting  the  Zuyder  Zee  and  the  Xorth  Sea 
directly.  Populatio"n,  in  1899,  908,105.  The  capi- 
tal is  Haarlem  and  the  largest  city  is  Amster- 
dam.     I'or  history,  see  HoLL.^XD;  XETllERLAxns. 

NORTH'INGTON,  RonERT  Hexley.  Earl  of 
(c.  171)8-72).  An  Knglish  Lord  Chancellor,  son  of 
Anthony  Henley.  Educated  at  Westminster,  and 
at  Saint  .lohn's  and  .^11  Souls".  Oxfonl,  he  studied 
at  the  Inner  Temple.  For  ten  years  he  was  a 
representative  of  Batli  in  Parliament,  and  after- 
wards he  became  Attorney-tJcneral.  Keeper  of 
the  Great  Seal,  and  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Lords.  In  17G0  he  was  made  Lord  Henlev  and 
presided  at  the  trial  of  Lord  Ferrers.  The  year 
following  he  liocame  Lord  Chancellor.  He  retired 
from  the  Chancellorship  in  17<)7.  He  was  a 
great  favorite  of  George  111.,  and  was  commonly 
known  as  'Tom  Tilbury'  or  'Surly  Hob.'  Consult 
Lord   Henley's  Mmioir    (London,   IS.'Jl). 

NORTH  ISLAND.     See  Xew  Zealand. 

NORTHMEN.     See  XoRMA.xs. 

NORTH  PLATTE.  The  eounty-seat  of  Lin- 
coln County.  Xeb.,  294  miles  west  of  Omaha;  at 
the  junction  of  the  Xorth  and  .South  Platte 
rivers,  and  on  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  (Map: 
Nebraska,  D  2).  It  has  a  United  States  land 
ollice,  u  Y.  M.  C.  A.  library,  with  about  2000 
volumes,  and  a  high  school"  that  cost  .$:!.>.(I00. 
The  industrial  establishments  inehide  railroad 
machine  shops,  employing  several  hundred  men, 
and  a  cold  storage  plant.  Xorth  Platte  is  the 
centre  of  an  irrigated  section,  and  is  an  impor- 
tant shi|)piiig  point  for  alfalfa,  sugar  beets,  and 
cattle.     Population,  in  1890,  3055;  in  1900,  3040. 

NORTH  RIVER.  The  name  applied  to  the 
lower  course  of  ()».  Hudson  River. 

NORTHROP,  nArth'nIp,  rvRi's  (1S34— ). 
An  American  educator,  born  in  Ridgefiold,  Conn. 


He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1857,  and  at  the  law 
school  there  in  1859.  Two  years  later  he  was 
appointed  clerk  of  the  Connecticut  House  of 
Keprescntatives,  and  in  18(;2  of  the  Senate.  In 
IStiS  he  was  made  professor  of  rhetoric  and 
English  literature  in  Vale,  and  he  held  this  chair 
until  1884.  when  he  became  president  of  the 
University  of  Minnesota. 

NORTH  SEA,  or  German"  Oceax  (Lat.  Gcr- 
maiiiciim  Mare,  tier.  .Vorrf /See.  Dan.  Vesterliaict, 
West  Seal.  That  part  of  the  Atlantic  between 
the  eastern  coast  of  Great  Britain  and  the  Conti- 
nent of  Europe  (Map:  Europe,  D  3).  It  is  pear- 
shaped  in  general  outline,  with  a  wide  o])ening 
northward  into  that  part  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
known  as  the  Xorwegian  Sea,  and  with  a  narrow- 
ing arm  extending  from  the  main  oval  body 
southward  to  the  Strait  of  Dover,  which,  with  the 
English  Channel,  forms  the  southern  connuunica- 
tion  witli  the  Atlantic.  On  the  east  the  Skagcrrak 
leads  between  Jutland  and  X(n-\vay  into  the 
Cattegat.  which  connects  through  the  Sound  and 
the  Great  and  Little  Belts  with  the  Baltic  Sea. 
The  greatest  width  of  the  Xorth  Sea,  between 
Dundee,  Scotland,  and  the  entrance  of  the  Lim- 
fjord  in  .Jutland,  is  412  miles;  its  greatest  length 
from  north  to  south  is  ti80  miles;  and  its  area  is 
about  200,000  square  miles,  of  which  2500  square 
miles  are  occu])ied  by  islands.  A  number  of  largi' 
rivers  flow  into  tlie  southern  part  of  the  Xorth 
Sea ;  the  chief  of  these  are  the  Elbe,  Weser, 
Ems,  Rhine,  which  is  joined  at  its  mouth  by  tlie 
Meuse.  and  Scheldt  on  the  Continent,  and  the 
Thames  and  the  Ilumber  in  Great  Britain.  These 
render  the  water  less  saline  than  that  of  the  main 
ocean,  though  the  salinity  is  greater  than  tliat  of 
the  Baltic,  the  percentage  of  salty  constituents 
being  1.025  in  the  soiithern  part  of  "the  sea.  They 
also  contribute  their  sediment  to  the  formation  of 
the  numerous  shoals  and  sandbanks  which  line 
the  southern  and  southeastern  shores.  Thc~e 
shores  are  very  low,  the  land  in  many  places 
lying  below  the  sea-level.  They  have  been  much 
encroached  upon  by  inundations,  which  have  left 
the  higher  portions  of  the  former  coast-line  as  a 
chain  of  islands.  Behind  these  are  a  series  of 
shallow  lagoons  and  inlets,  of  which  the  most 
notable  are  the  Jade  (cj.v. )  in  Germany,  and  the 
Zuyder  Zee  (q.v.)    in  Holland. 

In  general  the  depth  of  the  Xorth  Sea  increases 
gradually  northward.  The  mean  depth  of  the 
southern  jiortion  is  about  100  feet,  near  the  mill- 
die  it  is  250.  and  in  the  north  400  feet.  Along 
the  steep,  rocky  coast  of  Xorway  there  runs  ,a 
trough  with  a  depth  of  nearly  1000  feet  within 
20  miles  of  the  shore.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
are  in  the  southern  half  of  the  sea,  besides  the 
shoals  mentioned  along  the  coast,  several  shallow 
regions  rising  consideral)ly  above  the  mean  level 
of  the  bottom.  Among  these  the  Dogger  Bank 
occupies  a  large  ixntion  of  the  south-central  part 
of  the  sea.  with  a  depth  of  00  to  100  feet,  the 
surrounding  depths  being  150  to  200  feet.  The 
tides  of  the  Xorth  Sea  are  very  irregular,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  two  tidal  waves  enter  it.  one 
from  the  north  and  one  from  the  south.  The 
former  sweeps  southward  along  the  west  shore, 
the  latter  northward  along  the  eastern  coast. 
Midway  between  the  shores  there  seems  to  !«> 
very  little  rise  and  fall  and  at  some  points  none 
at  all,  while  in  .some  places  on  the  southern  shore, 
where  the  two  waves  unite,  there  is  a  difTerence 


i 


NORTH  SEA. 


627    NORTHWEST  BOUNDARY  DISPUTE. 


nf  20  feet  between  liigli  and  low  tide.  The  winds 
111  tlie  North  Sea  are  variable,  tliose  from  tlie 
uest  being  the  most  prevalent.  Kain  and  fogs 
iiceur  at  all  seasons,  and  the  violent  northwest 
.-lorms  blowing  toward  the  shoals  on  the  sonth- 
last  eoast  make  navigation  there  exeeeilingly 
dangerous,  especially  along  the  eoast  of  .Tutlaml. 
Xi'vertlielcss,  owing  to  its  favoralile  jxisition,  the 
Xorlh  Sea  is  one  of  tlie  most  frecjuented  and  most 
important  commercial  highways  of  the  world. 
Its  fislieries  are  also  among  the  foremost,  provid- 
ing support  for  many  thousand  inliabitants  of  the 
surrounding  countries. 

By  means  of  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal  ships 
■  an  now  enter  the  Baltic  Sea  without  making  the 
passage  around  Jutland. 

Consult:  Fulton.  "On  the  Currents  of  the 
North  Sea,  and  Their  Relation  to  Fisheries," 
Sriitlfiiid  Fislicrif  Board  Report  for  lS9(i ;  Haas, 
l>t  iitsclie  Xordncc  Kiistc,  frieslsche  Iitseln  iiiid 
llrlgohind    (Bielefeld,   1900). 

NORTH  SHIELDS.  A  seaport  of  England. 
See  Shields,  South  and  Nokth. 

NORTH  STAR,  Order  of  the.  A  Swedish 
civil  order  of  merit  with  four  classes,  founded 
in  174S  liv  Frederick  I.  The  decoration  is  an 
eight-pointed  vliite  star  surmounted  by  a  crown 
and  suspended  from  a  black  ribbon.  The  round, 
blue  shield  bears  the  polar  star  with  five  rays, 
and  the  device  "Nescit  oecasnm"  ("It  never 
sets" ) .  It  is  conferred  especially  for  notable 
scientific  achievements.     See  Plate  under  Orders. 

NORTH  TONAWANDA,  ton'a-won'da.  A 
city  in  Niagara  County.  N.  Y.,  10  miles  north 
of  Buli'alo;  on  the  Niagara  River,  at  the  mouth 
of  Tonawanda  Creek,  which  separates  the  city 
from  Tonawanda.  also  on  the  Erie  Canal,  and  on 
tlie  Erie,  the  Lehigh  Valley,  and  the  New  York 
Central  railroads  (Map:  New  York,  B  3).  Sev- 
i-ral  other  lines  pass  tlirough  the  city  on  leased 
roads.  It  is  an  important  industrial  and  com- 
mercial centre,  knowni  especially  for  its  lumber 
and  iron  interests.  There  is  an  extensive  pro- 
duction of  pig  iron,  nuts  and  bolts,  barrel  organs, 
and  steam  merry-go-rounds.  The  manufactures 
include  also  roofing  material,  steam  piping,  steam 
radiators,  steam  pumps,  and  miniature  railroads. 
According  to  the  census  of  1000.  an  aggregate 
capital  of  $.5,027,000  was  invested  in  the  various 
industries,  the  production  of  which  was  valued 
at  $6,4-16,000.  There  is  a  public  library  with 
over  5400  volumes.  North  Tonawanda,  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1897.  is  governed  by  a.  mayor,  chosen 
every  two  years,  and  a  unicameral  council,  elected 
two  from  each  ward  and  three  at  large.  The 
water-works  are  o\nied  and  ojierated  by  the 
municipalitj'.  Population,  in  1890.  4793;  in 
1900.  9009. 

NORTHUMrBERLAND.  The  northernmost 
county  of  England,  buumled  on  the  east  by  the 
North  Sea.  and  on  the  south,  in  part,  bv  the 
River  Tyne  (Map:  England.  D  1).  The  River 
Tweed  and  the  Cheviot  Hills  are  on  the  Scottish 
border.  The  whole  surface,  except  the  narrow 
coastal  region,  is  uneven,  with  roimded  hills, 
moorlands,  and  fertile  wooded  valleys.  The  sum- 
mers are  cooler,  but  the  winters  milder,  than  in 
the  southern  counties.  The  coast  region  and  the 
valleys  are  cultivated,  producing  turnips  and 
cereals;  the  western  part  is  largely  pastoral. 
The    chief    industries    are    coal-mining    and    the 


manufactures  which  depend  upon  the  coal  sup- 
])ly;  the  salmon  fisheries  are  also  of  importance. 
Population,  in  1891,  .506.030;  in  1901,  602.900. 
The  county  returns  four  members  to  Parliament. 
Newcastle-upon-Tj'ne,  the  chief  city  of  Northum- 
berland, is  a  separate  eoimty  borough.  Among 
the  considerable  towns  are  Tynemouth,  Wallsend, 
and  Cowpen.  Northumberland  contains  numer- 
ous historic  landmarks,  including  remains  of 
Hadrian's  Wall  and  of  Roman  military  roads  and 
famous  battlefields  of  the  Scottish  wars. 

BiULloGR.\riiY.  Hodgson,  Uistory  of  Xorth- 
iimbcrluiid  (Newcastle,  1820-40),  is  the  standard 
work,  and  is  continued  in  Hodgsou-Hinde,  Ooi- 
cral  Uistory  of  yortltuinhcrland  (Newcastle, 
1858).  Materials  collected  by  Hodgson  are  also 
used  in  Bateson,  Uistory  of  Xorthuinhcrland  (12 
vols.,  Newcastle,  1893  ct  seq.),  an  elaborate  and 
complete  work.  Consult  also:  Gibson,  Xorth- 
umhcrlund  Caslics,  Churches,  and  Antiquities 
(London,  1848-54)  ;  Hartshorne,  Feudal  and 
Military  Antiijuilies  of  Xorthumherland  (O.xford, 
1858);  Bruce,  Roman  Wall  (London,  1874); 
Lebour,  Geology  of  Xorthumherland  and  Durham 
(Newcastle,  1886)  ;  Andrews,  Bygone  Xorthum- 
ierland  (London.  1899)  ;  and  the  Proceedings  of 
the  Surtrcs  Sucictif    (Durham,   1835  et  seq. ). 

NORTHUMBERLAND,  Earl.s  of.  See 
Percy. 

NORTHUMBERLAND,  .loiix  Dudley, 
Duke  of.  An  English  politician,  father-in-law  of 
Lad.v  .Jane  Grey,  whom  he  plotted  to  place  on 
the  throne  of  England.     See  Grey,  Lady  Jane. 

NORTHUMBERLAND,  Robert  de  JIow- 
BR.\Y-,  Earl  of  (  ?-c.ll25).  An  English  baron, 
whose  father  and  uncle  came  over  with  William 
the  Conqueror.  He  was  created  Earl  of  North- 
umberland .about  1081,  and  seven  years  after- 
wards fought  to  support  Robert  of  Normandy's 
claim  to  the  English  crown  against  that  of  the 
latter's  younger  brother,  William  Rufiis.  He 
burned  Bath,  besieged  Ilchester,  carried  fire  and 
sword  over  western  Wiltshire,  and  then  began  a 
eonfiict  with  the  Bishop  of  Durham.  His 
next  antagonist  was  King  Malcolm  of  Scotland, 
whom  he  slew  near  Alnwick  in  1093,  and  two 
years  afterwards  he  headed  an  insurrection 
against  William  II.  in  favor  of  his  cousin,  the 
Count  d'Aumale.  The  King  besieged  Northum- 
berland in  his  strong  castle  at  Bamborough,  and 
the  Earl,  being  lured  therefrom  on  a  pretense,  was 
captured  after  a  stout  resistance  at  Tynemouth 
^Monastery.  It  is  supposed  that  he  was  kept  a 
]irisoner  for  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

NORTHUM'BRIA  (ML.  Xorthumhria,  from 
AS.  hoc]',  north  +  //«m6re,  Humber) .  In  Anglo- 
Saxon  England,  a  kingdom  of  the  Heptarchy 
(q.v. )  formed  out  of  the  two  earlier  kingdoms  of 
Bernieia,  established  by  Ida  in  547,  and  extend- 
ing from  the  Forth  to  the  Tees,  and  Deira,  ex- 
tending from  the  Tees  to  the  Humbcr.  .Ethelric 
of  Bernieia  in  588  drove  out  .Ella  of  Deira  and 
united  the  two  under  his  rule.  L'nder  Oswalil 
(died  642)  it  Avas  the  strongest  kingdom  in  the 
Heptarehv  and  the  champion  of  Christianity 
against  pagan  Mereia.  Its  separate  existence 
was  brought  to  an  end  by  Egbert  in  827.  The 
name  survives  in  the  modern  county  of  Northum- 
berland. 

NORTHWEST     BOUNDARY      DISPUTE. 

Tlie  dispute  between  the  L'nited  Slates  and  Great 


NORTHWEST  BOUNDARY  DISPUTE.     628     NORTHWEST  FRONTIER  PROVINCE. 


Britain  coucciiiing  the  nortliwest  boundary  of 
the  United  States.  By  the  Treaty  of  Ghent, 
concluded  between  the  two  governments,  Uceeni- 
ber  -4,  1814,  ])rovision  was  made  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  two  eouiniissions  to  determine  the  north- 
ern boundari,-  from  the  Saint  Lawrence  lliver 
to  Lake  Superior,  and  from  Lake  .Superior  to 
the  Lake  of  the  Woods.  At  the  same  time 
the  American  commissioners  proposed  the  4'.lth 
parallel  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  the 
Koeky  Mountains  as  a  continuation  of  the  north- 
ern boundary  between  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  This  proposition,  however,  was  not 
accei)table  to  the  British  negotiators,  nor  was 
any  agreement  upon  the  subject  reached  at  the 
lime,  ilcanwhile  the  occupation  of  Oregon  had 
extended  the  boundary  dispute  to  the  territory 
west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Russia,  which 
claimed  part  of  Oregon,  ceded  her  claims  of 
all  territory  south  of  54°  40'  X.  lat.  to  the 
United  States  in  1S24.  Spain  also  claimed 
Oregon  on  the  ground  of  discovery,  but  by  the 
treaty  of  181!)  (piitclaimed  her  title  to  land  north 
of  the  42(1  ])arallel  to  the  United  States,  leaving 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  as  the 
only  dis|)utants.  By  the  convention  of  ISIS  the 
two  governments  accepted  the  4i)th  parallel  as 
the  boundary  between  Canada  and  the  United 
States  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  The  proposition  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  to  accept  a  continuation  of  that  line 
to  the  Pacific  as  a  suitable  division  of  the 
Oregon  country  between  the  two  claimants  vas 
rejected  by  Great  Britain  on  the  ground  that 
it  would  give  the  Columbia  Kivcr  to  the  United 
States.  After  fruitless  negotiations,  the  Unit- 
ed States  agreed  to  accept  an  arrangement  by 
which  the  two  Powers  were  to  occupy  the  Oregon 
territory  jointly  for  a  period  of  ten  years.  This 
was  embodied  in  the  convention  of  1818.  By 
a  convention  concluded  at  London.  August  (!. 
1827,  the  two  governments  agreed  to  extend 
indefinitely  the  stipulation  of  1818  for  joint 
occupation,  with  the  reservation  that  the  con- 
vention was  subject  to  abrogation  after  October 
20,  1828,  by  either  party  giving  twelve  months' 
notice.  During  the  administration  of  President 
Tyler  negotiations  for  the  permanent  settlement 
of  the  dispute  were  carried  on  between  Secre- 
tary of  State  Calhoun  and  the  British  Minister 
Pakenham,  who  offered  to  accept  the  4!lth  paral- 
lel as  far  as  the  Columbia  River,  and  from 
thence  onward  the  Columbia  River  itself,  as  the 
boundary.  Tlie  Government  of  the  United  States 
declined  to  accept  this  proposition,  as  well  as 
a  [Moposition  to  submit  the  question  to  arbitra- 
tion. The  .\merican  public,  moreover,  was  very 
insistent  that  no  essential  rights  be  waived,  and 
the  popular  ojjposition  to  the  making  of  any 
concession  gave  rise  to  the  political  watchword. 
"Fifty-four  forty,  or  fight."  Matters  thus  stood 
when  the  Presidential  election  of  1844  occurred. 
The  Democratic  Party,  in  its  national  platform, 
asserted  the  right  of  the  United  States  to  the 
whole  of  Oregon,  and  won  tlie  election  partly 
on  this  issue.  Notwithstanding  this  emphatic 
position  of  the  pnrtv.  the  new  .\dministration 
resumed  the  negotiations,  offering  substantially 
the  same  proposition  as  Calhoun  had  offered. 
This  was  refused  by  the  British  Government, 
whereupon  negotiations  were  broken  off.  The 
President  formally  withdrew  the  proposal  and  re- 
asserted our  "rightful  claim  to  the  whole  of  Ore- 


gon." In  April.  1S41>,  Congress  authorized  the  Presi- 
dent at  his  discretion  to  give  the  notice  required 
by  the  convention  of  1827  fur  its  abrugatiou.  and 
this  was  accordingly  done.  Finally  the  dispute  was 
amicably  settled  by  a  treaty  concluded  in  .July 
following  (1S4U),  by  which  it  was  provided 
that  the  boundary  line  should  be  the  40th  paral- 
lel to  the  middle  of  the  channel  which  separates 
\'ancouver"s  Island  from  the  continent,  and 
thence  southerly  through  the  channel,  and  the 
Straits  of  .Juan  de  Fuca  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the 
navigation  of  the  channel  and  straits  to  remain 
free  and  open  to  both  parties.  A  subsequent 
dispute  between  the  two  governments  as  t"  the 
meaning  of  the  provisions  in  respect  to  tlie  chan- 
nel was  referred  to  the  German  Emperor  (  1871  ) 
as  arbitrator.  He  decided  the  following  year 
in  favor  of  the  American  claim.  See  S.A.X  JlAX 
BorxnAiiY  Disri  tk. 

NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY.     A  co 

educational  institution  at  Kvanston-Chicago.  111., 
in  alhliation  with  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  founded  in  1851.  It  comprises  a  college 
of  liberal  arts,  and  schools  of  law,  medicine, 
])harmacy,  dentistry,  and  music  and  oratory. 
Tlie  college  of  liberal  arts  and  the  school  of  music 
are  at  Evanston,  the  ])rofessional  schools  in  Chi- 
cago. Students  are  admitted  on  certificate  from 
accredited  schools  or  on  examination  in  three 
groups  of  studies.  The  courses  in  the  college  lead 
to  the  bachelor's  and  master's  degrees  in  arts, 
philosophy,  science,  and  letters,  and  to  the  de- 
gree of  doctor  of  [)hilosophy.  The  college  course 
is  largely  elective  after  tne  second  year,  ami  pro- 
vision is  made  for  advanced  credits  by  which 
the  time  required  for  subsequent  professional 
studies  may  be  shortened.  Advanced  courses 
in  certain  departments  are  offered  to  graituate 
students,  but  this  work  is  not  organized  into  a 
distinct  graduate  school.  Two  schools  of  ]ire- 
paratory  instruction  are  maintained  by  the  uni- 
versity, the  Academy,  in  Evanston,  and  the 
(irand  Prairie  Seminary  at  Onarga.  The  (Jar- 
rett  Biblical  Institute,  under  Methodist  Epis- 
copal control,  forms  the  theological  department 
of  the  university,  and  maintains  close  relations 
with  the  Xorwegian-Danish  Theological  SiOiool 
and  the  Swedish  Theological  Seminary,  both  at 
Evanston.  In  I'.M):!  the  university  had  M'l  in- 
structors and  30'.)1  students,  of  whom  7ri'.t  at- 
tended the  college.  The  college  caminis  covers 
about  45  acres,  on  the  shores  of  Lake  .Michigan, 
with  well-equipped  buildings,  including  the 
Dearborn  Observatory  and  the  Library  buibling. 
the  latter  containing  the  general  and  (iiiMiileaf 
libraries,  with  about  52.000  volumes  and  :(.'!. 000 
pamphlets.  The  endowment  in  1902  was  .'?4.onO.- 
000.  the  income  $405,000,  and  the  total  value 
of  property  under  the  control  of  the  colleges, 
$(i.7iil.2.'in." 

NORTHWEST     FRONTIER     PROVINCE. 

.\  province  of  British  Imlia.  boumled  on  thi-  west 
and  north  by  .Afghanistan,  on  the  east  by  Kash- 
mir and  the  Punjab,  and  on  the  south  by  Ba- 
luchistan. It  was  formcil  in  l!t01  by  separating 
from  the  Punjab  the  District  of  Peshawar  and 
other  portions  lying  mainly  west  of  the  Indus. 
These  districts,  which  are  directly  under  Brit- 
ish ailministration.  have  an  area  of  10.400  square 
miles,  and  had  a  population  in  1001  of  2.125.480. 
The  Chief  Commissioner  of  the  province  has  also 
political  control  over  the  remaining  region  along 


1 


'  Jl 


\J 


DODO,  MEAD  A  COMPWir. 


^ 


NOKTHWEST  FRONTIER  PROVINCE.     629 


NORTHWEST  TERRITORY. 


the  Afjilian  frontier,  a  euuiitry  tovcred  by  the 
Sul.'iniaii  Mountains.  About  •2.')0II,()00  acres  of 
the  districts  around  Peshawar  are  cultivated,  and 
a  lar^c   portion  of  this  area   is  irrif;ated.     The 

caiijliil  "f  the  provinci'  is  Peshawar   (q.v.). 

NORTHWEST   PASSAGE.     Sec  Pol.\r  Re- 

SEAUi  II. 

'northwest  PROVINCES.  Tlie  former 
desiiriKition  of  the  United  Provinces  of  Agra  and 
Oudli.  British  Tnilia. 

northwest  TERRITORIES.  The  desig- 
liatiiiM  fur  llic  spar-i'ly  inhaliitcd  rejiion  of  Can- 
ada wliich  includes  the  orjranized  territories  of 
Assinil)oia,  with  a  land  area  of  90,340  square 
miles:  Alljcrta.  aljout  lUO.OOO  square  miles;  and 
^Saskatchewan.  114.000  square  miles;  and  the 
uniiryani/cd  territories  of  Athabasca,  about 
251, UOO  siniare  miles  of  laud  area;  Jlackenzie, 
about  .")t);j,200  square  miles;  Vngava.  about  4.5U,- 
000  square  miles;  and  Franklin,  about  300,000 
square  miles.  The  term  -Xortlnvest  Territories' 
probably-  referred  originally  to  the  region  over 
«iiich  the  Northwest  t'ompany  exercised  author- 
iiy.  the  territorial  limits  of  wliich  do  not  seem 
(m  have  ever  been  clearly  defined.  An  Imperial 
act  of  ISbS  enabled  the  "frown  to  accept  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  the  surrender  of  the 
lands  known  as  Rupert's  Land,  the  limits  of  which 
were  also  indefinite,  for  admission  into  the  Do- 
minion. An  act  of  ISK)  provided  that  Piupert's 
Land  and  the  Xorthwest  Territories  be  admitted 
a^  a  part  of  Canada  under  the  name  of  the  North- 
west Territories.  In  1S70  Manitoba  was  made  a 
province,  under  which  in  1870  Keewatin  was  made 
a  district.  Manitoba  was  slightly  enlarged  in 
IssLand  iu  l.SO.S  the  Yukon  Territory  was  estab- 
lished. In  1.SS2  the  districts  of  Assiniboia,  Sas- 
katchewan, Alberta,  and  Athabasca  were  formed, 
and  in  180,5  the  remaining  portion  was  divided 
into  the  districts  of  L'ngava,  Mackenzie,  and 
I'ranklin.  Of  the  Northwest  Territories,  a  portion 
of  the  southwest  belongs  to  the  greater  interior 
American  Plain,  and  is  less  broken  than  the 
rryi(m  farther  north,  much  of  it  Ijeing  prairie. 
North  of  tliis  prairie  region  lies  an  immense 
wooiled  area.  As  the  inhospitable  Arctic  regions 
:iic  approached  the  forest  growth  becomes  very 
>ianty  or  disappears  entirely,  so  that  there  is  a 
\'-vy  considerable  area  of  barren  lan<l  where  little 
is  found  save  lichens  and  mosses.  The  northern 
jportion  of  the  Northwest  Territories  is  mainly 
a  broken  plain  draining  into  the  Arctic  Sea. 
The  greater  part  of  the  Northwest  Territories 
is  characterized  by  short  summers  and  long  and 
vi'iv  severe  winters.  For  a  fuller  statement  of 
]pliysical  conditions,  see  C.\xada. 

A  large  variety  of  minerals  is  known  to  ex- 
i-t.  l)ituminous  coal  and  lignite  being  very  abun- 
il:int  in  southern  All>erta.  Coal  is  mined  in 
considerable  quantities  in  the  foothills  of  that 
region.  In  the  southwest  the  soil  is  generally 
virv  fertile,  and  the  climatic  conditions  are  siieh 
that  hardy  crops  can  be  profitably  grown.  This 
region  is  practically  all  comprehended  in  the 
districts  of  Assiniboia.  Alberta,  and  Saskatche- 
wan. In  the  census  of  IflOl  it  was  found  that 
6..5fin.fl(i4  acres  of  this  region,  or  .T..50  per  cent, 
of  the  land  surface,  is  occupied  as  farms  and 
lots.  Of  the  22.813  farms  of  five  acres  and  over. 
C4.08  per  cent,  were  between  100  and  201  acres 
each.  Over  03  per  cent,  of  the  farmers  owned 
the  farms  they  occupied.     Over  24  per  cent,  of 


the  farm  land  was  in  an  improved  state.  Hay 
leads  in  respect  to  acreage,  155,870  acres  in 
1801,  831.157  in  1001.  The  acreage  of  wheat 
increased  during  the  same  period  from  113,811 
in  1801  to  530,274  in  1001,  and  oats  gained 
from  01.li37  acres  to  250,552.  In  the  latter 
year  there  were  22.807  acres  in  barley,  9025  acres 
in  potatoes,  and  15,005  in  forage  crops  for  win- 
ter feeding.  Small  fruits  are  successfully  raised, 
but  the  climatic  conditions  are  not  favorable 
for  orchanls.  The  increase  in  the  live  stock  was 
equallv  marked,  as  is  seen  in  the  following 
table:" 


LIVE  STOCK 

1901 

1891 

Horses  ttiree  yoars  and  over 

132.942 

43.520 
102.735 
489.(XI4 
1.54,1.52 

73.926 

39.267 
21,709 

Milcll  COW8 

37.003 
194,824 

.Slieep 

64.920 

16,283 

The  prairie  land  affords  excellent  facilities  for 
pasturage.  Only- the  three  southernmost  districts 
have  the  advantage  of  railroad  transjiortation. 
Settlements  are  being  made  in  the  territories  of 
Alberta,  Assiniboia,  and  Saskatchewan,  and  the 
total  population  of  this  area  increased  from  06,- 
799  in  1891  to  158,940  in  1901.  of  whom  a  little 
over  one-sixth  are  in  Saskatchewan,  and  the  re- 
mainder about  evenly  divided  between  Alberta 
and  Assiniboia.  In  Ungava,  Franklin,  and  Mac- 
kenzie there  are  large  areas  as  yet  unvisited 
by  white  man.  The  population  of  this  region, 
together  with  Athabasca  and  Keewatin.  increased 
from  32.1  G8  in  1891  to  52,709  in  1901.  There 
is  a  scattered  Indian  population  in  the  Northwest 
Territories  and  Keewatin,  amounting  in  1900 
to  27,057,  besi<les  about  half  that  number  of  half- 
breeds.  The  Northwest  Territories  are  under 
the  administration  of  a  Lieutenant-Governor,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governor  or  Council  of  the  Do- 
minion. He  has  an  executive  council  of  three 
members.  There  is  a  Legislative  Assembly  of 
31  members.  Only  Alberta.  Assiniboia,  and 
Saskatchewan  ha\'e  a  form  of  local  government 
with  r(^)resentation  in  the  legislature.  The  Ter- 
ritorial Government  meets  at  Eegina.  For  a 
more  detailed  statement  concerning  settlements, 
etc..  see  under  titles  of  the  separate  districts. 
Consult  Blanchard.  The  Oiscnvcn/  and  Con- 
quest of  tJie  Northirest   (Chicago,  1880). 

NORTHWEST  TERRITORY.  In  American 
history,  that  jiortion  of  the  national  domain  ly- 
ing, roughly  speaking,  north  of  the  Ohio  River, 
east  of  the  Mississippi,  south  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
and  west  of  Pennsylvania,  and  embracing  terri- 
tory which  constitutes  the  ])rcscnt  States  of  Ohio, 
Indiana.  Illinois,  ^fichigan,  Wisconsin,  and  part 
of  Minnesota — a  total  area  of  about  205.878 
square  miles.  This  territory  passed  into  the  pos- 
session of  Great  Britain  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in 
1703.  and  by  her  was  ceded  to  the  United  States 
of  America  in  1783.  The  greater  part  of  it  was 
chiimcd  on  the  basis  of  their  early  charters,  by 
\'irginia.  New  York.  ]\fassachnsetts.  and  Connec- 
ticut. The  other  States  refused  to  recognize 
Ihese  claims,  and  insisted  that  this  territory 
should  t>e1ong  to  the  country  as  a  whole.  In  1780 
Congress  gave  a  solemn  pledge  that  if  the  lands 
thus  claimed  were  ceded  to  the  Confederation 
they  should  be  disposed  of  for  the  common  bene- 
fit of  all  the  States  and  admitted  into  the  Union 


NORTHWEST  TERRITORY. 


630 


NORTON. 


I 


as  republican  States,  and  on  an  equal  footing 
with  the  oiij;inal  States.  On  the  strenfjth  of  this 
pledge  Xew  York  ceded  her  claims  in  1781.  Vir- 
ginia hers  in  1784,  Massachusetts  hers  in  178.5, 
and  Connecticut  hers  in  1780.  All  <if  those  col- 
onies, however,  resened  for  special  jjurposes  cer- 
tain lands  from  the  cession.  Thus  Virginia 
retained  in  what  is  now  the  southern  part  of 
Ohio  a  considerable  area,  known  as  the  Virginia 
ililitary  District,  and  Connecticut  retained 
3,2ot),000  acres,  known  as  the  Western  Keserve 
(q.v. ),  in  what  is  now  the  northern  part  of  Ohio. 
By  an  ordinance  of  1785  Congress  made  provision 
for  surveying  the  lands  thus  ceded.  The  lands 
were  then  thrown  open  for  sale,  and  the  result 
was  a  great  influx  of  immigrants  from  the 
older  States.  On  the  first  of  March,  1784,  the 
very  day  on  which  Virginia  completed  her  cession, 
Jetferson,  as  chairman  of  a  committee,  I'eported 
to  Congress  a  temporary  jilan  of  government 
which  was  adopted  on  A])ril  i:id.  .Tcllerson's 
.scheme  contemplated  the  division  of  the  territory 
into  new  States,  divided  by  lines  of  latitude  two 
degrees  apart,  and  intersected  by  two  meridians 
of  longitude  to  be  drawn  through  the  mouth 
of  the  Kanawha  and  the  falls  of  the  Ohio,  and 
to  the  new  States  thus  create<l  were  to  be  given 
the  names  of  Sylvania,  ilichigania,  Clierson- 
esus,  Assenisipia.  Mes(i])otamia,  lllinoia.  Wash- 
ington, I'lilypotaniia.  and  l'cli>i])ia.  Tlie  ordi- 
nance further  provided  tliaL  at'ltr  the  year  1800 
neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  should 
e.xist  in  any  of  the  said  States  except  as  a  punish- 
ment for  crime.  This  ordinance  never  went  into 
effect,  and  was  repealed  by  the  celebrated  ordi- 
nance of  1787.  This  latter  ordinance  was  pre- 
pared by  a  committee  of  which  Nathan  Dane,  of 
ilassachusetts,  was  chairnum.  and  received  the 
approval  of  Congress,  .July  13,  1787.  It  was 
a  constitution  of  government  for  the  Northwest 
Territory,  and  contained,  besides,  six  articles  of 
compact  between  the  old  Stales  and  the  new 
States  to  be  created  out  of  tlie  said  territory. 
It  provided  that  there  should  be  formed  out  of 
the  territor.v  in  question  not  less  than  three 
or  more  than  five  States,  and  undertook  to 
define  their  boundaries.  For  the  purposes  of 
temporary  government  this  vast  domain  was 
constituted  into  one  district,  and  was  com- 
niilted  to  the  rule  of  a  •;iivernnr.  ti  secretary, 
an<l  three  judges,,  all  appointed  by  Congress. 
Until  the  election  of  a  legislature,  tlie  (iovernor 
and  the  judges  sitting  together  were  authorized 
to  adopt  such  laws  of  the  original  States  as 
the.v  deemed  necessar.v  and  suitable,  subject 
to  the  approval  of  Congress.  Provision  was 
made  for  a  legislature  to  be  called  into  exist- 
ence as  soon  as  there  were  5000  free  male  in- 
habitants of  full  age  in  the  territory.  It  was 
to  consist  of  a  Ix-gislative  Council  composed 
of  five  members  chosen  by  Congress,  and  a 
House  of  Keprcsentatives  chosen  by  freeholders. 
There  were  also  a  numl>er  of  organic  provisions 
regarding  land  tenure,  taxation,  inheritances,  and 
the  alienation  of  properf.v.  The  articles  of 
compact  constituted  a  sort  of  bill  of  rights, 
and  guaranteed  freedom  of  religious  worship 
and  belief,  the  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas 
corpus,  trial  by  jury,  benefit  of  the  common 
law,  the  security  of  private  contracts,  and  free- 
dom of  navigable  waters.  Finally  the  North- 
west Territory  was  dedicated  to  freedom  by 
the  famous  article  that   prohibited   slavery  and 


western    part   of   the   Territory    was   constituted 
into  the  District  of  Indiana,  with  William  Henry 


involuntary  servitude.  In  October,  1787,  Gen- 
eral Arthur  St.  Clair,  a  veterau  of  the  French 
and  Revolutionary  W  ars,  was  appointed  the  first 
(;o^■erllor  of  the  Territory.  In  .luly  of  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  reached' JIarietta,"  the  seat  of 
goveriiment  for  the  Territory,  and  his  first  act 
was  an  order  for  the  creation  of  Washington 
Count,v.  Shortl,v  thereafter  he  appointed  a  num- 
ber of  magistrates  and  established  a  Court  of 
(Quarter  Sessions.  In  1708.  the  pcipulation  liav- 
ing  far  exceeded  the  required  number,  a  lei;isla- 
ture  was  called  and  met  for  the  first  time  at  Cin- 
cinnati, September  24,  1799.  The  Lower  House 
consisted  of  22  members,  representing  the  nine 
counties  of   the  Territory.      In   July,    1800,   the 

part  of 

District  i 
Harrison  as  (loveriior.  and  with  Vincennes  as  cap- 
ital. In  .January.  1S0.5.  Jlieliigan  Territorv  was 
created,  with  (ieii.  William  Hull  as  Governor;  in 
Feliruary.  ISOil.  the  Illinois  Territory  was  iiij.'an- 
ized,  with  Kaskaskia  as  its  seat  of  governiiieiit, 
and  in  April,  IS.'iG,  part  of  -Michigan  Terri- 
torv was  organized  into  the  Territorv  of  Wis- 
consin. Consult:  Hinsdale,  The  Old  Xorthicvst 
(New  Vork.  1801);  and  Moore,  The  yorlhwcst 
Vjiihr  Thrrr  Fhi.js:    (New  Vork,  1900). 

NORTH WICH,  north' wich.  A  market-town 
and  raihva,y  junction  in  Cheshire.  England,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Weaver  and  Dane,  nine 
miles  south-southeast  of  Warrington  (Maji:  Kiig- 
laud,  D  3).  It  is  noted  for  its  salt  mines,  brine 
springs,  and  suiipli'inental  industries.  The  town 
has  an  ancient  ;nid  ilila|iidateil  ap|iearanee.  owing 
to  land  subsideiKes  wrniiglit  by  the  milling  and 
brine-pumping.  The  Marston  mine.  300  feet 
deep,  its  vault  supported  b,v  enormous  salt  pil- 
lars, is  the  most  picturesque  of  the  excavations. 
The  municipalitv  is  progressive;  maintains  a 
free  public  lilirary.  technical  schools,  gj-mnasium, 
and  park:  owns  remunerative  markets,  w;iter- 
works  ;iiid  public  baths,  which  include  medi- 
cinal brine  baths.  The  brine  springs  have  been 
worked  from  jirehistoric  times.  During  the 
Civil  War  Ncirthwieh  was  fortified  by  I'arlia- 
ment,  and  was  tlie  scene  of  exciting  encounters. 
Population,    in    1891,    15,000;    1901,    17.G0O. 

NOR'TON,  Aniwews  (1786-1853).  An  Ameri- 
can theologian  ami  scholar.  lie  was  burn  at 
Hingham.  Mass..  and  graduated  from  Harvard 
College  in  1804.  He  stu.lied  tlienlo^'y  and  in  1809 
became  a  tutor  in  Howdnin  College.  He  went  to 
Harvard  in  1811  to  teach  mathematics,  but  re- 
signed the  next  year  to  conduct  the  Ornenil  AV- 
posilnri/,  a  magazine  devoted  to  the  propagation 
of  liberal  Christianity.  In  1813  he  was  made 
librarian  of  Harvard,  in  addition  to  which  he 
was  aiqiiiinteil  lecturer  on  the  criticism  and  in- 
terpretation of  the  Scriptures.  He  was  in  the 
Harvard  Divinity  Seho<d.  1S19-30.  Dcxti'r  jiro- 
fessor  of  sacred  literature.  The  remainder  of 
his  life  was  devoted  to  literar.v  pursuits.  His 
first  work  of  importance  was  .1  Stulcmcnt  of 
Rcnsnns  for  \ot  lirlirrinij  the  Doctrine  of  Trini- 
tarians conccrninff  the  \aturc  of  God  and  the 
Person  of  Christ  ( 1833:  new  edition  with  memoir 
by  W.  Newell.  lS.5(i;  llth  ed..  1871!).  Tn  1833  he 
became  associated  with  Charles  Folsom  in  the 
publication  of  the  f<r-lrel  Journal  of  Foreign 
I'rriodieal  Lilrratiirr.  Other  works  of  impor- 
tance were:  Fvidenees  of  the  flennineness  of  the 
Gospels   (1837-44),  and  On  the  Latest  Form  of 


NORTON. 


631 


NORTON. 


Infidelity  ( 1830) .  Specimens  of  his  verse  may  be 
si'i'ii  in  (liiswold's  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America 
(I'liihul.-liihia,  1842). 

NORTON,  C'.\RoLixE  Elizabeth  Saraji  { 1808- 
77).  A  r.iitish  authur,  born  iu  Lomlon.  Her 
father  «as  Thomas  Sheridan,  and  licr  jjrand- 
father  Richard  Brinslej'  Sheridan  (q.v.).  Her 
talent  de\eloped  at  an  early  age,  and  when 
only  thirteen  she  wrote  The  Dandies'  Rout.  Her 
Sorroivs  of  Rosalie:  a  Tale,  icith  Other  Poems, 
appeared  in  1829,  two  years  after  her  unfortu- 
nate marriage  to  an  impecunious  liarrislcr,  the 
Hon.  George  Chappie  Xorton,  whom  she  vir- 
tually !,up]>urted  for  many  years.  Her  marital 
troul)les  led  her  to  publish  a  pamphlet  on  Eng- 
lish Lairs  for  Women  in  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, which,  together  with  some  other  writings, 
undoubtedly  had  considerable  influence  in  caus- 
ing those  laws  to  be  changed.  Her  reputation 
rests  chiefly  upon  her  poeins,  most  of  which  were 
written  in  the  style  of  Byron,  though  a  few, 
like  "The  Faded  Flower"  and  "Joe  Steel."  show- 
that  she  could  have  written  eipially  well  in  quite 
a  different  vein  had  she  so  chosen.  Among  her 
other  works  are  A  Voiee  from,  the  Factories 
( lS.3r,) .  and  The  Child  of  the  Islands  ( 1845) . 

NORTON,  Charles  Bowter  Addebley,  first 
Baron  (1814 — ).  An  English  public  man,  born 
iu  Knighton.  Leicestershire.  He  graduated  at 
Christ  Church  in  1S35,  and  was  Conservative 
member  of  Parliament  for  North  Staffordshire  in 
1841-78.  During  that  time  he  was  president  of 
the  Board  of  Health,  vice-president  of  the  Educa- 
tion Council  ( 1858-59),  Colonial  Under  Secretary 
( 18()(i-(>S),  and  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
(1874-78).  He  was  knighted  (1811!))  and  made 
a  peer  of  the  realm  (1878).  with  a  title  taken 
from  his  estate,  Norton-on-tlie-JIoors,  Stafford- 
sliire.  He  interested  himself  in  education,  par- 
ticulai'ly  in  reformatory  schools,  and  published 
books  on  the  subject,  besides  one  on  ,Soeialism. 
(1800)  and  another  on  Bigh  and  Lotr  Church 
(18081. 

NORTON,  Charles  Eliot  (1827—).  An 
American  scholar,  son  of  Andrews  Norton.  He 
was  graduated  from  Harvard  in  184G,  and  began 
his  career  in  a  business  house  in  Boston  engaged 
in  the  India  trade.  In  1S40  he  went  to  India 
and  to  Europe,  and  thenceforth  devoted  himself 
to  scliolarship  and  literature.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  was  editor  of  the  Loyal  Publication  So- 
ciety papers,  and  from  1804  to  1808  was  editor, 
with  J.  R.  Lowell,  of  The  Xorth  American  Re- 
riew.  In  1875  he  became  professor  of  the  history 
of  art  in  Harvard  University,  and  was  made  pro- 
fessor emeritus  in  1000.  He  came  to  stand,  more 
than  any  other  American  perhaps,  for  the  finer 
ideals  of  culture,  and  was  in  conscfjuence  often 
misjudged  for  utterances  which  seemed  unpatri- 
otic, but  were  reallv  inspircil  bv  a  desire  to  pro- 
mote tlie  higher  interests  of  his  f(dlnw  citizens. 
His  work  in  literature,  which  deals  chiefly  with 
Italy,  consists  of :  Considerations  on  Some  Recent 
Social  Theories  (1853)  ;  The  Xew  Life  of  Dante 
(1850;  parts  translated  with  essays;  complete 
translation  in  1867)  :  Notes  of  Trarel  and  Study 
hi  Italy  (1800)  :  Historical  Study  of  Church- 
liuilding  in  the  Middle  Ages  (ISSOJ  ;  The  Dirine 
Comedy  of  Dante  (1801-02).  a  very  helpful  prose 
translation.  He  was  also  the  literary  executor 
and  editor  of  several  important  men  of  letters,  as 
Lowell,  Carlyle,  Emerson,  G.  W.  Curtis,  Ruskin 


(the  "Brantwood  Edition"),  and  A.  H.  Clough 
{Poems),  of  all  of  whom  he  was  a  personal 
friend. 

NORTON,  I'liAiiLEs  Ledyaki)  (1837—).  An 
American  journalist  and  author,  born  in  Farm- 
ington,  Conn.,  and  educated  at  Yale,  where  he 
graduated  in  1850.  He  continued  his  studies  at 
the  Sheflield  Scientifle  School  until  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War,  when  he  enlisted  in  the  Seventh 
Regiment,  New  York  State  National  Guard.  In 
1802  he  was  ai)pointed  captain  in  the  Twenty- 
fifth  Connecticut  \'oluntcers,  and  from  1803 
until  he  was  nuistered  out  in  180G  was  colonel 
of  the  Seventy-eighth  Regiment  United  States 
colored  troops,  with  main  duties  in  the  De|)art- 
ment  of  the  Gulf.  He  conuuanded  a  large  dis- 
trict in  western  Louisiana  during  the  early 
months  of  reconstruction,  and  then  for  a  year 
was  manager  of  a  cotton  plantation  in  southern 
Louisiana.  Forced  by  ill  health  to  turn  to  liter- 
ary pursuits,  he  edited  the  Christian  Union  from 
1808  to  1878,  and  was  subsequently  connected 
editorially  with  the  Domestic  Monthly,  Our  Con- 
tinent, and  Outing.  His  published  works  include: 
Canoeing  in  KanucLia  (with  .lohn  Habberton, 
1878);  .i  Handhook  of  Florida  (3d  ed.  1802); 
Political  Americanisms  (1890);  and  Jaclc  Ben- 
son's Log  (1895). 

NORTON,  Frank  Henry  (1836—).  An 
American  author  and  journalist,  born  in  Hing- 
ham,  Mass.,  and  educated  at  the  Dwight  School 
in  Boston  and  at  the  Pictou  Academy.  Nova 
Scotia.  He  was  assistant  librarian  and  then  as- 
sistant superintendent  of  the  Astor  Library.  New 
Y'ork  City,  from  1855  to  1865,  and  from  1806  to 
1867  was  head  librarian  of  the  ilercantile  Li- 
brary of  Brooklyn.  In  1872  he  entered  journal- 
ism, from  1870  to  1881  was  editor  and  owner  of 
the  New  York  Era.  and  from  1883  to  1801  was  a 
member  of  the  New  Y'ork  Herald  staft'.  He  wrote 
various  burlesques  and  melodramas,  among  which 
are  Alhamhra,  Azrael,  Cupid  and  Psyche,  and 
Leonie,  and  published  Historical  Register  of  the 
Centennial  Exhibition,  1876.  and  of  the  Paris 
Exposition,  itS7'S  (1878)  ;  Life  of  ^y infield  Scott 
Hancock  (with  D.  K.  Junkin,  1880)  ;  Life  of 
Alexander  II.  Stephens'  (1883);  Daniel  Boone 
(1883):   and  The  Malachite  Cross    (1894). 

NORTON,  Sidney  Augustus  ( 1835— ) .  An 
American  chemist,  born  at  Bloorafield,  Trumbull 
County,  Ohio.  He  graduated  at  ITnion  College  in 
1856,  "and  at  the  Miami  Medical  College  in  1867, 
and  studied  chemistry  at  Bonn,  Leipzig,  and 
Heidelberg.  He  then  taught  for  a  number  of 
years,  and  in  1873  was  appointed  professor  of 
"chemistry  at  the  Ohio  State  University.  He 
published:  Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy 
(1870)  ;  Essays  and  Notes  (1874)  :  Elements  of 
Physics  (1875);  Elements  of  Inorganic  Chem- 
istry (1878)  ;  and  Organic  Chemistry  (1884). 

NORTON,  Thomas  (15.32-84).  An  English 
poet,  born  in  Lonilon.  When  a  boy  he  became 
amanuensis  to  the  Protector  Somerset ;  and  at 
the  age  of  eighteen  published  a  translation  of 
the  "Letter  which  Peter  Martyr  wrote  to  the 
Duke  of  Somerset."  a  valuable  document,  as  the 
original  is  lost.  In  1555  he  entere<l  tlie  Inner 
Temple  as  student,  and  afterwards  ])racticcd  law, 
becoming  coinisel  for  the  Stationers'  Company 
(1562).  and  solicitor  to  the  Merchant  Tailors' 
Company  (1581).     Entering  Parliament  in  1558, 


NORTON. 


632 


NORWALK. 


he  was  soon  known  as  a  bold  and  eloquent  de- 
bater. He  took  an  active  part  against  tlie  Catho- 
lics; and  as  licenser  of  the  press,  was  engaged 
in  several  most  cruel  tortures.  Toward  the  close 
of  liis  life  he  was  imprisoned  for  a  short  time  in 
the  Tower  on  a  charge  of  treason.  He  died 
March  10,  1584.  Norton  wrote  much  verse  in 
English  and  Latin.  He  is,  however,  most  re- 
membered for  his  share  in  Gorboduc,  the  first 
English  tragedy  in  blank  verse  (performed  in 
the  hall  of  the  Inner  Temple  on  Twelfth  Night, 
15U0-61).  The  first  three  acts  were  written  by 
Norton ;  the  last  two  by  Thomas  Sackville  ( q.v. ) . 

NORTON,  Thomas  Herbert  (1851—).  An 
American  chemist,  born  at  Rushford,  N.  Y.  He 
studied  at  Hamilton  College  and  at  the  University 
of  Heidelberg,  and  then  held  the  post  of  manager 
in  a  large  chemical  factory  in  Paris.  In  1S83 
Norton  was  chosen  professor  of  chemistry  and 
librarian  in  the  University  of  Cincinnati.  He 
traveled  afoot  through  Greece  and  Syria,  and  in 
May,  1900,  was  appointed  by  President  ^IcKinley 
to  establish  the  American  consulate  in  Khari)ut, 
Turkey,  as  a  recognition  of  his  knowledge  of  the 
Orient. 

NORTON  SOUND.  An  arm  of  Bering  Sea, 
on  the  west  coast  of  Alaska,  south  of  Cape  Prince 
of  Wales  (Map:  Alaska,  C  3).  It  is  200  miles 
wide  at  its  entrance,  extends  about  the  same 
distance  into  Alaska,  and  receives  the  waters  of 
the  Yukon  River.  It  is  ice-bound  from  October 
to  June.  Norton  Sound  was  discovered  by  Cap- 
tain Cook  in  1V78. 

NO'RUMBE'GA^  A  name  given  by  early  ex- 
plorers and  map-makers  to  various  portions  of 
the  eastern  coast  of  North  America,  and  also  to 
a  river  and  a  mythical  city.  Upon  the  map  of 
Verrazano's  voyages,  published  1529,  Aranbega 
appears  as  a  place  on  the  New  England  coast. 
The  narrative  of  the  anonymous  "Dieppe  Cap- 
tain," in  1539,  makes  Norumbega  stretcli  from 
Cape  Breton  to  Florida.  Mercator's  map  of  1541 
apparently  locates  Anorumbega  aroun<l  the  Hud- 
son River,  and  that  of  1509  represents  Norombega 
as  a  city  with  high  towers.  .lean  Allefonsce.  the 
pilot  of  the  Cartier-Roberval  expedition  (1541- 
44).  speaks  of  a  great  river,  brackish  forly 
leagues  from  its  mouth,  rocky,  and  filled  with 
islands.  This  has  been  variously  identified  as 
the  Hudson,  Long  Island  Sound,  and  the  Penob- 
scot. Gastaldi's  map.  in  1550,  makes  Nurumbega 
the  region  near  Cape  Breton,  while  Thevet.  in  the 
same  year,  apparently  makes  the  Noruiiibega  tlie 
Hudson.  David  Ingram,  a  sailor,  claimed  that  in 
1508  he  was  put  ashore  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
by  Sir  .Tohn  Hawkins  and  made  his  way  by 
Indian  trails  to  the  Saint  .Tohn"s  River  in  Can- 
ada in  1509.  While  passing  through  Norumbega 
on  his  route  he  visited  a  city  three-fourths  of  a 
mile  through,  the  houses  of  which  had  pillars  of 
crystal  and  silver.  He  saw  a  peck  of  pearls  and 
rubies  six  inches  long,  while  all  the  inhabitant.s 
had  heavy  ornaments  of  gold,  and  the  richest  furs 
were  plentiful.  This  story  was  printed  by  Hak- 
luyt  in  his  J'rincipall  Xavifiations  (1589),  but 
Sir  ilunipbrey  (Jilli.rt  sc<iircd  a  co])y  before, 
and.  in  l.">s:i,  set  out  tu  ixploie  the"  country. 
With  him  he  carried  the  poet  Parmenius  to  sing 
the  praises  of  the  cotmtrv.  Michael  Lok's  map, 
in  1582, represents  the  Penobscot  as  a  strait  reach- 
ing to  the  Saint  Lawrence,  and  makes  Norombega 
the  country   included   between   the   two.     Other 


maps  of  the  sixteenth  century  locate  the  country 
in  New  England  and  indicate  a  city  about  the 
4;3d  degree.  Champlain,  in  his  explorations  of 
the  Maine  coast  (lU()4-0()).  searched  for  the  city, 
and  ascended  the  Penobscot  to  the  site  of  the 
present  city  of  Bangor,  but  found  no  trace.  The 
name  begins  to  disappear  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury;  but  .John  Smith,  in  1020,  applies  it  to  New 
England  and  the  coast  down  to  Virginia,  while 
Lucini,  an  Italian  engraver,  represents  it  as  alter- 
native with  Nova  Anglia  in  1647.  Heylin,  in 
1009,  still  dreams  of  a  wonderful  city. 

The  etymology  of  the  word  'Norumbega'  is 
vague  and  uncertain.  Grotius  first  identified  the 
term  with  Norbergia,  and  suggested  a  Norse  ori- 
gin. Prof.  E.  N.  Horsford  derives  it  from  .Yor- 
vcgr,  Norway,  and  identifies  the  river  with  the 
Charles.  He  claims  to  have  discovered  ruins  of 
a  Norse  city,  subsequently  occupied  by  Breton 
French,  near  Watertown.  Mass.,  and  in  1889  he 
erected  a  memorial  tower  at  the  junction  of 
Stony  Brook  and  the  Charles.  An  Indian  origin 
meaning  'still  water.'  or  'place  of  a  great  city,' 
has  been  suggested,  while  others  call  attention  to 
the  Spanish  'vagas,'  or  'bagas,'  fields.  Weise.  in 
his  Discoreries  of  America  to  loio  (New  York, 
1884).  derives  the  name  from  the  Old  French 
L'Anormce  Berge,  the  Grand  .Scarp,  i.e.  the  Pali- 
sades. Fiske  also  identifies  the  Hudson  as  the 
Norumbega  River  and  locates  an  old  French  city 
on  Manhattan  Island. 

Consult:  Winsor.  Xarrative  and  Critical  Bis- 
tori/  of  America,  vols,  iii.-iv.  (Boston  and  New 
York,  1884)  ;  Beauvois,  La  Xorambegue  (Brus- 
sels, 1880)  ;  Fiske,  Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonics  in 
America,  vol.  vi.  (Boston  and  New  Y'ork,  1899)  ; 
Horsford.  Defenses  of  yorumhega  (Boston, 
1891 ).  and  Diseorerif  of  Ancient  City  of  Sorum- 
hcga  (privately  printed,  1890). 

NORVAL,  nor'vid.  The  son  of  Lady  Randolph 
and  her  first  husband  in  Home's  tragedy  Douglas. 
He  was  exposed  at  birth  and  bro\ight  up  by  an 
old  shepherd,  Norval.  whose  name  he  took.  His 
identity  was  discovered  by  his  mother  after  he 
had  saved  Lord  Randolph's  life,  and  he  was  ad- 
vanced by  his  stepfather,  but  was  killed  by  him 
as  the  result  of  jealousy  aroused  by  (ilenalvon, 
Randolph's  heir  presumptive.  His  Tuother  tUen 
took  her  own  life.  The  part  was  played  by  both 
Kcmble  and  Macready. 

NORWALK,  nr.r'wuk.  A  city  in  Fairfield 
County.  Conn..  14  miles  west  by  south  of  Bridge- 
))i>rt :  on  the  Norwalk  River,  near  Long  Island 
Soiuul,  and  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and 
Hartford  Railroad  (Map:  Connecticut.  B  5).  It 
is  attractively  situated  on  Hie  Sound,  and  is  a 
]io]iular  residential  place  as  well  as  a  noted  sum- 
mer resort.  Its  more  prominent  buildings  in- 
clude the  Carnegie  Library.  Xorwalk  Hospital, 
Fairfield  County  Children's  Home,  and  the  State 
Armory.  There  are  extensive  manufactures  of 
hats,  corsets,  shirts,  shoes,  cassimeres,  felt  goods, 
silks,  locks,  air  compressors,  etc.  The  oyster 
interests  also  are  important,  and  considerable 
coastwise  trade  is  carried  on.  The  New  York 
and  Norwalk  steamboat  line  maintains  regular 
service  to  New  York.  The  government  is  vested 
in  a  mayor,  annually  elected,  and  a  tmicameral 
coimcil.  There  are  nuinicipal  water-works.  Pop- 
ulation, in  1900.  0135.  Norwalk  was  settled  in 
1049  and  incorporated  as  n  town  in  1051.  It 
embraced  what  is  now  the  cities  of  South  Nor- 


NORWALK. 


633 


NORWAY. 


walk,  chartered  in  1870,  and  Norwalk.  The  latter 
was  incorporated  in  1830,  as  a  borough,  and  was 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1893.  On  November  11, 
1779,  Norwalk  was  burned  by  a  British  and  Hes- 
sian force  under  tienerals  Tryon  and  Garth.  Con- 
sult: Selleck,  yorivulk  (Norwalk,  189(i)  ;  and 
liyington,  "Ancient  and  Modern  Norwalk,"  in  the 
Connecliciit  Quarterly,  vol.  i.    (Hartford,  1895). 

NORWALK.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Huron  County,  Ohio,  .5.>  miles  west  liy  south 
of  Cleveland;  on  the  Lake  Shore  and  Jlichigan 
Southern  and  the  Wheeling  and  Lake  Erie  rail- 
roads (Map:  Ohio,  E  3).  Jt  is  a  city  of  fine 
residences,  particularly  on  the  main  street,  and 
li.is  a  liandsomc  court  house  and  jail.  Norwalk 
is  well  situated  for  a  commercial  centre  in  an 
agricultural  'and  stock-raising  country ;  its  e.x- 
Unsive  industrial  interests  are  represented  by 
]iiano  works,  iron  and  steel  works,  railroad  shops, 
pickling  works,  manufactories  of  interior  decora- 
tiiins,  curtain  poles,  novelties,  umbrellas,  tobae- 
10.  etc.,  and  by  a  printing  and  publishing  house. 
The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected 
every  two  years,  and  a  unicameral  council.  The 
water-works,  with  reservoirs  having  a  capacity  of 
500,000,000  gallons  and  covering  an  area  of  about 
forty  acres,  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  mu- 
nicipality. Settled  in  1817,  Norwalk  was  incor- 
porated first  in  1828.  and  in  1881  received  a  city 
charter.  Huron  County  is  the  westernmost  of 
the  ten  counties  in  nortliern  Ohio  composing  the 
'Connecticut  Reserve,'  or  'Western  •  Reserve,' 
part  of  which  was  granted  to  Revolutionarv  suf- 
ferers.    Population," in  1890,  7195;  in  1900," 7074. 

NOR'WAY     (AS.    yorirceff,    _Yor})«e(/,    Icel. 
•Norcfir,  Xorvegr,  Norw.,  Dan.,  Swed.  Norf/c,  JIL. 
Norregia,    Nortluragia,    North    Way).      A    long, 
narrow  coast  country  of   Europe  on  the   North 
Atlantic,  constituting  with   Sweden  the  Scandi- 
navian Peninsula.   Tlie  length  of  the  coast  around 
the  outer  belt  of  rocks  is  1700  miles,  the  entire 
shore   line,   including   tlie   fiords   and  the   large 
islands,  being  about   12,000  miles,   long  enough 
to   stretch   half  around   tlie   globe.      The  country 
extends  from  latitude  57°  58'  to  71°  11'  N.     Its 
width   in   the   south    is   about   250   miles,    in   the 
northern  half  about  CO  miles,  and  in  Finmarken, 
the  extreme  nortli.  a  little  greater.     The  area  is 
124,129  square  miles — a  little  more  than  that  of 
New  ^Mexico.     The  northern  coast  is  washed  by 
the  Arctic  Ocean;   Norwegian  sealers  sail  every 
year  as  far  north  as  it  is  open.    On  the  south  the 
Skagerrak,   connecting  the   North    Sea  with   the 
J    Cattegat,  separates  Norway  from  .Jutland.     To- 
'    ward  the  east  Norway  has  a  land  frontier  1500 
''    miles  long,  being  bordered  by  the  Russian  Gov- 
ernment of  Archangel  for  about  50  miles,  liy  Fin- 
land for  nearly  500  miles,  and  by  Sweden  for  9.50 
miles.     The  eastern  boimdary  extends  most  of  tlie 
!    way  in  the  midst   of   a   l)elt  of  desolate  plateau 
■    land   through    which    tlie   boundary   with    Russia 
,    was  defined  only  in   1820   and   with   Sweden   in 
1751.     At  three  places,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia,  the  Trondhjcm  depression,  and  far- 
ther south,  complete  land  connections  have  been 
made  by  means  of  railroads  across  the  peninsula. 
'    Two-thirds  of  the  people  live  in  the  south. 

TopooR.\PHY.  The  coasts  are  remarkable  as  a 
region  of  fiords.  The  shore  line  is  everywhere 
broken  by  deep  incisions  of  the  sea  into  the  rocky 
cliffs.  Traces  of  the  glacial  period  are  found  all 
over  the  land,  and  the  fiords  and  islands  fronting 


them  are  ascribed  to  the  work  of  glaciers.  Nor- 
way as  a  whole  is  a  rugged  plateau,  with  deep- 
cut  valleys,  the  whole  surface  greatly  denuded, 
peaks  and  groups  of  peaks  rising,  here  and 
there,  above  the  general  level  of  the  more  plain- 
like region  of  the  east.  In  the  west,  near  the 
sea,  are  very  ancient  mountains  worn  down  and 
rounded  by  denudation,  and  chietiy  composed  of 
hard  igneous  rocks  that  have  better  withstood 
the  destructive  forces  which  leveled  the  eastern 
districts  to  a  plain. 

In  the  southeast  and  the  middle  north  (mainly 
north  of  Trondhjem)  is  the  woodland  rising  to  an 
average  height  of  from  300  to  1500  feet,  witli 
forest-clad  liillsides  from  wliich  Norway's  lum- 
ber is  derived.  The  highland  begins  in  the  south- 
west with  a  width  of  60  miles,  and  a  plateau 
height  which  soon  reaches  3000  feet,  merging 
finally  into  the  wide  waste  through  whicli  the 
eastern  boundary  passes.  In  the  extreme  west 
geographers  distinguish  .three  mountain  ranges — 
the  Langfjeld  in  the  south,  the  Dovrefjeld  be- 
tween the  northern  and  southern  districts,  and 
the  Kjolen  between  Norway  and  Sweden  farther 
north. 

Hydrogkapht.  The  height  axis  is  not  far 
from  the  w'est  coast,  and  the  western  rivers  there- 
fore are  short,  although  their  volume  of  water  is 
large  on  account  of  the  heavy  rainfall.  The 
eastern  rivers  flow  along  fairly  regular  parallel 
valleys,  which  are  open  and  flat  in  the  mountains, 
but  are  cut  deep  through  the  plateau.  A  few  of 
the  eastern  fluvial  basins  are  large,  that  of  the 
Glommen  being  Ifi.OOO  square  miles,  that  of  the 
Dramnien  6000  square  miles,  and  that  of  the 
Skien  4250  square  miles,  but  the  volume  of  water 
is  comparatively  small  on  account  of  the  smaller 
rainfall.  The  slope  is  great  and  the  rivers  are 
filled  with  falls  and  rapids,  which  impart  great 
beauty,  but  prevent  navigation.  The  mountain 
highland  and  woodland  are  dotted  with  an  enor- 
mous number  of  lakes,  most  of  them  narrow  and 
long,  due  to  the  intense  action  of  glaciers.  It  is 
supposed  that  in  the  great  glacial  period  the  in- 
land ice  must  have  extended  even  above  the  high- 
est peaks.  Most  of  the  larger  lakes  are  found  in 
the  long  valleys — the  largest  of  them.  Mjosen 
(140  square  miles.  60  miles  long.  1500  feet  deep), 
Randsf Jord.  Spirilen,  Kriideren,  and  others,  lying 
at  a  height  of  about  400  feet  above  the  sea  just 
outside  the  border  of  the  highland  in  the  east 
count  ly. 

Climate.  Norway  reaches  300  miles  into 
the  Arctic  zone,  and  nearly  a  third  of  the 
country  is  in  the  domain  of  tlie  midnight  sun 
and  winter  darkness.  The  summer  day  is  long 
and  bright,  but  the  winter  day  is  short  and 
dark.  At  Christiania,  in  the  far  south,  the  sun 
is  above  the  horizon  on  the  shortest  day  less  tlian 
six  hours.  The  west  coast  is  warmer  than  tlie 
interior  because  it  has  the  full  efl'ect  of  the  west- 
erly winds,  whose  temperature  is  modified  by 
blowing  from  the  tenqierate  waters  of  the  At- 
lantic. The  fiords  therefore  do  not  freeze,  but 
are  navigable  the  year  around.  The  land,  rising 
from  the  coast  into  mountain  tops  and  plateaus, 
in  places  rises  into  regions  of  perpetual  snow 
where'  glaciers  descend  into  the  valleys.  The  line 
of  per|)etual  snow,  at  the  parallel  of  62°  N.,  is 
between  4500  and  5000  feet  above  the  sea ; 
at  66°  30'  tlie  snow  line  falls  to  3900  feet,  and  at 
70°  to  about  3000  feet. 


NORWAY. 


634 


NORWAY. 


The  climate  varies  in  diliercnt  parts  of  the 
country.  Southeast  Xorway,  liniitcil  on  the  north 
by  the  Dovrefjeld. has  a  mean  annual  ti'm])orature 
varying  from  44°  to  31"  1'.  July  is  the  warme.st 
month,  with  a  mean  temperature  of  Ul"  at  Chris- 
tiania.  Tlie  winter  is  most  severe  in  the  heart  of 
the  countiy.  At  Christiania  the  mean  winter 
temperature  is  25°.  The  temperature  of  West 
Norway  is  fairly  uniform,  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature beinp  hi{;hest  (44°  to  45°)  at  the  ex- 
treme western  ends  of  the  land.  The  annual 
rainfall  is  greatest  along  the  western  coast,  rang- 
ing from  50  to  over  80  inches.  On  the  southeast 
coast,  near  (irimstad.,  it  is  48  inches,  while  on 
the  Dovrefjeld  it  is  only  \'2  inches.  Snow  is  less 
frequent  in  the  west  than  in  the  east  on  account 
of  the  milder  winter  temperature.  The  countrj' 
north  of  the  Dovrefjeld  is  colder  than  in  the 
south,  but  the  climate  of  the  coast  region  is  also 
modified  by  oceanic  influences.  The  most  varied 
shades  of  continental  and  maritime  climates  are 
thus  represented  in  Norway.  The  inland  dis- 
tricts of  Southeast  Norway  and  Finmarken.  with 
their  severe  winters  and  relatively  high  summer 
temperature,  their  gentle  breezes  and  small  rain- 
fall, are  examples  of  typical  inland  climate.  The 
whole  coast  line,  with  mild  winters,  cool  summers, 
abundant  rainfall,  and  tuisettled  weather,  is  an 
example  of  typical  maritime  climate.  On  the 
whole,  the  climatic  conditions  are  favorable  to 
the  development  of  a  strong,  healthy,  energetic 
people. 

Flora.  The  richest  vegetation  is  found  in  the 
southeast  around  Christiania  Fiord  an<l  the  large 
lakes.  Considering  its  northerly  position,  Nor- 
way has  a  luxuriant  vegetation.  .\bout  1500 
species  of  phanerogams  alone  grow  wild.  In  the 
southeast  conifers  form  thick  forests  from  sea- 
level  to  .3000  feet.  Up  to  about  1000  feet  above 
the  sea  a  luxuriant  growth  of  oak.  ash.  lime, 
maple,  elm,  and  lowland  birch  is  found,  second- 
ary to  the  conifers,  but  giving  its  characteristic 
stamp  to  the  lowland  flora.  Above  the  limit  of 
conifers  is  the  birch  zone,  reaching  3500  feet 
above  the  sea,  where  the  true  mountain  plants 
begin  to  be  prominent.  Above  the  birch  limit 
the  willow  and  the  lichen  zones  are  distinguished. 
In  the  willow  zone  there  are  no  trees — only  a 
dense  growth  of  low  bushes.  Reindeer  moss  pre- 
dominates in  the  lichen  zone.  The  extreme  coast 
region  is  destitute  of  forest,  and  also  of  some 
continental  plants  found  inland,  but  is  especially 
rich  in  mosses.  The  arable  soil  is  foimd  in 
narrow  strips  of  deep  valleys  and  around  fiords 
and  lakes.  Large  continuous  tracts  fit  for  culti- 
vation do  not  exist,  and  only  l-140lh  of  the  total 
surface  is  in  grain  fields. 

Faixa.  The  animal  life  is  that  of  the  rest  of 
North  Europe,  with  relics,  chiefly  in  the  north,  of 
Arctic  elements  such  as  the  mountain  or  Arctic 
fox,  the  ptarmigan,  the  snow  bunting,  ami  va- 
rious insects.  With  its  long  coast  line  Norway 
is  richer  in  species  of  fish  than  most  northern 
lands,  more  than  200  species  being  found.  There 
arc  a  number  of  .\rctic  contributions,  including 
the  Greenland  shark,  which  is  (ished  for  its 
liver.  Very  ntimerous  are  fishes  which  belong 
to  the  north  or  general  European  fauna,  in- 
cluding most  of  the  food  fishes,  such  as  cod, 
haddock,  coalfish,  pollack,  torsk,  herring,  sprat, 
and  mackerel.  The  sain. on  is  caught  along  the 
coast  and  in  the  rivers,  where  it  comes  to  spawn. 
Trout   and    red   char  arc   the   most   widely   dis- 


tributed fresh-water  fish.  Of  the  ten  species  of 
reptiles  and  amphibia,  the  lizard  and  the  frog 
are  found  everywhere,  but  the  viper  has  its 
northern  limit  at  the  Polar  circle.  The  birds 
number  280  species,  of  which  1!I0  breed  in  the 
country.  Most  of  them  are  birds  of  passage, 
as  the  falcon,  geese,  and  ducks.  The  mild  cli- 
mate of  the  south  and  west  coasts  induces  the 
starling,  blackbird,  woodcock,  duck,  swan,  etc., 
to  winter  there.  Alons  the  west  and  northern 
coasts  are  numerous  colonies  of  swimming  birds. 
The  birds  of  the  lowlands  are  similar  to  those 
of  Europe  in  general.  There  are  07  inanuuals. 
The  hedgehog  is  found  in  the  south,  the  lynx 
in  unfrequented  forests,  and  the  glutton,  a  great 
enemy  of  the  reindeer,  among  the  mountains 
of  the  north,  where  the  reindeer  grazes.  Wolves, 
formerly  numerous,  have  nearly  disappeared,  ex- 
cept in  North  Norway.  Bears  are  gradually  dis- 
appearing, and  the  commonest  beast  of  prey  is 
the  fox  among  the  mountains.  The  common  seal 
and  the  gray  seal  breed  on  the  Atlantic  islands, 
and  all  the  Arctic  seals,  and  even  the  walrus, 
sometimes  appear  on  the  north  coast.  The  lem- 
ming lives  in  the  mountain  wastes  and  sometimes 
overruns  the  lowlands,  damaging  crops.  A  few 
beavers  remain,  and  the  moimtain  hare,  which 
turns  white  in  winter,  is  found  all  over  the 
country.  The  ruminants  are  represented  only 
by  the  red  deer,  the  elk.  and  the  reindeer  among 
wild  animals.  The  wild  reindeer  is  decreasing 
on  account  of  over-luniting.  but  many  herds  of 
tame  reindeer  are  kept  in  the  nortli  iind  even 
among  the  mounliiin  wastes  of  the  south  that  lie 
too  high  for  general  grazing. 

Geology  a,\d  JIixing.  Archtean  rocks  have 
a  wide  extension  in  Norway,  particularly  through 
the  mountain  regions  of  the  west  and  in  the 
districts  from  Lake  lljiisen  southward.  Gneiss 
and  granitic  gneiss  are  the  prevailing  rocks  in 
these  regions.  During  Cambrian  and  Silurian 
time  the  open  sea  extended  over  the  greater 
part  of  Norway,  and  on  its  bottom  lime,  mud, 
sand,  and  gravel  were  laid  down,  forming  a  series 
of  strata  rich  in  fossils  and  very  thick.  Cam- 
brian and  Silurian  rocks  are  thus  widely  repre- 
sented, particularly  east  of  the  mountains  ami 
north  of  Lake  Jljiisen.  and  also  among  the  north- 
ern mountains  behind  the  coastal  areas  of  igne- 
ous rocks.  A  belt  of  Post-Silurian  and  Cambrian 
rocks  extends  from  Lake  Mjiisen  southward 
through  the  Chri^ifi.Tnia  region  to  the  south 
coast,  forming  the  subsoil  of  that  beautiful  and 
undulating  country.  Over  large  areas  of  the 
ancient  rocks  are  spread  the  deposits  of  the  Ice 
Age  to  no  great  depth.  Raised  beaches  along 
the  outer  parts  of  many  fiords  are  proof  of  the 
former  lower  position  of  the  land.  The  mining 
industry  is  not  important,  for  Norwegian  ores 
are  not  rich  nor  large  in  extent.  The  Kongs- 
berg  silver  mines,  owned  by  the  State,  yielded 
808  tons  of  silver  l)etween  i024  and  ISO.S.  The 
Riiros  copper  mines,  owned  by  a  joint  stock 
company,  yielded  73.000  tons  of  coi)])er  between 
1047  and  1807.  Iron  ores  occur  in  many  places, 
but  little  is  mined,  and  coal  docs  not  occur  ex- 
cept on  the  remote  island  of  Andii.  At  the  end 
of  1000  there  were  about  40  mining  estiiblish- 
ments.  employing  301"  workpcojile.  and  0  smelt- 
ers, with  302  laborers.  The  chief  mineral  prod- 
ucts of  1000  were  silver,  worth  .$88,440;  copper 
ore.   $670,487;   pyrites,  $030,872;    and   iron  ore. 


NOM¥7A¥ 
BWMI 


^SCALE  OF  STATUTE  M 

r  ""    25  50  7  J    ' 


J 


NORWAY. 


635 


NORWAY. 


$35.G44.  Fine  marble,  buildin;;  stone,  roofing 
slate.  soai)stone.  and  millstones  are  proiluced  in 
larpe  (juautities  and  are  ini|i<jrtant  exports. 

Fi.siiKHiKS.  Fishing  is  among  the  oldest  of 
the  country's  industries.  The  value  of  the  large 
fisheries  has  averaged  for  31  years  $5,7i)(j,400  a 
year.  This  does  not  include  the  catch  (daily 
fishing,  as  the  Norwegians  call  it)  which  sup- 
plies the  wants  of  the  home  population.  The 
value  of  all  the  fisheries,  including  the  Arctic 
fisheries  and  various  extra  sources  of  profit, 
such  as  oil  and  fish  guano,  is  about  $13,400,000 
a  year.  The  cod  is  the  largest  fishery,  the  num- 
ber of  persons  engaged  in  it  in  "l!)00  being 
82.0ns,  and  the  value  of  the  catch  $3,03(3,402, 
The  largest  centre  of  the  industry  is  the  Lofoten 
Islands,  wlicre.  in  the  first  few  months  of  the 
year,  about  40.000  men  are  engaged  in  fishing 
or  in  preparing  the  catch  for  market.  The 
average  per  man  for  the  whole  of  the  fishing  is 
from  ilOO  to  1000  cod.  The  fish  are  sold  partly 
to  traders  on  the  islands  who  have  warehouses 
with  salting  and  storing  rooms,  and  partly  to 
merchant  ve.ssels,  which  carry  their  purchases  to 
other  ports.  The  herring  fisheries,  ne.xt  to  the 
cod  in  importance,  are  carried  nn  all  along  the 
coast,  the  summer  fisheries  employing  over  20.- 
000  men,  and  the  value  of  the  product  being 
usually  over  $2,400,000.  The  catch  in  recent 
years  has  not  been  so  large  as  formerly,  but  is 
now  improving.  The  mackerel  is  rare  north  of 
Trondhjein  Fiord,  and  is  fished  chiefly  in  the 
Skagerrak  and  the  fiords  off  it.  The  "industry 
in  11100  employed  2741  men,  the  product  being 
worth  $1.52,402.  The  salmon,  sea  trout,  lobsters, 
and  oysters  (small  yield)  also  figure  in  the  total 
pniduct  <if  the  large  fisheries,  the  total  value  in 
1.S00  having  been  $6,510.2.56.  The  mackerel  is 
also  caught  in  the  North  Sea.  and  the  Arctic  fish- 
eries engage  every  season  about  2000  men  who 
sail  over  the  Arctic  Sea  from  Greenland  and  .Jan 
Alayen  Island  in  the  west  to  Spitzbergen  and 
Finmarken  in  the  east,  for  sealskins  and  oil, 
whale  oil.  and  bearskins. 

AoKicTLTURE.  Of  the  total  area,  .59  per  cent,  is 
bare  mountain,  21  per  cent,  woodland,  and  only 
10  per  cent,  is  in  pastures,  hay  lands,  and  fields. 
In  the  southeast  cultivated  plants  and  fruits 
ripen  in  the  open  air,  but  in  the  north  and 
on  the  bigber  tracts  there  is  little  or  no  agricul- 
ture. Crop  and  cattle  raising  are  usually  carried 
on  together.  Oats  is  the  chief  grain,  init  none 
of  the  cereals  suffices  for  the  needs  of  the  coun- 
try. Bai-ley  and  rye  are  grown  miieb  farther 
north  than  oats,  but  wheat  is  rarely  found  north 
of  the  Trondhjem  Fiord.  The  area  annually 
sown  to  wheat  is  about  10.000  acres,  with  a 
yield  of  about  255.000  bushels.  Rye  is  the  great 
bread  cereal,  its  cultivation  extending  to  the 
70th  parallel,  the  area  annually  sown  being 
about  34,000  acres,  and  the  yield 'about  000.000 
busliels.  Among  root  crops  only  potatoes  are 
cultivated  to  a  large  extent,  and  they  are  one  of 
the  chief  foods.  The  average  production  is  about 
23,000,000  luishels.  The  yield  of  the  different 
kinds  (if  ;;rain  is  large  compared  with  that  of 
most  Riircipean  coimtrics,  due  to  careful  cultiva- 
tion and  heavy  manuring. 

Live  Stock.    Norway  has  only  about  one-third 

Of  the  cattle  of  Scandinavia,  but  the   pastures 

pive  adcfiuate  grazing  for  most  of  the  sheep.     In 

1900  there  were  in  the  country   172,999  horses, 

Vol.  XI  v.— 11. 


050,201  cattle,  908.819  sheep.  214,594  goats,  165,- 
348  swine,  and  03,57(!  reindeer. 

Of  the  two  types  of  horses,  the  small  fiord 
horse  is  an  excellent  working  animal  in  the 
mountain  districts,  where  good  roads  are  lacking. 
The  larger  Gudbrand.sdal  is  (|uiek  and  strong  ,as 
a  farm  and  carriage  horse.  The  cattle  of  several 
diU'erent  breeds  are  small,  but  good  milkers.  They 
often  seek  their  foo<l  over  large  areas  of  sparse 
pastures.  Attem|)ts  to  imjuove  them  by  an  ad- 
mixture of  foreign  blood  have  not  lieen  very  suc- 
cessful. Most  of  the  butter  and  cheese  is  made 
in  cooperative  dairies  with  the  best  eiiiiipment, 
and  brings  the  highest  price  in  the  British  mar- 
ket. Norwegian  sheep  are  small,  slender,  and 
fine  wooled.  They  have  been  crossed  with  foreign 
breeds  to  their  advantage.  The  gross  return  of 
the  live  stock  industry  annually  averages  about 
$37,520,000,  which,  added  to  the  average  return 
of  $18,760,000  a  year  from  the  farm  crops,  gives 
a  gross  income  from  Norwegian  husbandrv  of 
over  $56,000,000  on  an  average.  The  buildings 
on  Norwegian  farms  are  comparatively  expensive 
on  account  of  the  severity  of  the  winter.  Domes- 
tic animals  require  ^^•arm  barns,  and  everything, 
including  hay,  must  be  housed.  The  number  of 
farms  in  1890  was  236,286. 

Forest  Industries.  Lumbering  has  always 
been  one  of  the  greatest  industries.  The  large 
forests  lie  far  from  the  inhaliited  districts  as  a 
rule,  and  the  timber-cutters  and  log-drivers 
live  in  huts,  most  of  them  being  strong  and 
hardy  single  nie.i.  Three-fourths  of  the  forests 
are  pine  lands,  btit  the  Norway  pines  and  spruces 
convenient  to  Christiani.-i  and  other  shipping 
points  hiive  been  depleted  in  many  places  so  that 
the  more  northern  forests  in  Sweden  are  now 
the  larger  source  of  Scandinavian  lumber.  Nor- 
way's forest  products,  however,  form  about  one- 
third  of  the  country's  total  exports.  The  value 
of  the  unwrought  or  partly  wrought  timber  ex- 
ported in  1901  was  $0,539,888.  and  of  wrought 
timber    (mostly  wood  jjulji)    $6,436,448. 

Other  Indistries.  About  50,000  persons  are 
engaged  in  the  manufacturing  and  other  indus- 
tries outside  of  those  mentioned  above.  The 
production  of  lumber  and  wooden  ware  is  the 
oldest  and  largest  branch,  employing  in  1895 
12.073  work  people.  There  are  many  saw  and 
planing  mills,  chiefly  along  the  rivers.  The  most 
important  machine  shops  are  in  f'hristiania. 
Iron  ships  arc  built  and  there  are  carriage  and 
car  works.  In  machine  production  Norway  has 
yet  much  to  learn  from  other  countries.  The  tex- 
tile industries,  spinning  and  weaving  mills,  jer- 
sey factories  and  roperies,  employ  about  9000 
persons,  and  number  64  establishments,  most  of 
them  situated  in  the  outskirts  of  the  towns. 
Paper-making  derives  its  importance  from  the 
large  resources  of  wood  pulp.  Small  tanneries 
ami  (lour  mills  are  scattered  all  over  the  country. 
Breweries,  tobacco  and  tinning  works,  are  chiefly 
in  the  larger  towns,  and  particularly  in  Chris- 
tiaiiia.  Potteries,  china  factories,  iron  foundries, 
nail-rolling  and  wire  mills,  have  a  considerable 
outjiut.  Only  about  2000  persons  are  employed 
in  making  articles  of  attire,  .^s  the  country  is 
deficient  in  industrial  development,  the  imports 
of  mamifactures  are  large. 

Commerce.  Tlie  growth  and  average  annual 
amount  of  Norwaj's  trade  may  be  seen  from  the 
following  table: 


NORWAY. 


636 


NORWAY. 


Imports.. 
Exports.. 


WO.500.000 
28.500,000 


1891-95 


$59,500,000 
35,000,000 


$76,900,000 
41,100.000 


The  ajigrcgate  forei<,'n  ooniiiiercc  since  the  mid- 
dle of  the  nineteenth  century  lias  more  than  quad- 
rupled. The  imports  largely  exceed  the  exports, 
but  this  difference  is  covered  to  a  great  extent 
by  the  profits  from  the  shipping  trade,  as  Nor- 
way is  a  great  carrier  of  freight  for  foreign  coun- 
tries. Articles  of  food  and  driidc  are  the  largest 
imports.  Nearly  half  the  value  of  the  imporls  is 
represented  by  cereals,  rye  being  the  chief  item, 
with  barley,  wheat  flour,  rye  flour,  and  wheat  fol- 
lowing, (Jrocerics,  particularly  sugar  and  collee, 
are  large  imports.  Bacon  and  other  meats  are 
brought  ehielly  from  the  United  States,  Cotton 
and  woolen  goods  and  yam  are  the  chief  textile 
purchases.  Among  the  imports  of  raw  material 
are  coal,  hides  and  skins,  iron  and  steel,  cotton, 
wool  and  hemu.  The  country  buys  over  l.ioO.OOO 
tons  of  coal  every  year.  Oils,  particularly  kero- 
sene, hempseed.  and  linseed,  amount  to  abovit 
.$1,. 500, 000  a  year.  Steam-engines,  locomotives, 
metal  goods,  and  vessels  are  also  large  imports. 
Timber  and  fishery  products  are  the  most  impor- 
tant exports.  About  one-fourth  of  the  timber 
is  sent  abroad  as  deals  and  boards.  Some  .'J.iO,- 
000  tons  of  wood  pulp  are  annually  sold.  The 
increased  sales  of  the  products  of  agriculture 
and  cattle-raising,  which  have  quadrupled  since 
l.HTl-T"),  are  es[)ccially  due  to  expiirts  of  l)utt('r 
and  con<lensed  milk.  Among  other  important  ex- 
ports are  packing  paper,  ships,  ice,  dressed  stone, 
iron  and  steel  nails,  and  metal  and  ores.  The 
United  Kingdom  and  Germany  are  most  impor- 
tant in  Norwegian  commerce,  the  United  King- 
dom commanding  about  one-third  and  (iermany 
one-fourth  of  the  entire  trade,  while  Sweden  has 
less  than  a  tenth.  The  sales  to  the  United  States 
are  very  small,  as  the  latter  country  produces 
in  great  abundance  most  of  the  ex])(n't  commodi- 
ties of  Norway;  but  Norway  buys  from  this 
country  cotton,  wheat,  provisions,  tools,  machin- 
ery, fertilizers,  locomotives,  and  leather  goods  to 
the  value  of  several  million  dollars  a  year.  The 
foreign  commerce  is  carried  on  chiefly  through 
the  ports  of  Ohristiania,  Uergen,  and  Trondhjem, 
the  tindier-trading  towns  of  Frc<lriks(ad  and 
Drauunen  being  also  especially  im])ortant.  Chris- 
tiansand  is  widely  known  for  its  export  of 
sailed  and  dried   fish. 

ThANSI'ORTATION    and    CoMMfNICATIONS.      The 

Norwegians  are  a  race  of  sailors.  Their  mer- 
chant marine  is  the  fourth  largest  in  the  world, 
and  in  proportion  to  population  it  heads  the  list. 
While  the  natural  commerce  is  comparatively 
small,  Norwegian  vessels  and  sailors  are  con- 
spicuous in  the  sea  carriage  of  freight  for  for- 
eign nations.  .\  considerable  number  of  their 
vessels  are  engaged  in  the  fruit  trade  between  the 
I'nited  States  and  T.atin  America.  In  1002  the 
mercantile  marine  included  .'5445  sailing  vessels 
(n.'i.-),!)47  tons)  and  122.3  steamers  (.531,142  tons) , 
or  a  total  of  fiOriS  vessels  with  a  tonnage  of 
l,4(i7,OSn,  The  total  length  of  railroads  in  1001 
was  l.SOS  miles,  of  which  the  State  railroads 
had  a  mileage  of  Hfi,S. 

Panks.  The  right  to  issue  paper  money  is  re- 
served to  the  riank  of  Norway  (Norges  Bank), 
n  joint  stock  hank  owned  in  part  by  the  State, 
The  bank  has  charge  of  the  money  transactions 


of  the  State,  and  does  business  as  a  loan,  circula- 
tion, discount,  and  deposit  institution.  The  head 
ollicc  is  at  Christiania,  and  it  has  twelve  branch 
ollices  in  the  most  important  towns.  The  bal- 
ance sheets  for  11)01  showed  total  assets  of 
$20,578,026.  The  Mortgage  Bank  of  the  King- 
dom of  Norway,  "Kongeriget  Norges  Hypothek- 
bank,"'  makes  loans  on  real  estate.  The  capital 
of  the  bank  is  partly  supplied  by  the  State,  and 
amounted  in  1001  to  $4,000,000;  the  loans  on 
mortgage  at  the  end  of  1001,  $30,150,500,  of 
wliich  al)Out  one-fourth  had  been  granted  on  town 
and  I  luce- fourths  on  country  ])ropcrty  ;  the  total 
amount  of  bonds  issued  was  .$34,002,071.  There 
were  78  private  joint  stock  banks,  with  a  paid 
up  capital  of  $11,373,402,  The  luunber  of  char- 
tered savings  banks,  all  controlled  by  the  Minis- 
try of  Finance,  was  421,  with  005,524  depositors 
and  $8(1,202,423  deposits, 

GovEK.NMENT,  Norway,  though  united  to  Swe- 
den since  1S15,  under  the  same  King,  retains  its 
own  (tovernment  with  a  separate  Jlinistry  and 
Legislature.  The  law  of  succession  to  the  crown 
is  the  same  in  both  c(nmtrics.  and  commissioners 
appointed  by  the  two  Parliaments  regulate  the 
questions  touching  the  transmission  of  the  crown. 
Affairs  common  to  the  two  governments  are  at- 
tended to  by  a  Council  of  Stnte  composed  of 
both  .Swedes  and  Norwegians,  The  form  of  gov- 
ernment in  Norway  is  fixed  by  the  Constitution 
or  fundamental  law  of  May  17,  1814,  which  has 
undergone  several  subsequent  modifications.  The 
Norwegian  State  is  a  constitutioiial  monarchy 
with  the  parliamentary  or  responsible  system  of 
government.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a 
Parliament  or  Storthing,  which,  upon  assembling, 
divides  itself  for  legislative  jiurposes  into  two 
chambers,  the  Odclsthing  and  the  Lagthing.  The 
former  consists  of  three-fourths  of  the  whole 
number  of  niemlwrs  chosen  to  the  Parliament. 
The  members  include  representatives  from  the 
cities  and  representatives  from  the  country,  all 
chosen  for  a  period  of  three  years  aiul  renewed 
integrally.  All  male  citiz»Mis  twenty-five  years 
of  age  who  have  resided  in  the  State  for  a  |)eriod 
of  live  years  are  qualified  to  vote  for  membi'rs  of 
the  Storthing  tmlcss  disipmlified  for  special 
causes.  To  be  eligible  to  membership  in  the 
Storthing  one  nuist  be  a  male  citizen  thirty  years 
of  age,  and  must  have  resided  in  Norway  for  a 
period  of  ten  years.  Certain  high  State  function- 
aries arc  disqualified.  The  elections  are  indirect 
and  in  the  second  degree.  A  certain  inmdier  of 
primary  electors  in  the  country  choose  on<'  sec 
onilarv  elector;  the  secondary  electors  then  as- 
semble in  the  chief  towns  of  the  electoral  district 
and  choose  a  certain  number  from  their  own! 
body  to  serve  as  representatives  in  the  Storthingji 
The  Storthing  meets  annually,  but  cannot  remain 
in  session  for  a  4ongcr  period  than  three  months 
without  the  authorization  of  the  King.  The  King 
may  call  extraordinary  sessions  of  the  Storthing 
and  dissolve  it,  but  he  does  not  have  power  to 
dissolve  the  ordinary  sessions  and  order  new 
elections.  The  members  receive  a  compensation 
of  about  $3  per  day  during  the  session. 

.\fter  the  separation  of  the  Storthing  into  two 
chambers,  each  meets  separately,  chooses  its  ow 
iifllcers.  and  is  the  judge  of  the  election  am 
qualifications  of  its  mendiers.  Bills  are  first 
presented  to  the  Odclsthing  by  its  own  members 
or  by  the  Oovernment,  and  after  passage  are  sent 
to  the  Lagthing,  which  must  either  accept  or  re« 


\< 


NORWAY. 


637 


NORWAY. 


jcet  them  in  tuto.  lu  uase  of  a  deadlock  between 
the  two  ohaniljers  tliev  come  together  in  united 
session  and  deliberate  and  vote  as  a  single  assem- 
bly. The  chief  powers  of  the  Storthing  are  to 
enact  laws,  impose  taxes,  raise  loans,  supervise 
the  linances,  vote  appropriations,  and  approve 
treaties  concluded  with  foreign  powers.  The 
Lagthing  has  the  exclusive  right  of  choosing 
the  justices  of  the  High  Court,  while  to  the 
Odelsthing  belongs  the  right  to  inspect  the  pub- 
lie  accounts  and  to  prefer  impeachments  against 
public  officials,  including  members  of  the  Stor- 
thing. The  members  of  the  Lagthing,  together 
with  the  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court,  form  a 
court  (Rigsret)  for  the  trial  of  ministers,  mem- 
bers of  the  Storthing,  and  justices  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  To  the  King  belongs  the  right  of  sanc- 
tioning laws  passed  by  the  Storthing.  If,  how- 
ever, he  withholds  his  sanction  and  the  law  is 
pas.sed  a  third  time  by  the  Stortliing,  it  becomes 
valid  without  the  royal  approval.  The  King  is 
commander  of  the  army  and  navy,  may  declare 
defensive  war,  make  treaties,  levy  troops,  etc. 
He  is  declared  to  be  inviolable  and  irresponsi- 
ble. He  exercises  his  authority  through  a  Coun- 
cil of  State  composed  of  two  Jlinisters  and  at 
least  seven  Councilors,  appointed  by  himself 
from  among  Norwegians.  One  of  the  Ministers, 
together  with  two  of  the  Councilors  (who 
change  annually),  form  a  "delegation,"  which  re- 
sides permanently  at  Stockholm  near  the  King. 
The  King  can  take  no  official  action  without 
consulting  the  Council  of  State  or  that  part  of 
the  Norwegian  Government  which  has  its  seat  at 
Christiania.  The  Ministers  and  Councilors  pre- 
side over  the  departments  of  administration  and 
have  access  to  the  Storthing,  where  they  are  al- 
lowed to  take  part  in  the  deliberations,  but  with 
no  right  to  vote.  The  departments  are  as  follows; 
\\orship  and  Education;  .Justice;  Interior;  Pub- 
lie  Works;  Finance  and  Customs;  Defense;  Pub- 
lic Accounts. 

The  judicial  system  consists  in  the  first  place 
of  a  Supreme  Court  (Hoiesteret) ,  eomi)osed  of  a 
president  and  at  least  six  other  justices,  elected 
by  the  Lagthing,  and  having  a  territorial  juris- 
diction embracing  the  whole  Kingdom.  There 
are  also  three  Superior  Courts  ( Stef tesverret- 
ter),  each  consisting  of  a  bench  of  three  jus- 
tices, one  of  whom  bears  the  title  of  Chief  .Tus- 
ticc.  For  the  administration  of  civil  justice 
Norway  is  divided  into  111  districts,  each  with 
an  inferior  court.  There  is  also  a  court  of 
mediation,  so  called,  in  each  town  and  district, 
composed  of  two  laymen  popularly  elected  and 
before  whom,  as  a  nile,  civil  cases  must  first  be 
brought.  According  to  the  new  code  of  criminal 
procedure,  adopted  in  1887,  all  criminal  cases 
nnist  be  tried  before  a  jury  court  (Lagmands- 
ret)  consisting  of  three  judges  and  ten  jurors,  or 
before  the  Meddomsret.  a  tribunal  consisting  of 
one  professional  judge  and  two  lay  assistants, 
.simimoned  for  each  case.  The  former  has  juris- 
diction of  the  more  important  offenses,  while 
the  latter  is  a  court  of  first  instance  for  the 
trial  of  misdemeanors.  For  the  purposes  of 
local  government.  Norway  is  divided  into  20 
districts,  in  each  of  which  is  an  executive  officer 
called  an  amtmana.  These  districts  embrace 
the  two  cities  of  Christiania  and  Beriren  and  18 
counties  (aemter).  Smaller  administrative  divi- 
sions are  the  communes  and  wards.  Each  com- 
mune  has    a    representative   assembly    (its   size 


varying  according  to  the  po])ulation  of  the  com- 
mune), and  a  smaller  council,  chosen  by  the 
representatives  from  their  own  l)o<h-.  They  also 
elect  triennially  a  chairman.  .Ml  the  chairmen 
of  an  amt  form  with  the  amtmana  a  sort  of 
county  diet,  which  meets  annually  iinder  the 
presidency  of  the  amtmana  to  fix  the  amt  bud- 
get. The  members  of  the  local  governing  bodies 
are  chosen  by  an  electorate  more  narrow  than 
that  which  chooses  the  members  of  the  Storthing. 

Finance.  The  total  revenue  in  the  vear  1902- 
03  was  .$27,40.3,000.  A  little  over  a  third  of  it 
is  derived  from  the  customs,  and  less  than  a  tenth 
from  the  railroads.  The  other  sources  of  income 
include  the  excise  tax,  stamps,  income  tax,  post 
office.  State  telegraphs.  Shite  mines,  and  other 
State  property.  The  total  debt  in  1901  was 
.$01,300,756.  Gold  is  the  .standard  of  value.  The 
crown  (26  4-5  cents)  is  the  unit  of  coinage. 
The  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures  is 
obligatory. 

Army  and  Navy.  See  the  articles  Abmies  and 
Navies.  The  six  strongest  fortresses  are  Oskars- 
borg.  Tonsberg,  Bergen,  Fredriksten,  Ogdenes, 
Christiansand. 

Population.  By  the  census  of  1000  the  popu- 
lation was  2.239.880.  or  18  to  the  square  mile. 
Norway  is  thus  the  most  thinly  populated  coun- 
try in  Europe.  About  two-thirds  of  the  entire 
population  live  upon  the  cinist  and  along  the 
fiords:  about  a  fourth  in  the  interior  lowland  dis- 
tricts; the  remainder  belong  to  the  mountain 
districts.  Three-fourths  of  the  inhabitants  dwell 
in  the  rural  districts.  Nearly  all  the  sixty-one 
towns  in  Norway  are  small.  The  population  of 
Christiania  (the  capital)  and  Bergen  together 
is  about  half  the  town  population  of  the  country. 
A  small  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  are  of 
foreign  birth. 

The  list  of  the  political  districts,  with  areas 
and  populations,  is  as  follows: 


Christiania  (town) 

.\kershus 

Smaalenene 

H^Jemarken 

Kristians 

Buskerud 

.Tarlsberg  and  Laurvilc 

Bratsberg 

Nedenes 

Li.ster  and  Mandal 

StaTang:er 

Sondre  Berpenhue 

Bergen  (town) 

Nordre  Bergenhu8 

RoniHdal 

Sondre  Trondhjem 

Nordre  Trondhjem 

Nordland 

Troniso 

Fininarken 

Total 


Area, 

Population 

square  miles 

Dec.  3, 1900 

6 

227.626 

2.017 

116.228 

:,60o 

l:i6.886 

10.600 

126.182 

9,78.5 

116.280 

5.721 

112,670 

89S 

104.5.54 

5.865 

99.052 

3.610 

79.9.35 

2,805 

81.567 

3,532 

127,592 

6,026 

135,752 

5 

72.251 

7.136 

89,041 

5,788 

l;)6.137 

7,186 

135,382 

8.696 

83.433 

1-1.804 

152,144 

10.l;)4 

74,362 

17,918 

32,800 

124,129 

2.239,880 

Emigration.  Tn  the  nineteenth  century  Nor- 
way lost  by  emigration  to  the  t'nited  States 
a  comparatively  larger  part  of  its  popula- 
tion than  any  other  country  in  Europe  except- 
ing Ireland.  Most  of  them  made  their  new 
homes  in  the  Northwestern  United  States. 
Emigration  has  greatly  fallen  ofT  in  the  pa.st 
few  years,  and  amounted  to  only  12.488  in  1901. 

EorcATioN.  The  Norwegian  primary  school 
has  a  seven  years'  course  adapted  for  children 
between  seven  and  fourteen  years  of  age.     Every 


NORWAY. 


638 


NORWAY. 


cliild  that  does  not  receive  an  education  equiva- 
lent to  the  primary  course  by  its  til'leenth  year 
ujuy  be  compelled  to  attend  these  elementary 
schools,  whicli  in  18US  numbered  5971,  with 
259,400  pupils  in  the  country,  and  73,313  in 
the  towns.  .Secondary  schools  numbering  8G, 
of  which  30  are  private,  give  a  hi>;her  course 
of  instruction,  and  have  about  16.000  pujiils. 
The  lioyal  Frederick  Lniversity  in  L'liristiania 
has  03  professors  and  1400  students. 

Religion.  The  Evanfielical  Lutheran  creed 
is  the  State  religion,  and  the  Churdi  is  called 
the  Jv'orwegian  Kstablished  Church,  most  of  the 
inhabitants  being  members.  All  other  religions 
are  tolerated.  Norway  is  divided  into  0  bisliop- 
ries,  and  each  diocese  into  deaneries,  which  are 
again  subdivided  into  livings  at  present  num- 
Ix-ring  47S.  The  total  number  of  parishes  is 
950.  The  dissenters  in  1900  numbered  52,0S0,  in- 
cluding 1909  Itoman  Catholics  and  10.280  ilctho- 
dists. 

The  poor  are  provided  for  by  local  taxes, 
though  the  counties  and  the  State  assist.  The 
number  of  persons  receiving  relief  of  an\-  kind 
in   1899  was  80,730. 

Ethnology.  Since  Neolithic  times  Norway 
has  been  mainly  inhabited  by  tall,  blonde 
longheads,  of  Teutonic  stock,  who  are  believed 
to  have  come  from  the  Caucasian  steppes  during 
the  prehistoric  migrations.  Because  of  the 
great  ice  cap  wliicli  lingered  on  the  mountains. 
Norway  was  peopled  much  later  than  Swe- 
den, which  shows  Palcolitliic  inhabitation,  while 
the  former  has  ^  revealed  only  tlie  Neolithic. 
There  were  three  land  bridges  by  which  man 
may  have  come  to  tlie  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
one  on  the  west  joining  the  British  Isles  to 
Norway;  the  second  from  Riigen  in  North  Ger- 
many to  Scania  in  Sweden:  and  a  third  much 
later  bridge  from  Finland  to  East  Sweden.  By 
the  middle  bridge  Sweden  and  Norway  received 
the  red  deer  and  the  Teutonic  longhead  popu- 
lation, which  is  almost  pure  in  the  former 
country.  Whatever  Finnic  elements  are  jjrcsent 
may  have  come  by  the  Bothnia  bridge.  On 
the  west  there  came  a  dark,  short  type  of 
probably  Hound  Barrow  or  Pictish  origin.  It 
would  seem  that  tliise  people  brought  the  Shet- 
land pony.  The  longheads  coming  in  from  Swe- 
den arounil  the  soutliwest  coast  lowlands  oc- 
cupied tlie  interior  of  the  country  after  the 
melting  away  of  the  ice  cap.  This  region  was 
never  touched  by  that  tremendous  wave  of  mi- 
gration of  short,  dark  longheads  called  "Mediter- 
raneans' by  Sergi,  coming,  it  is  conjeetureil. 
originally  from  North  Africa.  Thus  there  has 
•  lieen  forming  here  for  n  long  period  from  these 
light  and  dark  elements  a  virile  race  in  an 
environment  whose  stress  was  a  spur  to  the  edu- 
ration  of  manly  <|uallti("i  for  which  the  Nor- 
wegians have  excelled  since  they  came  in  the 
purview  of  history. 

The  Norwegians  prefer  a  country  life,  hut 
little  of  the  modem  movement  toward  cities 
being  noticed  until  recently.  They  are  of  tall 
stature  (5  ft.  8  in.),  with  strong,  well-knit 
frames,  and  good  muscular  development.  Fair 
skin,  blue  eyes,  and  light  flaxen  hair  char- 
acterize the  hulk  of  the  population,  but  the 
dark  type  is  often  recognized.  .Among  the  chil- 
dren flaxen  hair  is  almost  universal,  but  with  de- 
velopment the  hair,  eyes,  and  skin  become  darker 
in  a  majority  of  cases.     As  a  people  the  Norwe- 


gians arc  remarkably  hardy  and  show  a  preference  ' 
for  athletic  sports  which  ictpiirc  great  endurance. 
For  this  reason  tlicy  are  typical  exjjlorcrs.     In  jj 
character  they  are  frank,  yet  cautious  and  re-  « 
served,    honest,    and    religious.      While    modified  i 
Danish   is  the  literary  language,  the  old   Norse  I 
siirvives  in  a  few  districts,  as  it  does  in  Iceland,  b 
Since    the    peasants    speak    various    dialects    of 
Old   Norse,   and   many  of  the   educated   consider 
the  presence  of  the  Danish  language  an  anomaly, 
etl'orts  to  revive  Norse  have  been  zealously  prose- 
cuted for  many  years. 

Hlstohy.  The  early  history  of  Norway  is  pre- 
served only  in  the  legendary  sagas.  The  most 
recent  archicological  researches  show  that  the 
Scandinavian   people   were   ])rol)abIy  the   autoch-  i 


thonous  inhabitants  of  the  i)eninsula.  The  histor-  S 
ical  period  of  Norway  rca<-hes  no  further  back  J 
than  the  ninth  century.  The  petty  tribal  king- 
doms which  existed  here  as  in  all  northern  coun-  'i 
tries  were  united  under  Ilarald  llaarfagr  or  Fair-  i 
hair  (died  c,933),  who  in  the  last  third  of  that! 
century  estaldishcd  the  seat  of  government  at  I 
Trondhjem  in  the  north.  At  this  time  the  Danes  f, 
and  Norwegians  (see  Nokm.vns)  were  the  terror  i 
of  Europe  through  their  plundering  expeditions'* 
and  invasions.     ,  "^ 

The    introduction   of    Christianity,   the    result  J 
of   the    intercourse   which    the    Norwegians   had  1 
with  the  more  civilized  jiarls  of  Europe  through  1 
their    maritime    ex])editions.    was    gradually    ef-  1 
fected    in    the    hunclred    years    that    followed    (lie  l| 
death   of   Ilarald    llaarfagr.      Haakon    the   (Jood.  ^ 
son   of   Harald    llaarfagr,    attempted   vainly   to  j 
establish   it:   but  this   result   was  bnmght   about! 
by   Olaf   Tryg\asson    (995-1000)    and    Olaf   the  j 
Saint    (e.1015-1030),  wild  northern   missionaries! 
who  bore  the  cross  in  one  hand  and  the  sword  ! 
in    the   other.      Olaf   the   Saint    zealously    ])rose- 
cuted  the  conversi(m  of  his  countrymen  and  raised   ■ 
himself   to   suiireme    power   in    the    hind    by    the  ' 
subjection  of  the  small   kings  or  chieftains  who  j 
in   the  times  of  heathenism   had   subdivided   the   ■ 
Kingdom  among  them.     In  1028  Olaf  was  driven  ' 
out  by  Canute  the  Oreat  of  Denmark,  and.  having 
attempted    to    recover    his    throne,    was    defeated  | 
and   slain   in   1030.     On   the  death   of  Canute  in  \ 
1035,    Olaf's    son,    Magnus    I.,    recovered    pos-ces-  I 
sion   of   the  throne,   and   thenceforth,   till    1319,  ] 
Norway    continued    to    be    governed    by    native  « 
kings.     Of  these  the  most  nolew(n'tliy  were  Sverre    ' 
Sigurdson    (1184-1202).    a   statesman   of   eonsid-  ^ 
crable  ability  who  was  put  in  power  by  the  na-  ' 
tionnlist    democrat    party,    who    after    years    of 
bitter    strife    had    overcome    the    party    of    the 
nobles  and  clerg>-.  and   Haakon  the  Old    (1217- 
03).  in  whose  reign  independent   Norway  reached 
the  height  of  its  prosperity.      During  these  een-  J 
turies  the  Norse  adventurers  had  established  per- 
in.inent    colonies    in    Iceland    and    (Jrepiihind.    and  ^ 
for  a  time  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  islands  and' 
the  Hebrides  were  in  the  ])ossession  of  the  Nor- 
wegian   kings,    whose   last    inroad    into    Scotland 
was    re|)elled    in    1203.      The    thirteenth    century 
saw  the  beginning  of  written  Noise  literature  and 
law.   The  death  of  Haakon  V.  without  male  heirs, 
ill  1319.  threw  the  election  of  a  new  king  into  the 
hands  of  the  national  assenddy.  who  made  choice 
of  Mnginis  of  Sweden,  surnamed   Smek,  the  son 
of  Haakon's  daughter.     He  was  in  (urn  succeeded 
by  his  son.  Haakon,  and  the  hitter's  son.  Olaf, 
after   having   been   elected    King   of   Denmark   in   ',j 
1370,  became   ruler  of  both   Scandinavian   king-  j 


■ 

I 


1 


NORWAY. 


639 


NORWAY. 


doni3  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1.380.  Thi^5 
young  king.  «ho  exercised  only  a  nominal  sway 
under  the  guidance  of  his  mother, Queen  Margaret 
(q.v. ).  tlie  only  child  of  Valdcniar  iV.  of  Den- 
mark, died  witliout  heirs  in  l;!87.  The  ambitious 
and  capable  ifargaret  succeeded  to  the  thrones  of 
Denmark  and  Norway,  and  in  1.38!l  she  became  mis- 
tress also  of  Sweden,  and  the  three  kingdoms  were 
bound  together  by  the  Union  of  Calmar  in  1397. 

From  the  Union  of  Calmar  till  1814  Xorway 
continued  united  with  Denmark;  but  while  it 
shared  in  the  general  fortunes  of  the  latter  State, 
it  retained  its  own  constitutional  mode  of 
government,  and  exercised  its  riglit  of  elect- 
ing the  sovereign  until,  like  the  sister  king- 
dom, it  agreed  of  its  own  free  will  to  relinquish 
this  privilege  in  favor  of  hereditary  succession 
to  the  throne.  (.See  De.\m.vi:k.)  Xorway  lU'cliiicil 
in  prosperity  and  energj'  after  the  fourteenth 
century,  in  the  middle  of  which  the  Black  Death 
swept  over  it,  leaving  the  land  exhausted 
and  partially  depopulated.  Oppressed  by  Den- 
mark, her  colonies  and  her  eonuneree  lost,  there 
seemed  to  be  little  left  of  the  national  life. 
The  Napoleonic  wars  severed  the  union  which  had 
existed  for  more  than  400  years:  for  Denmark, 
after  having  given  imequivwal  proofs  of  adhesion 
to  the  cause  of  Bonaparte,  was  compelled,  after  the 
triumph  of  the  Allies,  to  purchase  peace  by  aban- 
doning its  sovereignty  over  Norway.  Crippled 
in  her  resources  and  also  bankrupt,  she  saw  her- 
self constrained  to  sign  the  Treaty  of  Kiel  in 
1814,  by  which  it  was  stipulated  that  she  should 
cede  Norway  to  Sweden,  receiving  by  way  of 
indemnity  Swedish  Pouierania  and  the  island  of 
Kiigen.  which  were  sulisecniently  cxclianged  with 
Prussia  for  Lauenburg.  The  Norwegians  refused 
to  admit  the  validity  of  the  Treaty  of  Kiel,  and  a 
National  Diet,  assembled  at  Eidsvold.  tendered 
the  crown  of  Norway,  as  an  independent  kingdom, 
tn  the  Danish  Crown  Prince  Christian  Frederick 

the  future  Christian  VIIT.).  This  .\ssembly 
drew  u]i  a  constitution  based  on  the  f^rench  Con- 
stitution of  1791.  These  measures  found,  how- 
ever, neither  supporters  nor  sympathizers  among 
the  other  nations;  and  with  the  sanction  of  the 
Great  Powers,  Bernadotte,  Crown  Prince  of  Swe- 
den, led  an  array  into  Norway,  and  after  taking 
Frederikstad  and  Frederikshald.  threatened 
Christiania.  Denmark  being  unable  to  support 
the  cause  of  Prince  Christian,  and  Norway  being 
Titterly  destitute  of  the  means  necessary  for 
prosecuting  a  Avar,  resistance  was  of  no  avail,  and 
the  Norwegians  were  glad  to  accept  the  proposals 
made  to  them  by  the  Swedish  King  for  a  union 
with  Sweden  on  the  understanding  that  they 
should  retain  the  newly  promulgated  Constitution, 
and  enjoy  full  liberty  and  independence  within 
their  own  boundaries.  These  conditions  were 
agreed  to.  and  strictly  maintained ;  a  few  unim- 
portant alterations  in  the  Constitution, necessitat- 
ed by  the  altered  conditions  of  the  new  union, 
being  the  only  changes  introduced  in  the  nuichin- 
ery  of  government. 

Norway  has  firmly  resisted  every  attemjit  on 
the  part  of  the  Swedish  monarch.s  to  infringe  upon 
the  constitutional  prerogatives  of  the  nation, 
and  the  feeling  of  national  aut(momy  has  been 
intensified  by  a  striking  ditTerence  between  the 
democratic  population  of  Norway  and  the  more 
conservative  population  of  Sweden,  where  the 
aristocracv  still  exercises  considerable  influence 
on    the    Government.      The    national    movement, 


I 


which  continued  throughout  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury in  spite  of  repealed  attempts  on  the  part 
of  llie  sovereign  to  mediate  between  the  Nor- 
wegian ami  Swedish  parliaments,  had  as  its 
ultimate  aim  the  reduction  of  the  bond  between 
the  two  kingdoms  to  a  mere  personal  union. 
Conservative,  Liberal,  and  Kadical  ministries 
succeeded  each  other  in  rapid  alternation,  but 
while  the  two  former  parties  were  too  weak 
to  ell'ect  any"  permanent  arrangement,  the  Radi- 
cals, who  were  as  a  rule  in  a  decided  majority, 
failed  in  their  policy  against  the  resolute  re- 
sistance of  the  Swedish  Jjandsthiug.  The  Nor- 
wegian Parliament,  the  Storthing,  for  some  time 
before  1890,  sought  to  enforce  its  policy  l)y  refus- 
ing to  vote  adequate  supplies  for  the  defense  of 
the  united  kingdoms,  and  attempted  to  organize 
the  military  strength  of  the  nation  in  the  form  of 
a  militia  and  volunteer  corps,  on  whose  sympathy 
the  Storthing  might  depend.  After  1890  the  i)olicy 
of  the  Pvadical  Party,  which  in  secret  was  aiming 
at  complete  .separation  from  Sweden,  crystallized 
in  tlie  demand  for  a  s])ecial  Ministry  of  Foreign 
Affairs  for  Norway  as  well  as  a  distinct  diplo- 
matic and  consular  service.  This,  however,  the 
sovereign  refused  to  concede.  A  temporary  truce 
was  concluded  in  IS'.)."),  when  a  new  law  regu- 
lating the  commercial  relations  of  the  two  coun- 
tries went  into  elTect,  and  a  joint  committee 
composed  of  Swedish  and  Norwegian  representa- 
tives was  intrusted  with  the  execution  of  its 
provisions;  but  in  the  election  of  1897  the  Radical 
Party  gained  an  overwhelming  vii-tory,  and  the 
conflict  was  renewed  with  increased  ardor.  In  1899 
King  Oscar  II.  finally  gavi'  his  consent  toa  law 
removing  the  emblem  of  Sweden  from  the  flag 
of  Norway,  which  thus  resumed  the  u.se  of  its  old 
ensign.  A  bill,  however,  tending  toward  the 
final  establishment  of  a  separate  consular  ser- 
vice for  Norway  failed  of  the  royal  approval  in 
1900.  In  1898  a  law  providing  for  direct  elec- 
tion to  the  Storthing  by  universal  manhood  suf- 
frage went  into  effect.  This  was  supplemented 
by  a  law  in  1901  dealing  with  communal  electors, 
by  which  the  suffrage  was  granted  to  all  adult 
males  and  such  women  as  ]iaid  a  tax  on  an  in- 
come of  more  than  300  kroner. 

BiBLioGRApnv.  In  additiiui  to  the  numerous 
ofiieial  publications,  all  printed  in  the  Norwegian 
language,  yorway,  printed  in  English  by  the 
Government  in  1900  for  the  Paris  Exposition, 
is  one  of  the  fullest  and  most  accurate  sources 
of  infomiation.  Other  works  are:  Forbes,  Xor- 
ivdij  and  Its  GJacicrs  (London,  IS.'iS)  :  Enault, 
La  Xorrcge  (Paris,  18.^7):  Bowden,  Xoricay; 
Its  People.  Products,  and  Inslitiitionis  (London, 
18f!7)  ;  De.  Mombvncs,  C<iiixlitiitluns  curopeennes 
(Paris,  1881):  Du  Chaillu.  The  Land  of  the 
Midnifiht  Sun  (New  York.  1882);  Ballon.  Due 
Xorth,  or  Olimpses  of  Scnndinaria  and  Russia 
(Boston,  1887);  Collet,  Bird  Life  in  Arctic 
yorirnif  (London,  1894);  Bradshaw.  Xoricay: 
Its  Fjords.  Fields,  and  Fosses  (ib..  1890)  :  Chap- 
m.an.  TTi'W  yocKxii/  (ib.,  1897)  :  Seignobos.  II is- 
toirc  politique  de  VEurope  contempurnine  (Paris, 
1897)  ;  Hyne.  Through  Arctic  Lapland  (London, 
1899)  :  Lee,  Peaks  and  Pines  (ib..  1899)  ;  Ruge. 
Xoru-er/en  (Leipzig,  1899)  ;  Quillardet.  Sui'dois 
ct  Xorreyiens  ohez  eux  (Paris.  1899)  ;  Gandolphe, 
La  vie  et  I'art  des  Scandinores  (ib.,  1899)  ; 
Konow  and  Fischer.  Xoruay  (Christiania.  1900)  ; 
Spender.  Two  Winters  in  Noriray  (London, 
190-2). 


NORWAY. 


640 


NORWEGIAN  LITERATURE. 


For  tlic  ethnologj-,  consult:  Schradcr,  Prehis- 
toric Aiiti<juili€S  of  the  Aryan  lluee,  trans,  from 
the  German;  I'cnka,  Die  Hcrkunjt  dcr  Arier 
(Vienna,  1880)  ;  Topinard,  Arbo  «nd  Faye, 
".Sur  la  couleur  dcs  \eux  et  des  chevoux  "en 
Norv&ge,"  Heme  d'Anthropoloijie,  3d  series,  vol. 
iv.  (Paris,  18!)!));  Barth,  Vruiiia  anliqua,  etc. 
(Cliristiania,  18i)6)  ;  S.  O.  Muller,  ^ordische 
Altertiinishiinde  (Slrassburg,  1897);  Undsct, 
".\us  dcr  jiingercn  Eisenzeit  in  Norwegen,  800- 
1000  A.u."  in  Archil-  fiir  Anthropoloijie,  vol.  xx. 
( IJrunswick,  18!)1);  and  for  the  history:  Dun- 
liaiii.  lliatory  of  Denmark,  Sicedrn,  and  Norway 
(London.  lS,S0-40)  ;  Overland,  lllii.itrcret  \orges 
Jlisliirie  (Cliristiania,  188o-!14);  Kcary.  Xoricay 
and  the  Xoracyians  (New  York,  18!)2)  ;  Laing 
(trans.).  The  Sagas  of  the  Kings  of  Xoncay 
(London,  188!))  ;  Fabricius.  Minder  fra  Nordens 
flislorie  (Odcnse.  1898)  ;  Munch,  Det  Xorske 
Folks  Historic  (Christiania.  18.52-0.3)  ;  Nielsen, 
Sorijes  Uistorie  efler  ISl.'i  (ib.,  1882)  ;  GefTroy, 
llistoire  des  Hats  scandinarcs  (Paris,  18.51); 
I.e  Bas.  Suede  et  yorvi^ge  (ib.,  1841):  Carlyle, 
The  lUirly  Kings  of  Soriray  (London.  187.T)  : 
Boycscn.  The  siory  of  Soruiiy  (ib.,  1880)  ;  Ott<!. 
Seandinarian  History  (ib.,  1875)  ;  Siirensen, 
\orw(iy  (Xew  York,  lilOl). 

NORWEGIAN  LANGUAGE.  The  language 
uliicli,  together  with  Icelandic  and  Farocsc,  forms 
the  West  Norse  division  of  the  Scandinavian 
group.  Like  the  other  members  of  this  group 
division,  the  Norwegian  is  more  homogeneous 
than  either  Danish  or  Swedish.  Chiefly  as  a  re- 
sult of  i)h(inetic  changes  its  inflections  are 
less  original  than  those  of  Icelandic,  although  it 
retains  the  three  genders.  Its  conunon  Siandi- 
Uaviiin  characteristics  are  the  sullixcd  definite 
article,  the  nie<lio-passive.  and  the  neuter-ending 
•t.  Norwegian  was  divided  at  an  early  period 
into  two  nuiin  dialect-groups,  the  Kastcrn,  in- 
cluding the  (Judbrandsdal  and  the  Drontheim, 
which  resembles  (he  J^wedisli,  and  the  Western, 
represented  by  Hardanger,  Voss,  Sogn,  and 
Sa'tersdal.  which  approaches  the  Icelandic.  A 
subdivision  of  the  West  Norwegian,  spoken  along 
the  coast,  resembles  the  Danish. 

The  early  period  of  the  language  is  similar  tn 
that  of  Icelandic  (q.v.).  During  the  period  from 
1.3.50  to  1.5.30  Norwegian  was  strongly  inlluenccd 
first  by  the  Swedish  and  later  by  the  Danish. 
As  a  result  of  the  rnioii  of  Calmar  (1.3!)7).  by 
which  Norwegian  independence  was  lost,  Danish 
was  substituted  for  the  native  language  for 
purposes  of  literature  and  public  business,  al- 
though the  Norwegian  survived  in  the  country 
districts  in  various  dialects,  and  was  used  for 
social  intercourse  and  the  composition  of  fidk 
tales  and  ballads.  The  moiU'rn  standard  lan- 
guage shiiws  many  divergencies  both  in  forms, 
in  vocabularj'.  and  in  syntax  from  the  Danish 
of  Denmark,  and  is  generally  distinguished  from 
it  as  Dano-Norwegian.  By  the  Norwegians  them- 
selves the  dialects  and  the  standard  language 
are  alike  calleil  Nor.se,  but  this  usage  is  not 
recogni/.cfl  by  scholars.  During  the  last  fifty 
years  efforts  have  beon  made  to  empliasizo  the 
Norwcgijin  character  of  the  language  by  .idapt- 
ing  it-i  orthography  to  local  pronunciation,  and 
by  introducing  fiirnis  from  the  native  speech. 
Dano-Norwcgian  has  been  descrilK'd  ns  Danish 
with  a  Swedish  pronunciation. 

.\  peculiar  language  movement  in  Norway  is 
attracting  attention  throughout  Scan<linavia.     It 


is   no   less   than   the   creation   and   spread   of  a 
new  form  of  Scandinavian  speecli,  called  by   its 
originator,   Ivar  Aasen    (q.v.),  Landsmaal    (na- 
tional tongue).     It  is  a   written   language,  not 
used   for   social    intercourse,   and   is   based    upon 
the  existing  dialects   of   Norway.      .\t   first   this 
artificial  language  was  used  exclusividy  in  poe- 
try,   but    in    18,58    the    first    newspaper    in    the 
Landsmaal  appeared,  and  since  then  it  has  spread 
rapidly.     In   1808  a  society  for  the  propagation  ^ 
of    the   new    idea    was    established,    branches    of  V 
which  now  exist  all   over   Norway.     A   number  J 
of  .lets  have  been  passed  by  the  Parliament   in  \ 
favor   of   the   Landsmaal,   among   which    may   lie  1 
mentioned    that    foumling   a    cliair    in    that  "sub- 
ject at  the  University  of  Christiania.     At  pres- 
ent  all   acts   of    Parliament    are   published    both 
in    Dano-Norwegian    and    the    Landsmaal.      The 
principal    literary    supporter    of    the    movement 
is  the  novelist  Arne  Garborg.     Consult:   Sargent, 
Grammar  of  the  Dano-Soricrgian  Language  (O-X- 
ford,  18!)2)  :  Gioth,  Danish  and  Dano-Xoru^gian 
Grammar    (Boston,    1804)  ;    Poestion,    Lchrbuch 
dcr  norufgisehrn  Sprache  (2d  ed..  Vienna,  1!)00)  ; 
Noreen,  Altisliindisehe  iind  altnorucgischc  Gram- 
matik  (2d  ed.,  Halle,  18!)2)  :  Aasen. '.Vor.s/.-  Gram-    . 
matik    (Christiania,   18fi4),  and   Xorsk   Ordhog, 
with  a  supplement  by  Ross   (ib..  1872-90)  ;  .Lar-  jl 
sen,    Oversigt    orer    de    norske    Bygdemaal     (ib.,  1 
1898)  ;    Larsen,   Dictionary  of   the  DanoSorwe-  1 
gian  and  Fnglish  Languages  (3d  ed.,  Cojienbagcn,  I 
1897)  :    Biynildsen,    Dictionary    of    the    English  1)1 
and   Dano-Xoruegian  Languages    (ib.,    1900 — )  ;   | 
Falk   and   Torp,   Etymologisk    Ordbog   orer   dot  I 
norske     og     det     danske     Sprog      (Christiania,  I 
1901—).  T 

NORWEGIAN  LITERATURE.  Norwegian  , 
literature  is  commonly  considered  to  have  begun  , 
with  the  separation  of  Norway  from  Denmark  i 
and  the  adoption  of  the  Norwegian  Constitution  » 
in  1814.  The  histoiy  of  literature  in  Norway,  - 
however,  reaches  back  a  thousand  j'cars  before  ' 
this  time  to  Bragi  (c.800).the  first  .skald  who  is  ' 
historically  known  to  have  composed  poetry  in 
the  Old  Norse  language.  His  princijiat  poem  is  . 
the  Hagnarsdrapa.  which  owes  its  )u-cservalion,  ' 
ill  common  with  much  of  the  skaldic  p04>try  of  j 
old  Norway,  to  the  Icelander  Snorri  Sturluson,  ;^ 
who  incorporated  it  in  his  Snorru  Eddn. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  poets  in  this  and 
the  succeeding  period  in  Norway.     After  Bragi, 
the    next    in    importance    is    Thjodolf    of    Hvin 
(c.855-9.30) ,  whose  principal  poem  is  the  llaust- 
liing.  also  contained  in  the  f>norra  Edda.     Besides 
this  poetry  by  known  authors,  most  of  the  anony- 
mous  poems  of  the  Elder  Edda.  composed,  it  is 
thiiULdil.    between    87.";    and     102.5.    are    doubtless    j 
ultimately    of    Norwegian    origin.      To    the    Old  I 
Norse  prose  literature  of  the  thirteenth  century  » 
Norway  also  made  important  contributions.     .\t  l 
the  head  of  these  works  stands  the  Thidrckssagn,  I 
the  story  of  Dietrich  of  Bern,  written  about  12.50  ,f 
by  an   unknown  author,   and  extremely  valuable  ■J 
as  a  storehouse  of  Germanic  legend.     The  Karia-  S 
magnussaga,    the    story    of    Charlemagne,    from  j 
this  same  century,  and  the  narrative  of  Barlaam  A 
and   .Tosaphat,   liarlaamfsaga   ok  Jo.taphals.   are   ij 
also  by  Norwegian  authors.     There  are  in  addi-   *] 
tion   to  fhese  several   old   law  codi's  of  value  as  i 
historical  material,  and  the  unique  dialogue  be-  | 
tween   father  and   son.  the   Konungsskuggsja,  or  jj 
f!preulum   regale,  written  in  the  reign  of  Svcrre  -^ 
( 1 184-1202) ,  and  possibly  by  the  King  himself 


1 


NORWEGIAN  LITERATURE. 


641 


NORWEGIAN  LITERATURE. 


After  the  acces.sion  of  Olaf,  the  .son  of  Marga- 
ret, ill  13S(t,  Norwegian  liistory  for  four  centuries 
beeoiiies  IJaaisli  history.  Under  Daiiisli  ruU'  Nor- 
way umlerwent  complete  national  extinction  and 
hecanie  but  a  province  of  Denmark.  Even  the 
Keformation  failed  to  arouse  her  from  this 
letliari;y,  and  not  until  1814.  when  Norway  was 
ceded  to  Sweden  by  the  Peace  of  Kiel,  was  there 
evidence  of  a  national  awakening.  The  literary 
history  of  this  whole  period  in  Norway  coincides 
witli  the  history  of  Danish  literature,  with  which 
it  is  inseparably  connected. 

After  the  Eufeiniuvisur  of  about  1300,  so  called 
from  the  Cerniau  <|iieen  of  Haakon  llagnusson, 
who  had  these  paraphrases  of  German  originals — 
Jii-ci/i,  Duke  Frederick  of  y'orinaiidy,  and  Flore 
and  ISlanclieflur — made  in  the  Norwegian  lan- 
guage, there  is  no  poetry  until  the  period  of 
learning  subsequent  to  the  Reformation.  The 
first  names  at  this  time  are  Peder  Dass  (1647- 
1708),  and  Dorthe  Engelbrechtsdatter  (1035- 
171U).  The  former,  a  Norwegian  clergyman, 
wrote  secular  and  religious  poems  wliich  have 
made  him  to  this  day  the  favorite  poet  of  the 
conunon  i>eople  of  Norway.  The  names  that  fol- 
low are  those  of  Norwegians,  but,  as  has  been 
indicated,  their  place  is  in  Danish  and  not  in 
Norwegian  literature.  This  is  true  of  Ludvig 
Holberg  (1084-1754),  the  father  of  the  Danish 
drama;  of  Kristian  Biaumann  Tullin  (1728- 
170.1),  the  poet  of  nature;  of  Johan  Herman  Wes- 
sel  (1742-1785),  the  dramatist  and  poet,  after 
Kwald.  the  second  great  name  in  the  literature 
of  the  so-called  'Age  of  Enlightenment.' 

An  important  factor  in  the  development  of  a 
national  Norwegian  literature,  as  it  Avas  a  matter 
of  the  greatest  significance  for  Danish  literature 
itself,  was  the  formation  of  the  Norske  Selsknb, 
or  ■Norwegian  Society,'  in  Copenhagen,  in  1772. 
The  intentions  of  the  'Society'  were  by  no  means 
to  make  propaganda  for  things  Norwegian,  as 
opposed  to  things  Danish,  but  it  is  interesting 
to  note  that  among  its  members  are  a  numljer  of 
poets  who  already  exhibited  a  distinctly  national 
feeling,  which  in  choice  of  material  and  natural 
environment,  and  in  inherent  spirit,  is  not  Dan- 
ish, but  Norwegian.  The  Norwegian  jioets  of  tlie 
period — .Johan  Nordal  Brun  (1745-1810).  who 
wrote  Zarina,  the  first  Danish  tragedy  produced 
on  the  stage,  and  some  of  the  most  pojiular  of 
the  patriotic  songs  of  Norway;  Claus  Fasting 
(1740-01),  distinguished  for  liis  epigrams  and 
criticism;  Claus  Frimann  (1740-1820);  Envold 
Falsen  (1755-1808) — important  as  they  were, 
have  but  little  meaning  at  the  present  time. 
Edvard  Storm  (1749-94),  who  wrote  ballads  and 
srings  in  Norwegian  peasant  dialect,  some  of 
whicli  are  known  throughout  Norway  to  this  day, 
was  the  only  Norwegian  writer  of  importance 
who  held  to  the  Danish  side  of  this  controversy, 
which  so  strikingly  marks  the  last  days  of  what 
may  be  called  the  Danish  period  in  the  literary 
history  of  Norway. 

The  actual  history  of  Norwegian  literature  as 
a  prodiK't  in  Norway  of  purely  national  condi- 
tions finds  its  beginning  at  the  time  of  the  separa- 
tion of  the  Kingdom,  in  1814.  from  Denmark.  The 
'Xorwegian  Society'  presently  changed  the  scene 
of  its  activity  from  Copenhagen  to  Christiania, 
but.  althciiigh  its  traditions  subseipientiv  influ- 
enced popular  taste,  it  never  afterwards  played 
an  active  part  in  literature.  The  first  poetry 
which  arose  under  these  new  conditions  in  Nor- 


way was  vehemently  patriotic,  and  is  called  by 
the  Norwegians  themselves,  from  the  day  of  the 
adoption  of  the  Norwegian  Constitution,  tSiitteit- 
deiiHii-l'oe.si,  the  "iioctry  of  tile  17th  of  May.' 
From  anuiiig  the  numerous  writers  of  the  time 
three  only,  the  so-called  'Trefoil,'  may  be  men- 
tioned as  of  especial  significance,  the  lyric  poet 
C.  N.  Sehwach  ( 1703-1 8(i0) ,  the  poet  and  dramat- 
ist H.  A.  Bjerregaard  (  1702-1842) ,  and  the  novel- 
ist Mauritz  Christoll'er  Hansen  (1704-1842), 
whose  best  work  is  contained  in  his  .stories  of 
jjeasant  life.  The  first  great  poet  of  modern 
Norway,  Henrik  Wergeland  (1808-45),  became, 
as  no  other  w-riter  in  Norway  before  him,  the 
poet  of  the  people.  His  fir.st  great  success  was 
achieved  with  a  volume  of  lyrics,  published  in 
1829.  In  1830  appeared  the  long  dramatic  poem 
Skabelsen,  Menncskal  og  Messias,  "The  Creation, 
Man,  and  Messiah,"  which  drew  out,  in  1832,  a 
pamphlet  on  "Henrik  Wergeland's  Poetic  Art 
and  Poetry,"  by  Johan  Sebastian  Welhaven 
(1807-73),  mercilessly  attacking  him  for  his  sins 
of  poetical  commission.  The  controversy  between 
the  two  poets,  at  first  personal,  subsequently  as- 
sumed a  wider  character  and  presently  divided 
the  whole  country  into  a  mUional  and  a  critical 
faction,  the  one  the  embodiment  of  the  pro- 
Norwegian  spirit  of  the  17th  of  May,  the  other 
the  party  of  'intelligence,'  which  looked  to  per- 
petuate what  were  in  reality  the  hereditary  ten- 
dencies of  the  'Norwegian  Society.'  and  to  de- 
velop Norxvegian  culture  harmoniously  with  that 
of  Europe  and  especially  that  of  Denmark.  The 
contest  was  waged  even  more  violently  after  the 
publication,  in  1834,  of  Welhaven's  polemical 
poem,  a  cycle  of  sonnets  called  .Vor^fs.  Dd'mring, 
"Norway's  Twilight,"  in  which  he  vigorously 
censured  the  mistaken  zeal  of  the  ultra-national 
faction  which  Wergeland  represented.  The  battle 
was  ultimatel}-  to  Welhaven  and  his  followers, 
who  had,  in  point  of  fact,  revolutionized  the 
esthetic  taste  of  Norway,  and  by  the  introduction 
of  a  sound  criticism  had  determined  the  direction 
of  its  future  literary  development.  Welhaven, 
between  1830  and  1850.  published  numerous 
lyrical  poems.  His  critical  prose  is  among  the 
finest  that  Norway  has  ever  produced.  Werge- 
land's best  work  was  done  after  the  downfall  of 
his  fortunes  and  his  popularity.  His  last  poem. 
Den  engelske  Lods,  ''The  English  Pilot,"  is  his 
greatest.  Andreas  Munch  (1811-84),  poet  and 
dramatist,  followed  the  direction  pointed  out 
by  Welhaven.  His  first  work  of  importance  was 
tlie  romance  Den  Eensomme,  "The  Solitary,"  pub- 
lished in  1846.  His  Billcder  frci  Xord  og  Syd, 
"Pictures  from  North  and  South,"  is  considered 
one  of  the  best  jirose  works  in  the  language. 

Important  for  its  bearing  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  a  national  literature  in  Norway  was 
the  attention  that  was  presently  paid  to  the 
wealth  of  native  material  contained  in  the  old 
folk-tales  and  popular  poetry,  wliich  has  been 
preserved  among  tlie  peasantry  in  great  abun- 
dance, and  under  the  peculiar  conditions  of  the 
country  has  retained  an  essentially  national  char- 
acter in  manner  and  matter.  The  principal 
workers  in  this  field  at  the  beginning  were  the 
naturalist  Peter  Christian  Asbjcirnsen  (1812- 
85)  and  Ji'irgen  Moe  ( 1813-82) .  who  published 
conjointly,  in  1841,  Nomke  Folke-Evenliir,  "Nor- 
wegian Popular  Tales."  Asbjiirnsen  published 
subsequently    Norske   Huldre- Event yr   og   Folke- 


NORWEGIAN  LITERATURE. 


642 


NORWICH. 


sagcn,  wlucli  contains  descriptions  of  his  owii 
of  natural  scenery  and  popular  life.  The  recogni- 
tion of  lliis  material  pointed  out  a  new  direction 
in  Norwegian  literature  and  has  had  a  profound 
effect  upon  latter-day  writers. 

The  present  period  of  Norwegian  literature, 
and  the  period  of  its  broadest  dcvelopnieut,  be- 
gins with  Bjiirnson  and  Ibsen,  the  greatest  writ- 
ere  that  Norway  has  produced.  W  ith  tlicni  liter- 
ature enters  upon  a  new  era  of  productivity  at 
lioiiie,  and,  wliat  had  not  been  tlie  case  before, 
of  influence  abroad ;  for  the  work  of  tliese  two 
poets,  even  at  an  curly  time  in  their  career,  had 
carried  the  name  and  fame  of  Norwegian  litera- 
ture far  beyond  the  cnnlines  of  Norway  and  of 
Scandinavia,  until  now,  and  jirineipally  tlirough 
them,  it  has  become  in  tlie  widest  sense  a  living 
and  forceful  part  of  tlie  literature  of  the  world. 
(For  details  see  Bjornsox;  Ibskn.)  Jonas 
Lie  (b.l833),  who  plainly  shows  the  influ- 
ence of  Bjornson,  has  written  sea-stories 
that  have  attained  great  popularity.  His  first 
novel.  Den  Frem.tynte,''T\\e  Visionary."  appeared 
in  1S70.  His  most  successfxil  and  widely  known 
novel  is  Lodscn  og  linnx  Tlualru.  '"The  Pilot  and 
His  Wife."  He  attains,  however,  a  higher  ar- 
tistic result  in  his  later  novels  of  modern  social 
life,  Liissalvn,  "The  Life  Convict;"  Familien 
paa  Oiljp,  "The  Family  at  Gilje;"  A'lt  Malstrijm, 
"A  Maelstrom;"  and  others  that  have  been  writ- 
ten since  1883.  Anna  Magdalena  Thoresen 
(18in-ln03)  also  shows  the  influence  of  Bjorn- 
son  in  her  talcs  of  nature  and  popular  life.  Her 
Billeder  fra  Jlidnnlssnkns  Land,  "Pictures  from 
the  Land  of  the  Jlidnight  Sun,"  is  possibly  her 
best  work.  The  most  original  of  the  woman 
writers  of  Norway  is  Camilla  Collet  (1813-i)5), 
the  sister  of  the  ]K)et  Wergeland,  whose  most 
important  novel  is  the  realistic  Amtmandcns 
Dottrc,  "The  Magistrate's  Daughters."  After 
Ibsen,  Bjiirnson.  and  Lie,  the  fourth  great  name 
in  Norwegian  literature  of  the  present  |>eriod  is 
Alexander  Kjolland  (b.l84n).  Although  his  sub- 
jects arc  exclusively  Scandinavian,  he  In-longs, 
more  than  any  of  his  c(luntv\^llen,  in  his  literary 
aflinities  less  to  Norway  and  more  to  Europe, 
whose  general  cultural  tendencies  he  reflects. 
Kjelland's  best  work  is  contained  in  his  short 
stories,  the  first  volume  of  which  appeared  as 
yovellcttcr  in  1879.  His  novels,  the  gi-eatcst  of 
which  is  Skipper  Worse,  whoso  theme  is  the 
pietistic  movement  in  Norway,  are  all  novels  of 
tendency. 

Learned  literature  in  Norway,  although  it  has 
made  inijiortant  contributions  to  theology,  to  the 
physical  sciences,  and  to  philosophy,  has  found  its 
highest  and  most  characteristic  expression  in  liis- 
tory.  The  foumler  of  historical  writing  in  Nor- 
way was  Rudolf  Keyser  {1803-fi4).  who  wrote 
yortjcK  IJiftlorie,  "History  of  Norway;"  Den 
norsk-c  liirlrs  Ilislonc.  "History  of  the  Churdi 
in  Norway;"  and  other  works  on  the  histori'  and 
antiquities  and  literature  of  his  native  oountry. 
His  pupil.  Peter  Amlreas  Munch  (1810-fi3"i, 
wrote,  as  his  most  important  work.  D<7  unr.ilc 
Folks  Historic.  "History  of  the  Norwegian  Peo- 
ple." In  collaboration  with  Keyser  and  with 
Carl  Tiichard  T'nger  (1817-071.  he' also  ilid  philo- 
logical work  of  value  in  eiliting  Old  Norse  texts. 
.Tohan  Krnst  Sars  (b.lSS.i).  in  his  T'd.iiril  orrr 
den  vnrskc  TJistorir,  "Keview  of  Norwegian  His- 
tory," has  produced  one  of  the  most  notable  prose 
works  in  the  language. 


In  every  field  of  literary  activity  modem  Nor- 
way has  unfolded,  and  is  still  unfolding,  an 
extraordinary  dcvelopnieut,  and  this  not  only 
from  the  point  of  productivity,  but  in  the  quality 
and  character  of  the  work  produced.  The  most 
distinct  tendencies  in  Norwegian  literature  of 
the  present  period  are  the  pessimistic-natural- 
istic direction  originally  pointed  out  by  Ibsen, 
and  the  optimistic-realistic  direction  of  Bjiirnson 
and  his  followers,  but  there  are  writers  who  be- 
long to  neither  school.  Other  writers  than  those 
mentioned  have  made  a  name  outside  of  Norway, 
as  well  as  at  home.  Among  them  are  Aasmund 
Olafsson  Vinie  (1818-70).  KristolTer  .Janson 
(b.l841),  Arne  fJarliorg  (1).18.t1),  Amalie  Skram 
(b. 18.^7).  and  still  more  recently,  Knut  Hamsun, 
Gabriel  Finne,  and   \'illiclm  Krag. 

Consult:  Horn,  Ilixtury  of  the  Literature  of  the 
Scandinavian  North,  trans,  by  Anderson  (Chi- 
cago, 1884);  Gossc,  Xortherii  Studies  (London, 
n.  d.)  ;  Schweitzer,  Geschichte  der  skandinavi- 
schen  Litleratur  {CeTa.  1890)  ;  Ja'ger,  Illustreret 
Xorsk  Literaturhistorie  (Christiania,  1896); 
llalvorsen,  Norsk  Forfatterlexikon,  lHVi-56 
(ill..  ISSl). 

NORWEGIAN  MUSIC.     See  ScANDlNAnAN 

Music. 

NORWE'GIUM  (Neo-Lat.,  from  :ML.  yoriec- 
gia,  XorLcgia,  Norway).  A  name  given  by 
Bahll  to  a  substance  separated  by  him  from  the 
mineral  gersdorffitc  found  on  the  island  of 
Ostweii,  Norway.  It  is  also  said  to  exist  in 
some  specimens  of  unrefined  lead.  Its  elementary 
cliaractcr,  however,  has  not  been  positively  estab- 
lished. 

NORWICH,  nor'rich  or  nOr'rij.  Capital  of 
Norfolk.  England,  and  a  county  in  itself,  on 
the  Wcnsum.  immediately  above  its  confluence 
with  the  Yarc.  20  miles  west  of  Yarmouth,  and 
98  miles  north-northeast  of  London  (Map:  Eng- 
land, H  4).  The  town  covers  an  area  of  about 
five  miles  in  circumference,  and  is  skirled  on  its 
north  and  east  sides  by  the  river.  On  the  west 
and  soiith  it  was  surrounded  by  walls  which  have 
be<"n  removed  to  make  rocmi  for  the  extension  of 
the  city.  In  the  market-place  and  its  vicinity 
arc  many  large  shops  and  good  houses.  Tlie 
castle,  finely  situated  on  an  elevation  near  the 
centre  of  the  town,  originally  covered  with  its 
works  an  area  of  about  23  acres.  The  bridge 
over  the  ditch  has  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
perfect  Anglo-Norman  arches  in  existence.  The 
massive  quadrangular  Norman  keep  is  now  used 
as  a  museum.  The  cathedral,  almost  wholly 
Norman  in  plan,  was  founded  in  1004  bv  Bishop 
Herbert  Losinga.  It  is  411  feet  long.  191  feet 
broad  at  the  transepts,  and  is  surmounted  by  a 
spire  31.")  feet  high.  Near  the  cathedral  are  a 
numlicr  of  ancient  and  interesting  structures 
now  more  or  less  in  ruins,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  Saint  Ethelbert's  and  the  Erpingham 
Gate,  the  former  in  P<'corated  English,  the  latter 
in  late  Perpendicular,  and  both  valuable  and  rich 
specimens  of  their  styles.  There  are  many  jiluces 
of  worship,  of  which  Saint  Peter's  Mancroft, 
a  handsome  cruciform  edifice  of  the  fifle<'nth  cen- 
tury, with  a  remarkably  fine  peal  of  12  liells, 
Saint  .Andrew's.  Saint  Clement's.  Saint  George's, 
Saint  Giles's  Saint  Michael's,  and  others  are 
worthy  of  mention.  Tlie  free  grammar  school  was 
founded  by  Edward  \1.  The  city  possesses  public 
recreation  grounds  covering  an  area  of  200  acres. 


NORWICH. 


643 


NORWICH    UNIVERSITY. 


and  owns  profitable  reiil  esUiU?,  markets,  and  a 
sewage  farm.  11  also  niaiiitaiiis  u  free  public 
library,  batlis,  Norwieli  Castle,  gardens,  and  mu- 
seiiiii,  and  provides  allotments  and  teelmical  edu- 
cation. Three  miles  .soulli  of  Xorwieli  is  Castor 
Saint  Ednumds,  wliieli  prior  to  the  Koman  Kra 
was  ealled  Caister,  and  uniler  the  Komans  re- 
eei\ed  the  name  Venta  leenorum.  It  is  the  seat 
of  extensive  and  nourishing  industries,  among 
which  are  the  manufacture  of  nuistard,  starch, 
l)eer,  shoes,  foundry  products,  and  agricultural 
implements,  and  dyeing  and  malting.  It  has  also 
extensive  nursery  gardens.  The  city  was  one  of 
the  earliest  manufacturing  centres  for  textiles  in 
England.  This  branch  of  industry,  liowever,  has 
deeline<l.  Its  shipping  trade,  facilitated  by  a 
canal  and  river  system  of  conununicalion  with 
the  sea,  is  chielly  in  agricultural  products  and 
coal.     Annual  fairs  are  held. 

Norwich  occupies  a  place  in  history  from  the 
lime  of  the  earliest  Danish  invasions.  It  had 
its  origin  in  the  castle  erected  as  a  stronghold 
by  the  East  Anglian  kings,  and  resorted  to  as  a 
))lace  of  safety  by  the  inliabitants  of  Venta 
ieenorum,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  North-wic, 
or  northern  station  or  town.  The  East  Anglian 
la-lio|iric  was  removed  hither  in  10il4.  About 
liMiO  I'Mcmings  settled  at  Norwich  in  the  reign 
uf  Elizabeth,  and  gave  great  impetus  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  town  by  the  branches  of  manu- 
facture which  they  introduced.  The  numieipality 
dates  from  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  Norwich 
returns  two  niend)ers  to  Parliament.  Population, 
in  1851.  08,000;  in  1891,  101.300:  in  1001,  111,- 
7'28.  Consult:  Jessopp,  Xnrwich  (Lcmdon, 
NS4);  liayne,  Hislury  of  Wm-irich  (Norwich, 
l>iS!t)  :  (^uennell,  Xortrich  Cathedral,  with  a  His- 
lonj  of  the  See   (London,  1898). 

NORWICH.  A  city  and  one  of  the  county- 
■  lis   of   New   London   County,    Conn.,    90   miles 

iithwest  of  Boston,  ilass.,  and  50  miles  south- 
<  1st  of  the  State  capital,  Hartford;  on  the 
Thames  River,  at  the  head  of  navigation,  and 
on  the  Central  Vermont  and  tlie  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  railroads  (Map:  Cunnecti- 
cut,  G  3).  It  is  built  among  the  hills,  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Yantic  and  Shetucket,  which  here 
form  the  Thames;  and  has  exceptional  water 
p'lwer,  a  prominent  feature  in  the  development 
"I'  its  industrial  interests.  There  is  a  large  trade 
in  lumber,  coal,  manufacturers'  supplies,  gro- 
ceries, dry  goods,  etc.  Norwich  is  one  of  the 
luduiinent  manufacturing  centres  of  the  State, 
the  chief  articles  produced  Ixnng  firearms,  cot- 
ton, silk,  and  woolen  fabrics,  stoves  and  furni- 
ture, rolled  and  cast  iron,  leather  and  belting, 
and  a  great  variety  of  machinery.  The  city  is 
noted  for  its  picturesque  beauty,  and  possesses 
many  fine  residences,  several  public  parks,  and 
streets  shaded  with  beautiful  elms  and  maples. 
It  has  a  Free  Academy,  which  was  built  and 
endowed  by  private  subscriptions  from  wealthy 
citizen.s.  A  fine  new  building,  including  an  art 
museum,  and  costing  nearly  .$:200,000.  the  gift 
of  \Y.  A.  Slater,  has  been  erected  for  the  acad- 
emy. Other  instittitions  include  the  William  W. 
Backus  Hospital,  representing  an  endowment  of 
over  .$500,000,  the  Otis  Free  Library,  having 
24,000  vnhnnes  with  an  annmil  circulation  of 
nearly  100,000.  and  the  V.  M.  C.  A,  The  court- 
house and  Saint  Patrick's  Ronnin  Catholic 
Church  are  notable  structures.    The  Indian  bury- 


ing ground  where  Uneas  is  buried  is  of  historic 
interest.  So  is  the  spot  where  Miantonomoh  fell. 
The  government,  under  a  revised  charter  of  1877, 
is  vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen  every  two  years,  and 
a  bicameral  council,  elected  one-half  each  .year 
on  a  general  ticket,  which  controls  elections  of  all 
ailministrative  ollieials,  with  the  exception  of  one 
water  conunissioner,  who  is  annually  chosen  by 
jiopular  vote.  The  water-works  are  owned  .and 
operated  b.y  the  munici])alitv.  Poi)ulation,  in 
1890,  Iti.Ioii;  in  1900,  17,251.'  Settled  in  10.59  by 
a  company  from  Saybrook,  Norwich  (named  from 
Norwich,  England)  was  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1784  and  rccliartcred  in  1871.  It  was  the  home 
of  Samuel,  .labez_,  and  .ledediali  Huntington, 
Christopher  Lellingwell,  and  Nathaniel  Niles — all 
prominent  during  tlie  Revolutionary  period.  Con- 
sult: Gilnmn,  I/lstoricul  Uiscoiirsc  Dclircrcd  at 
\orwicli  m  ISoD  (Uoston,  1859)  ;  and  Caulkins, 
History  of  Xorwich    (Hartford,  IStiO). 

NORWICH.  A  village  and  the  county-seat 
of  Chenango  County.  N.  Y..  42  miles  northeast 
of  Binghamton;  on  the  ('henango  River,  and  on 
the  New  Y'ork,  Ontario  and  \Vestern  and  the 
Delaware,  Lackawanna  and  Western  railroads 
(Jlap:  New  Y'ork,  E  3).  It  has  a  village  hospi- 
tal and  a  public  library  with  12.000  volumes: 
and  among  its  fine  structures  are  the  municipal 
building,  count.y  jail,  and  the  Lackawanna 
depot,  Norwich  is  of  considerable  importance 
as  an  industrial  centre,  having  railroad  shops, 
a  blast  furnace,  stone  qviarries,  and  manufac- 
tories of  drugs  anil  medicines,  perfumes,  furni- 
ture, gloves,  silk  ribbons,  hammers,  etc.  There 
are  also  a  number  of  creameries,  the  village  being 
surrounded  by  a  productive  dairying  and  farming 
section.  Population,  in  1890,'  5212;  in  1900, 
57G6. 

NORWICH,  George  Goring,  Earl  of  (c.l583- 
10(13).  An  English  Ro.yalist.  He  was  made  clerk 
of  the  Council  of  Wales,  and  among  other  im- 
portant monopolies  a  large  share  of  the  tobacco 
grant  was  given  to  him  (1030).  After  ('harles  I. 
had  become  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  Parlia- 
ment, Goring  headed  an  abortive  Royalist  rising 
in  Kent.  The  Commons  voted  that  he  should 
be  banished,  but  rescinded  this  vote,  and  a 
special  court  sentenced  him  to  death,  but  he 
was  not  executed,  either  becau.se  the  Speaker, 
Lenthal,  who  gave  the  casting  vote,  had  received 
favor  from  Goring,  or  on  the  pleading  of  the 
Dutch  and  Spanish  ambassadors.  From  1052  to 
the  Restin-ation  he  lived  on  the  Continent,  and 
Charles  II.  granted  him  a  pension  of  £2000  and 
reappointed  him  to  the  Privy  Council. 

NORWICH  CRESTED  CANARY-BIRD. 
Sco  C'axaky. 

NORWICH  UNIVERSITY.  An  institution 
of  learning  at  Norwich.  Vt,,  founded  at  Middle- 
town.  Conn.,  in  1819,  by  Capt.  .Mden  Partridge, 
and  known  as  the  American  Literar.y,  Scientific, 
and  ^lilitarv  College.  In  1829  it  was  removed  to 
Norwich.  Vt.,  and  was  incori^ratcd  under  its 
present  name  in  1834.  In  1898  it  was  oflicially 
recognized  as  the  niilitarv  college  of  the  State  of 
Vermont.  It  has  long  l)een  known  as  an  engi- 
neering and  scientific  school,  and  many  of  its 
graduates  have  served  in  the  various  wars.  In 
1903  the  institution  had  9  instructors  and  70 
stu<lents.  Dewe.v  Hall,  a  memorial  building 
erected  in  honor  of  Admiral  George  Dewey,  a 
former  student,  was  opened  in  1902. 


NORWOOD. 


644 


NOSE. 


NOR'WOOD.  An  electoral  di.strict  and  f.ivor- 
ite  rt'siduntial  soclion  in  the  soutli  of  tlie  metro- 
politan hoiougli  of  Lambeth,  London,  England, 
ei-jht  miles  south  of  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral 
(Map:  London,  F  7).  It  was  formerly  a  su1)ur 
ban  village  noted  for  ISeulah  Spa,  a  i)(i|iular 
pleasure  ground  pieturesquely  laid  out  around 
a  mineral  spring,  now  built  over,  and  represented 
by  llie  ISeulah  Spa  Hotel.  Norwood  is  divided 
into  Ujjper,  Lower,  and  South  Norwood.  It 
adjoins  the  grounds  of  the  Crystal  Palaee.  Nor- 
Avood  Junetion  is  an  im])ortant  snburljan  railwav 
station.  Population,  in  181)1,  28,248;  in  1001, 
35.SS7. 

NORWOOD.  A  town  in  Xorfolk  County, 
ilass.,  14  miles  southwest  of  Boston;  on  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad 
(Map:  JIassaeluisetts,  I<:  3).  It  has  the  -Morrill 
Memorial  Library  with  7000  volumes;  and 
among  its  industrial  plants  are  railroad  repair 
shops,  large  tanneries,  an  inm  foundry,  manu- 
factories of  glue  and  ink,  and  an  extensive  print- 
ing establishment.  Norwood  was  incorporated 
in  1872;  the  government  is  administered  through 
town  meetings.  The  water-works  are  (>wne<l  by 
the  numieipalitv.  Population,  in  1890,  3733;  in 
11100.  5480. 

NORWOOD.  A  city  in  Hamilton  County, 
Oliio.  adjoining  Cincinnati  on  the  northeast:  on 
the  Baltimore  iind  Oliio  Southwestern,  the  Nor- 
folk and  Wi'slern.  and  tlie  Cincinnati.  Lebanon 
and  Northern  railroads  (Map:  Ohio,  A  7).  It 
is  well  laid  out  on  a  site  of  great  natural  beauty, 
and  is  a  favorite  residential  suburb  of  Cin- 
cinnati. There  are  .several  important  manufac- 
turing establishments  whose  factory  buildings 
are  noteworthy  for  their  architecture  and  for 
their  splendid  e(|uipnient.  Among  these  |)lants 
are  the  lithogra|)bing  and  ])laying-card  works, 
the  elastic-bookcase  factory,  aiid  the  electrical 
manufacturing  concern.  Pianos,  laundry  ma- 
chinery, washing-machines,  machine  tools  and 
iron-working  machinery,  iron  castings,  wood-mill- 
work,  and  paper  l)ags  and  specialties  also  are 
manufactured.  .Settled  about  1700.  Norwood  was 
in<ornorated  as  a  village  uiuler  the  general  laws 
of  1888  and  became  a  city  in  1002.  The  water- 
works and  electric  light  plant  are  owned  and 
opi'raled  liy  (lie  muiiicipalitv.  Population,  in 
lOlMl.  (;4S(l.' 

NOSAIRIANS.  A  -Mohammedan  sect.  See 
Ansahiks. 

NOSE  (.\S.  tiosii,  H«.<(H,  OIIG.  nasa.  Ger.  Xase, 
nose:  connected  with  Lat.  nastis,  Lith.  iiosis, 
OChurch  Slav,  hosh,  Skt.  nan,  nose).  The  nose 
is  not  only  the  organ  of  smell,  but  is  likewise 
part  of  the  apparatus  of  respiration  and  voice. 
Considered  anatomically,  it  may  be  divided  into 
an  external  parl^the  projecting  portion,  to 
which  the  term  nose  is  popularly  restricte<l;  and 
an  internal  part,  consisting  of  two  chief  cavities, 
the  iiiisiil  fdsstr,  .se])arated  from  one  another  by  n 
vertical  septum,  and  subdivided  by  spongy  or 
turbinated  cells,  or  siniisin  in  the  ethmoid,  splie- 
noid.  frontal,  and  superior  maxillary  hones  com- 
municating by  n:irrow  apertures. 

The  external  portion  of  this  organ  may  be 
deseriWd  as  a  triangular  pyramid  which  pro- 
jects from  the  cent  11'  of  the  face,  immediately 
nhove  the  upper  lip.  Its  sununit  or  root  is 
connected  with  the  forehead  by  means  of  a  nar- 
row bridge,  formed  on  either  side  by  the  nasal 


bone  and  the  nasal  process  of  the  superior  maxil- 
lary bone.  Us  lower  part  presents  two  horizontal 
elliptical  openings,  the  nostrils,  which  overhang 
the  mouth,  and  are  separated  from  one  another 
l)y  a  vertical  septum.  The  margins  of  the  nos- 
trils are  usually  provided  with  a  mimbcr  of  stiff 
hairs  {cibrisaa') ,  which  pmjoct  across  the  open- 
ings, and  serve  to  arrest  the  passage  of  foreign 
substances  which  might  be  drawn  up  with  air 
Intended  for  respiration.  The  skeleton  or  frame- 
work of  the  nose  is  partly  composed  of  the  bones 
forming  the  top  and  sides  of  the  bridge  and  partly 
of  cartilages,  tliere  being  on  either  side  an  upper 
lateral  anil  a  lower  lateral  cartilage,  to  the  latter 
of  which  are  attached  three  or  fo\ir  small  car- 
tilaginous plates,  termed  sesamoid  cartilages; 
there  is  also  the  cartilage  of  the  .septum  which 
separates  the  nostrils,  and  is  in  association  |)os- 
tcriorly  with  the  perpendicular  plate  of  the 
ethmoid,  and  with  the  vomer,  forming  a  compli'tc 
partition  between  the  right  and  left  nasal  fossat. 
It  is  the  lower  lateral,  termed  by  some  writers 
the  alar  cartilage,,  whicli  by  its  llexibillty  and 
curved  shape  forms  the  dilatable  ehamber  just 
within  the  nostril.  The  nasal  cartilages  are  capa- 
ble of  being  slightly  moved,  and  the  nostrils  of 
being  dilated  or  contracted  by  various  small  mus- 
cles, which  it  is  unnecessary  to  describe. 

The  nasal  fossw,  which  constitute  the  internal 
Jiart  of  the  nose,  are  lofty,  and  of  considerable 
depth.  They  open  in  front  by  the  nostrils,  and 
behind  they  terminate  by  a  vertical  slit  on  either 
side  in  the  upper  part  of  the  ph;irynx.  above  the 
soft  palate,  and  near  the  orifices  of  the  Eustachian 
tubes,  which  proceed  to  the  tympanic  cavity  of 
the  ear. 

The  niueuous  membrane  lining  the  nose  and  its 
cavities  is  calleii  pituitary,  from  the  nature  of 
its  secretion,  or  Schneiderian,  from  Schneider, 
the  first  anatomist  who  showed  (hat  the  secretion 
proceeded  from  the  mucous  membrane,  and  not, 
as  was  previously  imagined,  from  the  brain;  it 
is  continuous  with  the  skin  of  the  face  at  the 
no.strlls.  with  the  mucous  covering  of  the  eye 
through  the  lachrymal  duct  (see  Eve),  and  with 
that  of  tlu'  pharynx  and  middle  ear  posteriorly. 
On  the  septum  and  spongy  bones  bounding  the 
direct  passage  from  the  nostrils  to  the  throat, 
the  lining  membrane  is  compar;i(ivcly  thick, 
liartly  in  consequence  of  a  multitude  of  glands 
being  disseminated  beneath  it.  and  opening  upon 
it,  but  chiefly,  perhaps,  from  the  presence  of 
ample  and  capacious  submucous  plexuses  of  both 
arteries  and  veins,  of  which  the  latter  are  by 
far  the  more  large  and  tortuous.  These  plexuses, 
lying  as  they  do  in  a  region  exposed  more  than 
any  other  to  exteriiiil  cooling  inlliicnccs.  a|ipear 
to  be  designed  to  promote  the  warmth  of  the 
part,  and  to  elevate  the  tem])erature  of  the  air 
on  its  passage  to  the  lungs.  In  the  vicinity  of 
the  nostrils,  the  mucous  nienibrane  exhibits 
liiipilhe  and  a  scaly  epithelium.  like  the  cor- 
responding parts  of  the  skin.  In  the  sinuses,  and 
in  all  the  lower  region  of  the  nose,  the  epithelium 
is  of  extreme  delicacy,  being  of  the  columnar 
variety,  and  clothed  with  cilia.  In  the  upper 
third  of  the  nose — which,  as  (he  proper  scat  of 
the  sense  of  smell,  may  Ik'  termed  the  olfactory 
region — the  epithelium  changes  frimi  ciliated  to 
columnar,  and  assumes  a  more  or  less  rich 
sienna-brown  tint,  and  increases  remarkably  in 
thickness,  so  that  it  forms  an  opaque  soft  pulp 
upon  the  surface.     It  is  composed  of  an  aggrega- 


I 


NOSE. 


645 


NOSE. 


tion  of  nucleated  particles,  of  nearly  uniform 
appearance  throughout,  except  tliat  the  lowest 
ones  are  of  a  darker  color  than  the  rest,  from 
their  containing  a  brown  pigment  in  their  in- 
terior. The  olfactory  region  ahounds  in  glands, 
apparently  identical  with  sweat  glands,  which 
dip  down  in  tlie  recesses  of  the  submucous  tissue 
among  the  ramifications  of  the  olfactory  nerve. 
They  are  named  Bowman's  glands. 

Tlie  nerves  of  the  nose  are  the  first  i)air  or 
olfactory,  which  are  s])ecially  connected  with  the 
sense  of  snudl;  branches  of  the  fifth  pair,  whieh 
confer  ordinary  sensibility  on  its  skin  and  nuicous 
membrane:  and  motor  filanientt?,  from  the  facial 
nerves  to  the  nasal  muscles.  The  olfactory  nerve 
on  each  side  is  connected  with  the  inferior  sur- 
face of  the  brain  by  an  external,  a  middle,  and 
an  internal  root,  which  unite  and  form  a  flat 
band  (or,  more  correctly,  a  prism),  which,  on 
reaching  the  cribriform  plate  of  the  ethmoid 
bone,  expands  into  an  oblong  mass  of  grayish- 
white  substance,  the  olfa<'tory  bulb.  From  the 
lower  surface  of  this  bulb  are  given  off  the 
olfaetor}-  filaments,  fifteen  or  twenty  in  ninnber, 
which  pass  through  the  cribriform  foramina,  and 
are  distributed  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
olfactory  region.  The  branches  of  the  fifth  pair 
(or  trifacial)  given  to  the  nose  are  the  nasal 
nerve  (derived  from  the  ophthalmic  division), 
which  supplies  the  skin  and  mucous  membrane 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  nostrils,  and  the  naso- 
palatine nerve  (derived  from  Meckel's  ganglion, 
which  is  connected  with  the  superior  maxillary 
division),  which  supplies  the  nuicous  membrane 
on  the  spongy  bones  and  on  the  septum.  What- 
ever may  be  the  nature  of  the  odorous  matter,  it 
is  necessary-  that  it  should  be  transmitted  by  a 
respiratory  current  through  the  nostrils  to  the 
true  olfactory  region,  and  dissolved  or  suspended 
in  the  fluid  with  which  the  olfactory  membrane 
is  normally  covered.  The  ])roper  condition  of 
this  fluid  is  one  of  the  essential  conditions  of  the 
perception  of  odors.  If  the  membrane  is  too 
dry.  or  if  there  is  an  inordinate  excretion  of 
fluid  from  its  surface  (both  of  which  conditions 
occur  in  catarrh  or  cold  in  the  head),  smell  is 
impaired  or  lost,  in  consequence  of  the  necessary 
penetration  of  the  stimulating  odor  to  the  nervous 
filaments  being  prevented. 

It  has  been  observed  that  when  the  nostrils 
are  filled  with  rose  water  or  eau  de  Cologne,  no 
odor  is  perceived,  and  simply  filling  the  nostrils 
with  distilled  water  suspends  for  a  time  the 
sense  of  smell.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  scent 
lie  dissolved  in  'normal  saline  solution,'  which 
closely  resembles  the  natural  secretion,  the  odor 
is  perceived. 

■The  sense  of  taste  is  often  confused  with  that 
of  smell,  ^^'e  speak  of  'tasting'  an  odoriferous 
substance,  such  as  an  onion,  or  ii  savory  dish,  or 
a  wine,  when  in  reality  we  perceive  it  through 
the  olfactory  nenes.  This  is  proved  by  the 
fact  that  the  taste  for  these  substances  is  lost 
when  the  smell  becomes  impaired. 

The  acuteness  of  the  sense  of  smell  is  far 
greater  in  many  of  the  lower  animals  (dogs,  for 
e.xamplc)  than  in  man.  and  they  employ  it  in 
guiding  them  to  their  food,  in  warning  them  of 
approaching  danger,  and  iov  other  purposes.  To 
civilized  men  the  utility  of  this  sen.se  is  compara- 
tively small;  but  it  is  occasionally  much  in- 
creased when  other  senses  are  deficient.  Among 
many  savage  tribes  the  sense  is  almost  as  acute 


as  in  many  of  the   lower   mammals.     See  Nos- 
trils; Smell. 

NOSE,  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the.  In 
the  ordinary  usage  of  tlie  word,  no  animals  but 
mamnuils  have  noses;  but  in  the  widest  sense  of 
an  organ  of  smell,  the  nose  is  foiuid  in  all 
vertebrates  and  in  some  lower  animals.  Owing 
to  the  close  relation  that  e.xists  i)et«cen  the 
sen.se  of  taste  and  the  sense  of  snudl,  it  is 
impossible  to  determine  beyond  question  the  func- 
tion of  certain  organs  among  the  lower  animals, 
but  in  several  cases  evi<lence  has  been  produced 
to  sliow  that  ciliated  pits  or  patches  have  a 
function  similar  to,  if  not  identical  with,  that 
of  smell  in  vertebrates.  Thus  as  low  as  the 
ctenophores  and  some  medusa',  there  occur  special 
areas  covered  with  cilia,  to  which  the  sense  of 
taste  or  smell  has  been  assigned.  In  many  Hat- 
worms,  in  nemerteans,  and  in  many  true  worms, 
ciliated  grooves,  ])its,  and  prominences  occur, 
which  are  certainlj'  sensory  and  probably  olfac- 
tory. Whether  organs  of  smell  occur  among 
crustaceans  and  insects  is  not  beyond  doubt,  but 
short  processes,  open  at  the  point  and  uitli 
special  nerve  connections  located  on  the  an- 
tenna', are  regarded  as  organs  of  smell.  There  is 
much  evidence  in  suiii)ort  of  the  belief  that 
insects  smell,  and  the  antenna-  are  almost  cer- 
tainly the  seat  of  whatever  such  sense  they 
possess.  Among  echinoderms  there  are  isolated 
cases  of  organs  which  may  be  olfactory,  notably 
the  sensory  cups  on  the  inner  surface  of  the 
tentacles  in  Synapta.  Among  the  moUusks,  the 
patches  of  densely  ciliated  epithelium  in  the 
mantle-cavity,  known  as  'osphradia.'  are  very 
probably  organs  of  smell.  In  Amphioxus  and 
the  cjclostomes  there  is  a  single  pit  or  sac,  lined 
with  an  epithelium  consisting  of  ciliated  and 
sensory  (olfactory)  cells.  In  the  elasinobranch 
fishes  the  olfactory  sacs  lie  on  the  under  surface 
of  the  snout,  but  in  all  the  vertebrates  they 
are  situateil  somewhere  between  the  eyes  and 
the  end  of  the  snout,  on  the  upper  surface. 

In  all  animals  aliove  cyclostomes  the  nasal 
sacs  are  inclosed  in  cartilaginous  or  bony  cases, 
forming  a  prominent  part  of  the  skull.  The 
nostrils  of  bony  fishes  are  divided  into  two  parts 
by  a  septum,  which  is  .sometimes  so  wide  as  to 
give  rise  to  four  wholly  distinct  nostrils.  The 
mucous  membrane  lining  the  nasal  sacs  of  fishes 
is  raised  up  into  a  number  of  complex  radial 
folds,  thus  increasing  the  sensory  surface.  The 
dipnoid  fishes  differ  from  the  other  true  fishes  in 
that  tlie  nasal  sacs  communicate  with  the  cavity 
of  the  month  as  well  as  with  the  exterior,  just 
as  they  do  in  all  iiigher  vertebrates.  In  amphi- 
bians we  find  for  the  fir.st  time  turbinal  bones 
which  serve  to  increase  the  sensory  surface  of 
the  nasal  cavities.  There  are  also  glands  present 
in  the  sensory  epithelium,  serving  to  keep  it 
moist.  Moreover,  there  is  a  canal  connecting 
the  anterior  angle  of  the  orbit  with  the  nasal 
cavity,  known  as  the  naso-lachrymal  duct,  which 
is  of  use  in  conveying  surplus  lachrymal  secretion 
(tears)  into  the  nasal  cavity  and  flicnce  into 
the  pharynx  through  the  posterior  nares.  This 
duct  is  present  in  all  the  higher  vertebrates  also. 
In  re|itilcs  the  olfactory  organ  is  rather  simple, 
especially  in  lizards  and  snakes;  there  is  only  a 
single  turbinal,  though  crocodiles  have  on  the 
outer  side  of  the  cavity  a  second  prominence 
called  the  pseudo-turbinal.     Birds  also  have  only 


NOSE. 


646 


NOSTRADAMUS. 


a  single  true  turbinal,  but  two  pseudo-turbinals 
are  present,  ami  the  true  turbinal  is  often  more 
or  less  rolled  on  itself,  lu  mammals  the  nasal 
cavity  is  large,  and  the  turbinals  are  extended  to 
form  a  spon<:y  labyrinth,  the  projections  of  which, 
known  as  olfactory  scrolls,  are  normally  five  in 
number,  though  they  sometimes  become  more  or 
less  fused  in  pairs.  Thus  there  is  sometimes 
one,  but  usually  two,  superior  or  upper  turbinals, 
and  there  is  usually  one,  but  sometimes  two, 
middle  turbinals.  The  so-called  superior  and 
middle  turbinals  of  man  are  somewhat  diireront 
in  their  origin,  but  the  inferior  turbinal  is 
derived  from  and  eorresi)onds  to  the  single  tur- 
binal of  reptiles  and  birds. 

The  external  nose  of  mammals  is  formed  by 
an  extension  outward  of  the  nasal  bones,  sup- 
ported and  strengthened  by  a  cartilaginous  out- 
growth of  the  ethmoid.  The  size  and  appearance 
of  the  nose  depends  chiefly  upon  its  function,  for 
it  is  often  elongated  for  some  special  purpose. 

NOSE-APE.     See  Proboscis  JIoskey. 

NOSEBLEED.     See  Epistaxis. 

NOS'ELITE  ( named  in  honor  of  K.  \T.  Xosc, 
a  (icriii.iu  (luuiisl),  or  Xo.seam.  A  mineral  made 
up  of  the  sulphates  and  silicates  of  sodium  and 
aluminum.  It  crystallizes  in  the  isometric  sys- 
tem, is  translucent,  and  has  a  gray,  blue,  or 
brown  color.  It  cucurs  in  certain  igneous  rocks 
.such  as  phonolite  and  nepheline  syenite.  It  is 
found  chielly  in  Germany,  and  on  the  Canary  and 
Cape  Verde  Islands. 

NOSOL'OGY  (from  Gk.  vSaa,  iiosos,  disease 
-f-  -'Koyia,  -loyia,  account,  from  ^.iyav,  Icgein,  to 
say) .  The  branch  of  medical  science  which 
treats  of  the  classification  and  nomenclature  of 
diseases.  The  old  idea  was  that  diseases  could 
be  divided  into  classes,  orders,  genera,  and 
species,  ilany  systems  have  been  proposed,  used, 
and  abandoned.  Some  of  these  have  been  based 
upon  theories  of  causation,  others  upon  the  symp- 
toms manifested,  the  part  <u'  system  of  the  body 
atTected.  or  the  pathological  elfects  observed. 

For  statistical  |>urposcs  the  system  devised  by 
Dr.  William  Farr,  a  distinguished  medical  statis- 
tician of  London,  has  been  more  recently  used 
in  Great  Uritain  and  America,  its  most  complete 
development  being  the  nomenclature  of  diseases 
issued  by  the  Hoyal  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  in  1884.  tlw  latest-  revision  being  in  1801. 

This  system  divides  all  diseases  into  two  great 
classes,  namely,  general  and  local  diseases.  The 
first  class  includes  all  those  maladies  which 
atTeet  the  whole  body,  or  which  may  affect  several 
parts  at  one  lime,  and  is  divided  into  four  groups. 
The  first  group  includes  diseases  due  to  morbid 
poisons  or  specific  infections,  such  as  scarlet 
fever,  measles,  etc.  The  second  group  embraces 
diseases  which  are  dependent  upon  external 
agencies  other  than  the  specific  infections,  ns 
parasites,  chemical  poisons,  climate,  etc.  The 
third  gro\ip  includes  the  so-called  developmental 
dist'ases.  such  as  malformations  and  old  age. 
The  fourth  group  embraces  a  niimber  of  un- 
classified afTections,  as  rheumatism,  gout.  leprosy, 
cretinism,  etc.  The  second  great  class,  that  of 
local  diseases,  includes  those  peculiar  to  the 
varinns  systems  of  the  body,  such  as  the  nervous 
system,  the  circulatorj'  system,  etc. 

Tt  is  evident  that  no  single  scheme  of  clnssifien- 
tion   will   answer   every   purpose.     It   is   equally 


obvious  that  every  system  must  be  subject  to 
constant  modification  by  the  advances  in  medical 
knowledge.  This  is  notably  true  of  the  recent 
discoveries  in  bacteriology.  Among  writers  of 
the  present  day  the  tendency  is  toward  a  very 
simple  classification,  and  tlie  following  arrange- 
ment of  diseases  may  be  accepted  aij  the  one 
which,  with  modifications,  is  in  general  use: 

(1)  iS/Jcci/ic  infect iiiii.i  diseases,  represented  by 
the  cxanthematti,  syphilis,  tuberculosis,  and 
malaria. 

(2)  Consliititiomil  diseases,  for  example,  gout, 
rheumatism,  and  diabetes. 

(3)  Diseases  of  the  digestive  system,  e.g.  gas- 
tritis, jaundice,  and  enteritis. 

(4)  Diseases  vf  the  respiratory  system,  as 
nasal  catarrh,  laryngitis,  bronchitis,  and  pneu- 
monia. 

(.5)  Diseases  of  the  circulatory  system,  as 
endocarditis,  aneurism,  and  arterio-selerosis. 

(G)  Diseases  of  the  bUiod  and  ductless  glands, 
as  anajmia,  leucocytha;mia,  Addison's  disease,  and 
goitre. 

(7)  Diseases  of  the  kidneys,  as  Bright's  dis- 
ease, unrniia.  and  pyelitis. 

(8)  Diseases  of  the  ncrcous  system  (including 
the  brain,  spinal  cord,  and  nerves),  as  epi- 
lepsy, chorea,  myelitis,  and  sciatica. 

(!))  Diseases  of  the  muscles,  the  muscular 
atrophies  and  distrophies. 

(10)  The  intoxications:  alcoholism,  the  drug 
habits,  lead  and  arsenic  poisoning. 

(11)  Diseases  due  to  animal  parasites:  tape- 
worm, trichiniasis,  and   pediculosis. 

To  these  must  be  added  the  diseases  peculiar  to 
special  organs,  the  eye,  ear,  skin,  and  generative 
organs. 

NOSSI-'BE,  nAs's6'l);\'.  An  island  ofT  the 
northwest  coast  of  JIadagascar,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  a  narrow  channel.  It  has  an 
area  of  111  square  miles,  is  volcanic  and  moun- 
tainous, and  well  wooded.  Parts  of  it  are  well 
cultivated,  and  produce  sugarcane,  cofTce,  rice, 
and  vanilla.  The  chief  town  is  Hellville.  on  the 
south  coast,  an  important  port  of  call  with  ship- 
ping amounting  to  more  than  half  a  million  tons 
annually.  The  jiopulation  of  the  island  in  1901 
was  O.ifiO,  chielly  Sakalavas  of  Madagascar.  The 
island  was  ceded  to  France  by  Madagascar  in 
1840.  and  in  1890,  when  the  latter  became  a 
French  possession.  Xossi-BP  was  placed  under  the 
autluirityof  the  Governor-tieneral  of  Madagascar. 

NOSTAL'GIA  (Xeo-I.at.,  from  Gk.  voffraXyta, 
from  ro(rToX7eri',  nostalgiin,  to  Ix?  homesick,  from 
vi<TTos,  nostos,  return  -f  i\yos.  algos,  grief,  dis- 
tress). A  feeling  of  melancholy,  caused  by  grief 
on  account  of  absence  from  one's  home  or  eountrj', 
of  which  the  English  equivalent  is  homesickness. 
Nostalgia  represents  a  combination  of  psychic 
and  bodily  disturbances,  and  must  be  resarded 
as  a  disease.  It  may  lead  to  melancholia  and 
even  death.  It  is  more  ajit  to  afi'ect  persona 
whose  absence  from  hi>nie  is  forced  than  those 
whose  absence  is  V(duntary. 

NOS  TRADATttUS  (MiriTEi.  de  XoTREnvME) 
( l."in:i  (Ji;).  A  French  a-;trolo2cr  of  .Tewish 
descent,  born  at  Saint  Remy  in  Provence.  He 
entered  the  College  of  Avignon,  and  after  complet- 
ing his  course  there  went  to  Montpellier.  where 
he  studied  medicine.  .At  this  time  a  terrible 
pestilence  desolated  the  southern  part  of  France, 
and    during   the    four   years    that    it   continued 


I 


NOSTRADAMUS. 


647 


NOTARY  PUBLIC. 


(1524-29)  Nostradamus  went  from  one  city  to 
aiiolher  giving  liis  aid  to  tlie  stricken.  After  the 
pestilence  had  subsided  he  returned  to  Montpellier 
to  finish  his  studies,  lie  traveled  for  a  number  of- 
years,  and  in  1544  settled  at  Salon.  The  next 
year  a  new  epidemic  of  the  pest  swept  over  the 
country  and  he  accepted  the  formal  invitation  of 
the  authorities  to  visit  Aix  and  Lyons,  where  he 
treated  his  patients  with  a  .secret  remedy  which 
worked  marvelous  cures.  This  gave  "him  a 
great  reputation,  and  a  few  years  later  his  claim 
that  he  had  the  jiower  of  reading  the  future 
attracted  widespread  attention  and  became  the 
subject  of  much  controversy.  In  1550  he  began 
to  write  his  famous  Centuries,  mystic  prophe- 
cies in  rh^nned  quatrains,  the  first  series 
of  Avliich  was  pulilished  at  Lyons  in  1555. 
Catharine  de'  Medici  invited  their  author  to 
Court,  where  he  reached  the  height  of  his  fame. 
Soon  afterwards  he  returned  to  Salon.  Besides 
his  Centuries,  Nostradamus  wrote:  Traiti  des 
fardements  (1552)  ;  Le  remede  tris  utile  conire 
lu  peste  et  toutes  fii-vres  pestilentielles  (15G1)  ; 
and  Opuscule  de  plusieurs  exquises  rceeptcs 
(1572)  ;  and  from  1550  to  his  death  published 
an  Almunucli  that  had  a  wide  circulation.  Con- 
sult:  Jaubert,  lie  de  M.  yostrndaiiius  (Amster- 
dam, 1(550);  Guynaud,  Lu  voiieurdanre  des  pro- 
plu'tirs  de  Xost/'adamus  avec  Vhisloire  (Paris, 
1093  1  :   Lind  Tiarcste,  Nostradamus   (ib.,  1842). 

NOSTRILS  (AS.  nos\iyrl,na;s]^yrl,  from  nosu, 
nusu,  nose  -\-  |)  yrl,  ^lyrel,  hole,  from  }flircl,  OUG. 
durihhil,  durchij,  perforated,  from  AS.  urh, 
I  ilIG.  durnti,  Ger.  dwrc/i,- through) ,  Diseases  of 
THE.  Tliis  classification  is  no  longer  used,  and 
diseases  formerl}'  appearing  under  this  head  will 
be  found  under  their  respective  titles.  ( See 
Catarrh;  Ozena ;  ICpi.staxi.s ;  Kiiixitis;  Poly- 
pus; Nose.)  Foreign  bodies  are  often  inserted 
into  the  nostrils  by  children,  and  become  im- 
pacted. They  may  usually  be  extracted  by  a 
small  scoop,  a  bent  probe,  or  forceps.  If  they  can- 
not be  removed  by  these  means,  they  must  be 
]uished  back  into  the  throat  through  the  posterior 
nares.  Cliildren  are  occasionally  born  with  im- 
perforate nostrils.  This  congenital  malforma- 
tion may,  however,  usually  be  remedied  by  sur- 
jjic-al  means. 

NOSTRUM  (Lat.,our  own).  A  term  applied 
to  patent  or  quack  medicines  whose  ingredients 
are  ke)jt  secret  by  the  inventor  for  the  |)urpose  of 
controlling  the  manufacture  of  them:  licnce  the 
term  has  come  to  be  used  in  a  derogatory  sense. 

NO'TA,  Alberto,  Baron  (1775-1847).  An 
Italian  dramatist,  born  at  Turin.  He  was  edu- 
cated for  the  bar,  practiced  law,  and  finally  ob- 
tained the  position  of  secretary  to  the  futiire 
King  Charles  Albert.  He  afterwards  was  ap- 
pointed administrator  of  the  district  of  Bobbie 
(1820),  and  of  San  Remo  (1823),  and  still 
later  general  intendant  at  C'asale  and  Cuneo. 
He  -nTote  comedies  in  imitation  of  ^Ioli(>re  and 
Ooldoni.  His  thirty  or  more  plays  have  little 
originality.  The  best  of  them  are:  La  fern, 
Piroluzioni  in  aniorr,  Tl  hrnefaffore.  La  paec 
dmnestira.  Tj'irrer/uieto.  11  prnqeftista.  La  rednra. 
in  sotitudine.  and  L'amnr  tiniidn.  His  works 
were  verv  popular,  and  went  through  ten  editions 
between  ISIfi  and  1.120. 

NOTABLES  (OF..  Fr.  ■notahle.  from  Lat. 
notahiUs.  noteworthy,  from  notare.  tt)  note,  mark, 
from   nota,  mark,  from   noscere,  to  know;   ulti- 


mately connected  with  Eng.  know) .  The  name 
gi\en  in  France  before  the  Revolution  of  1789  to 
))ersons  of  nolile  birth,  social  distinction,  or  po- 
litical importance,  who  were  summoned  to  meet 
in  the  Assembly  of  Notables.  The  States-Gen- 
eral (q.v.)  was  too  great  a  check  on  the  despot- 
ism of  the  monarchy,  and  beginning  with  Charles 
v.,  the  French  kings  adopted  the  expedient  of 
calling  in  tlieir  stead  Assemblies  of  Notables, 
composed  of  those  who  were  likely  to  be  in  favor 
of  tlie  projects  of  the  Crown.  Their  whole  pro- 
ceedings were  guided  by  the  King  or  his  min- 
isters. They  showed  a  particular  readiness  in 
granting  subsidies,  from  which  they  themselves, 
as  belonging  to  the  privileged  classes,  were  ex- 
empt. An  Assembly  of  Notables,  convened  in 
Paris  by  Richelieu  in  1020,  and  presided  over  by 
Ciaston  d'Orleans,  brother  of  Louis  XII I.,  con- 
sisted of  only  35  members.  In  1878,  when  the 
state  of  the  linanees  threatened  the  country  with 
bankruptcy,  Louis  XVI.,  at  the  instigation  of 
Calonne  (q.v.),  had  recourse  to  an  Assembly 
of  Notables,   which   assembled  on   Februarj'   22, 

1787.  In  spite  of  their  readiness  to  accept  cer- 
tain reforms  in  the  administrative  and  financial 
system,  they  showed  themselves  jealous  of  their 
ancient  privileges  and  were  inclined  to  shift  the 
responsibility  for  the  dillicult  state  of  aliair.? 
on  the  Government.  Some  of  the  Notables  even 
advocated  the  summoning  of  the  States-General 
in  the  expectation,  probably,  that  the  latter 
would  devise  some  way  of  relieving  the  dis-. 
tressed  conditions  of  the  country  without  inter- 
fering with  the  prerogatives  of  the  privileged 
orders.  On  May  25th  the  Notables  were  dis- 
missed. Neeker,  who  was  later  placed  at  the 
head  of  afl'airs,  assembled  the  Notables  for  the 
last  time  on  November  0,  1788,  to  consult  with 
them  concerning  the  form  in  which  the  States- 
Cieneral  should  be  convened.  The  Notables  de- 
clared against  every  innovation  which  they  had 
sanctioned  the  year  previous,  and  were  especial- 
ly opposed  to  the  double  representation  of  the 
Third  Estate,  This  opposition  compelled  the 
Court  to  resort  to  half  measures,  which  helped  to 
prepare  the  way  for  the  Revolution.  The 
Notables    were    finally    dissolved    December    12, 

1788.  See  France;  French  Revolution. 

NOTARY  PUBLIC  (Lat.  Xotarius,  one  who 
writes,  from  iiola,  mark).  An  oflicer  duly  au- 
thorized to  attest  or  certify  legal  instruments, 
and  to  perform  certain  other  olTicial  acts,  usual- 
ly of  a  ministerial  character.  The  office  is 
created  by  statute,  and  the  functions  of  a  notary 
public  varj'  in  dillerent  jurisdictions.  Notaries 
were  known  in  England  before  the  Conquest,  and 
in  all  the  countries  of  Euro|>(^  at  an  even  earlier 
time.  They  were  appointed  by  the  popes  at 
Rome,  and  acted  as  oflieials  in  the  ecclesiastical 
courts,  in  addition  to  exercising  certain  secular 
powers.  In  England  tlie  authority  to  appoint 
notaries  was  finally  delegated  by  the  Roman  See 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  after  the 
P>eformation  a  statute  was  enacted  (25  Hen. 
VI1I..C.  21.  §  4)con(lriiiing  the  right  in  the  Arch- 
bishop as  a  high  jirelate  in  the  English  Church. 

With  the  development  of  tlie  commerce  of  Eng- 
land itnd  the  'law  merchant'  the  office  of  notary 
public  increased  in  importance  very  rapidly. 
Notaries  were  employed  to  protest  commercial 
paper,  to  witness  certain  papers  under  the  mari- 
time law,  and  were  gradually   vested   with   the 


NOTARY  PUBLIC. 


648 


NOTATION. 


powers  which  they  e.xercise  generallj'  to-day. 
In  the  United  States,  notaries  are  apiiointed  by 
tlie  Governors  of  tlic  States;  and  the  authority  of 
a  notary  to  act,  therefore,  does  not  extend  Ix-yond 
the  limits  of  the  particiihvr  territory  in  a  State 
for  which  he  is  ai)i)ointed.  This  territory  is 
usually  a  county,  ami  he  cannot  perform  any 
acts  in  another  county  unless  he  complies  with 
certain  prescribed  formalities,  such  as  filing  a 
certificate  and  paying  an  additional  fee.  In  many 
States  a  notary  may  thus  extend  his  otlicial  pow- 
ers to  all  the  counties  of  his  State,  but  he  cannot 
e.\ercise  his  powers  except  for  the  county  in 
which  he  is  personally  present  at  any  given  lime. 

In  general,  any  n\ale  citizen  is  eligible  to  ap- 
pointment as  a  notary.  In  most  States,  in  order 
to  qualify,  a  notary  must  take  an  oath  of  office, 
and  in  some  he  nuist  give  a  bcmd  to  secure  the 
faithful  performance  of  the  duties  of  his  olHce ; 
and  a  breach  of  his  ofiicial  duties  is  punished 
criminally.  A  notary's  seal  must  be  atlixed  to 
many  legal  instruments  authenticated  before  him. 
The  statutes  of  the  dill'erent  States  vary  as  to 
the  necessity  of  a  notarial  seal. 

As  notaries  are  State  oflieors,  their  acts  in  mat- 
ters in  which  the  Kederal  Government  is  in- 
volved are  not  valid  except  in  cases  where  tlieir 
authority  is  specially  recognized  by  the  acts  of 
Congress.  These  Federal  statutes  provide  that 
a  notary  may  administer  all  oaths  and  take  all 
acknowledgments  which  a  justice  of  the  peace 
may  do,  and  tlie  authority  of  notaries  to  take 
depositions,  afTidavits,  etc.,  for  use  in  the  United 
States  courts  is  also  expressly  authorized.  The 
notarial  seal  must  be  allixed  to  all  documents  in- 
tended to  be  used  in  the  courts  or  any  de[>artnient 
of  the  Federal  (iovcrnment.  The  United  States 
statutes  in  this  regard  arc  very  strictly  construed. 

The  general  powers  of  a  notary  as  a  State  of- 
ficer are  as  follows:  to  take  acknowledgment 
of  legal  instruments,  such  as  deeds,  mortgagi'-, 
bills  of  sale,  etc.:  to  take  affidavits;  to  take 
depositions  (q.v. )  ;  to  protest  connnercial  ])aper: 
and,  in  'some  States,  to  exercise  the  powers  of 
a  justice  of  the  peace. 

A  notary  may  be  disqualified  to  act  by  reason 
of  his  financial  interest  in  a  matter  brought  be- 
fore him.  Thus  where  a  notary  is  a  grantee  in  a 
deed,  he  cannot  take  the  acknowledgment  of 
the  grantor,  or  person  conveying  the  (jroperty. 
Relationship  to  one  of  the  parties  to  a  <lerd  or 
other  legal  instrument  will  not  ordinarily  dis- 
qualify a  notary  from  taking  the  acknowledg- 
ment of  that  party,  as  it  is  a  ministerial  act ; 
but  where  the  notary  is  conunissioned  to  take 
depositions,  it  is  considered  more  in  the  nature 
of  a  judicial  ad.  and  if  he  is  a  near  relative 
to  one  of  the  parties  to  the  suit,  in  most  jurisdic- 
tions he  is  (lisqualified  for  that  reason.  The 
fees  of  notaries  are  fixed  by  statute  in  each  State, 
and  generally  it  is  a  misdemeanor  for  a  notary  to 
demand  and  receive  more  than  the  statutory  fee 
for  an  act.  T!y  statute  in  most  jurisdictions  cer- 
tain other  officials,  stich  as  judges,  justices  of  the 
peace,  mayors  of  cities,  etc.,  are  vested  with  no- 
tarial    powers.       See    Evidexce;     Acknowi.koo- 

MKVT:    .\l  1  ID.WIT. 

NOTATION  (T.at.  nolalio.  designation  from 
nnlrirr,  to  mark,  from  tiotii,  ?nark),  Tn  arith- 
metic, a  term  applied  to  a  system  of  designating 
numbers  by  figures,  or  notw,  as  they  were  often 
called   in   the  Middle   Ages.     The  chief  number 


notations  of  the  early  races,  before  the  perfecting  f 
of  tlie  position  system,  conform  to  one  of  three  ' 
systems,  the  repeating,  the  alphabetic,  and  the  ! 
initial-letter  systems,  altbougli  these  are  not 
mutually  exclusive.  l!y  the  repeating  system  is 
meant  the  plan  of  repeating  a  chosen  .symbol, 
especially  for  1,  10,  100 — on  the  additive  prin- 
ciple, so  as  to  represent  other  numbers  twice,  or 
three  or  more  times  as  great.  Thus,  in  the 
Egjptian  system,  the  symbol  f\  stands  for  10, 
and  the  combination  r\P\r\  stands  for  30.  By 
the  alphabetic  system  is  meant  the  plan  of  rep- 
resenting numbers  by  letters  in  alphabetic  order. 
.\nd  by  the  initial-letter  system  is  nu'ant  the  plan 
of  representing  numbers  by  the  initial  letters  of 
the  corresponding  language  forms.  These  ten- 
dencies are  exhibited  in  the  following  tables: 

REPEATING   SYSTEMS. 

Egyptian  |,  f)  ,   Q/, 

Babylonian  V  -J     y^_ 

Early  Greek        I,' A,  H,  M, 

Early  Roman      1,  X,  Q.  (Jj, 

Late"  Roman       I,  X,    V,  M, 

.VLl'IIABETIC    .^.Nl>    IXITI.A.L-LETTER   SYSTEMS. 

Hebrew       J^,  ^,  Jj,  -,, 

nindu  — ,  =:,  =,  and  the  initial  letters. 
Late  Greek  o,  p,  y, 

The  Hebrew  system  was  used  by  Hebrew 
writers  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century,  in  connec- 
tion with  zero,  after  contact  with  the  Arabic 
system. 

Among  the  Egyptians  numbers  were  written 
numing  from  right  to  left  in  the  hieratic  writ- 
ing, with  varying  direction  in  the  hieroglyphics. 
In  the  latter  the  numbers  were  either  written 
out  in  words  or  represented  by  symbols  for  each 
unit,  repeated  as  often  as  necessary.  In  the 
hieratic  symbols  the  figure  for  the  unit  of  higher 
order  stands  to  the  right  of  the  one  of  lower 
order.  The  Phoenician  system  -cnntained  twenty- 
two  characters,  derived  from  the  symbols  of  the 
Egyptians. 

The  Babylonian  cuneiform  inscriptions  proceed 
from  left  to  right,  which  must  be  looked  upon 
as  exceptional  in  a  Semitic  language.  The  units 
of  higher  order  stand  on  the  left  of  those  of  lower 
order.  The  symlxds  uscil  in  writing  are  chiefly 
a  horizontal  wedge,  a  vertical  wedge,  and  a 
condiination  of  the  two  at  an  angle.  The  symbols 
were  written  beside  one  another,  or,  for  ease  of 
readinir  and  to  save  space,  over  one  another.  The 
symbols  for  1.  4,  10,  100,  14,  400,  respectively, 
are  as  follows: 


Y  V  -<    Y>- 


For  nundn'rs  exceeding  100  there  wa-  aKo  used, 
besliies  the  mere  juxtapiisition,  ,-i  multiplicative 
principle;  the  symbol  representing  the  nunibi'r  of 
hiuidrcds  was  placed  at  the  left  of  the  syndml  for 
hundreds,  as  in  the  case  of  400,  already  shown. 
The  Babylonians  jirobably  had  no  symbol  for  zero. 

The  oldest  Greek  numerals  (aside  from  the 
written  words)  were,  in  general,  the  initial  let- 
ters of  the  fundamental  minibers.  I  for  1,  IT 
for  ."i  (r/irrt).  A  for  10  (5^ko),  and  these  were 
repeated  as  often  as  nccess;irv.  These  numerals 
are  descril»d  by  the  Byzjintine  grammarian 
Herodianus  {c.200  a.d.),  and  hence  are  spoken  of 


NOTATION. 


649 


NOTATION. 


as  Heroilianic  iuiiiiIris.  Shortly  after  B.C.  500 
two  new  systems  a|)peared.  One  used  the  24 
letters  of  the  Ionic  alphabet  in  their  natural 
order  for  the  nunihers  from  1  to  24.  The  oilier 
arranged  these  letters  apparently  at  random, 
but  actually  in  an  order  fixed  arbitrarily;  thus, 

o=l,/3=:'2,     .    =10,     K  =  -20,     , 

p  —  100,  ff  =  200,  etc.  For  6,  90,  and  !)00  ex- 
ception was  made,  and  the  symbols  ^  9  ^  were 
used  respectively.  Here,  too,  there  is  no  special 
.symbol   for  the  zero. 

The  Roman  numerals  were  probably  inherited 
from  the  Etruscans.  The  noteworthy  peculiari- 
ties are  the  lack  of  the  zero;  the  subtractive 
principle  whereby  the  value  of  a  .symbol  was 
diminished  bv  placing  before  it  one  of  a  lower 
order  ( I V  =  4.  IX  =  9,  XL  =  40,  XC  =  90 ) , 
even  in  cases  where  the  languaoe  itself  did  not 
signify  a  subtraction;  and  finally  the  multipli- 
cative effect  of  a  bar  over  the  numerals 
(X3CX  =  .30.000,  C  =  100,000).  Also  for  certain 
fractions  there  were  special  symbols  and  names. 
According  to  ilommsen,  the  Roman  number-sym- 
bols I,  V,  X  represent  the  finger,  the  hand,  and 
the  double  hand,  but  they  are  more  probably 
from  old  Etruscan  letter  forms.  The  use  of  the 
bar  (vinculum  or  titulus)  was  very  uncertain. 
Thus  in  the  tenth  century  we  find  it  used  over 
the  I  and  X  (as  among  later  Romans)  to  in- 
crease the  value  1000-fold,  but  over  the  JI  it 
had  no  significance.  The  symbols,  too,  were 
carelessly  used.  Thus,  X  ll  TlM  meant  10.  1000' 
and  C  M  meant  100.  1000.  T!ie  subtractive  prin- 
cijile,  although  known  to  the  later  Romans,  was 
little  used  until  very  recently,  as  witness  IIII 
for  IV,  continued  from  the  early  clock  faces  to 
those  of  to-day. 

The  number  system  of  the  Hindus  is  of  special 
interest,  because  it  is  to  these  Aryans  or  to  the 
Arabs  that  we  owe  the  valuable  position  system 
now  in  use.  Their  oldest  symbols  for  the  num- 
bers from  4  to  9  seem  to  have  been  merely  the 
initials  of  their  number-words,  and  the  use  of 
letters  as  figures  seems  to  have  been  quite 
prevalent  from  the  third  century  n.c.  The  zero 
is  of  later  origin,  and  its  introduction  is  not 
proved  with  certainty  until  after  400  a.d.  The 
writing  of  numbers  was  carried  on.  chiefly  ac- 
conling  to  the  position  system,  in  various  ways. 
One  plan,  which  Aryabhatta  records,  represented 
the  numbers  from  1  to  2.5  by  the  twenty-five 
consonants  of  the  Sanskrit  alphabet,  and  the 
succeeding  tens  (30,  40.... 100)  by  the  semi- 
vowels and  sibilants.  A  series  of  vowels  and 
diphthongs  formed  multipliers  consisting  of  pow- 
ers of  ten.  ga  meaning  .3,  f/i  300,  f/ii  30.000,  fjau 
3.  10'°.  In  this  there  is  no  application  of  the 
position  system,  but  it  apjjears  in  two  other 
nielhiids  of  writing  numbers  in  use  among  the 
arithmeticians  of  Southern  India.  Both  of  these 
l)lans  are  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  the  same 
number  can  be  made  up  in  various  ways.  The 
first  method  consisted  in  allowing  the  alphabet, 
in  groups  of  nine  symbols,  to  denote  the  numbers 
from  I  to  9  repeatedly,  while  certain  vowels 
represented  the  zeros.  If  in  the  English  al- 
phabet, according  to  this  method,  the  numbers 
from    1   to  9  be  denoted  by  the  consonants   h.  r, 

,  c,  so  that  after  two  countings  one  finally 

has  1  =  2,  and  zero  be  denoted  by  every  vowel 
or    combination    of    vowels,    the    number    00502 


might  be  indicated  by  xircn  or  heron,  and  might 
be  introduced  by  some  other  words  in  the  text. 
The  second  method  employed  type-words.  Thus 
uhdhi  (one  of  the  4  seas)  ^4,  suri/u  (the 
sun  with  its  12  houses)  :=  12,  a(;rin  (the  two 
sons  of  the  sun):=2.  The  combination  abdlii- 
suryin'iinu.i  denoted  the  number  2124. 

In  the  eighth  century  (c.772)  the  Arabs,  whose 
numerals  consisted  of  abbreviated  number- words 
of  an  inferior  type,  the  Divuni,  became  acquainted 
with  the  Hindu  system.  From  these  figures 
there  arose,  among  the  Western  Arabs,  the  (Jubar 
numerals  (dust  numerals).  These  (iubar  numer- 
als, almost  entirely  forgotten  to-day  among  the 
Arabs  themselves,  are  the  ancestors  of  our  mod- 
ern numerals.  These  primitive  Western  forms, 
used  in  the  abacus-calculation,  are  found  in  the 
West  European  manuscripts  of  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries,  and  owe  much  of  their  promi- 
nence to  Gerbert,  afterwards  Pope  Sylvester  II. 
( q.v. ) ,  and  to  Leonardo  Fibonacci    ( q.v. ) . 

The  arithmetic  of  the  Western  nations,  cul- 
tivated to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  cloister 
schools  from  the  ninth  century  on.  employed, 
besides  the  abacus,  the  Roman  numerals,  and 
consequently  did  not  use  a  symbol  for  zero.  In 
Germany,  up  to  the  year  1500.  the  Ronuin  symbols 
were  called  German  numerals,  in  distinction  from 
the  symbols  of  .Vrab-IIindu  origin,  which  included 
the  zero  (Arabic,  as-sifr;  Sanskrit,  suni/a,  the 
void).  The  latter  were  called  ciphers  (Zifferii). 
From  the  fifteenth  century  on  these  Arab-Hindu 
numerals  appear  more  frequently  in  Germany  on 
monuments  and  in  churches,  but  at  that  time 
they  had  not  become  common  property.  A  fre- 
quent and  free  use  of  the  zero  in  the  thirteenth 
century  is  shown  in  tables  for  the  calculation 
of  the  tides  at  London,  and  of  the  duration  of 
moonlight.  In  the  year  1471  there  appeared  in 
Cologne  a  work  of  Petrarch  with  page-numbers 
in  Hindu  figures  at  the  top.  In  1478  the  first 
printed  arithmetic  appeared  at  Treviso.  and  in 
14S2  the  first  German  arithmetic  at  Bamberg, 
and  these  explained  the  system.  Besides  the 
ordinary  forms  of  numerals  everywhere  used 
to-day.  the  following  forms  for  4.  5,  7  were  used 
in  Germany  at  the  time  of  the  struggle  between 
the  Roman  and  Hindu  notations: 

The  derivation  of  the  modern  numerals  is  illus- 
trated by  the  examples  below,  which  are  taken 
in    succession    from    the 

Sanskrit,  the  figures  used      Jf  T  T     %-J  LJ 

by  Gerbert  (latter  part  of     v^       "-J       '    1  ^ 

the    tenth    centurv).    the     ^^  ,   .        >»         f-. 

Eastern  Arab,  the  West-     (j  ^    ^^       Q 
em   Arab    Gubar   numer-  q 

als,  the  numerals  of  the  1.-'  _p  V/  y\ 
eleventh,  thirteenth,  and       '         /? 

sixteenth  centuries:  '"^ 

In    the    sixteenth    cen-      ^  '-^       y  P) 

tury   the   Hindu   position  f         f  fjf 

arithmetic   and    its   nota-      "•  I     ^    \l       A 

tion  first  found  complete  O  ^-^^  V  /\ 
introduction     among     all     ^^ 

the    civilized    peoples    of     'T^  g  ^      ^  O 

the  West.  By  this  means  '  ^^  '  »  O 
was    ful tilled    one   of   the     ,^         •_     ^^     ^ 

indispensable  conditions  j[^  ^  ^g  0 
for    the    development    of 

common  arithmetic  in  the  schools  and  in  the 
service  of  trade  and  commerce. 


NOTATION. 


650 


NOTHNAGEL. 


\ 


Scaij:s  of  Xotatiox.  The  explanation  of  the 
fact  that  10  is  almost  everywhere  found  as  the 
base  of  the  system  of  countinjr  is  seen  in  the 
common  use  of  the  finders  in  elementary  ealeula- 
tions.  In  all  ancient  civilizations  finder  reckon- 
ing was  kiio«n,  and  even  to-day  it  is  cairied 
on  to  a  remarkable  extent  among  savage  peoples. 
It  is  evident  that  any  integer  may  be  made  the 
base  of  a  scale  of  notation,  the  number  of  symbols 
being  the  same  as  the  number  of  units  in  the 
base.  .Some  languages  contain  words  l)eloiiging 
fundamentally  to  the  scales  of  ;">  and  20.  with- 
out these  systems  having  been  completely  elabo- 
rated. In  the  Roman  and  Babylonian  systems 
12  and  GO  appear  as  bases.  The  Xew  Zealanders 
have  a  scale  of  11,  their  language  possessing 
words  for  the  first  few  powers  of  11,  and  con- 
seiiuently  12  is  represented  as  II  and  1,  13  as 
11  and  2,  22  as  two  U's,  and  so  on.  (See 
Xljiebation.)  What  has  been  said  concerning 
the  delevopmcnt  of  the  number  symbols  illus- 
trates the  ])Ower  of  a  well-arranged  numlier  sys- 
tem and  its  necessity  for  progress  in  mathe- 
matic-il  science.  For  reasons  already  stated,  the 
world  has  generally  adopted  the  decimal  notation. 
In  this  system  each  place  has  a  value  tenfold 
that  of  the  place  at  its  right,  the  general  form 

of  the  integers  being  ID"-)/!  +  ]0"-'-7  + 

IQ'd  +  10»-c  +  10/)  +  a.  and  that  of  the  fractions 

being    10-'-«'  +  IQ-^-  b'+  IQ-'-c'  + 10-°-m'. 

The  decimal  fraction  was  a  relatively  late 
Ueveloimicnt  of  the  system.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  the  sexagesimal  fractions  (see  Fkaction.S)  , 
inherited  from  the  Uabylonians  through  the  later 
Greeks,  had  been  generally  used  by  physicists 
and  astronomers,  and  had  therefore  received  the 
names  'jihysical'  and  'astronomical  fractions.' 
We  have  the  remains  of  the  system  in  our  degrees, 
minutes,  an<l  seconds.  The  inediieval  fractions 
were  not  limited  to  seconds,  however,  but  ex- 
tended to  'thirds.'  'fourths,'  and  so  on.  For 
example,   12°   5'  3"   16'"   18''   means   in  modern 

symbols  12  +  ^+  g5^  +  Q^y^  +  ^,.  To  distin- 
guish the  fractions  of  trade  from  the  'fractiones 
astronomicie,'  the  former  were  called  'fractiones 
vulgares,'  from  which  come  the  English  'vulgar 
fractions'  and  the  .\merican  'common  fractions.' 

The  constant  advance  of  science,  calling  for 
larger  numbers  and  more  elaborate  fraction-*, 
finally  demanded  some  improvement  on  the 
sexagesimal  system.  As  early  as  the  latter  part 
of  the  fifteenth  century  some  indications  of  the 
approach  of  the  (h'cimal  fraction  are  seen.  Dur- 
ing the  sixteenth  century  several  elforls  were 
made  in  the  same  direction,  notably  that  by 
iStevin  (q.v.).  But  it  was  the  advent  of  logar- 
ithms at  the  opening  of  the  seventeenth  century 
that  made  the  necessity  apparent  and  gave  to 
decimal  fractions  a  general  recognition  in  the 
sclent  i(ic  world.  It  was,  however,  fully  a  cen- 
tury later  that  they  began  to  be  rccognizeil  in 
business:  the  establishment  of  the  metric  system 
(q.v.)  and  the  decimal  coinages  of  the  various 
countries  finally  compelled  their  general  use. 
.\  comparison  of  the  three  sy.stems  is  seen  in  the 
following  representation  of  one-tenth:^  (com- 
mon), 0.1   (<lecinial) ,  0'   (sexagesimal). 

Index  notation  may  also  be  mentioned  as  a 
recent  example  of  the  power  of  symlxilism.  .\s- 
tronomers  and  physicists,  having  to  employ  both 
exceedingly  large  and  small  numlfcrs  in  calcula- 


tion, find  it  advantageous  in  approximations  to 
introduce  powers  of  ten.  Thus  2S4.(lii{).()0(),000 
may  be  expressed  by  284  •  1(1".  and  0.01100000003.) 
by  3..5-10"'".  If  these  numbers  an-  to  be  multi- 
plied, the  process  is  simply  284:3-5- lO"-'"  or 
;ii)4-10-'  =  00.4. 

Consult:  Cantor.  Torlcsungen  iiber  Gcschichte 
tlrr  ilathemiitik  (Leipzig.  IS.SO:  2d  ed.  1804); 
I'nger,  Die  Mclhodik  dcr  pnihlischeit  Arithntctik 
(ih.,  1888)  ;  GUnther,  Gcxrhichtc  dix  ninlhc- 
matisclien  Untcrrichts  im  dfulschcn  Mitti  lulter 
bis  ::um  Jahr  lo2'>  (Berlin,  1887);  Woepcke, 
Kitr  Vintrodiiction  de  rurilluiitiitjuc  indiruiic  vn 
Occident  (Rome,  1850)  ;  ''ilenioirs  sur  la  i)ropa- 
gation  des  chilTres  indiens."  in  Journal  Asinlii/iic 
(Vl&rae  seric,  part  i.,  Paris,  18(53)  ;  Friedlein, 
Die  Zahlzeichen  und  das  eleincnlaic  I'rchnrn  dcr 
Gricchen  und  RUmer  (Erlangcu,  18(iO)  ;  Pihan, 
Expose  des  signes  de  nuinerutioii  usites  ehr:  les 
peuples  orientanx  (Paris,  18(J0).  For  the  history 
and  bibliography,  consult:  Treutlein,  Gcsehiehte 
iinserrr  Zalil:cielien  (Karlsruhe,  1875)  ;  and  Can- 
tor, Gcschichte  der  Muthrmntik  (Leipzig.  2  edi- 
tions, 1880-08),  both  of  which  give  extensive 
tables  showing  the  development  of  the  forms  of 
the  nmnerals. 

NOTATION,  Musical.     See  JIusical  Xota- 

T10-\. 

NOTE  (OF.,  Fr.  note,  from  Lat.  nota.  mark). 
In  music,  a  character  which  l)y  the  degree  it 
occupies  on  the  staff  re])resents  a  sound,  and  by 
its  form  the  period  of  time  or  duration  of  that 
sound.  The  notes  commonly  in  use  in  modern 
music  are  the  semibreve,^;  minim,  f^;  crotchet,,  ; 

quaver,  |*  ;  semiquaver,  •  ;  demisemiquaver,  >  ; 


Taking     the 


and  senii-demisemiquaver,    \,  . 

semibreve  as  a  unit,  the  minim  is  \  its  duration, 
the  crotchet  ',,  the  quaver  ;,  the  scmi<|uaver  t^ji, 
the  demisemiquaver  ',,  and  the  semi-clemisemi- 
quaver  f,'^.  Xotes  of  greater  length  than  the 
semibreve  were  formerly  in  use — viz.  the  breve, 
twice  the  duration  of  the  .semibreve;  the  long, 
four  times;  and  the  large,  eight  times  the  semi- 
breve. Of  these,  the  breve,  ZH  or  H-sl,  is  still 
sometimes  met  with  in  ecclesiastical  music.  Ac- 
cording to  their  numerical  ]>ro]>ortions,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  speak  of  notes  as  whole,  half,  quarter, 
eighth,  sixteenth,  etc.  See  LicADlMi  To.nej 
McsicAi,  Notation. 

NOTE   (in  Law),     See  PROMIS.SORY  XoTE. 

NOTHING  TO  WEAR.  A  humorous  poem 
by  William  Allen  Butler  (q.v.).  which  appeared 
anonymously  in  IJnrpcr's  Wccklif  in  1857.  The 
heroine  is  Miss  Flora  McFlim.sey.  Many  edi- 
(ions  of  this  popular  satire  on  dress  have  been 

issued. 

NOTHNAGEL,  not'nil'grl.  Hermann  (1841 
— ).  A  (Jerman  ])hysician.  horn  at  .Mt-Lietze- 
giiricke.  He  studied  medicine  at  Berlin,  taught 
at  Kiinigsberg.  Berlin,  and  Breshui.  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  at  Freiburg  (1872).  at  .Tena 
(1874).  and  at  Vienna  (1882).  ]?esides  his 
Topisehe  Diiignostik  dcr  Ochirnkrnnkhciirn 
(1879).  and  lieitriige  zur  Phi/sinltiiiic  und  I'ntho- 
loflie  des  Danns.  Xothnagel  wrote  Ifundhuch  dcr 
Arzneimittellchre  (1870:  7th  ed.  1«04).  and 
contributions  to  Speziclle  Pntholoflie  und  Thera- 
pie  (1894  et  seq.),  of  which  he  is  an  editor. 


J 


NOTHOMB, 


651 


NOTICE. 


NOTHOMB,  ncVtox',  Jean  IUptiste,  Baron 
(1805-81  I.  A  Belgian  statesman  and  diplomat, 
born  at  Messancy.  Ho  studied  law  at  T-i^fie. 
and  entered  politics  in  Brussels  as  a  contributor 
to  the  Courrier  des  I'di/s-Basi.  He  played  an 
important  part  in  the  Uevohition  of  1830,  and  in 
Novemlrcr  of  that  year  was  appointed  by  the 
Provisional  Governnn'iit  a  member  of  the  Diplo- 
matic f'omniittee.  In  1S.37  he  received  the  port- 
folio of  I'ulilic  Works,  and  in  that  department 
founded  the  Helffian  railway  system,  and  in  1842 
became  .Minister  of  the  Interior.  He  formed  a 
new  t'abinet  in  184.'!,  but  his  moderate  policy  was 
not  lonjr  successful,  and  he  was  forcc(l  to  retire 
by  the  coalition  of  184.5.  He  was  Minister  at 
Berlin  from  184.3  luitil  his  death.  His  chief 
works  include  Esytii  hixloriiiue  et  politique  unr 
la  rirolution  beige  (1833;  4th  ed.  1870).  Con- 
sult Juste,  Le  baron  Nothomb  (Brussels,  1874). 

NOTICE  (Lat.  nolitia,  knowledge,  idea,  from 
ftoscirc,  to  know).  Xotice  in  law  denotes  exist- 
ing knowledge  of  a  fact  based  upon  information 
connnunicated  by  another,  which  knowledge  has 
the  cfl'ect  of  fixing  the  rights  and  liabilities  of 
the  party  giving  and  the  party  receiving  the 
information.  The  term  is  also  sometimes  applied 
to  the  act  of  giving  the  information  which  con- 
stitutes the  notice.  Unless  otherwise  stated,  the 
term  will  here  be  used  as  first  defined.  Notice 
may  be  either  (a)  actual  or  {h")  constructive. 

Actual  notice  is  knowledge  of  a  fact  based 
upon  information  comraiuiicated  by  either  writ- 
ten or  spoken  language. 

Constructive  notice  is  knowledge  which  may 
not  in  fact  exist,  but  which  the  law  may  presume 
to  exist  upon  groiuids  of  policy,  as  where  notice 
to  an  agent  is  deemed  to  be  notice  to  the  prin- 
cipal, although  in  fact  the  information  is  never 
comnuinicated  to  the  principal :  or  where  notice 
of  pendency  of  action  ali'eeting  real  estate  is 
constructive  notice  of  the  action  to  any  one 
dealing  with  the  title  to  the  real  e-state,  whether 
he  has  actual  notice  of  the  action  or  not  (see 
Lis  PejAen.s)  ;  or  where  notice  to  the  purchaser 
of  negotiable  pa])er  of  facts  by  which  he  is 
'put  u|)OU  inquiry'  as  to  its  validity  may  be 
constructive  notice  of  a  defense  of  the  maker 
to  any  action  founded  upon  the  paper,  or  where 
one  accepting  a  conveyance  containing  a  refer- 
ence to  some  other  deed  is  deemed  to  have  con- 
structive notice  of  the  other  deed,  although  he 
may  never  have  read  it. 

The  doctrine  of  notice  as  a  means  of  fixing 
rights  and  liabilities  has  many  applications  at 
common  law,  the  more  important  of  which  are: 

Liability  of  an  indorser  of  negotiable  paper, 
or  of  a  promissory  note,  or  a  bill  of  exchange, 
is  fixed  by  a  notice  of  dishonor.  The  notice  in 
order  to  charge  an  indorser  must  be  given  with 
due  dispatch  after  dishonor  or  protest,  usually 
on  the  day  following;  it  must  describe  the  bill  or 
note  and  the  nature  of  the  dishonor.  It  ma}'  be 
oral,  although  usually  in  writing,  and  may  be 
served  personally  or  by  mail.  If  the  holder  or 
prior  indorser  is  unable  after  due  diligence  to 
find  the  indorser  or  serve  him  with  notice,  neces- 
sity of  notice  to  charge  the  indorser  is  dispensed 
vvitli.     See  Xegotiakle  Ix.strume>ts. 

In   general   any  one  purchasing  property  with 

actual  notice  of  any  equitable  claims  or  rights 

that  there  may  be  with  respect  to  the  propertv, 

or  with  notice  of  facts  sutlicient  to  put  him  upon 

Vol.  XIV.— I'j. 


inquiry,  takes  the  i)roperty  subject  to  such 
claims;  as,  for  example,  an  equitable  defense  to 
negotiable  paper,  or  fraud  in  the  contract  by 
which  the  vendee  obtained  title  to  the  property, 
although  a  purchaser  for  value  without  notice 
would  acquire  the  property  free  of  claims.  See 
Fkaud. 

Xotice  by  the  landlord  is  necessary  to  ter- 
minate the  tenancy  of  a  tenant  at  will  or  by 
sufferance,  or  of  a  tenant  from  .vear  to  year. 
In  the  latter  case  the  landlord  must  give 
notice  at  least  a  reasonable  length  of  time 
before  the  end  of  any  year  of  his  election  to  ter- 
minate the  lease.  This  time  is  now  tLxed  by 
statute  in  .some  States.  The  landlord  may,  how- 
ever, waive  his  right  acquired  by  notice  given, 
and  continue  the  tenancy  by  cxpresslj-  giving  his 
consent,  or  by  continuing  to  accept  payment  of 
rent. 

When  a  creditor  assigns  his  claim  against  his 
debtor  without  notice  to  the  debtor,  the  debtor 
may  pay  the  assignor  and  may  thus  discharge 
the  debt.  If,  however,  the  assignee  give  the 
debtor  notice  of  the  assignment,  the  debtor  is 
boimd  to  pay  the  assignee ;  and  if  he  pays  the 
assignor,  notwithstamling  the  notice  to  pay  the 
assignee,  he  may  nevertheless  be  compelled  to 
pay  the  amount  due  to  the  assignee.  See  Assign- 
ment. 

The  right  of  an  insured  to  abandon  the  prop- 
erty insured  to  the  insurer  upon  the  happening 
of  a  partial  loss  is  fixed  by  notice  given  by  the 
insured  to  the  insurer.  If  a  proper  case  for 
abandonment,  the  mere  giving  of  notice  is  sutli- 
cient. If  not,  a  proper  case  for  abandonment, 
the  insured  may  not  abandon  unless  the  notice  is 
accepted  by  the  insurer.     See  In.surance. 

In  addition  to  the  various  general  rules  of 
common  law  requiring  notice  to  be  given,  notice 
may  be  required  in  special  cases,  as  where 
statutes  require  notice  to  be  given  as  a  condition 
of  fixing  rights  and  liabilities;  or  where  the 
parties  to  a  contract  stipulate  expressly  or  im- 
pliedly for  notice  as  a  means  of  defining  their 
rights  under  the  contract. 

Whether  notice  must  be  personally  served  upon 
the  person  to  be  notified  depends  npon  the 
particular  kind  of  notice.  In  general  all  notices, 
except  those  requirc<i  in  the  course  of  litigation, 
must  be  personally  served.  Notice  required 
between  litigants  may  be  served  upon  the  attor- 
neys in  the  case.  When  notice  is  required  by 
statute,  it  must  be  served  upon  the  person  to 
be  notified,  unless  otherwise  specified  in  the 
statute.  When  the  giving  of  notice  is  a  condition 
precedent  to  creating  a  legal  liability,  a  plaintiflf 
seeking  to  enforce  the  liability  must  allege  the 
giving  of  notice  in  his  declaration  or  complaint. 
And  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  party 
relying  upon  notice  as  a  part  of  his  cause  of 
action  or  defense  must  plead  and  prove  it.  When, 
however,  the  condition  is  in  the  nature  of  a 
condition  subsequent,  it  is  not  a  part  of  the 
pleader's  cause  of  action,  and  need  not  be  pleaded 
by  him.  See  Pleading.  Consult:  Wade,  T'refid'.se 
on  the  L/iir  of  Xotice  an  Affecting  Civil  Kights 
and  Remedies  (San  Francisco.  1880);  Bennett, 
Treatise  on  the  Late  of  Lis  PendPrm  (Chicago, 
1887)  ;  and  for  the  rules  affecting  notice  in  cases 
of  motions  in  actions  or  proceedings  at  law.  no- 
tices of  protest  of  negotiable  paper,  etc.,  consult 
the  authorities  referred  to  under  Pbocedube; 
Pleading;  Negotiable  Instbument.s,  etc. 


NOTKEB. 


652 


NOTRE  DAME. 


NOTTCER.  The  name  of  two  monks  of  the 
Swiss  -MonasU'ry  of  Saint  Gall.  Xotkkh  B.\l- 
lULls  (f.S40-'.n2)  did  much  for  church  music 
by  ]x;rfoctiiig  the  'sequence'  (q.v.).  More  than 
tliirl^'  melodies  and  about  forty  arranfjements  of 
words  are  ascribed  to  Xotker,  who  was  canonized 
in  1.513. — XoTKEB  LAnEO,  the  'Thick-Lipped' 
(c.!loO-1022) ,  was  a  great  teacher,  and  it  is  prob- 
ably to  his  school  ratlu'r  than  to  him  individu- 
ally that  we  should  ascribe  the  many  translations 
which  bear  bis  name,  .\mong  tlicse  are  versions 
in  (Jerman  of  Koethius's  On  the  Voii.solat ion  of 
I'liilosoiihi/,  Aristotle's  Ciilcf/oricfi  and  lliimv- 
mnilics,  and  the  l.atin  Psalter.  These  works  have 
great  value  from  the  pliili)l<)i;ical  point  of  view 
as  examples  of  Old  High  (k-rman.  They  are 
edited  by  Piper,  Nothers  iinil  seiner  fichulc 
Schriften  (188.3-8-t).  Consult  KcUe,  Die  Sanht 
Culler  {leutxchen  Schriften  und  Xotker  Laheo 
(Munich,  1888). 

NOTO,  mVto.  A  city  in  the  Province  of  Syra- 
cuse Sicily.  17  miles  southwest  of  the  city  of  Syra- 
cuse. an<l  three  miles  from  the  Mediterranean 
(.Map:  Italy.  K  11).  It  is  a  handsome  town  with 
rich  churches, beautiful  palaces, and  broad  straight 
streets,  and  is  the  see  of  a  l>ishii]i.  Its  academy 
has  a  library  and  a  collection  of  antiquities.  A 
trade  is  carried  on  in  corn,  wine,  and  oil.  Note 
w«is  built  in  1703  near  the  site  of  an  older  to\vn 
of  the  same  name  (the  ancient  Xetiim  ) ,  destroyed 
bv  an  earthquake  in  lfi!)3.  Pojuilalion  (com- 
nniucl.  in   ISSI,  18.230;  in  1001.  22,5(U. 

NO'TOCHORD  (from  Ok.  kjtos.  nOtos,  back 
-1"  xopSi),  ehordf,  covA) .  A  cellular,  cartilage-like 
rod.  arising  in  the  embr_yo  as  an  axial  tliickcn- 
ing  of  the  hypoblast.  It  forms  the  basis  of  the 
vertebral  cohnnn,  i.e.  the  segmented  axial  skele- 
ton of  verlel)rate  anin:als.  It  is  composed  of  a 
|icciiliar  form  of  cellular  (issue,  called  no- 
liKliiirdal  tissue,  formed  of  large  vacuolated  cells 
exten<ling  from  side  to  side  of  the  notochord  and 
having  the  nuclei  confined  to  its  dorsal  and 
ventral  regions.  .Vround  these  tissues  is  a 
'notoebordal  sheath'  of  connective  tissue,  which 
is  produced  dorsally  into  a  canal  for  the  nervous 
.system.  ,In  all  except  the  lower  vertebrates, 
Ainphioxus  (q.v.).  lampreys,  sharks,  and  certain 
armored  fishes,  the  notochord  is  a  transitory 
endiryonic  structiire,  replaced  later  by  the  per- 
manent vertebral  cohuiin.  Us  ]ircseiice  in  em- 
bryonic or  adult  structures  is  the  i)rimary  char- 
acteristic of  the  pliyhim  f'bordata  (q.v.)  ;  and 
the  traces  of  it  in  ascidians,  IJalanoglossus,  etc., 
led  to  the  inclusion  of  those  worm-like  forms  in 
this  phylum  as  .\deloeliorda  and  I'rochcuda. 
Si-c     I'laic    of    A.SCIDI.V.NS. 

NOTOG.ffiA,  no'ta-je'A  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Ok. 
1-4x0!,  nolon,  south  +  7ora,  (laia,  earth).  A 
term  in  zoiigeography  used  as  the  name  of  a 
great  faunal  region  in  two  dilTerent  .senses:  (1) 
as  embracing  tb<>  whole  Southern  Hemisphi're 
except  .\frica,  and  opposed  to  '.Xrctogica'  or  the 
llolarctic  lleginn ;  anil  (2)  as  the  e<|uivahiil  of 
Neotropical  Region  (q.v.:  see  also  Di.sTKliilTlox 
OK  .\m.m.m.,s).  The  first  use  of  the  term  was 
proposed  by  Huxley  in  1808.  to  reconcile  eortain 
-Iriking  resemblances  between  .\usf ralasin  and 
South  America — such,  for  instance,  as  the  pres- 
ence of  marsupials' in  both,  and  not  elsewhere; 
he  also  applied  the  synonymical  name  .Austro- 
f'olumbinn  Region.  The  implication  of  this  col- 
location in  the  same  category  of  two  continents, 


B  T 


now  so  remote  from  one  another,  was  that  in 
ancient  times  there  was  a  land-connection  be- 
tween them. 

The  secondary  use  of  'Notoga'a'  for  South  and 
Central  America  and  the  Antilles  has  not  come 
into  general  use;  nor  has  the  term  'Dendrogsea,' 
proposed  bj-  Selater. 

NOTONEC'TA.     See  Wateb-Bug. 

NOTOR'NIS  (Xeo-Lat.,  from  Ok,  vbroi.  notos, 
south  -|-  ipms,  amis,  bird),  .V  genus  of  large 
flightless  rails  or  gallinulcs  now  nearly  extinct. 
Only  one  living  species  is  known,  Xutorni/,-  Man- 
tclli,  of  the  southern  island  of  New  Zealana, 
^vhieh  was  first  described  by  Owen  from  renuiins 
found  with  those  of  various  moas,  A  living 
specimen,  however,  was  taken  in  1840,  a  .second 
in  1851,  a  third  in  1879,  and  a  fourth,  now  well 
j)reservcd  at  Dunedin,  New  Zealand,  in  1808,  A 
second,  purely  white  species,  has  become  extinct 
within  historic  times  on  Norfidk  Island,  a  single 
skin  in  Vieiuia  being  its  sole  remnant.  See  Kx- 
TixcT  Animals:  Flightless  Bmns, 

NOTOSUCHXTS,  no't.'.-su'kus  (Neo-Lat„  from 
Cik,  1-6x01,  notos,  south  +  ffoCxos,  souchos,  sort- 
of  crocodile),  A  small  unarmored  crocodile 
found  fossil  in  Patagonian  fornuitions  regarded 
as  of  Cretaceous  age.  It  had  a  short,  broad 
skull,  blunt  nose,  mesosuchian  palate,  and  the 
teeth  few,  small  (except  the  unusually  large 
canines),  and  laterally  comprcs.sed. 

NO'TOTHE'BIUM  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Ok.  i-Atos, 
notiis,  south  -f  0r)plov,  therion,  diminutive  of 
flijp,  tliCr,  wild  beast).  A  fossil  marsupial  mam- 
mnl  of  the  suborder  Diprotodontida',  found  in  the 
Pleistocene  beds  of  Australia,  See  DlpRoionox' ; 
and   Mammalia. 

n6tRE,  nft'tr',  Andr^  le.  A  French  archi- 
tect and  landscape  gardener.  See  Le  NOtre, 
AxoRt. 

NOTRE  DAME  (nA'tr'  dam)  DE  PARIS, 
('A'niLDKAL  OF.  A  church  in  Paris,  tlic  most  celc- 
brat<'d  among  the  many  churches  dedicat(Kl  to  the 
X'irgin  in  France,  It  is  situated  on  the  tie  de  la 
Cite,  The  remains  of  a  temple  of  .lupiter  Cer- 
naunus  and  the  image  of  a  horned  god  were  found 
on  the  spot  about  375,  when  a  chureh  was  erected 
on  the  same  site.  In  the  sixth  century  there  were- 
two  churches  there,  (ledicated  to  Saint  St<'pben  and 
the  VirgiiL  Cbildebcrt  rebuilt  the  latter  alxait  520 
in  a  I!<inian  style,  considered  very  grand.  The  first 
glass  window  now  known  of  in  France  was  placed 
in  it.  Fragments  of  mosaic  anil  precious  marbles 
suiqiosed  to  be  from  the  floor  and  columns  of  this 
church  were  discovered  in  excavations  in  1847i 
and  are  now  in  the  MusC>e  de  Cluny.  This  chureh 
was  pillaged  and  partly  destroyed  by  the  Nor- 
nuins  in  857.  but  it  was  repaired  by  Bishop 
.\nseric.  In  1140  the  AbbC-  of  Saint  Denis  put  in 
;i  i;Iass  window  of  great  beauty.  It  was  then 
called  the  ei/lise  neure.  to  distinguish  it  from 
Saint  Ktienne.  called  le  rieii.r.  In  the  twelfth 
century  both  were  falling  into  ruins,  though  they  jy 
ha(l  for  centuries  been  used  for  the  great  re-  ^ 
ligious  ceremonies  and  royal  pageants  of  France.   Jf 

.About  1100  Bishop  Maurice  de  Sully  resolved 
to  replace  both  old  churches  with  a  single  edifice 
worthy  of  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  and  in  1163 
the  foundation  of  the  present  majestic  pile  was 
begun,  its  corner  stone  being  laiil  by  Pope  .AleX- 
an<ler  III.,  then  a  refugee  in  Fr«nce.  The  choir  ~ 
was  the  first  part  begun  and  the  work  was  pushed  5 


I. 


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NOTRE  DAME. 


653 


NOTTEBOHM. 


rapidly,  so  that  in  11S2  the  great  altar  was 
consecrated  by  a  legate  of  the  I'ope.  In  1185 
Heraclius.  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  came  to  Paris 
to  otTiciate  with  the  Bishop  in  the  dedication  of 
the  choir.  Henrj'  II.,  King  of  England,  was  in- 
terred before  its  high  altar  in  August,  1189.  The 
choir,  transepts,  and  adjoining  bays  of  the  nave 
were  completed  in  about  11  DC.  The  lower  part 
of  the  nave  was  then  run  out  to  the  uuiin  fagade, 
which,  with  its  two  towers  and  three  portals, 
was  only  begun  by  Bishop  Pierre  de  Xemours 
in  120S.'  The  portal  of  the  south  transept  fayade 
was  built  still  later,  as  shown  by  an  inscription 
of  the  architect  .lean  de  Chelles,  who  began  work 
upon  it  in  1257,  in  the  reign  of  Saint  Louis. 
The  chapels  in  the  rear  of  the  transepts  were  not 
a  part  of  the  original  design,  and  were  added  in 
the  last  part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  about 
which  time,  also,  the  towers  of  the  west  front 
were  completed.  In  1G09  Louis  XIV.  was  seized 
with  the  ambition  to  place  in  the  cathedral  an 
altar  piece  in  the  Renaissance  style,  and  removed 
the  original  altar  to  give  place  to  it.  Other  al- 
terations were  made  by  Soufflot  in  1771-78.  Dur- 
ing the  Revolution  the  statues  of  the  old  kings 
of  France,  which  were  upon  the  gallery  of  the 
main  facade,  were  destroyed,  and  in  1793  the 
cathedral  became,  by  law  of  the  Revolutionists, 
the  Temple  of  Reason.  Victor  Hugo's  literary 
masterpiece.  .Yo/rc  Dame  de  Paris  (1830),  at- 
tracted popular  attention  to  the  venerable  edi- 
fice, and  in  1845-55  it  was  subjected  to  a  thor- 
ough and  successful  restoration,  under  the  archi- 
tects Lassu.s  and  Viollet-le-Duc.  From  1182  to 
the  present  its  nave,  its  altars,  and  its  chapels 
have  been  the  scenes  of  the  most  important  cere- 
monies of  Church  and  State  in  France. 

The  architecture  is  the  noblest  expression  of 
simple  early  Gothic  before  its  richer  flowering  in 
Amiens,  Rheims,  and  Bourges  cathedrals,  and 
for  simple  majesty  of  expression  its  facade  has 
no  superior  in  France.  The  plan  of  Xotre  Damp 
is  exceedingly  compact ;  there  is  no  break  in  the 
line  of  radiating  chapels  in  the  choir  and  the 
transepts  do  not  project  beyond  the  chapels. 
The  inner  narthex,  of  a  double  bay,  is  beneath 
the  line  of  towers:  the  body  of  the  church  con- 
sists of  a  high  central  nave  and  four  aisles 
flanked  by  an  outer  continuous  line  of  chapels 
and  cut  by  transepts  almost  in  the  centre.  The 
vaulting  is  superb.  The  early  features  of  sex- 
partite  vaulting,  hea\y  round  pillars,  and  high 
trifmium  gallery  characterize  the  interior.  The 
beginnings  of  tracery  are  illustrated  by  its  lack 
in  the  earliest  parts  at  the  choir  end  and  in  its 
use  in  simpler  forms  in  the  windows  and  details 
of  nave  and  facades.  The  portals,  instead  of  be- 
ing, as  in  the  more  developed  cathedrals,  pro- 
jected from  the  facade,  are  recessed  in  its  mass, 
and  of  their  rich  sculptures,  one  tympanum  is 
an  interesting  survival  of  the  earlier  chureli 
(e.llin),  the  rest,  barring  restorations,  dating 
from  between  1215  and  1225.  The  extreme  length 
of  the  cathedral  is  430  feet:  width  at  transept. 
170  feet;  across  nave  and  aisles,  124  feet:  area 
covered  bv  it.  64.108  square  feet;  height  of  tow- 
ers, 223  feet ;  height  of  vault,  108  feet. 

NOTRE  DAME  DU  LAC,  du  lak,  T^xn-ER- 
SITY  OF.  A  Roman  Catholic  institution  at  Xotre 
Dame,  Ind.,  founded  in  1842  :uid  chartered  in 
1844.  The  university  cnniprises  schools  of  arts 
and  letters,  science,  engineering,  pharmacy,  archi- 


tecture, and  law,  and  a  large  preparatory  depart- 
ment. In  1902  a  branch  was  established  at  Port- 
land, Oregon,  under  the  name  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. There  are  other  branches  at  Austin, 
Tex.,  Xew  Orleans,  La.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  and 
Watcrtown,  Wis.  In  1902  the  faculty  nund^ered 
70,  and  the  attendance  was  872.  of  whom  348  were 
preparatory  students.  The  library  contained 
00,000  vohnnes.  The  college  property  was  valued 
at  .$2,700,000,  of  which  sum  .$2,200,000  was 
represented  by  the  buildings  and  grounds. 

NOTT,.  EUPIIALET  (1773-18G6).  An  Ameri- 
can educator.  He  was  born  at  Ashford,  Conn., 
.June  25,  1773.  He  was  left  an  orphan  at  an 
early  age,  and  had  to  earn  his  own  support  while 
striving  for  an  education.  Xevertheless  he  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  M.A.  from  Brown  University 
in  1795,  and  the  same  year  was  licensed  to 
preach.  He  was  missionary  and  school  teacher  at 
Cherry  Valley,  X.  Y.,  in  1796-97.  and  pastor  of 
the  Presbyterian  church  in  Albany  (1798-1804). 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  elected  president  of 
Union  College  at  Schenectady,  X.  Y.,  and  filled 
the  position  for  more  than  sixty-two  years.  He 
found  the  college  without  funds,  buildings,  or 
library,  and  in  debt,  but  he  soon  provided  for  its 
needs,  and  during  his  presidency  more  than  4000 
students  were  graduated.  He  possessed  no  small 
mechanical  genius,  and  among  about  30  patents 
granted  to  him  was  one  for  the  first  stove  to 
burn  anthracite  coal.  He  w'as  considered  one  of 
the  most  finished  pulpit  orators  of  his  time.  Be- 
sides sermons,  addresses,  etc.,  he  publislied 
Counsels  to  Younfi  Men  (1810)  and  Lectures  on 
Temperance  (1847).  Consult  his  Life  by  Van 
Santvoord,  revised  bv  Tavler  Lewis  (Xew  York, 
1876). 

NOTT,  JosiAH  Clarke  (1804-73).  An  Ameri- 
can physician  and  ethnologist,  born  in  Columbia, 
S.  C.  He  graduated  at  the  South  Carolina  Col- 
lege in  1824,  and  at  the  medical  school  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  three  years  later. 
After  practicing  for  a  time  in  Columbia,  he  went 
in  1835  to  Europe,  and  spent  a  year  in  the  hos- 
pitals of  Paris.  On  his  return  he  settled  at 
Jloliile,  where  in  1858  he  founded  a  medical 
school,  which  became  a  part  of  the  University  of 
Alabama.  He  served  for  a  time  on  the  stall"  of 
General  Bragg  during  the  Civil  War.  He  was 
much  interested  in  ethnology  and  kindred 
sciences,  and  published,  besides  many  contribu- 
tions to  medical  journals  and  other  periodicals: 
Two  Lectures  on  the  C'nimection  lietirecn  the 
[iiblical  and  I'lii/sical  Flistori/  of  Man  (1849); 
The  Phi/sical  Uikory  of  the  Jeinsh  Race  ( 1S50)  ; 
Tapes  of  Maiil;ind  (1854)  :  and  Indlficnous  I'aces 
of  the  Earth  (1857).  The  last  two  books  he 
wrote  in  conjunction  with  George  R.  (iliddon 
(q.v. ).  an  English  scientist,  and  one  of  the  aims 
of  the  authors  was  to  disprove  the  imity  of  the 
human  race.  Some  of  Xott's  theories  have  been 
severely  criticised,  and  they  are  perhaps  more 
original  than  profound. 

NOTTEBOHM,  n.'.t'tr-bom.  Gi-stav  (1817- 
S2).  A  (ierman  musician  and  writer,  born  at 
Liidenscheid,  Westphaliti.  After  he  had  stud- 
ied for  a  year  in  Berlin  with  Berger  and  Dehn, 
he  went  to  Leijizig  (1840),  where  he  became  the 
friend  aiul  luipil  of  ilendelssohn  and  Scluuuann. 
He  then  studied  under  S(<ohter  in  Vienna  (1846), 
and  afterwards  taught  nnisic  himself  in  that  city. 
He  became  famous  through  his  editions  of  musi- 


NOTTEBOHM. 


654 


NOUN. 


cal  classics,  and  his  critical  reviews  of  the  lives 
and  works  of  great  composers,  notably  Beethoven. 
His  publications  include:  Ein  Hkizzenbiiih  von 
lieethoveit  (18(15);  Tlicmatischcs  Verzeichnis  dcr 
im  Druch  ersrhieneneii  ^Vcl■ke  t'o»  Beethoven 
(1868);  Beethovcniana  (1872-87);  Jieetlioveits 
Stiidien  (1873);  Thematischcs  Verseichiiis  dei' 
im  Druck  erschiencnen  Werke  Franz  Hchuberls 
(1874);  Moznrtiana  (1880);  and  Ein  Hkizzcn- 
hiich  con  lieethoien  aus  dem  Jahre  1803  (1880). 

NOTTINGHAM,  not'tinjjom.  An  inland 
county  of  Kii^land.  between  Lincolnshire  on  the 
east  and  Yorkshire  and  Derbyshire  on  the  west 
(Jlap:  Englanil,  K  4).  Area,  826  square  miles. 
The  eastern  portion  is  comparatively  level,  the 
western  undulating;  in  the  south  are  the  upland 
moors  and  pasture  lands,  and  in  the  west  are  re- 
mains of  the  royal  forest  of  ^^herwood.  The  soil 
is  fairly  productive;  the  agricultural  industries 
include  market  gardening  and  hop-raising.  There 
are  important  (lomeslic  mantifactures  and  some 
coalmining.  The  principal  river  is  the  Trent, 
connected  bv  canals  with  the  Witham.  Popula- 
tion, in  189i,  445.823:  in  I'.IOl,  ■514,537.  Capital, 
Xottingham. 

NOTTINGHAM.  A  numicipal  Iwrough  and 
county,  tin-  capital  of  Xottinghamshirc.  Kngland, 
on  the  Leen,  at  its  junction  with  the  Trent.  130 
miles  north-northwest  of  London  (-Ma)!:  Eng- 
land, E  4).  It  is  built  principally  on  the  slope 
and  at  the  foot  of  a  rocky  eminence  crowned  by 
an  ancient  castle.  The  nuirket  place,  5%  acres 
in  e.Ktent,  is  surrounded  by  line  buildings.  The 
Exchange,  the  town  and  county  halls,  the  house 
of  correction.  Saint  Mary's  Church,  the  Roman 
Catholic  Chai)el.  the  new  free  grammar  school, 
erected  in  1868.  and  the  L'niversity  College,  with 
its  fine  buildings,  are  edifices  worthy  of  special 
mention.  The  free  grammar  school  was  founded 
in  1513.  There  are  numerous  hospitals  for  the 
poor  and  infirm,  a  public  park  of  150  acres,  a 
conniion.  called  Bulwell  Forest,  of  135  acres,  and 
a  fine  arboretum  of  17  acres.  The  municipality 
owns  ])ropcrty  which  returns  a  revenue  of  $150,000 
yearly,  namely,  the  water,  gas,  and  electric  light- 
ing plants,  markets,  free  libraries,  baths,  ceme- 
teries, parks,  garden  allotments,  tramways,  ar- 
tisans' dwellings,  hospitals,  lunatic  asylums, 
and  a  large  sewage  farm.  It  is  the  sole  munici- 
pality in  England  that  maintains  a  university 
college,  ('(jiuu'cled  with  the  college  are  well- 
equipped  technical  schools,  including  an  agri- 
cultural department  and  a  natural  liistory  school. 
It  is  one  of  England's  leading  educational  insti- 
tutions. In  1874  the  (own  ac<]uircd  Xottingham 
Castle  anil  installcil  art  galleries  and  a  museinn, 
Xottingham  is  an  impcutant  industrial  centre, 
the  principal  manufactures  being  bobbinet  and 
lace,  anil  cotton  and  silk  hosiery.  Cotton,  silk, 
and  flax  mills,  iron,  wire,  biiycle.  basket,  brass, 
and  bleaching  works  are  in  operation.  Formerly 
the  city  was  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  wool- 
ens. 

.•\s  the  Snottengaham. 'home  of  the  caves,' of  the 
8axons.  the  place  fir-^t  hecame  important  in  the 
ninth  centurj'.  It  was  one  of  the  five  Danish  bor- 
oughs. Xottingham  Castle  was  hiiilt  by  William 
the  Conqueror,  and  was  the  seat  of  |iarliamen(s 
and  other  important  historical  events.  Charli'-*  I. 
set  up  his  stjindard  at  Xottingham.  and  the  castle 
was  held  at  times  by  both  loyalists  and  Parlia- 
mentarians.    It   was  dismantled  bv  Cromwell   in 


1044,  rebuilt  after  the  Kestoration,  and  sufTered 
severe  damage  from  fire  during  the  Reform  Hill 
riots  of  1831.  Xottingham  has  been  a  manufac- 
turing town  for  over  tiOO  years.  Its  oldest  charter, 
dated  1155.  confirmed  privileges  granted  by  former 
kings.  Its  latest  royal  charter  of  1S1)7  conferred 
the  rank  and  title  of  city  under  the  designation 
of  "City  of  Xottinghain,  and  the  Coiinty  of  the 
same  City,"  in  eonnnemoration  of  N'ictoria's  dia- 
mond iul)ilee.  Xottingham  is  the  seat  of  a  suf- 
fragan bishopric  to  l^incoln,  and  of  a  United 
tStates  consulate.  It  sends  three  members  to 
Parliament.  Population,  in  1851,  57,400;  in 
1S!)1,  213,!IOO;  in  11101,  230,750.  Consult  Bailey, 
History  of  Soltinyhamshire  (London,  1853-65). 

NOTTINGHAM,  Hkne.\ge  Fixch,  Earl  of 
(1621  Si).  An  English  lawyer  and  statesman, 
the  son  of  Sir  Keneage  Finch,  Speaker  in  Charles 
l."s  first  Parliament.  He  was  educated  at  Christ 
Church,  and  then  studied  law.  He  sat  in  the 
Conventitm  Parliament,  and  in  1600  he  was  ap- 
pointed Solicilor-tiencral  and  created  a  baronet, 
in  religious  all'airs  he  was  a  conservative,  in- 
sisted on  the  maintenance  of  bisho])s  as  a  part  of 
the  Church  establishment,  and  op|)oscd  all  tolera- 
tion of  dissenters.  In  1670  Finch  became  Attor- 
ney-General, and  from  1673  to  11)76  he  was  Cham- 
berlain of  Chester.  Having  gradually  become 
the  spokesman  of  the  Court  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, he  was  appointed  on  November  9,  1073, 
Lord  Keeper  of  the  Seals,  and  tlie  following  year 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Finch  of 
Daveutry.  The  same  year  he  resigned  as  I^ord 
Keci)cr  of  the  Seals  to  become  inunediately  Lord 
Chancellor,  and  as  such  presided  over  the  many 
important  political  trials  of  the  day.  On  May 
12.  1681.  he  was  created  Earl  of  Xottingham. 
He  died  December  18,  1082.  In  a  time  of  violent 
partisanship  Finch  is  remarkable  in  that  in  his 
long  career  he  never  was  attacked  by  either  the 
Court  or  Parliament,  and  always  enjoyed  the  full 
confidence  of  both,  though  he  was  chairman  of 
nearly  every  important  comniitlee  while  he  sat 
in  tlic  House  of  Commons. 

NOT'TOWAY.  An  Ij-oquoian  tribe,  formerly 
living  u]ion  the  river  of  the  sauu>  mime  in  south- 
eastern Virginia.  In  language  and  alliances  they 
were  closely  connected  with  the  Tuscarora  of 
North  Carolina.  Wlien  the  English  first  occupied 
Virginia,  the  Nottoway  seem  to  have  been  one  of 
the  strongest  tribes  in  the  region,  but  in  the  later 
colonizatiim  period  they  were  already  hastening 
to  swift  decay.  In  1701  they  occupied  a  pali- 
saded village  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river, 
where  thev  still  numbered  about  500  souls  in 
1722,  In  1785  they  held  a  reservation  of  27,000 
acres,  very  little  of  which,  however,  was  uniler 
cultivation.  In  1825  there  were  still  47  persons 
bearing  the  name,  although  their  blood  was  prob- 
ably more  negro  than  Indian. 

NO'TUS  (froniGk.  wirot,  .south) .  The  south- 
west wind,  called  by  the  Romans  Auster  (q.v.). 

NOUMEA,  nnn-ma'a.  The  capital  of  Xew 
Caleilonia.  situated  near  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  island  (.Map:  .Australasia.  .T  5).  It  is  a 
railroad  terminus  and  has  a  good  harbor.  The 
population,   in    1808,  was  0068. 

NOUN  (OF.  noun.  non.  nun.  Fr,  nom.  from 
Lai.  nrimrn,  name:  connected  with  Gk.  fvofui, 
nnoniii.  Ir.  ainm.  OPruss.  rmne.i.  OChnrch  Slav. 
imrn.  Goth,  finmo,  OHG.  nnmo,  Ger.  Name,  AS. 


NOUN. 


655 


NOVARA. 


nama,  Eng.  name;  and  probably  ultimately  with 
Lat.  yn-osvere,  nosvcre,  Gk.  '^i.-^vwaKttv,  yiytujs- 
Iceiii,  Skt.  jnii,  AS.  ciitiwan,  Eng.  know).  In 
grammar,  a  word  denoting  a  thing.  Of  tlie  eight 
so-called  parts  of  speech  (see  Urammab)  the 
noun  is  one  of  the  four  primitive  ones,  the  other 
three  being  the  interjection  (([.v.),  i)ronoun 
(q.v.).  and  verb  (q.v.).  The  noun  is  sharply  dis- 
tinguished both  from  the  verb  and  from  the  pro- 
noun, not  only  by  its  function,  hut  by  its  inllec- 
lion  (q.v.),  although  the  pronoun  and  noun 
show  frequent  similarities,  and  in  certain  lan- 
guages, as  in  Hottentot  and  in  the  Polynesian 
dialects,  the  noun  and  tile  verb  coincide  in  form. 
Traces  of  these  points  of  contact  survive  in 
Semitic  and  Indo-Germanic,  especially  in  the 
verbal  nouns,  i.e.  the  infinitives,  which  are  nouns 
in  form  and  verbs  in  force.  Moreover,  in  the 
Indo-Germanic  languages  there  arc  many  instances 
in  which,  on  account  of  the  similarity  of  function 
of  nouns  and  pronouns,  pronominal  inflection  has 

(  been  extended  by  analogy  (q.v.)  to  the  nouns 
and  nominal  inflection  to  the  pronouns.  Nouns 
are  inflected  for  gender  (q.v.),  number,  and  case. 
Conventionally  they  are  divided  into  common, 
liroper,  abstract,  and  collective.  Common  nouns 
denote  material,  concrete  things,  as  iuhle,  cat  ; 
proper  nouns  denote  particular  individuals  and 
personifications,  as  John.  Liberli/;  abstract  noims 
denote  qualities,  as  qoodness,  pleasure;  and  col- 
lective nouns  denote  masses  of  units,  as  miny, 
hundle.  This  classification  is  valuable  in  certain 
grammatical  and  logical  analyses,  but  from  a 
philological  point  of  view  it  is  worthless.  It 
should  also  be  noted  that  in  many  instances  the 
adverb  (q.v.),  and  by  implication  the  preposi- 
tion (q.v.)  and  conjunction  (q.v.),  were  origi- 
nally a  sfereotyped  case-form  of  a  noun,  as  in 
the  French  adverbial  suffi.x  -mrnt,  which  is  de- 
rived from  tlie  Latin  menle.  ablative  of  mens. 
mind,  as  aimiablemenl,  'amiably,'  from  Latin 
ainubili  menle,  'with  lovable  spirit.'  Consult: 
Fr.  Miiller,  (Irundriss  der  Spracliii--i.i.<<en.ichaft. 
vol.  i.,  part  i.  (Vienna,  1876)  :  Brugraann,  Ver- 
plcichcnde  Grammatik  der  indoyermiinischen 
f<prarhe>i.  vol.  ii.  (Strassburg,  18'8n-92)  ;  Del- 
briiek,  Veryleichende  >^yntax  der  indoyrrma- 
nischen  fiprachen.  vol.  i.  (ib.,  1893)  ;  Zimmern, 
Teryjeichende       Grammatik       der      .vmiti.ichen 

.  Spraehcn  (Berlin,  1898)  ;  Audouin.  Derlinnimn 
duns  Ics  la)igiws  indo-curop<^ennes   (Paris,  1898). 

NOUVELLE  FHANCE,  noo'vel'  fr-iNs  (Fr., 
New  France).     The  early  name  of  Canada. 

I  NOtrVELLE    HELOiSE,    a'lA'Cz',    La.      See 

i       Jui.tE. 

NOVAC'ULITE  (from  Lat.  noracnia.  razor, 
from  tiorare.  to  renew,  from  novus,  new:  connect- 
ed with  Gk.  v4ot,  neos,  Skt.  nava,  OChurch  Slav. 
novii.  Ir.,  Gael,  nuadh,  Goth,  niujis,  OHG.  niici, 
ninici,  Ger.  ncu,  AS.  niive,  nenive.  Eng.  wcic). 
The  name  given  to  a  fine-grained  rock  eomjiosed 
of  minute  quartz  particles — probably  a  consoli- 
dated siliceous  ooze.  A  variety  of  novaculite 
called  'Arkansas  stone,'  from  its  occurrence  in 
Arkansas,  is  much  used  for  whetstones. 

NOVAIA  PRAGA,  ni-i'va-ya  prii'ga.  A  town 
in  the  Government  of  Kherson.  South  Russia, 
situated  about  200  miles  north  of  Kherson  (Map: 
Russia,  D  .t).  It  carries  on  some  trade  in  tim- 
ber, and  had  a  population  of  12,400  in  1897. 


NOVAKOVIC,  nu-va'k6-vich,  Stoja.n  (1842 
—  ).  A  .'Servian  statesman  and  philologist,  born 
at  Shabalz,  and  educated  at  the  University  of 
Belgrade.  In  1871  he  was  chosen  professor  of 
Servian  philologj'  in  the  University  of  Belgrade. 
Between  1873  and  1883  he  was  three  times  Min- 
ister of  Education,  in  which  post  he  reorganized 
Servian  education;  and  in  ISSli  resigned  from  the 
Ministry  of  Interior,  which  he  had  occupied  for 
two  years,  and  received  the  appointment  of  .Min- 
ister to  Turkey,  which  he  held  until  1892.  From 
July,  1895,  to  December,  189C,  he  was  Prime 
Minister  and  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and 
then  became  once  more  Minister  to  Turkey.  In 
1900  he  was  transferred  to  Saint  Petersburg. 
He  wrote  Istorija  sprske  knjilevnosti  (1807) 
and  a  Servian  grammar   (1879). 

NOVAIilS,  uo-vii'lis  (Lat,,  fallow  land).  A 
name  assumed  by  Friedrich  von  Hardenberg 
(1772-lSOl),  a  German  romantic  author,  once 
of  cosmopolitan  renown.  He  was  born  in 
Prussian  Saxony.  His  parents  were  Moravians, 
and  he  was  much  influenced  by  that  mystic  re- 
ligion. He  studied  at  Jena,  Leipzig,  and  Witten- 
berg, and  in  1794  went  to  Tennstiidt  to  further 
his  legal  training.  There  he  fell  in  love  with  a 
delicate  tliirteen-year-old  girl,  who  died  as  his 
betrotlied  in  1797.  Xovalis  was  then  auditor  at 
the  W'eissenfels  salt  works.  He  thought  he  was 
a  blighted  being,  but  presently  he  went  to  Frei- 
burg to  continue  technical  studies  and  became 
again  betrothed.  He  returned  to  W'eissenfels  in 
1799,  but  was  obliged  by  disease  of  the  lungs  to 
postpone  his  marriage  and  died  in  1801.  His 
writings  were  soon  collected  by  tlie  Sehlegels  and 
issued  in  two  volumes,  often  reiidited,  with  a 
third  volume  in  184U.  They  are  mainly  frag- 
mentary. Notewortliy  among  them  is  an  unfin- 
ished romance,  Heiniich  von  Oftcrdinyen.  the 
mawkish  Knight  of  the  Blue  Flower  Poesy,  whose 
'apotheosis'  Novalis  tells  us  he  intended  the 
novel  to  be.  Carlyle  recommended  its  '[lersual 
and  reperusal.'  Individual  pas.sages  in  it  are 
charming,  and  good  Ijrics  are  interspersed  in  the 
narrative.  Earlier  in  time  than  Ofterdinycn  is  a 
romance.  Die  Lehrlinye  zu  iSuis,  wherein  the 
'Disciples"  discover  that  "the  secret  of  Nature  is 
nothing  else  than  the  fulfilled  longing  of  a  lov- 
ing heart."  Famous  al.so  in  their  way  are  the 
Hyninen  an  die  Xacht,  .sentimentally  morbid 
musings  on  his  quickly  consoled  bereavement, 
mingled  with  imiircssions  of  Young's  Xiyht 
Thouyhts  and  Fichte's  lectures  at  .Jena.  Some 
of  the  fi-agmcnts  are  political  and  reveal  an 
exaltation  of  patriotic  idealism.  Other  frag- 
ments deal  with  natural  science  in  the  same 
dreamy  spirit.  His  religious  lyrics  have  an 
emotional  tenderness  and  a  nebulous  charm.  The 
rest  of  his  work  is  ;ill  but  forgotten.  Con.sult: 
Haym,  Friedrich  von  Hardenbery  (2d  ed.,  fjotlia, 
1883);  id.,  Die  romantischc  Schule  (Berlin, 
1870). 

NOVARA,  nt'-va'ni.  The  capital  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Novara,  Italy,  and  a  railway  centre,  30 
miles  west  of  Milan  (  Map:  Italy,  C  2).  It  com- 
mands fine  Alpine  views  frcnn  the  boulevards  on 
the  site  of  its  dismantled  fortifications,  and  lias 
several  notable  cliurchcs.  chief  of  which  arc  the 
Romanesque  cathedral,  dating  from  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  rehuill  between  18(10  and 
1870,  with  its  fine  frescws  ;ind  sculptures  and 
grand  high  altar,  and  the  Church  of  San  Gauden- 


NOVARA. 


656 


NOVA  SCOTIA. 


jiio.  surmounted  by  a  high  dome.  The  city  has  a 
lycfum,  museum,  and  bishop's  seminary,  with 
a"  library  of  30,000  volumes.  The  principal  indus- 
tries are  the  spinning  of  silk,  cotton,  and  linen 
cloths,  weaving,  and  dyeing.  The  town  is  the 
centre  of  a  fertile  district,  producing  grapes,  rice, 
and  corn.  Population  (commune),  in  1S81,  33,- 
077;  in  1901,  4r),248.  Xovara  is  thi'  ancient 
Novaria.  The  town  passed  successively  into  the 
possession  of  Milan,  Spain,  Austria,  and  Sardinia. 
It  was  the  scene  of  a  battle  March  23,  1840.  be- 
tween the  Sardinians  and  the  Austriaiis.  which 
resulted  in  the  eomidcte  defeat  of  the  Sardinians, 
and  led  to  the  abdication  of  Charles  Albert  in 
favor  of  his  son,  \'ietor  Kmmanuel. 

NOVA  SCOTIA,  nf/vu  sko'sha.  A  province 
of  the  Doiiiiniiin  of  Canada,  bounded  on  the 
northwest  by  New  Brunswick  and  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  on  the  north  by  the  Strait  of  Northum- 
berland (separating  it  from  Prince  Edward 
Island)  and  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  and 
on  the  other  sides  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It 
consists  of  two  portions.  Nova  Scotia  proper  (a 
large  peninsula  connected  with  New  Brunswick 
by  an  isthmus  about  15  miles  in  width)  and  the 
island  of  Cape  Breton  (q.v.).  The  peninsula, 
about  280  miles  in  length,  and  from  50  to  100 
miles  broad,  extends  in  a  northeast  and  south- 
west direction.  Cape  Breton  lies  northeast  of 
Nova  Scotia  proper,  and  is  separated  from  it  by  a 
narrow  strait  called  the  Cut  of  Canso.  l(i  miles 
long  and  from  half  a  mile  to  two  miles  wide. 
Sable  Island  (q.v.)  is  a  dependency  of  the  prov- 
ince. The  area  of  the  province  is  20,000  square 
miles. 

TopoGRAi'HY.  The  surface  of  Nova  Scotia  is 
undulating,  and  traversed  by  broken  ranges  of 
hills,  whose  direction  is  in  general  that  of  the 
long  axis  of  the  province.  The  direction  of  these 
uplifts,  together  with  their  rock-formatiim.  iden- 
tifies the  region  as  a  part  of  the  Appalachian 
system.  The  highlands  of  the  province  may 
roughly  be  grou])cd  into  three  sections:  first, 
those  running  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  consti- 
tuting the  backlxme  of  the  peninsula,  and  form- 
ing a  wide  platea\i  narrowing  to  the  northeast, 
where  they  represent  the  projection  of  Cape 
Canso;  second,  the  Cobequid  Hills,  which  form 
the  isthmian  projection  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
and  run  thence  southeast,  until,  in  the  eastern 
end  of  the  peninsula,  they  meet  the  first  named 
range;  third,  a  very  narrow  and  detached  range 
of  trap  rock  on  the  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
separated  from  the  main  plateau  by  Saint  Mary's 
Bay  and  the  valley  of  the  Annapolis  Kiver. 

The  great  plateau  of  the  peninsula  seems  to 
have  been  originally  a  vast  u|)heaval  of  Devo- 
nian age,  probably  as  high  as  10.000  feet.  This 
has  been  denuded  by  the  action  of  wind  and 
water  to  its  present  con<lition  of  a  peneplain  not 
more  than  (iOO  to  1000  feet  high.  Some  residual 
hills  of  bard  rock  have  l)een  left,  anil  in  many 
places  the  igneoiis  granite  core  of  the  former 
mountain  has  been  laid  bare.  The  remain- 
ing rocks  covering  the  core  on  either  side 
U'long  chiefly  to  the  Cambrian  system,  especial- 
ly along  the  eastern  coast.  There  are  some  out- 
croppings  of  the  .Mgonkian  group,  and  along 
the  northern  and  westiTn  edge  of  the  plateau 
there  are  remnants  of  highly  fossiliferous  T)p- 
vnnian  and  I'pper  Silurian  strata.  The  triassic 
liiwlands  to  the  north  and  west  of  the  plateau 


around  the  Basin  of  Minas  were  jjrobably  formed 
by  submarine  deiuulation.  They  are  underlaid 
by  very  thick  strata  of  Carboniferous  rock.  The 
Cobequid  plateau,  which  rises  from  the  midst 
of  these  lowlands,  has  lately  been  shown  to  be 
of  late  Devonian  origin. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  jirovince  drains  to 
the  southward,  through  numero\is  short  rivers. 
SnuiU  lakes  are  also  numerous,  hake  Rossignol 
in  the  south  being  the  largest  on  the  peninsula. 
The  large  boily  of  water  in  Cape  Breton  Island, 
called  l^ras  il'Cr  hake,  is  more  properly  an 
inland  sea. 

Climate.  The  insular  position  of  Nova  Scotia 
renders  its  climate  ditl'erent  from  that  of  the 
other  Canadian  jjrovinces.  For  in.stance,  it  ia 
not  subject  to  great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold, 
but  has,  on  the  other  hand,  a  larger  amount  of 
cloudy  and  foggj'  weather.  The  jjresence  of  the 
gulf  "current  off  the  south  coast  lessens  the 
severity  of  the  winters,  and  the  interior  portions 
of  the"  province  are  greatly  protected  by  the 
ranges  of  hills  which  border  the  coasts.  The 
northern  bills  are  especially  useful  in  warding 
olT  the  north  winds,  and  the  range  which  borders 
the  Bay  of  Fundy  protects  the  Annapolis  Valley 
from  the  winds  iind  fogs,  which  are  connuon  to 
the  bay  region.  The  temperature  seldom  falls 
below  zero,  and  the  summer  maximum  in  the 
region  of  Halifax  (latitude  44°  38'  N.)  is  .about 
8(>°,  being  somewhat  higher  than  this  in  the 
interior.  The  annual  precipitation  averages  about 
45  inches. 

MiXEK.\LS.  Tlic  province  is  rich  in  mineral 
resources,  and  mining  is  a  growing  industry.  The 
Carboniferous  rocks  of  Northern  Nnva  Scotia  and 
Cai)e  Breton  Island  contain  coal  seams  of  great 
thickness,  the  coal  being  a  superior  quality  of 
the  bituminous  variety,  and  well  adapted  for 
coking.  From  18!I0  to"  1898  the  annual  produc- 
tion fluctuated  between  two  and  three  million 
tons,  but  exceeded  the  latter  figure  in  1899  and 
1900.  This  exceeds  the  combined  production  for 
all  the  rest  of  Canada,  and  lonstitutcs  the  main 
source  of  supply  for  the  Maritime  Provinces, 
(iold  is  found  in  the  quartzitcs  and  slates  of  the 
Cambrian  .\ge  that  parallel  the  .\tlantic  coast 
of  the  penins\ila.  The  vein  ores  (they  have  been 
worked  since  1800)  were  formerly  very  rich,  but 
have  now  become  nearly  exhausted.  However, 
conditions  favor  a  minimum  cost  of  mining  and 
milling  the  coarser  gold  ores,  and  they  are  being 
rapidly  exploited.  Prior  to  1807  the  product 
had  niictuated  under  ,$500,0(10  in  annual  value, 
but  rose  to  over  $(100,000  in  1899  and  1900.  Rich 
deposits  of  iron  ore.  are  foinid.  Only  small 
quantities  of  iron  ore  are  now  being  mined,  but 
the  possibilities  are  great.  Small  ipiantities  of 
g>l)sum  and  manganese  are  rained  in  Cape  Breton 
Islanil.  and  antimony  is  exported  from  the  region 
north  of  Halifax. 

Fi.siiERiE.s.  Fishing  is  one  of  the  leading  in- 
dustries. The  province  surpasses  all  other  ]irov- 
inces  and  States  of  the  continent  in  the  annual 
value  of  its  fish  output.  For  a  long  period  the 
value  of  this  output  has  run  from  $fi.000.000  to 
.$8,000,000.  The  catch  includes  deep  sea.  inshore, 
and  river  varieties.  The  first  two,  however,  are 
most  important.  Sea-fishing  is  encouraged  by  a 
bounty  offered  since  1882  by  the  Dominion  Cov- 
ernment.  About  two-thirds  of  it— $100,000— 
has  gone  annually  to  tin-  18.000  Nova  Scotia  fish- 
ermen.    The  cod  and  lobster  fisheries  surpass  in 


I 


c 


ToPVniOMT,  l«*.  V  DOOO,  MEAB  *  COKPAHr. 


^ 


NOVA  SCOTIA. 


657 


NOVA  SCOTIA. 


importance,  the  annual  product  being  about  $2,- 
oOO.OOO  and  $1,500,000  respectively. 

AciUH'Ui.TURE  AND  G.\.MK.  Tlic  Valley  lands  of 
Nova  .Scotia  are  exceedingly  fertile.  Even  the 
reckless  method  of  cultivation  often  indulged  in 
has  failed  to  exhaust  this  fertility.  Tlie  hill  lands 
are  more  rocky  and  less  fruitful.  The  flora  is 
nnich  the  same  as  is  found  in  other  sections  of 
Canada  south  of  the  Saint  Lawrence.  As  a  result 
of  its  somewhat  insular  climate,  however,  a  few 
species  are  found  which  are  unknown  in  other 
parts  of  the  continent.  Forests  ori^iinally  cov- 
ered the  greater  portion  of  the  luovince,  tho 
varieties  of  trees  being  well  dividecl  between  the 
hard  and  soft  woixls,  the  former  being  more  com- 
mon in  the  protected  valleys.  At  many  points 
the  original  forests  have  been  removed,  resulting 
in  a  notewortliy  climatic  change — noteworthy  be- 
cause dill'erent  from  that  which  usually  follows 
forest  removals — namely,  the  moist  coast  air 
gains  a  more  easy  access  to  the  interior,  increas- 
ing the  degree  of  moisture  of  both  atmosphere 
and  soil.  Tamarack,  spruce,  balsam,  and  other 
soft  woods  have  taken  the  place  of  the  beech, 
maple,  elm,  walnut,  and  other  hard  woods,  where 
these  have  been  removed.  Furthermore  extra 
drainage  is  required  and  the  agricultural  indus- 
try has  been  materially  modified. 

The  iier  acre  yield  of  almost  every  crop  raised 
is  scarcely  exceeded  in  any  part  of  the  continent. 
The  cultivation  of  the  soil,  however,  is  confined  to 
the  valleys  and  has  not  more  than  lield  its  own 
for  a  long  time.  Oats  and  potatoes  are  the 
most  favored  crops;  hay,  barley,  wheat,  buck- 
wheat, and  rye  are  next  in  importance.  The  root 
crops — especially  turnips — receive  much  atten- 
tion. The  greatest  agricultural  activity  centres 
in  the  protected  -Annapolis  and  Cornwallis  val- 
leys, which  have  Ijccome  renowned  for  their  pro- 
duction of  fine  fruits.  Fruit-raising  is  receiv- 
ing increased  attention,  and  apples  constitute 
one  of  the  principal  articles  of  export,  their  repu- 
tation having  been  won  both  by  virtue  of  their 
flavor  and  their  keeping  qualities.  The  broken 
land  is  well  adapted  to  grazing  and  the  usual 
varieties  of  domestic  animals  are  bred.  Cattle, 
however,  are  the  only  species  which  has  re- 
ceived much  attention.  Cattle  were  formerly 
raised  chietly  for  the  butcher,  but  more  recently 
for  dairy  purposes.  The  butter  and  cheese  prod- 
ducts  arc  becoming  important  sources  of  revenue, 
and  dairy  farming  will  apparently  control  the 
industrial  activity  of  the  future. 

In  many  districts  biids  and  wild  animals — ■ 
bears,  foxes,  wolves,  deer,  and  smaller  varieties 
— are  in  sufficient  numbers  to  afford  excellent 
hunting. 

JI.\XlF.4CTrRES     AND     TRANSPORTATION.        The 

maritime  situation  of  Nova  Scotia  is  most  favor- 
able for  iiurposes  of  trade  with  European  and 
Atlantic  seaboard  States.  The  coast  line  (about 
1000  miles  long)  has  an  unusual  numlier  of  in- 
dentntiiins,  which  ofl'cr  exceptional  harbor  facili- 
ties. Tlie  harbors  on  the  .Atlantic  and  the  Bay 
of  Fundy  coasts  are  accessible  the  year  round. 
Halifax  (q.v. ),  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  is  the  har- 
bor most  frequented.  The  registered  vessels 
built  by  the  province  number  155  steamers  and 
Iflfifi  sail  boats.  The  tonnage  for  both  the  over- 
sea and  coastwise  vessels  which  enter  and  leave 
the  harbors  is  rapidlv  increasing,  amountinsr  in 
inOO  to  a  total  of  ,"!, 700,000  and  ia.OOO.OOO  respec- 
tively.    The  Intercolonial  Railroad,  with  termi- 


nals in  Halifax  on  the  east  and  in  Sydney  on  the 
north  coast,  connects  Nova  Scotia  with  the  other 
Canadian  provinces.  Other  lines  traverse  the 
southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  making  a  total  of 
04.3  miles  for  the  province  in  1901.  As  in  the 
other  provinces.  Oovernment  subsidies  have  great- 
ly aided  in  railroad  eonstruAion.  The  largest 
items  of  export  are  fish,  coal,  lumber,  and  min- 
erals, while  the  imports  consist  largely  of  West 
India  (noduce  and  British  and  American  manu- 
factured products. 

No  industry  of  the  province  has  so  bright  a 
prospect    as    manufacturing.      Aside    from    ship- 


building,  which    li; 


j;reatlv   declined,   manufac- 


turing has  never  been  important.  Nova  Scotia  has 
the  exceptional  advantage  at  home  of  the  iron  ore, 
coal,  and  limestone  (used  as  llux),  and  there- 
fore seems  destined  to  be  a  seat  of  iron  and  steel 
manufacturing  in<lustries.  Coke  is  being  manu- 
factured, aiul  at  Sydney  in  Cape  Breton  the  iron 
and  steel  inilustry  is  being  developed  on  an  ex- 
tensive scale.  The  forests  afford  a  large  supply 
of  tanning  barks.  This  has  given  rise  to  the 
1  aiming  industry,  .\nother  natural  advantage 
to  manufacturing  is  the  great  water  power 
afi'orded  by  the  streams  of  the  province.  There 
are  a  number  of  cotton  mills.  Sugar  is  manufac- 
tured at  Halifax.  Extensive  fruit-raising  ex- 
plains the  number  of  canning  factories.  Butter 
and  chee.se  factories  are  increasing  in  number. 

Banks.  In  18S19  the  chartered  bank  branches 
numbered  60.  The  clearing-house  transactions 
in  Halifax  in  1000  amounted  to  .$77,600,000. 
The  post-office  savings  l)anks  numbered  50  ( lilOO) , 
with  13,125  depositors  an<l  an  average  deposit  of 
.$261.44.  There  were  also  (1900)  15  Government 
savings  banks,  having  15,470  depositors,  with  an 
average  deposit  of  $:!0fi.64. 

GovERN.MENT.  Nova  Scotia  was  incorporated 
with  the  Dominion  of  Canada  in  1S67,  and  is 
represented  in  the  Canadian  Parliament  by  10 
Senators  and  20  members  of  the  Lower  House. 
It  has  a!.?o  its  own  local  Legislature  and  a  Lieu- 
lenant-(!overnor.  This  otlicial  is  appointed  by 
the  (Jovernor-General  of  the  Dominion  and  his 
Council.  The  Legislatiire  consists  of  a  Council 
and  a  Hou.se  of  Assemldy  elected  by  the  counties 
• — which  are  18  in  number — and  by  the  cities, 
the  municipal  imits  of  government  being  counties 
and  towns.  The  people  elect  a  county  council — 
each  polling  district  having  one  re|)resentative — 
which  in  turn  appoints  the  other  county  ofFicers.  It 
is  necessary  to  secure  the  sanction  of  the  people 
in  order  to  borrow  money,  and  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  the  |uovince  has  a  right  of  veto 
upon  the  money-boirowing  powers,  as  well  as  the 
by-laws  pas.sed  by  the  Council.  The  capital  of  the 
province  is  Halifax. 

The  principal  sources  of  revenue  for  the  Pro- 
vincial Government  consist  of  the  Dominion  sub- 
sidy of  about  $432,000  annually  and  the  mine 
royalties.  These  royalties  are  becoming  almost 
as  great  as  the  Dominion  subsidies.  The  total 
receipts  for  1000  exceeded  .$1,000,000.  and  the 
exiienditurcs  were  $037,000.  The  same  .vear  the 
net  debt  of  the  province  amounted  to  $2,713,000. 
In  1900  the  charitable  institutions  cost  the 
province  $128,000.  These  consist  of  a  deaf  and 
dumb  institution,  a  blind  institution,  a  general 
hospital,  and  24  poor-houses.  Persons  sentenced 
for  crime  are  sent  to  the  Dominion  penitentiary, 
maintained  for  the  Maritime  Provinces  at  Dor- 
chester. N.  B. 


NOVA  SCOTIA. 


658 


NOVATIAN. 


Population.  The  returns  of  tlie  population 
for  Ibltl  and  ll'Ol  were  respectively  4oU.olt(;  and 
4.')!)..'i74.  Nearly  all  of  the  inhabitants  are  of 
British  origin,  the  Scotch  being  in  the  majority. 
There  is  not  so  much  unoccupied  territory  as  in 
the  other  provinces  (exc-eplmg  I'rince  Kdward 
Island),  and  the  density  ot  population — 22  jwr 
square  mile — is  accordingly  greater.  Halifax, 
the  seventh  largest  city  of  the  Dominion,  had  a 
population  in  lUOI  of  40,700.  Sydney,  in  Cai>e 
ihcton  Island,  had  a  population  of  9900,  a  gain 
of  75  per  cent,  during  the  decade. 

Kei.igion  akd  Edi  cation.  While  the  Catholic 
Church  is  numerically  the  strongest,  it  cont^iins 
but  a  little  over  one-third  of  the  church  follow- 
ing in  the  province.  The  Presbyterians,  Baptists, 
Episcopalians,  and  Methodists  follow  in  the  order 
named.  The  groat  interest  in  education  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  1  out  of  every  4.4  of  the  popula- 
tion attends  school.  The  schools  are  free  and 
undeufiininatioual ;  tlicre  are  no  separate  Catholic 
or  Protestant  schools  maintained  by  the  public 
system,  as  in  Ontario  and  Quel)ec.  The  members 
of  the  Executive  Council  constitute  the  Council 
of  Public  Instruction,  which,  together  with  the 
Superintendent  of  Education,  is  at  the  head  of 
the  school  system.  The  schools  are  carefully 
superintended,  and  gradation  and  uniformity  of 
methods  are  generall.v  maintained.  There  is 
one  academy  in  each  eountv.  The  province 
maintains  a  normal  school,  but  no  university. 
The  total  cost  of  the  school  system  in  1901  was 
.$8.58  per  enrolled  child.  About  two-iifths  of 
this  is  borne  by  (iovernment  grants  and  mu- 
nicipal aid,  the  rest  by  local  taxation.  The 
following  are  the  denominational  colleges: 
Acadia  University,  at  Wolfville  (Haptist); 
King's  College  (Episcopalian),  at  Windsor,  the 
oldest  chartered  university  in  Canada ;  Saint 
Francois  Xavier  College,  and  Saint  Anne's  Col- 
lege (Catholic)  :  and  Dalhousie  University,  at 
Halifax — the  last  being  undenominational,  but 
receiving  the  support  of  the  Presbvterian  Cluirch. 

History.  Nova  Scotia  is  believed  to  have  Ix-en 
first  discovered  in  1407  b.v  .John  Cabot,  who  s:\iled 
under  the  English  Hag.  It  is  probable  that  the 
Portuguese  navigator  Cortereal  explored  the 
coast  in  1500.  The  first  settlers,  however,  were 
the  French,  who  took  possession  of  the  eountrv 
in  virtue  of  the  explorations  of  Verrazano.  Car- 
tier,  the  Marquis  dc  la  Kochc.  and  Champlain. 
Fn^nch  iishermen  freipiented  this  locality,  and 
in  1598  Henry  IV.  of  France  granted  .\eadia, 
as  the  country  was  called,  to  ]>e  la  Roche.  In 
1004  the  first  settlement  was  made  by  the  Sieur 
de  Monts.  Samuel  de  Champlain,  and  the  Baron 
de  Poutrincourt  on  the  island  of  Saint  Croix. 
This  was  removed  in  the  following  year  to  Fort 
Royal  ( .\nnapolis).  Throughout  the  French 
tenure  the  colonists  of  \ew  England  made  at- 
tempts to  obtain  possession  of  the  country,  and  in 
Hi'21  Sir  William  .Mexander  (q.v.)  obtained  from 
James  I.  of  England  a  grant  of  .\cadia.  which 
was  now  named  Xova  Scotia.  In  1710  the  Eng- 
lish captured  Port  Royal,  and  in  171.'t.  by  the 
Treaty  of  l"trecht.  l''rance  gave  up  its  claim  to 
the  country,  except  to  Cape  Breton  or  Isle  Roynlc. 
which  was  ceded  in  170.3.  In  order  to  (U'stroy  the 
French  influence,  which  continued  to  predominate, 
the  Fnglish  Government  in  1755  dejiorlcd  a  large 
number  of  the  Frcncli  .\<adiaiis.  estimated  at 
more  than  0000  (probably  about  half  of  the  (otal 
population    of    French    descent),    and    scattered 


them  among  English  colonists  from  Massa- 
chusetts to  Ceorgia.  This  act  forms  the  theme 
of  Longfellow's  Evunijvlinc.  A  blow  was  also 
struck  at  the  French  intluence  by  the  founding 
in  1749  of  Halifax,  wliich  became  a  distinctly 
English  centre.  The  developuient  of  the  country 
was  greatly  aided  by  the  arrival  of  Scotch  settlers 
and  by  the  large  number  of  loyalists  who  left 
the  United  Slates  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution. 
Until  175S  the  control  of  the  colony  was  almost 
completely  in  the  hands  of  the  Ciovcrnor  ap- 
pointed by  the  King,  but  in  that  year  the  fiust 
Legislature  was  created.  The  country  increased 
in  ]iopulation  to  such  an- extent  that  in  1784  the 
Province  of  Xcw  Brunswick  was  formed  from  a 
part  of  its  territory.  The  history  of  Xova 
Sc-otia  since  1784  forms  a  part  of  the  general 
history  of  Canada  (q.v.). 

Consult:  Haliburton,  Papers  on  the  IJ i story 
and  Hcsourccs  of  Xova  Scotia  (Halifax,  18(52); 
Dawson,  JJaiidbook  of  the  Gvoijrajihii  and  .Sdliiral 
Uhtory  of  Soca  fieotia  (Uth  ed.,  Pictoii.  1803)  ; 
Selwyn  and  Dawson,  Descriptive  Sketch  of  the 
J'h!)sical  Gcofiruphy  and  (Icology  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  (Jlontreal,  1884)  ;  Xova  Scotian  In- 
stiliitr  of  Science  l'rocecdin<is  and  Traiuiaetions 
(Halifax,  1870  et  seq.)  :  Morley,  Record  of  Travel 
in  Xova  Scotia  (New  York.  1900);  and  the 
authorities  referred  to  under  Canada. 

NOVATI,  n<Vva't4,  Francesco  (1859--).  An 
Italian  philologist,  born  in  Cremona.  He  was 
made  professor  at  the  Academy  of  Milan  in  1883, 
and  went  thence  to  Palermo  (1880),  to  Ccnoa 
(1889),  and  to  Milan  (1892).  By  the  establish- 
ment of  the  (liornalc  storieo  delta  lettcrntnra 
italiana  (1883,  with  Graf  and  Renier),  and  by 
constant  contributions  to  the  (liurnale  storieo 
and  the  Sliidj  di  filoloijia  roman:a,  he  did  much 
to  spread  the  knowledge  of  his  special  branch  of 
study  throughout  his  own  country  and  Europe. 
He  devoted  his  attention  especially  to  the  Renais-  'k 
sancc.  A  numl)er  of  his  critical  essays  are  col-  i3 
Icrted  in  the  volume  Studj  critici  e  hiternri 
(1889).  He  also  published  the  Corre.fitondenoe 
of  Coluccio  SalutatI  (1891-96). 

NGVATIAIT.      A    Roman    presbyter    of    the] 
third    century,    noted    chielly    for   the    .schism    toy 
which    he   gave   his   name.      According   to   a    late  i 
a(<-ount,  he  was  Iwrn  in  Phrygia.  but  it  is  morel 
l)r(ibable  that  he  was  a  native  of  the  West.     He' 
was  converted  in  mature  life,  during  an   illness, 
and  received  only  'clinical'  baptism    (an   incom-  '' 
plete   form  of  the  rite,  sometimes   administered  «;, 
to    the    sick),    which    was    afterwards    cliargcd  i!' 
against  him  as  a  canonical   defect,  yet  did   not     j 
hinder  his  ordination  lo  the  priesthood.     D\ning    y 
the   vacancy    in    the    Roman    See   caused   hy    the 
Deeiaii    per-ecuticm     (2.50-251).    when    tlie    prcs- , 
bytt'rs  directed  the  alTairs  of  the  Church,  X'ova- 
lian  <piickl.v  assumed  the  leadership  ;imong  them. 
It  was  ho  who  wrote  two  of  the  letters  addressed 
b.v  th<"  Roman  clcrg.v  to  Cyprian.     In  the  discus- 
siim  about  the  lapsed    (i.e.  apostates  in  the  JJcr-' 
.secution),  N'ovatian  insisted  upim  excluding  them 
from    fellowship,    in    opposition     (o    (he    milder    * 
discipline  advocated  by  the  newl.v  elected  Bishop, 
Cornelius.      Many    of    the    clergy    sympathizing 
with    Xovafian,    he    was    jnit    forwanl    as    rival 
bishop,  wtiereupon  he  was  ])roiiouncc(l  schismatic 
by  a   Roman   synod,  and  exconununicated    (251), 
This  action,   however,   failed   to  clieck   the   move- 
ment he  had  inaugurated.    The  Novatianists,  or 


}| 


■I 


NOVATIAN. 


659 


NOVA  ZEMBLA. 


Cathari,  as  they  were  called  (i.e.  the  pure),  dis- 
played iuereasiiig  .streugUi,  and  cliurche.s  of  tlieir 
order  sprang  up  all  the  way  from  Spain  to  Asia 
iliuor.  In  Africa  they  were  especially  strong. 
The}-  flourished  for  a  long  time,  and  traces  of 
them  are  found  as  late  as  the  seventh  century. 
Of  Xovatian's  end  little  is  known.  A  late  ac- 
count (hy  Socrates,  fifth  century)  says  that  he 
dieil  a  martyr  in  the  reign  of  Valerian  (254- 
c.2(J0 ) . 

The  difference  between  Novatianists  and  Catlio- 
lies  related  to  the  theory  of  the  Church.  Both 
parties  agreed  that  the  Church  w'as  "holy,'  as 
asserted  in  the  creed,  but  the  Novatianists  in- 
terpreted this  to  mean  a  holy  membership,  to 
be  luaintainod  by  strict  discipline,  while  the 
Catholics  believed  the  Church  was  holy  because 
of  itjs  sacraments,  especiall}'  penance,  by  which 
holiness,  if  lost  through  sin,  miglit  be  restored. 
The  issue  was  similar  to  that  rai.sed  by  Montanus 
and  llippolytus  (qq.v. ),  and  it  appeared  again 
in  the  fourth  century  in  the  Donatist  controversy. 
(See  DoNATisTS. )  The  Novatianists  pushed  their 
theory  to  its  limit  by  insisting  that  even  Catho- 
lics entering  their  communion  should  first  be  re- 
baptized. 

Xovatian's  most  important  surviving  w(t1c  is 
On  the  Trinity.  The  tract  entitled  Jcirish  Meats 
relates  to  ceremonial  questions.  Some  of  the 
treatises  formerly  attriljuted  to  Cyprian  are 
probably  the  work  of  Xovatian,  e.g.  Coneerning 
Hhows,  the  ^'alue  of  Modesty ,  and  the  Praise  of 
Martyrdom.  The  anonymous  treatise  Ayainsi 
Diovatiaii  is  held  by  Harnack  to  be  from  the 
Roman  Bishop  Sixtus  II.  (257-58).  Consult: 
Jlignc,  I'atrol.  Lat.,  vol.  iii.;  The  Ante-Sicene 
Futhrrs,  ed.  by  Roberts  and  Donaldson,  vol.  v. 
{ Xew  York,  1896);  Harnack,  Geschiehte  der 
altcliristtichen  Litteratur  (Leipzig,  18!);J)  ;  id.. 
History  of  Dogma,  vol.  ii.  (London,  ISIKJ)  ;  Ben- 
son, Cyijrian  (ib.,  1897). 

NOVATION  (Lat.  novatio,  renewal,  from 
norarr,  to  renew).  In  law,  the  substitution 
of  one  leiral  obligation  for  another.  Xovation 
may  be  accomplished  by  the  sul)stitution  of  a 
new  for  an  old  party  to  a  legal  obligation,  which 
is  in  effect  the  creation  of  a  new  obligation,  or  it 
may  be  accomplished  by  the  substitution  of  a 
new  obligation  for  an  old  one  by  tlie  same  parties. 
When  tlie  old  obligation  is  extinguished  by  a 
new  one  without  change  of  parties,  the  transac- 
tion is  sometimes  s])oken  of  as  a  merger  of  the 
old  obligation  into  the  new.     See  Mercer. 

At  conmion  law,  as  under  the  civil  law,  there 
are  three  important  classes  of  novation,  as  fol- 
lows; (1)  Novation  by  substitution  of  debtors. 
By  mutual  agreement  a  substituted  debtor  may 
assume  payment  of  a  debtor's  obligation  upon 
agreement  of  the  creditor  or  oldigee  to  accept 
him  as  a  debtor,  and  to  discharge  the  original 
debtor  or  obligor. 

(2)  Novation  by  substitution  of  creditors. 
By  mutual  agreement  of  all  the  parties  a  creditor 
may  agree  to  discharge  his  debtor  upon  the 
debtor's  agreement  to  accept  a  third  i)arty  as 
a  new  creditor  and  to  pay  the  <lebt  to  him. 

(3)  A  new  debt  or  obligation  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  old  by  mutual  agreement  between 
the  same  debtor  and  creditor. 

The  first  class  is  of  the  most  frequent  occur- 
rence at  conimon  law,  but  as  ;ill  novations  are 
dependent  upon  the  substitution  of  a  new  obliga- 


tion for  an  old  by  mutual  agreement  between 
an  oliligor  and  obligee,  or  between  an  obligor 
and  obligee  and  a  third  party,  it  is  evident 
that  there  may  Ije  as  many  particular  forms  of 
novation  as  there  maj'  l)e  combinations  by  agree- 
ment among  the  parties  specified. 

As  the  es.sential  element  of  novation  is  the 
agreement  or  contract  between  the  parties,  it 
is  necessary  that  the  essential  elements  of  a 
contract,  including  meeting  of  the  minds,  jiromise, 
and  consideration,  shoiUd  all  exist  in  order  to 
establish  the  relationship.  In  general  the  prom- 
ise of  the  obligee  to  release  the  first  obligor  is 
sullicient  consideration  for  the  promise  of  the 
new  obligor,  and  vice  versa,  and  as  the  promise 
of  each  paity  to  the  novation  is  given  in  ex- 
change for  the  promise  of  each  of  the  others,  it 
is  necessary  that  the  several  promises  should 
be  contemporaneous.  In  order  that  the  promise 
to  give  up  rights  under  the  earlier  obligation 
may  be  a  sullicient  consideration  for  the  new 
obligation,  it  is  essential  that  the  earlier  obliga- 
tion should  be  valid.  There  can  be  no  novation 
of  a  void  obligation.     See  Co>'SI1)EB.\tiox. 

As  the  result  of  a  novation  is  the  extinction 
of  the  earlier  obligation,  it  follows  that  all  liens 
attaching  to  it  are  extinguished  unless  expressly 
presen'ed  or  continued  by  the  new  obligation. 

Properly  any  new  obligation  which  is  created 
by  the  parties  to  an  old  obligaticm  and  operates 
merely  to  sus|)end  the  old  obligation  for  a  cer- 
tain period,  instead  of  extinguishing  it,  is  not 
a  novation,  but  a  merger. 

New  collateral  agreements  entered  into  as 
security  for  a  preexisting  obligation  do  not  effect 
a  novation,  as  the  original  obligation  continues 
in  full  force  and  effect. 

Upon  analogous  classes  of  contracts,  see 
!Merger;  Accord  and  Satisfaction;  Security. 
See  also  Assignment. 

In  the  case  of  novation  by  the  substitution  of 
debtors,  the  substance  of  the  transaction  is  that 
the  new  debtor  pays  the  obligation  of  the  old 
debtor,  and  is  thus  within  the  express  language 
of  the  Statute  of  Frauds.  As,  however,  the  pur- 
pose of  the  Statute  of  Frauds  was  to  require 
contracts  which  were  in  effect  contracts  of 
suretyship,  or  contracts  in  the  nature  of  surety- 
ship, to  be  in  writing,  the  courts  have  uniformly 
held  that  contracts  of  novation  are  not  within 
the  statvite  and  need  not  be  committed  to  writing. 
See  Frauds.  Stati-te  of.  Consult  the  authori- 
ties referred  to  under  Contract. 

NCVA  ZEM'BLA  (Russian  Novaya  Zem- 
lya) .  The  name  of  a  group  of  two  large  and 
numerous  small  islands  in  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
forming  a  crescent-sliaped  chain  extending  from 
70°  30'  to  77°  north  latit\ide,  and  separating 
Kara  from  Barents  Sea  (Map:  Asia,  K  1). 
It  is  separated  liy  Kara  Strait,  30  miles  wide, 
from  Vaigateh  Island  at  the  northeastern  extrem- 
ity of  European  Russia,  and  forms  a  part  of 
the  Russian  Govennnent  of  Archangel.  The 
length  of  the  two  large  islands,  including  the 
narrow  strait  between  them,  is  about  740  miles; 
their  average  width  is  GO  miles,  and  their  com- 
bined area  about  34..100  square  miles.  The  coasts 
are  indented  by  numerous  deep  and  narrow 
fiords,  and  the  islands  are  rocky  and  mountain- 
ous, rising  to  a  height  of  3000  feet.  The  climate 
is  cold  throughout  the  year,  and  vegetation  is 
dwarfed.     Animals,  however,  are  numerous,  and 


\ 


NOVA  ZEMBLA. 


660 


NOVEL. 


include  bears,  volves  and  foxes,  reindeer,  ermines, 
and  other  fur-bearing  animals,  and  large  numbers 
of  aquatic  birds,  while  whales  and  seals  are 
found  in  the  surrounding  seas.  The  islands  are 
practically  uninhabited,  but  are  visited  in  sum- 
u)er  by  fishermen  and  hunters. 

NOVEL    (OF.   iiovelle,  nouvcUe,  Fr.  nouvcUc, 
from  Lat.  iwidla.  fcm.  of  novcllus,  new,  diminu- 
tive of  noius,  new),  TuE.     To  designate  modern 
prose  fictions  there  are  current   two  terms:   ro- 
maitcc  and  novel.     The  term  romance   (from  the 
Latin  adverb  romanice),  originally  employed  in 
Italy,  Spain,  and  France  (in  other  words,  in  the 
Romanic    lands)     to     distinguish     the     common 
speech,  i.e.   the  li)igua   romaiui,   from  the  Latin 
of  the  learned,  came  in  time  to  denote  a  composi- 
tion in  the  vernacular— and  finally  any  verse-tale 
of  intrigue  and  adventure.     The  word  'romance' 
was  established  in  English  usage  by  the  time  of 
Chaucer.     At  first  the  word  -novel'  was  probably 
the    name    given    to    some    new    story.      In    the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  it  was  common 
among  the   Proven(.al   jioets   for   a  verse-tale  of 
intrigue    realistic    in    treatment.     It    was   popu- 
larized   in    Italy    by    Uoccaecio   as   the    title    of 
a  short  narrative  in  prose.     When  these  Italian 
tales   came    into   English,   the   word   came   with 
them.     It   first  occurs    (so  far  as  has  been  dis- 
covered)  in  Painter's  Palace  of  I'lcasiiir  (15GG). 
In    the    hands    of    several    English    writers    the 
Italian   noiclla   was   by   degrees   expanded,    until 
by  the  eighteenth  century   it  filled  a  duodecimo 
volume.     Tlien    came    Richardson    and    Fielding 
witli    their   larger   delineations   of   contemporary 
life,  which   with  some  hesitancy  they  and  their 
public  called  novels.     Somewhat  after  this  fashion 
the   word  novel   became   in   English   the   generic 
term  for  prose  fiction.     Up  to  March,  17(i6,  the 
Moiilhli/   Ucvieic   placed   works   of   fiction   under 
the    head    of    "^Miscellaneous    Publications."     In 
that   month   it  made   the   subdivision   "Novels." 
From    the    Renaissance   down    to    the   eighteenth 
century  the  word  'romance'  was  not   much  used 
in    English.     Then    it    began    to    appear   as    the 
explanatoiv   title   of   the   wild   Gothic   stories   of 
.\nn  Kadciitle  and  her  school.     Since  that  time 
it    has   denoted   a    novel   which    represents    men 
and  women  in  strang